Unit 1: India – The Land and its

People
Content
• Who are we Indians?
• Where did we come from? – An anthropological, migrations and genetics-based
perspective on modern Indians.
• India’s geographical and national identity – evolution from Meluha, to
Bharathavarsha, Sindhu/Hindu and Hindustan to the India of today.
• The legacy of early civilizations and cultures and how we are influenced by them
– Mehrangarh & Indus Saraswathi Civilization, Vedic & Post-Vedic Civilization,
the Tamil Sangam Civilizations, etc.
• Kingdoms and empires that ruled over large realms – Maurya, Gupta, Chola,
Shatavahana, Chalukya, Vijayanagara, Mughal, Maratha and British empires –
their role in integrating the nation as one economic, political and cultural entity
Who are we Indians
• In the modern day, Indians are the people who are the citizen of India
• The people inhabiting the Indian subcontinent from south to the lower
Himalayan range in the north and northeast
• Indians are called by different names:
-Indian as in India (derive from Indus)
-Hindustani as in Hindustan (derive from Hindu)
-Bharati as in Bharat (derive from kingdom Bharata)
• However, there is no specific tracing of the genealogy origins
• Scholars have traced the origin of the Indians from the Indus Valley
civilization
Where did we come from? An anthropological, Migrations and
genetics-based perspective on modern Indians.
• Where did we come from?

✓Indus Valley civilization or Harrapan Valley civilization and migration

(elaborate)

✓Aryan migration to the Indian subcontinent (elaborate)

India’s geographical and national identity
• India’s geographical:
✓Prior to 1947 partitions of India: India covers the Indian subcontinent
including now Bangladesh and Pakistan

✓Modern India Geography: India covers the south, north, and lower
Himalayan range and the western ghats

✓Neighbouring countries of India: China, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri

Lanka, Pakistan, Myanmar, Bhutan, Maldives, and a bit of
Afghanistan (J&K)
India’s geography before the partition
Modern-day India geography
India’s geographical and national identity
• National identity:
✓All citizens of India have a strong sense of national identity.
✓National identity is the sense of belongingness to a nation
✓As an Indian- India enjoys:-
➢Diverse culture
➢Diverse language
➢Distinctive tradition, customs and practices
➢Diverse religions
 India’s geographical and national identity
• India is the seventh-largest country by area and has the largest population
• India is also called “the republic of India”
• A republic country is where the head of a particular state is an elected person and not someone
from a hereditary monarch
• India is known as a republic country because the people of India elect the head of the state
government
• It is also incorporated in the Constitution of India
• Capital: New Delhi
• Other names: India or Bharat
• Indian states: 28
• Union territories: 8
• Official language: Hindi and English
• Independence day: 15th of August
• Head of the country: President
Evolution from Meluha, to Bharathavarsha,
Sindhu/Hindu and Hindustan to the India of today
• Meluha refers to the Indus Valley civilization
• The term meluha is a Sumerian word and is used to refer to the trading
partner in the bronze age
• The Indus Valley civilization
• Scholars argue the inhabitants of the Indus Valley civilization may be
the modern-day Indians
• Soon a kingdom emerged known as Bharatavarsha
• Bharatavarsha is named after emperor Bharata, the son of Shakuntala
and Dushyanta
• Thus Bharatavarsha is ancient India. It means the land of people who
belong to the Bharata clan.
• Sindhu is an ancient kingdom that stretched the bank of river Indus
(Sindhu) located near southern Punjab and Pakistan.
• Hindustan refers to the Hindu/Sindhu
• Hindustan is derived from the Persian word ‘Hindu/Sindhu’
• Today, it is called India, derived from the river Indus.
The legacy of early civilizations and culturesq
✓Mehrgarh & Indus Saraswathi 7000 BCE to 2500 BCE: the Mehrgarh refers to neolithic
(new stone age) of the Balochistan in Pakistan.
-mud houses
-herding and farming
-pottery
✓Indus Valley civilization (3300 BCE to 1300 BCE)
-transportation and trade
-city and drainage system,
-metallurgy
- arts and crafts, seal (made of steatite, a soft stone)
-agriculture
-religion [(Pasupathi Mahadeva, Mother Goddess, Phallic (lingam)worship, Yoni
worship, tress and animals (Pipal and humpless bull)]
The legacy of early civilizations and cultures
• Vedic & Post-Vedic Civilization 1500 BCE to 500 BCE:
✓The world of Vedic India was largely known through its religious texts, The
Vedas which give the period its name
✓Vedas: Hymns, spells, myths, and rituals
✓Aryan Migration to the IVC: Through Khyber pass
✓Knowledge of horse-riding: Reason for spread
✓Urbanization
✓Emergence of social classes (four fold division of the society: Brahmin,
Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra)
✓Organized political system and structure
✓Flourishing economy (pastoral economy towards mixed farming)
Post-Vedic Civilization: (600-400 BCE)

• 16 Mahajanapadas that existed during the ancient India

• India’s first large cities arose, since the demise of IVC
• Changes in religious sphere
• Several religious sects arose in the middle Gangetic basin in the 6th
century BCE
• As many as 62 religious sects arose during this period
• Jainism and Buddhism being the most prominent ones, most potent
reform movements
Tamil Sangam Civilizations (200 BCE to 200
CE):
• Sangam: A college or assembly of Tamil poets held under royal
patronage
✓Assembly of Tamil scholars and poets
✓Growth of Tamil literature
• The word Sangam was first used by ‘Appar’
• Sangam literature divided into two parts:
1. Narrative (Melkannakku or 18 major works: Consist of heroic poetry,
frequesnt mentions of perpetual war and cattle raids)
2. Didactic (Kilkanakku or 18minor works: prescribe a code of conduct not
only for the king and his court but also for various groups and occupation)
• Sangam literature gives important information regarding the political,
social, and economic conditions of south during the period
• Two important Tamil texts:
1. Tolkappiyam by Tolkappiyar: It deals with grammar and poetics
2. Tirukkural by Tiruvalluvar: Deals with philosophy and wise maxims
• Three Tamil works:
1. Silappadikaram by Ilango Avadigal
2. Manimegalai by Sattanar
3. Sivaga Sindamani/Jivaka Chintamani by Tiruttakkadevar
• These three epics throw light on the social and economic life of the
land
• How we are influenced by them – Mehrgarh & Indus Saraswathi
Civilization, Vedic & Post-Vedic Civilization, the Tamil Sangam
Civilizations, etc.

✓Influence culture, custom, practice, belief etc.

✓Influence language
✓Influence science and literature
✓Influence spirituality
✓Influence food and cutlery
✓Influence architecture and design
✓Influence the topography or geography
Kingdoms and empires that ruled over large
realms
• Maurya,
• Gupta,
• Chola,
• Shatavahana,
• Chalukya,
• Vijayanagara,
• Mughal,
• Maratha and
• British empires – their role in integrating the nation as one economic,
political and cultural entity
Maurya Dynasty
• Mauryan empire: 321 BCE to 185 BCE
• The Mauryan empire cover most part of the Indian subcontinent from the end of the 4 th
century to the beginning of the 2nd century
• Some known rulers are :
✓Chandragupta Maurya 321 - 297 BCE
✓Bindusara 297-272 BCE
✓Ashoka 272-232 BCE
✓Brihadratha 187- 185 BCE (the last emperor)
• Sources: archaeological finds, especially sculpture. Contemporary works such as the
account of Megasthenes (a Greek ambassador to the court of Chandragupta Maurya),
Arthashastra, composed by Kautilya or Chanakya. The Mauryas are mentioned in later
Buddhist, Jaina and Puranic literature, as well as in Sanskrit literary works. The
inscriptions of Asoka (c. 272/268-231 BCE) on rocks and pillars are often regarded as
amongst the most valuable sources.
 Maurya
• Five major political centers in the empire – the capital Pataliputra and the
provincial centres of Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvarnagiri, all mentioned in
Asokan inscriptions
• The Mauryans had many major administrative unitslike the centre and the
provinces, and had various sub-units down to the village → All came under
the purview of central administration
✓King
✓District administration
✓Village administration
✓Municipal administration
✓Judicial Administration
✓Military organization
Gupta Dynasty
• After the fall of Kushanas, Guptas came to power. Some of the rulers are:
• Sri Gupta 240-280 CE is the founder of the Guptas Dynasty and assume the
title of Maharaja
• Ghatotkach Gupta 280-320 CE
Other later Gupta rulers:
• Chandra Gupta I 320-335 CE -Purana Gupta
• Samudra Gupta 335-375 CE -Narsimha Gupta
-Kumar Gupta II
• Rama Gupta 375-380 CE -Brahma Gupta
• Chandra Gupta II 380-413 CE -Vishnu Gupta

• Kumara Gupta 413-455 CE

• Skandha Gupta 455-468 CE
Gupta Dynasty
• During Guptas reign India saw rapid progress; Golden age of ancient
India
• Consolidation of a large part of Northern India under one political
umbrella, ushering an era of orderly government and progress
• Guptas gave new shape and political unity to India
• Samudra Gupta and Chandra Gupta II were not only great conquerors
but also brave commanders and great administrators.
• The Guptas issued their own coins
• Architecture: Ushered a new age; a creative and formative period for
the foundation of typical Indian temple architecture
• Budhist university NALANDA was set up in the 5th century
• Rock-cut architecture of the period (2 types): the Chaityas and the Viharas →
Mostly found at Ajanta, Ellora and Bagh
• Art painting: Gupta age attained a high degree of proficiency (Mostly related
to decoration, portraiture, and narration)
• Pillar Inscriptions: Allahabad pillar inscription, Eran stone pillar inscription,
Mehrauli iron pillar inscription, Bhitari Pillar inscription
• Development of science and technology: Aryabhattiyam by Aryabhatta
(decimal system, origin or trigonometry, value of pi, foundation of algebra,
the use of zero)
• Astronomy:
1. Aryabhatta (found out the causes of lunar and solar eclipses, calculated the
circumferences of earth, first to reveal that sun is stationary and the earth
revolved around it) and
2. Varahamihira (laid the foundation of the law of gravitation)
Chola Dynasty
• Cholas (from 860-1200 CE)
• Historical era: Ancient Period
• Established: 302 BCE
• Rise of the medieval cholas: 848 CE
• Empire at its greatest extent: 1030 CE
• Disestablished: 1279 CE
• Succeeded by: Pandya Dynasty
• The founder of the Cholas was Vijayala
• Cholas were the most civilized race of the Deccan
• The Cholas are remembered as one of the longest-ruling dynasties in southern
India.
• The became prominent in the 9th century after defeating the Pallavas
• The Cholas extend their control in Sri Lanka and the Malay Peninsula
• The Chola kings supported Brahmanical and bhakti traditions, making land
grants and constructing temples for Vishnu and Shiva built many temples
throughout their kingdoms
• Some of the Chola temples are: Brihadeshwara temple, Rajarajeshwara
temple, Cholapuram temple, etc
• The Chola kings, for instance, often attempted to claim divine support and
proclaim their own power and status by building splendid temples that were
adorned with stone and metal sculpture
Chola Dynasty
• Rulers of cholas:
✓Vijayala (850 C.E)
✓Aditya (871-907 CE)
✓Parantaka I (907-955 CE)
✓Parantaka II / Sundara Chola (957-973 CE)
✓Uttama Chola (973-985 CE)
✓Rajaraja I (985-1014 CE)
✓Rajendra Chola (1014-1044 CE)
Shatavahana Empire
• Shatavahana empire (2nd century BCE- 3rd century BCE)
• Appeared as the successors of the Mauryas in Deccan
• The Shatavahana are known as the Andhras (in the Puranas)
• The Shatavahana includes the modern day Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and
Maharastra. At carious point of time, they also ruled modern day Gujarat, Madhya
Pradesh, and Karnataka.
• Simuka founded the Shatavahana Dynasty (immediate successor of Asoka and
there are references that he built many Budhist and Jaina temples)
• Some of the rulers are:
✓Satakarni (70-60 BCE)
✓Gautamiputra Satakarni (106-130 CE)
✓Vashishthiputra Pulumayi (130-154 CE)
✓Yajna Sri Satakarni (165-194 CE)
Shatavahana dynasty
• Satavahana rulers were identified through metronymics (names
derived from that of the mother)
• Life in the era of the Shatavahana Empire
✓Government was based on Dharmashastras
✓The province governor was named Senapathi
✓Brahmanas and Buddhist monks were exempted from tax
✓People depend on agriculture
✓During this period, there is an intense increase in the use of mineral
resources
Chalukya dynasty
• Chalukya Dynasty (6th century to 12th century)
• They were probably kshatriyas from Ayodhya
• The Chalukyas of Badami were the Vakatakas' successors in western
Deccan.
• They established their capital in Vatapi, modern Badami, in the Bijapur
district of Karnataka.
• From 543 to 753 CE, they ruled over a large area in the Deccan and united
the entire south of India.
• Jayasimha was the first ruler of the Chalukyas dynasty.
• But the real founder of the Chalukyan dynasty was Pulakesin I (543–566
CE).
• After him, Pulakeshin II ruled over the whole Deccan (from Narmada till
Kaveri) and was the Badami dynasty's most well-known ruler
• He made himself the ruler of three great kingdoms: Maharashtra, Konkan,
and Karnataka
Chalukya dynasty
• Some important rulers of Chalukya dynasty are:
✓ Pulakesin I (543 – 566 AD)
✓ Kirtivarman I (566 – 597 AD)
✓ Mangalesha (597 AD – 609 AD)
✓ Pulakesin II (609AD-642AD)
✓ Vikramaditya I (655 AD - 680 AD)
✓ Kirtivarman II (746 AD - 753 AD)

• Much of the paintings and sculptures in Ajanta and Ellora caves were
completed during their reign
Chalukya dynasty
• Life during the Chalukya dynasty:
✓At higher levels of Chalukyas, the government was modeled after the
administrative systems of Magadha and Satavahana.
✓King was the state's highest-ranking official.
✓Chalukyas followed the Hindu caste system and Brahmins held a privileged
position as knowledge and local justice providers.
✓Some women from the royal family held positions of political power in
administration, which shows women held high positions in society.
✓People found indoor entertainment by watching wrestling matches (Kusti),
watching animals fight (such as cock fights and ram fights), or gambling. Horse
racing was a popular outdoor recreation activity.
✓Schools and hospitals are mentioned in records, and they were built near temples.
Vijayanagara Empire
• Vijayanagara Empire was one of the most powerful kingdoms that rose
in medieval times.
• Capital: Vijayanagara (1336-1564)
• Language: Kannada, Telugu, and Sanskrit
• Religion: Hinduism
• In its heyday it stretched from the river Krishna in the north to the
extreme south of the peninsula
• It was an Hindu empire and covers present-day states Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and some parts of Telangana and
Maharastra
Vijayanagara Empire
• The Vijayanagara Empire was founded by two brothers i.e. Harihara I and
Bukka I from the Sangama Dynasty.
• The Vijayanagara empire is ruled by four important dynasties: Sangama,
Saluva, Tuluva, and Aravidu. Claimants to power included members of the
ruling lineage as well as military commanders
• The first dynasty, known as the Sangama dynasty, exercised control till 1485.
They were supplanted by the Saluvas, military commanders, who remained in
power till 1503 when they were replaced by the Tuluvas. By 1542 control at the
centre had shifted to another ruling lineage, that of the Aravidu.
• Important rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire are:
✓Harihara
✓Krishna Deva Raya (belonged to the Tuluva dynasty)
• Vijayanagara was also noted for its markets dealing in spices, textiles
and precious stones
• Krishnadeva Raya is credited with building some fine temples and
adding impressive gopurams to many important south Indian temples
• The glories of the Vijayanagara Empire:
✓Well-organized administrative system
✓The king was the head of the state
✓There is the council of ministers to assist the king
✓The empire was divided into six provinces
✓Naik- the governor was appointed in each province
✓The province was divided into districts and the district was further into
smaller villages units
✓The contact point for the villages and central administration is the
Mahanayakacharya
Mughal Empire
• The Mughal Dynasty was founded by Babur
• Descendant of both Temur and Genghis Khan, Babur was called a Mughal, the
Persian word for “Mongol.”
• The Mughal rule in India began with the victory of Babur over Ibrahim Lodhi in
the first battle of Panipat (1526)
• The dynasty that he founded after conquering the sultanate of Delhi in 1526 is also
called Mughal
• Some of the rulers are: Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jehangir, Shahjahan, and
Aurangazeb → “Great Mughals”
• The Mughal Empire lasted from 1526 to 1707 for 181 years
• It declined in the 18th and 19th century
• Padshah or Shahanshah (King of Kings); complete sovereignty of the king;
King- head of the executive, legislature, judiciary, and the army
• Organization of the empire into different provinces; official appointed by &
answerable to centre
• Mughals gave an efficient administration and political unity to India
• During this age, the fame of India spread throughout the world
• Arts (Music, painting), architecture (forts, Mausoleums, Masjids, Gardens), and
literature generally progressed
• Mughal period: “Golden Age of Architecture” in the Indian History
• Many new cities and grand buildings were erected
• Trade flourished and people on the whole were prosperous and happy
• Extensive foreign trade:
• Principal articles of export: Indigo, Opium, Pepper, etc.
• Imports included: Horses, Chinese Porcelain, and African slaves
• Principal ports: Surat, Cambay, Cochin, and Masulipatam
Maratha
• With the decline of the Mughals, Shivaji the Maratha became prominent in the
17th century
• In the 1750s, the most powerful ruler in India was the Maratha peshwa Nana
Saheb. His empire extended across the western Deccan, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh,
Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Punjab.
• Nana Saheb died in a battle 1761. Thus, the Marathas in the North India soon
evaporated.
• Nana Saheb was succeeded by his son Madhavrav I. But Madhavrav died in 1772
• Madhavrav’s heir Narayanrav was killed by partisans of Raghunathrav, who
challenged Narayanrav’s son Madhavrav II. This touched off a civil war.
• Raghunathrav the uncle of Madhavrav obtained troops from the British East India
Company in return for territory and money.
• And thus the British influence in India
• King → supreme head of the state, assisted by a group of eight
ministers known as the “Ashtapradhan”(council of ministers)
• Shivaji organized a disciplined and efficient army (Infantry, Cavalry, & Navy)
British empires
• In the eighteenth century, the ships of the British East India Company and the British Royal Navy
dominated the Indian Ocean, and the governors of the Company’s three main factories at Chennai,
Kolkata, and Mumbai presided over a flourishing trade.
• After 1750, Company agents in India profited by this autonomy to acquire territory
• When the Company took over Delhi from Scindia in 1803, it became the guardian of the Mughal
emperor.
• By the 19th century the East India Company annexed most of the Indian states
• The great revolt in 1857; Sepoy mutiny in Meerut; Very soon the rebellion spread throughout
northern and central India (Lucknow, Allahabad, Kanpur, Bareilly, Benares, Jhansi, etc.)
• After the 1857 great revolt The British parliament transferred control from the Company to the
“Crown,” the British government.
• Thus the British empire lasted till up to the India’s Independence day 15 August 1947
• Maurya, Gupta, Chola, Shatavahana, Chalukya, Vijayanagara, Mughal,
Maratha and British empires – their role in integrating the nation as
one economic, political and cultural entity.

✓The need to integrate the states as a nations

✓The coming of different religions
✓The integration of different cultures
✓The importance of unity, equality and uniformity in implementing
economic and political systems and policies
✓The integration of different languages and culture
✓Shared trade and commerce
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