HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 3

SECOND SEMESTER-2021 -2022

Module 2
I. Indian Architecture
History of Architecture 3: The Architecture of ancient India and South Asia. The
historic architecture captured in the essence of “Holy Mountains and Sacred
Womb”. South Asia and the Indian sub-continent. Coverage of this Module
includes the historic architecture of the present-day geographies of India, Sri
Lanka, Pakistan, Bangladesh.

Architecture of South Asia, Himalayas and Sri Lanka. Influences 8 nations: India,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Afghanistan, Bhutan, Maldives.

Pre-modern History:
a. Indus Civilization
 Harappa civilization, also known as Saraswati Sindhu Civilization, thrived in
the basin of the Indus River. Society is among the most fascinating and
mysterious cultures of the old world.
Two significant cities existed along the Indus River valley: Harappa and
Mohenjo-Daro. In the 1920s, excavations at Harappa in west Punjab and
Mohenjo-Daro in Sindh revealed the civilization. The layout and planning of the
twin cities were similar. These towns remain demonstrate that their culture was
highly advanced, with effective municipal government and urban design
knowledge.
The city’s urban plans incorporated the first-ever urban sanitation systems
globally. The towns had a robust wastewater management system, superior to
what is found now in many parts of India and Pakistan. The inhabitants of the
settlements had established trading networks and had tamed animals. Despite
this, by 1700 BC, this great civilization had vanished.
The Sindhi word Mohenjo-Daro means Hill of the Dead or Mound of the
Dead. The Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro is a waterproof pool surrounded by
baked brick walls set on a mound of soil. Harappans prioritized cleanliness, as
evidenced by this bathing pool (and another at Dholavira). Small changing
rooms encircle the Great Bath, each with its bath area.

Mohenjo-Daro and its Great Bath

The Indus script, the most mysterious of all undeciphered scripts in the world,
is made up of partially pictographic characters and diverse human and animal
patterns, including a perplexing 'unicorn.' These have been discovered carved
on small steatite seals, clay tablets, and even metal. For decades, linguists and
scientists have been attempting to decode this complex script, which may hold
the key to unlocking the mysteries of this fascinating civilization.
 In the excavations of Harappa, Mohenjodaro, and Rakhigarhi, evidence of
many granaries, large buildings with substantial brick foundations, and sockets
for wooden superstructures have been discovered. The granaries were erected
close to the river's edge to deliver grains by boat conveniently. Several working
platforms with circular bricks nearby were utilized for threshing grain at
Harappa's Great Granary.

b. Indian Civilization
Geography:
• The Himalayas are a vast mountain range that separates the Indian
subcontinent from the rest of Asia.
• The Ganges and the Indus rivers run through the subcontinent.
• The majority of the subcontinent is dominated by tropical weather with
several droughts.
Time Period:
• The Stone Age (7000-3000 BC)
• Age of Bronze (3000-1300 BC)
• The Iron Age (1700-26 BC)
• Kingdoms in the Middle Ages (1-1279)
• Late Middle Ages (1206-1596)
• The early modern era (1526-1858)
• the colonial era (1505-1961)
• Period of the Present (1961-Present times)
Government:
• Throughout its history, the Indian Civilization was ruled by rajahs.
• In 1600, the English arrived in India due to European demand for
Indian commodities.
• Many Indians began to oppose British control in 1800, and in 1930, the
United Kingdom agreed to grant India independence.
Economy:
• During this time, the economy was booming, notably in trade, and it
outperformed China and the Mediterranean globe.
• From the Roman Empire to Indonesia and China, merchants traded.
• Cotton and sugar are two of the items produced in India.
Beliefs:
• Hinduism is the religion of the Indians, and the principal gods are
Brahma, Shiva, and Vishnu.
• The Trimurti - the three aspects of the ultimate universal God - is made
up of them.
• These three represent Hinduism's sacred circle: Brahma as creator,
Vishnu as protector, and Shiva as the destroyer.
Technology:
• The caste system, Sanskrit, and other belief systems were also
introduced throughout these periods.
• The caste system characterized many aspects of Indian society and
economy. Thousands of endogamous groupings called Quoms have
made up the caste system. India's Brahmans devised the four well-
known categories to categorize organizations.
• The caste system, Sanskrit, and other belief systems were also
introduced throughout these periods.
• The caste system characterized many aspects of Indian society and
economy. Thousands of endogamous groupings called Quoms have
made up the caste system. India's Brahmans devised the four well-
known categories to categorize organizations.
Writing:
• Around 2600 B.C., the earliest Indian script was formed in the Indus
Valley.
• Indian scripts such as Brahmi and Kharosthi were later developed to
write official and vernacular languages.
Art and Architecture:
• Indians are gifted artists with a natural ability to create. They are
taught to draw their gods and to reflect their cultures on paper since
they are children.
• One of the world's earliest urban civilizations in the Indus Valley.
• They developed metallurgical and handicraft skills and produced
copper, bronze, lead, and tin.
Slavery:
• For much of India's history, powerful empires ruled.
• The Mughal Empire came first, followed by the British Empire.
Rise:
• The ancient civilizations in the Indian subcontinent existed in the Indus
River region two thousand five hundred years before Christ.
 • This civilization consisted of numerous villages and cities. The story of
India begins thanks to these Indus Valley cultures. India is now a
country. This civilization will never crumble.
Contributions:
• India has never attacked another country in the last 10,000 years of its
history.
• India is credited with inventing the number system. Aryabhatta was
the one who came up with the concept of zero.
• In 700 BC, Takshila became home to the world's first university.
Golden Age:
• Many periods in India's history have been dubbed "golden periods"
because of significant achievements made at various times.
• Because of the significant successes made by Indians between the
4th and 6th centuries, the period is known as the Golden Age. In the
10th and 11th centuries, the period saw extensive achievements in
construction.
c. Islamic Domination
• After Muhammad's death, Islam spread across three continents
• Muslim Empires ruled over parts of Europe, Africa, and Asia
• In the 700s and 800s, Islam experienced a golden age
• A golden age is a period of unparalleled peace and prosperity when
a civilization reaches its pinnacle.
• In the early 600s, Islam developed on the Arabian Peninsula.
• Muhammad died in 632, and Abu Bakr was chosen as the first caliph
or successor to Muhammad.
• The caliphate was the period when caliphs ruled Muslims, and it was
during this time the Islamic world developed.
• Abu Bakr was successful in bringing Muslims together. They conquered
the Byzantine Empire, Persia, the Middle East, North Africa, Spain, Sicily,
India, and Southeast Asia by military conquests.
Reasons For Their Success:
• The Arabs had a reputation for being fierce fighters.
• Because of their wars, the Byzantine and Persian Empires were weak.
• All share Islamism.
• The captured people were treated fairly by Muslim rulers.
• Non-Muslims could follow their respective religions as long as they paid
a levy to the Muslim Empire.
• Many conquered people will become Muslims.
Islamic Law
• As Islam grew in popularity, Islamic scholars devised a set of
regulations to assist people in understanding the Koran and applying it
to their daily lives.
• Sharia is the name of the legal system that was developed. It
governed morality, family life, business, and the government.
• Sharia law, in essence, applied the Koran to all elements of life, not just
spiritual ones.
Division within Islam
• Sunnis and Shiites, two distinct Muslim factions, developed.
• Sunnis believed that Muslim leaders should choose the caliph.
• Shiites thought that Muhammad's descendants should be the only
ones to succeed him.
• This schism still exists today, and it frequently culminates in violence.

d. Indo- Islamic art and architecture

• Following the arrival of Islam in India, some Islamic architectural
components made their way here. By combining them with the
existing Indian architecture element, a new style known as Indo-
Islamic architecture and ornamental features evolved in India at
various times.
• Lintel, pillars, and a conical corbelled dome are all elements of Indian
architecture.
• Islamic architecture consists of a bulbous crown, high drum/neck, high
Iwan, elevated platform, thick walls holding tunnels and stairway in
some cases, Chahar-Bagh pattern, water channels, and other Persian
and Central Asian architectural components.
• This term refers to Islamic architecture incorporating Indian and Islamic
architectural aspects. Previously, the usage of lime in India was quite
limited. Mud was utilized for the brickwork, and stone blocks were laid
dry and attached with iron clamps. However, when Muslims arrived in
India, lime was widely used for binding and as a plaster for creating
the surface for incised ornamentation and encaustic enamel work.
Gaj-i-sharin (sweet limestone), shurki, Shirish (reed glue), urad dal, and
san (hemp—a plant whose fibers are used to make ropes) were mixed
to make the lime mortar, a sticky medium. The lime mortar mixture is
 ready for use after only twenty-one days and takes longer to set than
a period, but once cured, it becomes more rigid than a stone and
may be used.

India: Was the Common wealth of Britain. (Modern)

Social. Caste System. Social divisions established in Hindu society. Dalit,

untouchables.
• The caste system in India has been around for over 2,000 years
• People are divided into social classes based on their occupation
• People remained in their castes for life
• There are 5 different levels within the Caste System
• Brahman (Priest and Teachers)
• Kshatriyas (Warriors and Rulers)
• Vaishyas (Farmers, Traders and Merchants)
• Shudras (Laborers)
• Dalits (Outcast)
• This was a dominant part of Indian culture until the mid-1900s when it was
made illegal.
• Although it is illegal, it is still followed in India as an unspoken rule.
• Gandhi fought for the rights of “untouchables”.

Dravidian. Culture based on southern India.

The architectural idiom Dravidian evolved in the southern section of the
Indian subcontinent, often known as South India. It primarily consists of temples
with pyramid-shaped towers of sandstone, soapstone, or granite. The bulk of
existing constructions is in the southern Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,
Kerala, and Andhra Pradesh, described in the ancient book Vastu shastra as
one of the old book three forms of temple building. The Cholas, the Cheras, the
pandas, the Pallavas, the gangas, the rashtrakutas, the Chalukyas, the Hoysalas,
and the Vijayanagara empire, to name a few, all contributed significantly to the
evolution of Dravidian architecture.
• As a result, Dravidian architecture took on its unique shape and heritage.
• Temples served as both a place of worship and a learning institution.
Extensive religious rites, festivals, dance performances, and dramas with
religious themes continued.
• Temples were created most gracefully with great interest to display
embellishments and fine art that covered every area of the temple by the
Dravidians, who were fine craftsmen.
• The Dravidian architecture, dating from 600 to 1000 BC, may be split into
rock-cut and structural monuments.
Dravidian architecture is subdivided into five styles:
1. Pallava style
•The Pallavas governed from 600 to 900 AD, and their most notable
architectural achievements were the solitary rock temples of
Mahabalipuram and their city, Kanchipuram, presently in Tamil Nadu.
•The Pallavas were one of the first architects in South India. The Badami
Chalukyas-Pallava period has the oldest temples in Dravidian
architecture. Pallava buildings date from 610 to 690 CE, with rock-cut
temples dating from 610 to 690 CE and structural temples were dating
from 690 to 900 CE. The rock-cut temples of Mahabalipuram are the
Pallava architecture's crowning achievement. In Mahabalipuram, there
are excavated pillared halls and monolithic sanctuaries known as rathas.
• The seaside temple built by Narasimhavarman II near Mahabalipuram
must be mentioned here.
Shore Temple (Mahabalipuram)
 Mahabalipuram is located near Chennai in Tamil Nadu, along the eastern
coast of India, on the shores of the Bay of Bengal. Seven pagodas make up the
shore temples of Mahabalipuram, six of which are submerged in the sea and
one of which has survived the ravages of nature.
Mahabalipuram, also known as Mamallapuram, is a historical historic town
located in the Kancheepuram district of Tamil Nadu, India. By the 7th century, it
had become a port city for the Pallava kingdom of South India. It has a group of
sanctuaries carved out of rock along the Coromandel coast in the 7th and 8th
centuries, including rathas (chariot temples), mandapas (cave sanctuaries),
giant open-air reliefs like the famous 'descent of the Ganges,' and the shore
temple, which has thousands of sculptures to the glory of Shiva. It is 12 meters
above sea level on average (39 feet). The British Raj founded the modern
metropolis of Mahabalipuram in 1827.
The five-story shore temples at Mamallapuram are built in stone masonry, not
carved from solid rock, and date from the first quarter of the eighth century.
Each has a garbhagriha in which the Siva linga is housed and a small mandapa,
the whole surrounded by a heavy outer wall with little space between for
circulation. At the rear are two shrines facing opposite directions: the inner shrine
of ksatriyasimnesvara is reached
Shore temple is a complex of three massive and two minor temples situated
on the coromandel coast of the Bay of Bengal at Mahabalipuram, formerly
known as Mamallapuram. This was the harbor city of the Pallava dynasty's
realm, which they ruled from Kanchipuram. It was constructed by the Pallava
dynasty when it was the dynasty's commerce port.
2. Chola style
• In the history of southern India, the Chola dynasty was one of the
longest-ruling empires.
• The Cholas' heartland was the lush Kaveri River valley. Still, they
dominated a far greater territory at the height of their dominance,
from the late ninth century until the beginning of the thirteenth century.
•For two centuries and more, the entire country south of the
Tungabhadra was united and held as a single state.
• The Chola dynasty became a military, economic, and cultural power
in South Asia and Southeast Asia under Rajaraja Chola I and his
successors Rajendra Chola I, Rajadhiraja Chola, Virarajendra Chola,
and Kulothunga Chola I.
• From 836 to 1267 AD, Thanjavur served as the Chola dynasty's capital.
• Rajaraja I was the one who built Thanjavur's grand temple. •The Cholas
governed the Deccan, defeating many other kingdoms like the
Pallavas, Pandyas, Chalukyas, and Rashtrakutas.
• They made it as far as Bengal, Sri Lanka, Java, and Sumatra and had
commercial connections to Indonesia.
• The vast architectural works at Thanjavur, Gangaikondacholapuram,
Dharasuram, and Tribhuvanam represented their military and
economic strength. Airateswara Temple-Darasuram 1146-1173 AD
Kambahareswara Temple-Tribhuvanam (Kumbakonam) 1178-1218 AD
Gangaikondacholapuram Temple 1014-1044 AD Kambahareswara
Temple-Tribhuvanam (Kumbakonam) 1178-1218 AD

Kampaheswarar Temple Gangaikondacholapuram -

complex, Thirupuvanam Brihadeeswarar Temple
 Airavatesvara Temple
Typical Features:
• The temples are small and simple.
• The entire structure is made of stone.
• These depict the Dravidian style in its infancy.
• Well-dressed granite
• The vimana has a Pallavan influence, akin to the rathas.
• Treatment- exteriors are simplified compared to the Pallavas, with features
removed.
• The lion motifs and the pillar are missing.
• A neck molding Padmanabhaswamy and a pot kalasa have been
added to the capital.

Pot Kalasa Padmanabhaswamy Temple

3. Pandya style
• From 1000 to 1250 AD, the Pandya style follows the Chola style;
• The plan was mainly rectangular, although the focus was on the
gateways. Also known as Gopuram
• Gopuram is a rectangular-shaped plan;
• Vertical built-in stone on the ground floor; vertical built-in stone on
the first floor; pyramidal built-in bricks on the upper floors (inclination
of 25 degrees);
• Shikhar, or pinnacles, are always utilized in odd numbers;
• Niches — with sculptures of HINDU Mythologies that have been
elaborately sculpted;
• Vatapatrasayi, a 12-tiered tower building dedicated to the Lord of
Srivilliputtur;

• This temple's tower is 192 feet (59 meters) tall.

• The Pandyas own the famed Meenakshi temple in Madurai.
 • The official symbol of the Tamil Nadu government is the Srivilliputtur
Andal Temple.

o At his feet are images of Panchamurtis, Thumburu, Narada,

Sanatkumara, Kinnara Mithuna, the Sun, and the Moon;
o The Lord can be seen from three portals in the sanctum
sanctorum; a flight of stairs leads to the sanctum sanctorum;
o a big, imposing hall with intricate wooden carvings illustrating
Purana’s episodes;
o Carvings serve as both a support and a decoration for the
ceiling.
4. Vijayanagar style
• HARIHAR I and BUKKA I, two brothers, founded the city.
• Vijayanagara– "the triumph city," situated on one bank of the
Tungabhadra River and the other, a granite hill;
• Temples of moderate size, rich in beauty, form, and proportion;
• Separate shrines, pillared halls, pavilions, and KALYAN-MANTAPA
(nuptial hall) are elements.
• The pillars, which are granite monoliths, are a prominent feature
here.
• The style was a mash-up of sorts created in South India.
• The Yali columns (a charging horse pillar),
• Their contribution is remarkable, with balustrades (parapets) and
beautiful pillared mandapa.
• Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya, and Chola styles come together in a
vivid mix.
• The evolution of the arts was affected by the legacy of sculpture,
building, and painting.
 • The elaborate pillared Kalyana-mantapa (nuptial hall), Vasantha-
mandapa (open pillared rooms), and Rayagopura are all stylistic
highlights (tower)
Vithal Temple

• Dedicated to LORD VISHNU (in the shape of VITHAL and VITHOBA);

70 m long and 8 m high with one level; built by Krishna-Devaraya.
• Garbha griha, mantapa, ardh-mantapa, and wealthy maha-
mantapa
• A single significant capital supports the bracket and entablature.
• pillars– generates melodic notes termed musical pillars; flat ceiling
with elaborately decorated lotus blossoms;
• Star-plan mandapas;
• Three GOPURAMS encircle a 152m x 95m courtyard.
• The structure is made entirely of stone, except for the top tower,
made of brick.
5. late Pandya style or Madhuri style
HISTORY PERIOD:
• 1565AD 1600AD
• End of two centuries of resistance, vijaynagar CITY OF VICTORY fell in 1565
to Mohammedan invaders.
• Hindus moved towards the south and founded MADURA under the NAYAK
kings.
• Madura style developed rapidly under THIRUMALA NAYAK
• Encouraging work and extending existing shrines began
STAGES OF EXPANSION:
• FIRST STAGE: Forming an enclosure surrounding the whole temple and
providing a subsidiary shrine with a pillared hall
• SECOND STAGE: Enclosing temple with high walls leaving wide-space
PRAKARAM, four GOPURAMS, entered at cardinal point, the eastern side
being the largest than rest.
CHARACTERISTIC:
• The culmination of the Dravidian style is seen in the MADURA STYLE, which
continued the building style and technique of the Pandyas and improved
on it.
• The vast size and impressive appearance.
• The outer part of the temple area with the high concentric wall enclosing
open courtyard PRAKARAMS approach through high GOPURAMS.
• Pillar carved with a rampant animal with griffin bracket supports the roof.
The Nayak architecture is the hundred pillared mandapa.

Nagara. Culture base of northern India.

A beehive-shaped structure (called a shikhara in northern terminology)
built up of layer upon layer of architectural features such as kapotas and
gavaksas, all topped by a big spherical cushion-like element called an
amalaka, characterizes the Nagara style, which emerged in the fifth century.
Although the layout is square, the walls are frequently broken up, giving the
impression that the tower is circular. Furthermore, later improvements, such as
the Chandella temples, encircled the central shaft with several more miniature
replicas, providing a stunning visual effect resembling a fountain.

BASIC CHARACTERISTICS:
• The adhisthana, also known as the plinth, is a high platform with one or
more flights of stairs going up to it.
• A hypostyle entrance porch is the ardhamandapa.
• The mandap is a pyramidal-covered hypostyle chamber.
• The antral is a corridor that connects the mandap with the inner sanctum.
• The garha-gihra is a square inner sanctum that contains the divinity's murti.
• The old Vedic altar covering constructed of bamboo may have
influenced the shikhara, the ogival structure that sits over the inner
sanctum.
 • The shikhara is a Buddhist temple.
NAGARA STYLE TEMPLES:
1. Khajuraho - Madhya Pradesh - Jagadamba Temple

• The Khajuraho temples represent the peak of the Nagara

architectural style in North India.
• The main characteristic of the Nagara design is a central tower
(shikhara) that rises immediately over the temple's main deity.
Smaller subsidiary towers (urushringa) and intermediate towers
typically encircle them, drawing the eye to the highest point like a
sequence of hills ascending to a distant summit. Setting the temple
on a raised base (adhisthana) also helps develop this sheer quality
by shifting the eye upward.
• In ancient India, the actual arch was unknown. The arches at
Khajuraho's temple are formed using a technique known as
corbelling, which involves overlapping masonry courses to create a
dome or arch.
• Amalaki is a stone disk that sits atop the temple's central tower and
usually has ridges on the rim. The amalaka, according to one view,
resembles a lotus and hence the deity's symbolic seat.
• Below. Another theory is that it represents the sun and serves as a
portal to the heavenly realm.
• A kalasha (finial): adorns the top of the amalaka, from which a
temple flag is frequently attached.
• The entrance porch (Ardhamandapa): served as a buffer between
the outer world and the mandapa (hall). Most temples have a
transitional space between the central shrine (garbhagrha) and the
 external world, but only the largest, most established temples
contain these elements.
• Hall (Mandapa): A temple hall that is a transitional place between
the ardhamandapa and the maha mandapa. This was generally
omitted in smaller or less architecturally developed temples.
• Inner Sanctum (Garbhagrha): The temple's inner sanctum houses
the image of the temple's principal god. A Hindu temple's primary
purpose is to serve as the deity's residence. Both "womb" and
"embryo" connote potentiality, hiddenness, and a sense of
development when the word garbha is used. The garbhagrha was
situated precisely beneath the highest point of the topmost tower,
with the major god beneath it. Smaller temples may have a modest
shrine room at the back of the temple. In comparison, more
significant temples frequently include a processional walkway
around the central shrine, which worshippers can circle as a sign of
respect and reverence.
• Smaller towers on the temple's facade guide the eye to the highest
point (Urushringa). Their shape frequently resembles the tallest
central building, which draws the eye upward.
• The raised platform on which a temple was built (Adhishsthana).
These are exceptionally high in the temples of Khajuraho, and their
height emphasizes the upward thrust of the temples.

2. A terracotta temple in West Bengal

Jor Bangla or Gangeswar Temple Char Bangla Temple

• The majority of the architectural evidence dates from the Gupta

Empire onwards. Recent finds of terra cotta plaques from the
 Chandraketugarh and Mahasthangarh eras have shed new light on
the Sunga and Gupta periods' architectural designs.
• Apart from the Palavi and Phamsana influences on the
architectural style, it is also linked to the Mayurbhanj district of
Orrisa's Bhanja type of temples. The temples of south Bengal, on the
other hand, stand out because of their distinctive roofing design,
which is closely tied to the paddy roofed traditional architectural
type of rural Bengal.
• Bishnupur, in West Bengal's southern district of Bankura, features a
rare collection of such temples, all of which were established under
the Malla dynasty. Most of these temples include terra cotta reliefs
on the outside that contain a wealth of secular items, making them
crucial for reconstructing the social structure of the time.
• The gabled roofs on temple structures are referred to as the Chala.
For example, a gabled roof with an eight-sided pyramid-shaped
roof is called "ath Chala," or literally "the eight faces of the roof." The
temple construction usually has multiple towers.
• These structures are made of laterite and brick, making them
vulnerable to the harsh weather of southern Bengal. The
Dakshineswar Kali Temple represents the Bhanja architecture. At the
same time, the smaller Shiva temples along the riverbank are
examples of the south Bengal roof style, but on a much lower scale.
3. The architecture of Solanki
• Temple architecture in the Solanki style
• The Solanki temple architecture style, which flourished in Gujarat,
includes all of the fundamental characteristics of a north Indian
temple but is most closely related to the Rajasthan style. It is divided
into three sections: a sanctum, a closed hall, and a porch
interconnected inside and externally.
• Numerous indentations, both projected and recessed alternatively,
break up the wall faces and continue throughout the elevation,
creating a beautiful juxtaposition of light and shade.
• A detachable peristylar hall is often erected in the same axis as a
Torana or ornate arched entrance in more prominent temples. In
some situations, the hall has more than one floor.
• Some of the outstanding examples of this kind of architecture
include the Sun temple at Sunak (10th century), the Sun temple at
Modhera (11th century), the Vimala Temple at Mount Abu (11th
century), and the Somnath Temple at Kathiawar (12th century).
4. Konarak Sun Temple

• The Konark Sun Temple (also known as the Black Pagoda) is a 13th-
century Sun Temple in Konark, Orissa.
• King Narasimhadeva I (1236-1264 CE) of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty
built it out of oxidizing and aged ferruginous sandstone. The temple
is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is one of India's most well-
known temples. It is one of India's Seven Wonders.
• The temple is shaped like Surya (Arka), the sun god's chariot, and is
richly carved with stone carvings. The entire building was designed
to resemble a massive chariot pulled by seven lively horses and
equipped with twelve pairs of ornately carved wheels.
• Two colossal lions stand guard at the entryway, crushing a war
elephant. Each elephant lies on top of a human body in turn. The
temple represents the Sun god's powerful stride. A Nata Mandir
stands at the temple's entrance. The temple dancers performed
 dances in honor of the Sun-God here. There are diverse floral and
geometric designs all around the temple. The temple is now partly
in ruins, and a collection of its sculptures is held in the
Archaeological Survey of India's Sun Temple Museum. "Here, the
language of stone transcends the language of man," wrote poet
Rabindranath Tagore of Konark.
5. Hoysala architecture is a type of architecture that originated in India.

• Hoysala architecture is a building style that emerged in the region

known as Karnataka, India, during the 11th and 14th centuries
under the control of the Hoysala Empire.
• Hoysala's influence peaked in the 13th century when it dominated
the Southern Deccan Plateau region; large and small temples built
during this period, such as the Chennakesava Temple at Belur, the
Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and the Kesava Temple at
Somanathapura, remain as examples of Hoysala architectural style.
• Temples at Belavadi, Amruthapura, Hosaholalu, Arasikere, and
Nuggehalli are other fine examples of Hoysala craftsmanship. A
study of the Hoysala architectural style revealed a negligible Indo-
 Aryan influence, whereas the impact of the Southern Indian style is
more apparent.

Religion. Sikhism. Religion combining elements of Hinduism, Islam, and other

Indian belief systems.

Geography:
1. Ganges. Most sacred river of Hinduism.

Ganges River, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India.

This is a map of the Ganges (yellow), Brahmaputra (violet),

and Meghna (green) drainage basins.
2. Varanasi/ Benares. Most sacred Hindu city on the banks of Ganges,
including.

3. Ghats. Sacred ritual sites on riverbanks

Munshi Ghat Dashashwamedh Ghat

Geological condition:
• Timber was available in plenty in Indus and Ganges valleys
• Stone was rare
• In some part of India white marble is available
• In some parts of India rock-cut temples were also available
Climatic condition:
• More than half the country lies in Tropic Cancer
• The climate therefore varies widely
• Wet in winter and dry in summer
• Buildings built to adapt the climate
• In north flat roofs were common, but steep pitched roofs were used in
West coast due to heavy rain

Most important sites and location:

1. Khajuraho. Site of Kandarya Mahadev (Temple of the Kama Sutra) which
include the.
2. Maithuna. Pair or twins, 3rd sign of the zodiac, stands for divine creative
activity.

Maithuba, Orissa, India Maithuna at Khajuraho

3. Kathmandu. Capital of Nepal, site of many Gumba (Stupa) with face Harmika
especially the Swayambunath.
4. Tibet. Autonomous region of China with Lhasa as capital, site of the Potala
Palace.

Indians and Pakistan Based in Free Religion

1. Buddhist Religion (Buddhism). The doctrine,
attributed to the suffering is inseparable from existence
but that inward extinction of the self and the senses
culminates in a state of illumination beyond both
suffering and existence. Buddhism is the belief in
salvation or Nirvana.
Basic belief salvation (Nirvana). Nirvana is the
state of absolute happiness (heaven).
Bha-ga-vad-gi-ta. A sacred Hindu text in the form of a
philosophical dialogue that is incorporated into the
Mahabharata, an ancient Sanskrit epic. Song of the
blessed one.
Rig-Ve-da. The most ancient collection of Hindu
sacred verses, praises, hymn. Sacred writing.

Characteristics of Buddhist Architecture: Decorative details used for emphasizing

structures and most of the structures are designed for congregational use.
a. Stupas- Also called topes sacred mounds usually contains the sacred statue
of Buddha. A domical mound which is grouped with their rails, gateways.
i.e., Sanchi Stupa.
Dagoba. It is often raised on a platform surrounded by railings, or
monumental structure containing relics of Buddha.
• The ashes of the Buddha were buried in stupas built at locations
associated with important events in the Buddha’s life including:
• Lumbini (where he was born)
• Bodh Gaya (where he achieved Enlightenment)
• Deer Park at Sarnath (where he preached his first sermon sharing
the Four Noble Truths (also called the dharma or the law)
 • Four Noble Truths:
• life is suffering (suffering=rebirth)
• The cause of suffering is desire
• The cause of desire must be overcome
• When desire is overcome, there is no more
suffering (suffering=rebirth)
• Kushingara (where he died).
• Also called TOPE containing sacred relic called “Dagoba”
• Earliest structural Sramana monuments (3rd century BC) enlarged and
elaborated over centuries to magnificent complexes

The great Stupa at Sanchi

One of the most famous stupas, The Great Stupa (Mahastupa) was built at
the birthplace of Ashoka’s wife, Devi, daughter of a local merchant in the
village of Sanchi located on an important trade route in the state of Madya
Pradesh, India

Dhamek Stupa -Sarnath Maha Stupa -Thotlakonda

 Chaitya- A Buddhist or Hindu sanctuary, shrine, or temple. An assembly
hall or sanctuary. Temple generally excavated out of a solid rock. i.e. Karli,
Ellora, Ajanta

Chaitya Cave 26 at Ajanta

Chaitya at Bhaja Caves

Chaitya Hall. A hall of worship adjacent to a Buddhist monastery.

a. Viharas. A monastery
b. Stambhas or Laths. Six (6) monumental pillars standing free. Columns with
carvings inscribed with the Chakra, wheel of the law.

Kirti Stambha at Chittorgarh Vijay Stambha at Chittorgarh

fort in Rajasthan, India fort

c. Torana (Toran). A richly decorated gateway in the enclosure

of a Buddhist Stupa in Indian Architecture.
Toranas were inspired by the pai-lou or torii
• Many stupas are placed on a square base, and the four
sides represent the four directions, north, south, east and
west. Each side often has a gate in the center, which allows
the practitioner to enter from any side. The gates are
called torana.
• Each gate also represents the four great life events of the
Buddha:
• East (Buddha’s birth)
• South (Enlightenment)
• West (First Sermon where he preached his teachings
or dharma)
• North (Nirvana).
• The gates are turned at right angles to the axis mundi to
indicate movement in the manner of the arms of a svastika,
a directional symbol that, in Sanskrit, means “to be good”
(“su” means good or auspicious and “asti” means to be).
• The torana are directional gates guiding the practitioner in
the correct direction on the correct path to Enlightenment,
the understanding of the Four Noble Truths.
2. Jain Religion (Jainism). Religion stressing virtue of
extreme non-violence, Ahimsa.
• Vardaman or Mahavira is the founder of
Jainism (Great Hero). However, it is said that
he is the final Tirthankara or Jina. (Victor) and
Adinatha is the first.
• One of the 24 Tirthankaras is honored in every
Jain temple.
• Bricks were rarely used in Jain buildings,
instead opting for cutting temples out of rock
faces.
• Hindu and Buddhist architectural influences
have influenced Jain architecture.
• Many Jain temples were built alongside Buddhist temples in the early
years, using the Buddhist rock-cut style.
• However, in subsequent years, Jains began to construct temple-cities on
hills based on the concept of mountains of immortality.'

• When Jains eventually learned the concept of immortality mountains,

they decided to create their own instead of using Hindu or Buddhist sites.
• It's worth noting that while Hindus and Buddhists built temples, Jains
constructed temple cities on hills.
• They "ornamented these holy highlands with a crown of immortal Arhat
chaityas (tabernacles of saints) glittering with the glory of gems," in their
own words.
Jain Architecture
a. Architectural character. Lighter and more elegant.
b. Important structures- Temple and Viharas (Monastery)

Temple- Rock Cut in caves. Bamiyan. Site of Colossal Buddha statues in Rock-
Cut Niches, demolished by Taliban.

Ranakpur's Adinatha Temple

• After its architect, Ranakpur's Adinatha Temple is also

known as Dharma Vihara Temple.
• The temple is enormous. It is built atop a 60m x 62m
basement that serves as a stronghold.
• A three-story "Balanaka" (entry hall) with a dome roof
may be found at the top of a set of stairs at the
central entrance.

• There are several finely carved columns, and it is stated that no two pillars
are alike in design.
• Various heights of domes are set in a space that penetrates two to three-
storey, and their ceilings feature astonishingly detailed sculptures.

• Light pours in from the courtyards and through holes in the ceilings,
showing the interconnected areas and beautiful carvings all around.
• The area is pristine because the entire temple is composed of white
marble, from the flooring to the ceilings. It might also be described as the
attainment of the Pure Land.
Plan shape is an octagon with a square, with domical roof. It has 12 pillars. An
entrance porch generally cruciform in plan. Columns with bracket capitals and
angular struts supporting the domical roof. A crowning Shikhara or imposing
pyramid tower and sculptured ornaments. i.e., Dilwarra Temple.

Bas relief. Figures of native man, carvings in low or shallow relief with a
background.

Mahabalipuram ELEPHANTS, ANCIENT BAS-RELIEF, INDIA,

(Mamallapuram) shows MAHABALIPURAM
Vishnu reclining in
meditation
Squinch. Arches placed diagonally at the internal angles of towers to bring
them from the square to support an octagonal dome or spire.

3. Hindu Religion (Hinduism). In India, characterized broadly by beliefs in

reincarnation and a supreme being of many forms and natures, by the view that
opposing theories are aspects of one eternal truth, and by a desire for liberation
from earthly evils.
Hinduism is the rebirth of one person to another being. It depends on the way
you live. It transforms you to either a higher form of life or lower form of being.

Reincarnation- Faiths of Dravidians and Aryans invaders.

Individual Worship
Bhakti. Reincarnation, devotion to an incarnation and to images.
Abhorrence of image -worship. A way of life that influenced its architecture.

Rigveda. Vedic Gods are followed by the Trinity of trim unity.

Trimurti. The Hindu trinity comprised of:

1. Brahma. Creator, the highest form of being and the soul of the universe.
Hinduism personification of divine reality in its creative aspects as a member
of the Hindu triad.
2. Vishnu. Preserver, Hinduism the chief deity worshiped by the Vaishnava, and
the second member of the trinity including the Hindu triad.
3. Shiva. Destroyer. Hinduism god of destruction and reproduction, a member
of the Hindu triad.
Hinduism also has its Pantheon of lesser gods/ deities/ avatars.
Lingam. Phallic symbol representing Shiva.

The Aryan Civilization

 • The Aryans were a group from Eurasia. They were nomads who traveled
from place to place. Around 1500 BCE, they settled in India around the
Indus River.
• The Aryans conquered and took control of the cities of the Indus Valley.
• The Aryans had major influence on Indian culture in 3 major areas:
• Religion: Hinduism
• Written Language: Sanskrit
• Social Structure: Caste System

Difference Between the Aryan Race and The Indus Valley Civilization
Temple contains the following, its fundamental character:
ARYAN INDUS VALLEY
Aryans were highly religious, and theyIndus valley people were never
put their energy in the creation of religious, and they put energy in the
Vedas, Upanishads, which arecreation of sophisticated systems such
centered with the spirituality. as water supply, building relationships
between traders, and businessman.
They are highly humane.
Aryans knew the use of metals such as Harappans were not even aware of
iron, bronze, copper etc. these metals.
Aryans used languages such as There is no evidence to what the
Sanskrit, Persian, Hindi, English and Harappans spoke during their age.
German.
Aryans were skilled in warfare. They The Harappans were more focused on
built chariots, weapons and commercial projects and
ammunitions to protect themselves collaborations which led to
from invaders. urbanization.
Aryans progressed in development of Harappans were more interested in the
science and technology, physics, field of agriculture, civil engineering,
astronomy and medicine. irrigation and metallurgy.

Temple contains the following, it’s fundamental character:

1. Garbha Griha -Small inlet shrine usually crowned by a Sikhara Roof.

Garbhagriha in Chennakeshava
Temple, Belur Garbhagriha at Pattadakal with
the Lingam icon of the god Shiva
2. Mandapas (Mandap)- Porch like halls used for religious dancing and music.

Mandapa in Odisha with a shape like a

Open mandapa at Amritapura
bell Ghanta

3. Mukha - Mandap. Ante room foyer before the mandap.

4. Shikhara- Crown of the shrine with a spire shape, formed of horic couses of
stone filled with finials called “Kalasa”.
• Shikhara can be classified into three main forms:
o Latina. The shikhara has four faces, which may include projections
or ratha within each face. All the elements run smoothly up the
face in a curve. The most common. They are also sometimes called
"homogeneous" shikhara, as opposed to the next two types, which
may be called "heterogeneous".
o Sekhari. The latina shape has added engaged (attached) sub-
spires or spirelets called urushringa echoing the main shape. These
may run up most of the face. There may be more than one size of
these, sometimes called secondary and tertiary. Tertiary spirelets are
typically near the ends of the face or on the corners.
o Bhumija. The tower has miniature spires, in horizontal and vertical
rows, all the way to the top, creating a grid-like effect on each
face. The tower is generally less strongly vertical in overall shape,
often approaching a pyramidal shape. Mainly found in the
northern Deccan and West India.
5. Kalasha. Small sikra like finials.

6. Sikra. Pyramid cone/ conoid pyramid spire atop the Hindu sanctuary.
7. Gopuram- Gateway found in a Hindu temple /Dravidian temple.

8. Vimana- A decorated sanctuary (altar). A Hindu temple, mainly of the

Deccan and Southern India. The sanctuary in such a temple containing a cell in
which a deity is enshrined. Mythological flying palace.
9. Apsara- Female Divinities
 II. Afghanistan Architecture

Geographical. Northwest of Indo Pakistan subcontinent. Iran (Persia) on the

west. Russia and Central Asia to the North, vast high plateau.

Social and Historical

1. Part of the Achaemenid Empire of Darius in 4 B.C.
2. Occupied by Alexander the Great’s Army in 356 - 323 B.C.
3. Greek
4. India
5. Kushan’s Buddhist
6. Sassanians- cultural influence

Architectural Character and Examples

1. Buddhist art and architecture.
2. Ruined Stupa Mounds are scattered in Kabul and Kabul River.
3. Bamiyan; Monasteries and Temples. Carved out of a sandstone cliff face.
Interior was honeycombed with sanctuaries and assembly halls extending 2
kilometers. Painted niche at either end with a Buddha statue 120 feet and 175
feet.

Bamiyan is the site of the Colossal Buddha statues in Rock-Cut niches,

demolished by Taliban.
The statue of Buddha is in prototypes of the colossal image cult. Rock Cut
sanctuaries and assembly halls. Cupola roofs, Coffered domes.

Western Buddha Eastern Buddha

Sanctuary. Sacred Shrine of divinities.

 III. Sri Lankan Architecture

Geographical Influences: A large island in Indian Ocean. South East of India, it

has been the center of international trade due to its strategic position on the
west to east sea route.

Materials for construction are granite, limestone, clay for bricks, bamboo and
grasses for thatches and mats. Thatches are Nipa Hut roof style.

Three climatic zone of Sri Lanka (Ceylong is its original name)

a. Dry Hot Zone. In the North and East, irrigation tanks were built.
b. Central Wet Zone. Has a cool and inviter rating climate.
c. Low Lying Hot, Wet Zone. South and southwest, experiences heavy rainfall
and high humidity building were solid wall with wide projecting eaves and
verandas. And also, steep roofs toward off the rain and sun.
Stupa:
Predominantly religious, Buddhism has had a great impact on the style of
architecture in this region, with more than 25 styles of Buddhist monasteries –
including the Stupas of Jetavanaramaya and Ruvanvelisaraya in the
Anuradhapura kingdom.

Social, Historical and Religious of Sri Lanka:

First Period. Anuradhapura Period (4 B.C. - 10th century) Political, social, and
artistic tradition. Sinhalese kings built great buildings such as Sinhalese Stupas.

Sigiriya. Immense rock hill city, constructed by Kassapa I who was a Sinhalese
king.

Architectural Character: Natural rock chambers were built for the ermits. Ermits
were excommunicated in their community or not accepted in culture and
society.
Second Period. Polonnaruwa Period (11th century - 13th century) Polonnaruwa
city was built by King Parikrama Baho the great.

Architectural Character: Wata- Da- Ge, circular relic house was built of stone
and bricks.

Third Period. Kadyan Period (15th century - 19th century) the country was divided
into several kingdom with Kandy as the capital. Portuguese and Dutch
introduced Renaissance and Baroque Architecture.
Example of Kadyan structure. Ambalams. Rest house for travelers.

The British introduced “Georgian Architecture and Colonial Classical

Architecture was introduced by the royal engineers.

Architectural Character: Typical character of architecture is made of wood.

Richly carved with traditional motifs. Roofs are highly pitch. While eaves with
small flat shingles. Terra Cotta tiles and eaves tiles with bas relief all in ancient
pattern. Buildings are mostly Monasteries and Temples.

IV. Nepalist Architecture

Geographical. Ending across Himalayas and along the north border of India.
Highest mountain “Mount Everest”, sparsely inhabited. Katmandu; Patan;
Bhatgaon in prehistoric times, this was a shallow lake, now undulating tract of
land.

Materials:
• WOOD is used as columns, beams, rafters, and constructing doors,
windows, and stairs.
• METALS copper, iron, brass, bronze was commonly used. It was expensive
and used on religious and door facings, lattice- works, and door latches.
• NATURAL STONE sedimentary rocks or metamorphic stones gathered from
the quarries on the north and south sides of mountain slopes.
• BRICKS AND TILES - mud bricks were used for the construction of walls. Clay
tiles were extensively used for roof coverings, courtyard paving, terrace
floors, and floor coverings.
Historical and Social.
1. Newars and Gurkhas (of Tibetan Mongol stock) settled in early times and
established an indigenous style in art and architecture which has never
been modified.
2. Art flourished during the reign of Mulla Rajas (13th – 18th c.)

Religious Influences
1. Buddhism (Tibetan Tantric) is next largest religion, 7.8%
2. Hinduism predominate religion with 86.5% of the population
3. Tibetan Tantric. Mysticism and symbolism from the mountains and grandeur
of the country

Architectural Character and Examples:

1. Stupas. Picturesque, townships and intricate native craftsmanship.
Example: Swayambhunath is one of the oldest known stupas in Nepal.
2. Temple. A shrine enclosing a cellar for the Gods or divine symbol.

Two Kinds of Temples

1. Sikhara. Indian influenced.

2. Pagoda. Chinese (Burmese) influenced.

Nepalese Pagoda. Square in Plan.
Radha Krishna Temple
Architectural Character of Nepalese Pagoda:
1. Metal Gutters Projecting Cornice

2. Windows with Lattice Screens

3. Tingling Bells
4. Hanging Lamps

5. Red Curved Tiles

6. Carvings Embossing
7. Floor supported by Bracket Capital and Struts
8. Makara. Form of rain water spouts.

Secular Architecture. Made of wood and brick for structural purposes and metal
ornaments.

V. Tibetan Architecture

Geographical. On the north and east is China; South of it is India, Nepal and
Bhutan. The highest country in the world, lying at the heart of the Himalayas.
Thinly populated.
Historical and Social. Buddhist princesses and rulers dominated the land.
Monasteries multiplied and highly privileged. Tibet is the autonomous region of
China with Lhasa as capital, site of the POTALA PALACE.

Dalai Lama/ Grand: The chief abbot became the ruler of Tibet. 1,400 Years of
Tibetan Lai mist culture.
Kublai Khan, a Mongol emperor of China ruled Tibet in 1270. He brought
Chinese influence in Tibet. It became a state of peoples Republic of China after
the invasion in 9th century.

Religions. Lamaism. Religion of Tibet, combining elements of worship, magic and

sorcery.

1. Bonpo. Religion of Bhutan. Animistic faith was originally followed included

mysticism and sorcery.
2. Mahayana Buddhism
3. Tantric Buddhism by Padma Sam bhava
4. Tibetan Buddhism by the Patriarch Atisa

Atisa. Cult of the Bodhisattva, one who has vowed to attain Buddha hood,
Animism and belief in a living Buddha.

Architectural Character and Example of Tibet

1. Chorten. Stupa, consist of a small bulbous dome on a many tiered plinths,
similar to nepalist type. A square harmika with a mast supporting a Chhatri
(umbrella) surmounted by a flame finial.
Plinth. The lowest square member of the base of the column. Also applied to the
projecting stepped or mould base of any building.

Finial. The upper portion of a pinnacle.

2. Monastery. Original expression of Tibetan architecture. Fortress like sited on

hilltops. In magnificent view built of stone and sun-dried bricks. Not a regular
plan comprising long lines of cells with 4 gates. Composed of:
a. Assembly
b. Temple
c. Library
d. Meeting Hall and Mansion of the Abbot. Plan resembles a Chaitya with a
nave and Pillars and sides aisles.

Ornament. Tingling bells. Used to ward off evil spirits.

Example of Tibetan Architecture
1. Sakya Monastery. Once famous for its collection of Sanskrit and Tibetan
manuscripts. Seven stories high with spacious assembly hall. Eighty kilometers
south west of Shigatse.
2. Potola Palace, Lhasa. Built for the 5th Da-Lailama in 1642 - 50, stands on a hill
90 meters (300 feet) above the plain. With scrapper like sloping walls, gilded
roofs and bells crowning the central palace.

VI. Cambodian Architecture

Architecture of South East Asia (ASEAN except the Philippines).

Vyadhapura. Earliest capital (Angkor Borei) on lower Mekong River.
Kampong Thom. Not far from Angkor capitals, on the road to Saigon.

Architecture and Materials:

• Stone- main used from religious temples
• Wood-for none religious structures
• Sandstones
• bricks
This results in the Stone temple still can be seen unlikely the wood structures
washed out.
 Two important Structures
1. Angkor Wat. A complex temple considered as the biggest religious structure in
the world.

Angkor Vat (Wat). Temple City of Suryavarman II. Temple to the god king image
a monument to himself tomb. Plan is rectangule contained by a moat (4
kilometer long). Formed of stepped pyramid. Third level is supporting the inner
sanctuary with immerse central conical tower. The great galleried platform.
Corners has 4 smaller towers. Approached by paved causeway. Entrance has
monumental portico leading to a colonnaded and arcaded gallery. Walls 800
meters long. Bas - relief depicting spiritual tales and legendary events. Themes:
Indian epics, Mahabharata and Ramayana.

2. Angkor Thom. Remodeled capital of Jayavarman VII baroque manifestation,

rebuilt capital of Cambodia. Plan almost square, rectangular. Each side 3
kilometer long. Moat 90 meters wide, laterite stone wall 6.70 meters high.
Incorporates 2 temple mountains. Baphuon and Phimmeanakas. Bridging the
moat to 5 towered gateways are 5 stone causeways. Causeways have parapet
balustrades on each side- stone giants holding Nagas. Center is the Bayon,
temple mountain. Symbol of the god king cult. Plan is cruciform, vaulted
galleries and small pavilions. Galleries were later added to form a rectangle .16
chapels. Center podium carrying the shrine. Motifs Buddha under a Naga hood
on 54 towers, 4 Buddha heads over chapels and pavilions.
Grandeur of conception, brilliant landscaping, unsurpassed town
planning formal. Exuberant sculptural decoration on a grand scale exquisite
refinement. Unsophisticated building techniques. Stone was used like wood.
Stonewalls reinforced with concealed timber beams inserted in hollowed out
centers, when the wood rotted, stone blocks fell.
 Corbelled vaulting never modified, spanned small spaces. Confined
nature of each room and grouping of many units. Interconnection of galleries to
create an impression of size. No mortar, stone masonry was established with the
sheer mass of the sheer mass of the construction. Fine joints of roofs tilted
perfectly -watertight. Verticality of the mountain theme -galleried groups were
placed round and above the central pyramid (as in Ta Keo).

Prepared by:
Arch. Erwin P. Gerardo
Facilitator-Hist.Arch.3
Date Prepared: Jan. 2022

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