Wave Training - Dupont UF-RO-NF Product Documentation

Year of Validity: 2020
USA FDA – Food Additive Status
FilmTec™ SW30ULE-440 Element
When used unmodified and according to good manufacturing practices, these membranes will comply with the
U.S. Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act as amended under Food Additive Regulation 21 CFR § 177.2550. These products
may be used in processing liquid food and to purify water for food manufacturing in compliance with the
mentioned regulatory citation.
Use of these products is subject to good manufacturing practices and any limitations which are part of the
regulations. The regulations should be consulted for complete details.
Element parts or materials in contact with the potable water are compliant to 21 CFR § 170 to 199. Each has their
own listing similar to the membranes.
Please be assured we are committed to providing high-quality products and service to our customers. If you have
any questions or require further information, please contact us via our website at
http://dupont.com/water/contact-us.
No freedom from infringement of any patent or trademark owned by DuPont or others is to be inferred. Because use
conditions and applicable laws may differ from one location to another and may change with time, Customer is responsible
for determining whether products and the information in this document are appropriate for Customer's use and for ensuring
that Customer's workplace and disposal practices are in compliance with applicable laws and other government enactments.
The product shown in this literature may not be available for sale and/or available in all geographies where DuPont is
represented. The claims made may not have been approved for use in all countries. DuPont assumes no obligation or liability
for the information in this document. References to “DuPont” or the “Company” mean the DuPont legal entity selling the
products to Customer unless otherwise expressly noted. NO WARRANTIES ARE GIVEN; ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE EXPRESSLY EXCLUDED.
DuPont™, the DuPont Oval Logo, and all trademarks and service marks denoted with ™, ℠ or ® are owned by affiliates of
DuPont de Nemours Inc. unless otherwise noted. © 2020 DuPont.
Form No. 45-D00194-en

January 2020
DuPont Water Solutions
WAVE Technical Manual
Version 5
January 2020
NOTICE: The information provided in this literature is given in good faith for informational purposes only. DuPont assumes no obligation or
liability for the information presented herein. NO WARRANTIES ARE GIVEN; ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR
A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE EXPRESSLY EXCLUDED.
Table of contents
1 General WAVE Features 10
1.1 Defining the User Information 10
1.1.1 Defining the User Language 12
1.2 Defining the Project Information 14
1.3 Currencies and Exchange Rates 15
1.4 Chemical Library 17
1.4.1 Adding a New Chemical 19
1.5 Operating Costs 21
1.6 Pump Efficiencies 23
1.7 Units of Measure 25
1.8 Specifying the System Feed and Product Flows 27
1.9 pH Adjustment of the Final Product 28
2 Specifying the Feed Water Composition 30
2.1 Defining the type of water 30
2.2 Specifying Water Types and Subtypes 30
2.2.1 Specifying the Water Type in the Home Tab 31
2.2.2 Specifying the Water Type and Subtype in the Feed Water Tab 32
Specifying the Water Type and Subtype for Ultrafiltration 33
Defining RO/ROSC Design Guidelines, Water Types and Subtypes 34
2.3 Defining the Feed Water Composition for UF 34
2.3.1 Specification of Feed Water for UF design 35
2.3.2 Quick Entry of NaCl concentration only 36
2.3.3 Detailed Ionic Content 37
2.4 pH Specification 38
2.5 Condensate Polishing Additional Parameters 40
2.6 Balancing the Feed Water 40
2.6.1 Charge Balancing by Addition of Specific Solutes 40
2.6.2 Charge Balancing by Adjustment of Solute Compositions 42
2.6.3 Charge Balancing the CO2/HCO3/CO3 composition for a given feed pH 43
2.6.4 Charge Balancing by Adjusting the pH 44
2.7 Import from the Water Library 45
2.8 Chemical Addition and pH Adjustment to the UF feed 47
2.8.1 pH Adjustment of UF Feed 47
2.8.2 Temperature Adjustment of Feed 49
2.8.3 Oxidant Addition to the UF Feed 49
2.8.4 Coagulant Addition to the UF Feed 51
2.9 Mixing Feed Streams 52
2.9.1 Adding a Stream 52
2.9.2 Removing Feed Streams 54
3 Ultrafiltration 55
3.1 UF System Specification in WAVE 55
3.1.1 Adding the UF Icon into the WAVE Home Window 55
3.1.2 Removing the UF Icon 56
3.1.3 Defining the Feed Water Flowrate and Recovery 57
3.1.4 Specifying Feed Water Properties 58
3.1.5 Defining the System Design 59
UF Feed Flow Rate 59
UF Module Selection 60
UF Fluxes and Flowrates 62
Design Cycle Intervals and Membrane Integrity Testing 63
Specifying the Filtration TMP Increase between Processes for UF 64
Specifying the Strainer Size and Recovery 65
3.1.6 Defining the System Configuration 66
Recommended Configurations 67
Choosing a Configuration 69
Specifying Other Design Options 70
The UF Process Flow Diagram 71
Form No. 45-D01378-en, Rev. 5

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3.1.7 UF System Operation Details 73
Specifying the Backwash Mode for UF 73
Specifying the Chemically Enhanced Backwash (CEB) Mode for UF 77
Specifying the Clean-In-Place (CIP) Mode for UF 86
3.1.8 Specification of Additional UF Equipment Settings 100
Pressure Settings 101
Power (Control Equipment Energy Consumption) 102
Valve Timing 103
Specification of Tank Sizes 104
3.2 ULTRAFILTRATION - FINAL CALCULATION AND REPORT GENERATION 105
3.2.1 Generation and Understanding of Summary report 105
3.2.2 Generating and Understanding the UF Detailed Report 107
3.2.3 Modification of System Design after Calculation 114
Modification of the Feed Temperature 114
Modification of the System Recovery 115
3.2.4 Handling the Reports (Saving and Exporting) 116
4 Reverse Osmosis 118
4.1 Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration system specification 118
4.1.1 Adding RO/NF/ROSC icon into the WAVE Home Window 118
4.1.2 Removing RO/NF/ROSC Process Icon from the WAVE Home 119
4.1.3 Defining the Feed Water Flowrate and System Recovery 120
4.1.4 Defining the feed water type and composition 121
4.1.5 Defining the RO/NF/ROSC System Configuration 122
The Number of Passes 122
The Flow Factor 123
The Number of Stages 124
Specifying Elements, Number of Pressure Vessels and Elements per Pressure Vessel Standard
Design 124
Internally Staged Design (ISD) 127
4.1.6 Specifying Feed Pressure, Boost Pressure, Back Pressure and Pre-stage Pressure Drop 128
4.1.7 Specifying Recovery 129
Recovery for the Entire System 129
System Recovery Definition at the Flow Pop-Up Window 131
4.1.8 Specifying Flow Patterns (Stage Recirculation, Recycle, Bypass, Split) 132
Concentrate Recirculation between Stages 132
Concentrate Recycle between the Passes 132
Feed Bypass 134
Split Permeate 136
4.1.9 Specifying pH Adjustment/Degasification and Calculating the Risk of Scaling 137
pH Adjustment of the Feed to Each Pass 137
pH Adjustment of the Final Product 139
Degasification 139
Antiscalant and SMBS Addition 140
Calculation of Scaling Risk 142
4.2 REVERSE OSMOSIS - FINAL CALCULATION AND REPORT GENERATION 144
4.2.1 Generation and Understanding of Summary report 144
Standard Mode without Compaction 149
Standard Mode with Compaction 150
Batch Mode 151
4.2.2 Generating and Understanding the RO Detailed Report 154
Modification of the Feed Temperature 160
Modification of the System Recovery 161
4.2.4 Handling the Reports (Saving and Exporting) 162
5 Ion Exchange 164
5.1 Ion Exchange System Specification 164
5.1.1 Adding IX Process Icons into the WAVE Home Window 165
5.1.2 Removing IX Process Icons 166
5.1.3 Defining the Feed Water Flowrates and System Recoveries 167
5.1.4 Defining the type of water 167

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5.1.5 The IX Initialization Window: Defining the Modeling Objective, Train Configuration and Regen-
eration Frequency 167
The Modeling Objective 167
Train Configuration 169
IX Flow Rate 170
Regeneration Frequency 172
Sub-process Option 173
New Plant Design 174
5.1.6 Defining the Vessel and Regeneration System 174
Resin Arrangement 175
Regeneration System 177
Degasification System 178
5.1.7 Resin Selection 179
5.1.8 Defining the Regeneration Conditions 180
5.1.9 Defining the Advanced Regeneration Conditions 182
5.1.10 Defining the Equipment 183
5.1.11 Defining the Product Quality and Regeneration Dose 185
The Effluent Quality 186
The Regenerant Dose 187
Neutral Water Effluent 188
Overrun Computation 189
Dose Optimization 189
5.1.12 Existing Plant Description 190
5.1.13 Final Parameter Adjustments 191
5.2 Ion Exchange Final Calculation and Report Generation 193
5.2.1 Generating and Understanding Summary Report 193
5.2.2 Generating and Understanding the IX Detailed Report 196
5.2.4 Define Recovery 205
5.2.5 Handling the Reports (Saving & Exporting) 206
6 Case Management 208
6.1 Adding New Cases 209
6.1.1 Using the Add Case button in the Home Tab 209
6.1.2 Using the Add Case button in the Case Manager Window 210
6.2 Accessing Cases 211
6.2.1 Using the Case Management Window 212
6.2.2 Using the Quick-Nav Window 213
6.2.3 Using the Project Open Window 214
6.3 Deleting Cases 216
6.4 Saving and Exporting 217
6.4.1 Saving 217
6.4.2 Exporting 218
6 Definitions of Terms and Abbreviations 219

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Table of figures
Figure 1. Selection of User Settings to specify User Information 10
Figure 2. Selection of User Info button to specify User Information 11
Figure 3. Specification of user information 11
Figure 4. Selection of User Settings to specify User Information 12
Figure 5. Selection of User Info button to specify User Information 13
Figure 6. Specifiying a language 13
Figure 7. Selection of the Project Info button to specify Project Information 14
Figure 8. Specification of the Project Information 14
Figure 9. Selection of User Settings to specify Currencies and Exchange 15
Figure 10. Selection of Currency to specify Currencies and Exchange Rates 16
Figure 11. Specification of Currencies and Exchange Rates 16
Figure 12. Selection of User Settings to specify Chemicals 17
Figure 13. Selection of the Chemical Library to specify Chemicals 18
Figure 14. Specification of Chemicals 18
Figure 15. Click on add chemical 19
Figure 16. Selection of a chemical category 19
Figure 17. Specification of a new chemical 20
Figure 18. Selection of User Settings to specify Operating Costs 21
Figure 19. Selection of the Operating Costs window 21
Figure 20. Specification of Operating Costs. 22
Figure 21. Selection of User Settings to specify Pump Efficiencies 23
Figure 22. Selection of the Pumps window 23
Figure 23. Specification of Pump Efficiencies 24
Figure 24. Selection of Configuration to specify Units of Measure 25
Figure 25. Selection of Configuration to specify Units of Measure 26
Figure 26. Specification of feed flowrate in a system design 27
Figure 27. Specification of preliminary recovery 28
Figure 28. Specification of RO/NF/ROSC System Pass Feed pH Adjustment 29
Figure 29. Choosing the Feed Water Type in the Home Tab in WAVE 31
Figure 30. Choosing the Feed Water Type and Subtype in the Feed Water Tab in WAVE 32
Figure 31. Entry of UF specific feed composition 35
Figure 32. Quick entry of NaCl composition 36
Figure 33. Detailed entry of the ionic feed composition 37
Figure 34. pH entry 39
Figure 35. Detailed entry of the condensate polishing additional parameters 40
Figure 36. Charge balancing a stream by adding cations 41
Figure 37. Charge balancing a stream by adding anions 41
Figure 38. Charge balancing in WAVE by adjusting solutes 42
Figure 39. Balancing the CO2/HCO3/CO3 composition for a given feed pH 43
Figure 40. Charge balance by adjusting pH 44
Figure 41. Accessing the Water Library from the Feed Water tab and opening the dropdown for water profiles 45
Figure 42. Accessing the dropdown for water profiles 45
Figure 43. Transferring the water profile to the Feed Water screen 46
Figure 44. Opening ¨Chemical Adjustment¨ window 47
Figure 45. Feed pH specification for UF 48
Figure 46. Specification of feed temperature for UF in WAVE 49
Figure 47. Specification of Oxidant addition for UF in WAVE 50
Figure 48. Specification of Coagulant addition for UF in WAVE 51
Figure 49. Adding a stream from a different water source 52
Figure 50. Blending feed water streams in WAVE 53
Figure 51. Deleting a stream in WAVE 54
Figure 52. Dragging and dropping UF icon 55
Figure 53. Dragging and dropping the icons into the picture of the waste bin 56
Figure 54. Right-clicking on the icon in question and selecting ¨Delete¨ 56
Figure 55. Definition of feed or product flow for a UF system 57
Figure 56. Definition of recovery for a UF system in the Home page 58
Figure 57. UF Plant Design window 59

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Figure 58. How to select a UF module type 60
Figure 59. IntegraPac™ sliders in WAVE 61
Figure 60. Warning message if the number of IntegraPac™ modules is exceeded 61
Figure 61. UF Fluxes and Flowrates 62
Figure 62. UF Cycle intervals 63
Figure 63. The Filtration Specification Window in WAVE for UF modeling 64
Figure 64. UF Strainer Specification 65
Figure 65. UF Configuration window 66
Figure 66. Recommended Configuration Table in UF for non-IntegraPac™ 67
Figure 67. Configuration Table in UF for IntegraPac™ 68
Figure 68. Direct specification of the UF system configuration in the WAVE Configuration Window. 69
Figure 69. Additional UF system design inputs in WAVE (operating mode) 70
Figure 70. Selection of the Standby option for UF modeling in WAVE 71
Figure 71. Generating the UF System Diagram restoring the Recommended Configurations Table 72
Figure 72. Further options to specify a UF system in WAVE 73
Figure 73. Backwash temperature using the design temperature 74
Figure 74. Backwash durations 74
Figure 75. Backwash and Forward Flush water type selection 75
Figure 76. Specification of an oxidant for Backwash (a) Activating the Oxidant option (b) Selecting the Oxidant (c)
Specifying the oxidant target concentration in the Backwash stream 76
Figure 77. UF CEB specification in WAVE, with default temperature highlighted 77
Figure 78. UF CEB durations specification in WAVE 78
Figure 79. Specification of a Mineral Acid for CEB (a) Activating the Mineral Acid option (b) Selecting the Mineral
Acid (c) Specifying the target pH or concentration in the CEB stream 79
Figure 80. Changes in Mineral Acid input in CEB with no Ionic Composition 80
Figure 81. Changes in Mineral Acid input in CIP with feed TDS < 10,000 mg/L 81
Figure 83. Specification of an Organic Acid for CEB: Activating the Organic Acid option; Selecting the Organic Acid
and Specifying the target concentration in the CEB stream 82
Figure 84. Specification of a Alkali for CEB (a) Activating the Alkali option (b) Selecting the Alkali concentration (c)
Specifying the target pH in the CEB stream 83
Figure 85. CEB Water quality in Alkali input in CEB with feed with no ionic composition 84
Figure 86. Changes in Alkali input in CEB with feed TDS < 10.000 mg/L 84
Figure 87. Changes in Alkali input in CIP with feed TDS > 10,000 mg/L 85
Figure 88. Specification of an Oxidant for CEB (a) Activating the Oxidant option (b) Selecting the Oxidant (c) Spe-
cifying the target pH or concentration in the CEB stream 86
Figure 89. The CIP specification window for UF modeling in WAVE 87
Figure 90. The CIP Water Type specification window for UF modeling in WAVE 88
Figure 91. The CIP Recycle Flow Rate modification 89
Figure 92. The CIP temperature specification window for UF modeling in WAVE 90
Figure 93. The CIP duration specification window for UF modeling in WAVE 91
Figure 94. Specification of a Mineral Acid for CIP (a) Activating the Mineral Acid option (b) Selecting the Mineral
Acid (c) Specifying the target pH in the CIP stream 92
Figure 95. CIP Water quality in Mineral Acid input in CIP with feed with no ionic composition 93
Figure 97. Changes in Mineral Acid input in CIP with feed TDS > 10,000 mg/L 94
Figure 98. Specification of an Organic Acid for CIP (a) Activating the Organic Acid option (b) Selecting the Organic
Acid (c) Specifying the target concentration in the CIP stream 95
Figure 99. Specification of Alkali for CIP (a) Activating the Alkali option (b) Selecting the Alkali (c) Specifying the tar-
get pH in the CIP stream 96
Figure 100. CIP Water quality in Alkali input in CIP with feed with no ionic composition 97
Figure 101. Changes Changes in Alkali input in CIP with feed TDS < 10,000 mg/L 97
Figure 102. Changes in Alkali input in CIP with feed TDS > 10,000 mg/L 98
Figure 103. Specification of Oxidant for CIP (a) Activating the Oxidant option (b) Selecting the Oxidant (c) Spe-
cifying the target concentration in the CIP stream 99
Figure 104. Additional equipment specifications for UF modeling in WAVE 100
Figure 108. Tank specifications for UF modelling in WAVE 104
Figure 109. WAVE simulation and report generation for UF 105
Figure 110. Generation of Detailed Reports in WAVE 107

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Figure 111. WAVE report regeneration and addition simulation by changing feed temperature (a) Selection of the
appropriate temperature (b) Initiation of calculation 114
Figure 112. Export of Summary Report in WAVE as PDF 116
Figure 113. Export of Detailed Reports in WAVE - selecting the dropdown 116
Figure 114. Export of Detailed Reports in WAVE - selecting the option 117
Figure 115. Dragging and dropping RO icon 118
Figure 116. Removing an RO icon by dragging and dropping onto the waste bin 119
Figure 117. Removing an RO icon by right-clicking and selecting “Delete” 119
Figure 118. Definition of feed or product flow for an RO system 120
Figure 119. Definition of recovery for an RO/ROSC system in the Home page 121
Figure 120. Adding and removing passes in RO system 122
Figure 121. Specification of Flow Factor 123
Figure 122. Specification of the Number of Stages in WAVE 124
Figure 123. Specification of the RO/NF/ROSC elements, number of pressure vessels and number of elements per
pressure vessel for each stage in the Reverse Osmosis Tab in WAVE 125
Figure 124. Specification of the RO/NF/ROSC elements from the Element Specifications Pop-up Window in
WAVE 126
Figure 125. Specification of ISD in WAVE (a) Selection of the ISD option (b) Selection of the element in the first pos-
ition (c) Selection of the element in an intermediate position (d) Finalizing the ISD 127
Figure 126. Edition of the ISD Specification Pop-up Window 127
Figure 127. Specification of Feed Pressure, Boost Pressure, Back Pressure and Pre-stage Pressure Drop 128
Figure 128. Specification of RO/NF/ROSC system recovery in the Home Tab 130
Figure 129. Specification of RO/NF/ROSC system recovery in the Flow Calculator Pop-up Window: accessing the
Flow Specification area and defining the Pass Recovery 131
Figure 130. Specification of RO/NF/ROSC system Concentrate Percent Recirculation to Feed in a stage: Before
(Upper image) and After (Bottom image) 132
Figure 131. Specification of RO/NF/ROSC system Concentrate Recycle to Feed: Before (Upper image) and After
(Bottom image) 133
Figure 132. Specification of RO/NF/ROSC system Feed Bypass to Product Before 134
Figure 133. Plant scheme once Feed Bypass is specified for RO/NF/ROSC system 135
Figure 134. Specification of RO/NF/ROSC system Permeate Split 136
Figure 135. Plant scheme once Permeate Split is specified for RO/NF/ROSC system 137
Figure 138. Specification of RO/NF/ROSC System Degasification Specification: Choosing “Add Chemicals/Degas”;
Choosing Degasification; Specifying CO2 removal and completion 140
Figure 139. Specification of RO/NF/ROSC System Antiscalant and SMBS Specification (a) Choosing “Add Chem-
icals/Degas” (b) Choosing Antiscalant/ SMBS (c) Specifying amounts and completion 141
Figure 140. Scaling risk calculation using: Different recovery values 142
Figure 141. Scaling risk calculation using: Different recovery values and Different temperatures 143
Figure 142. WAVE simulation and report generation for UF 144
Figure 143. WAVE simulation and report generation 149
Figure 144. WAVE report regeneration and additional simulation by including compaction: Selecting Compaction
and Setting the highest temperature and enabling the compaction calculations 150
Figure 145. Running WAVE in Batch Mode: Activating Batch Mode 151
Figure 146. Running WAVE in Batch Mode: Confirming desired output of Batch run 152
Figure 147. Running WAVE in Batch Mode: Selection of which combinations to test and implementing the batch
run 153
Figure 148. Running WAVE in Batch Mode:Final output 154
Figure 150. WAVE report regeneration and addition simulation by changing feed temperature 160
Figure 151. WAVE report regeneration and additional simulation by changing recovery; Updating estimated Sys-
tem Recovery and Selecting the new estimated System Recovery 161
Figure 152. Export. of Summary Report in WAVE as PDF 162
Figure 155. Dragging and dropping IX icon 165
Figure 156. Dragging and dropping the icons into the picture of the waste bin 166
Figure 157. Right-clicking on the icon in question and selecting “Delete” 166
Figure 158. IX Initialization Window 167
Figure 159. IX Initialization Window. The Modeling Objective: Evaluate Existing Plant 168
Figure 160. Train Configuration 169

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Figure 161. Bypass flow 170
Figure 162. IX Initialization Window. IX Feed Flow Rate 171
Figure 163. IX Initialization Window. IX Product Flow Rate 171
Figure 164. Regeneration Frequency 172
Figure 165. IX Initialization Window. Regeneration Frequency. IX Condensate Polishing 173
Figure 166. IX Initialization Window. IX Softening/Dealkalization Sub-processes 174
Figure 167. Vessel and Regeneration System. Resin Arrangement options for the Softening WAC (H) sub-process 175
Figure 168. Vessel and Regeneration System. Resin Arrangement options for the Demineralization sub-process 176
Figure 169. Vessel and Regeneration System. Regeneration System selection for demineralization with [SAC] +
[WBA | SBA] Resin Arrangement 177
Figure 170. Vessel and Regeneration System. Degasification System selection 178
Figure 171. Resin Selection 179
Figure 172. Regeneration Conditions 180
Figure 173. Regeneration Conditions for Brackish Softening with a WAC (H/Na) 181
Figure 174. Advanced Regeneration Conditions 183
Figure 175. Equipment Settings 183
Figure 176. External regeneration equipment settings (option available for the IXMB and IXCP processes with
external regeneration) 184
Figure 177. Product Quality and Regeneration Dose Selection 185
Figure 178. Product Quality and Regeneration Dose Window 188
Figure 179. Existing Plant Description 190
Figure 180. Existing Plant Description. Height Warning 191
Figure 181. Final Parameters Adjustment Window 192
Figure 182. WAVE Summary Report and Detailed Report generation for IX 193
Figure 184. Re-evaluating the design at a different feed temperature 204
Figure 185. WAVE define recovery option 205
Figure 186. Export of Summary Report in WAVE as PDF 206
Figure 189. Stacked report in WAVE 207
Figure 190. Creating a new case using the Add Case button from the Home window 209
Figure 191. Creating a new case using the Case Manger – accessing the Case Manager 210
Figure 192. Creating a new case using the Case Manger Add Case button 210
Figure 193. New case creation and where the user is notified 211
Figure 194. Accessing the Case Management window 212
Figure 195. The Case Management window 212
Figure 196. Accessing cases through the Quick-Nav window – accessing Quick Nav 213
Figure 197. Accessing the Case Management window 213
Figure 198. Choosing the ‘Open Project’ 214
Figure 199. Selecting 'Show Cases'. 214
Figure 200. Display of cases in the 'Open Existing Projects' window. 215
Figure 201. Project saving in WAVE 217
Figure 202. Project export in WAVE 218

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Table of tables
Table 1. WAVE Water Types and Subtypes visible in UF. 33
Table 2. WAVE Water Types and Subtypes visible in RO/NF/ROSC. 34
Table 3. IX Initialization Window. IX Sub-process. 173

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1 General WAVE Features
The Water Application Value Engine (WAVE) is a new modeling software program that integrates three of the leading
technologies (ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis and ion exchange resin) into one comprehensive platform. The WAVE
software is used to design and simulate the operation of water treatment systems using the UF, RO, and IER component
technologies.
The following Introductory section includes description of the following general WAVE features:
1.1 Defining the User Information 10

1.2 Defining the Project Information 14
1.3 Currencies and Exchange Rates 15
1.4 Chemical Library 17
1.5 Operating Costs 21
1.6 Pump Efficiencies 23
1.7 Units of Measure 25
1.8 Specifying the System Feed and Product Flows 27
1.9 pH Adjustment of the Final Product 28
1.1 Defining the User Information

When starting a project in WAVE it is advisable to put in user information including name, company, customer etc. This
can be done as follows:
1. Click on “User Settings” in the top ribbon
Figure 1. Selection of User Settings to specify User Information

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2. Click on “User Info."
Figure 2. Selection of User Info button to specify User Information

3. Specify the User Information and click on ‘Save’
Figure 3. Specification of user information

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Note: The following fields are used to pre-populate the ‘Project Information’ window:
l First Name and Last name (these are combined to give the “Prepared by:” field)
l Company
l Country
l User Interface (UI) Language - Currently, the User Interface (UI) Language choices are English, Spanish,
Portuguese, and Chinese. The Report Language is the same as the UI language.
1.1.1 Defining the User Language
This can be done by the following steps:
Figure 4. Selection of User Settings to specify User Information

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2. Click on “User Info.
Figure 5. Selection of User Info button to specify User Information

3. Select a language from the lower right hand side and click on ‘Save’
Figure 6. Specifiying a language

Note: Currently, the User Interface (UI) Language choices are English, Spanish, Portuguese, and Chinese. The
Report Language is the same as the UI language.

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1.2 Defining the Project Information
When starting a project in WAVE it is advisable to put in project information including project name, date, description
etc. This can be done as follows:
2. Click on “Project Info.”
Figure 7. Selection of the Project Info button to specify Project Information

3. Specify the Project Information and click on ‘Save’
Figure 8. Specification of the Project Information

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Notes:
l The following fields are taken from the ‘User Information’ window: ‘Prepared by’, ‘Company’ and ‘Country’ by
default. The user can update them on the ‘project Information’ window.
l The ‘WAVE version’, ‘Database’, ‘Calc Engine’, ‘Date Created’ and ‘Date Last Revised’ are not user inputs.
l The number of cases is determined by the Case Manager. Users cannot update the number of cases at the
Project Information window.
l The Case Notes are displayed in the Case Manager and Quick Nav windows as well as the Detailed Report.
1.3 Currencies and Exchange Rates

WAVE allows the user to specify currencies for cost calculation. The steps involved are:
Figure 9. Selection of User Settings to specify Currencies and Exchange

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2. Click on “Currency”
Figure 10. Selection of Currency to specify Currencies and Exchange Rates

3. Select a currency and update the conversion rate to the USD. If necessary, make these values the default
values.
Figure 11. Specification of Currencies and Exchange Rates

4. Click “Save”

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Notes:
l The currency selected in the ‘Currency’ window will be used in subsequent cost calculations and in specifying
the Operating Cost.
l Users can add a new currency by clicking on “Add Currency” in the ‘Currency’ window.
1.4 Chemical Library

Multiple chemicals are used in WAVE to adjust pH, coagulate solids, clean UF modules, prevent scaling, regenerate ion
exchange resins etc. In WAVE, these chemicals can be common substances (e.g. NaOH, HCl) at various concentrations or
user defined chemicals. These chemicals can be defined as shown below:
1. Click on ‘User Settings’ in the top ribbon
Figure 12. Selection of User Settings to specify Chemicals

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2. Click on ‘Chemical Library’
Figure 13. Selection of the Chemical Library to specify Chemicals

3. Select which chemicals would appear in dropdown boxes and which chemicals are to be included in cost
calculations
Figure 14. Specification of Chemicals

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1.4.1 Adding a New Chemical
1. To add a new chemical, click on “Add Chemical”
Figure 15. Click on add chemical

2. Click on the “Chemical” dropdown arrow and select from the different categories ‘Antiscalant’, ‘Organic Acid’,
‘Coagulant’ and ‘Oxidant’ are generic categories while the rest of the categories refer to specific substances.
Figure 16. Selection of a chemical category

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3. Fill out information on the Chemical as shown in and click “Add Chemical”.
Figure 17. Specification of a new chemical
Notes:
l By default, WAVE uses chemical prices of $/kg. Users can also specify prices in $/lb, $/L and $/gal (when using
US currency) in the ‘Operating Costs’ window.
l The user can specify whether the chemical should be shown in dropdown lists and if it is to be included in cost
calculations in the “Add Chemical” window
l Added Chemicals can be removed from the Library by clicking on the red circles which appear next to the
added chemicals.

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1.5 Operating Costs
To calculate operating costs in WAVE, water purchase, wastewater disposal and electricity rates can be specified in the
‘Operating Costs’ window. The steps involved are:
Figure 18. Selection of User Settings to specify Operating Costs

2. Click on “Operating Costs”
Figure 19. Selection of the Operating Costs window

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3. Specify operating cost values and, if necessary, make them default values
Figure 20. Specification of Operating Costs.

4. Click “Save”.
Note: The information on this screen is project specific and the only chemicals shown are those that have been
selected within this project

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1.6 Pump Efficiencies
Mechanical and electrical efficiencies of the pumps and compressors used for UF, RO and IX can be specified in WAVE.
This is done as follows:
Figure 21. Selection of User Settings to specify Pump Efficiencies

2. Click on “Pumps”
Figure 22. Selection of the Pumps window

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3. Specify efficiency values and, if necessary, make them default values
Figure 23. Specification of Pump Efficiencies

4. Click “Save”.

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1.7 Units of Measure
The WAVE user can switch between different units of measure. The steps are:
1. Click on “Configuration” in the top ribbon
Figure 24. Selection of Configuration to specify Units of Measure

2. Switch units as needed by clicking on the radio buttons

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3. Click on the ¨More¨ button at the bottom right corner of the box to expand the list of units
Figure 25. Selection of Configuration to specify Units of Measure

4. Select the appropriate units and click “OK”.
Notes:
l Users can make the selection the new default by clicking on ¨Make These Units the New Default¨
l Users can switch between US and SI units by clicking on the radio buttons at the top

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1.8 Specifying the System Feed and Product Flows
Feed and product water flowrates can be specified using the text boxes in the middle of the blue arrows
Figure 26. Specification of feed flowrate in a system design

First, Feed or Permeate flow option should be selected using the radio button in the upper part of the arrow, later the
flowrate can be specified.
Notes:
l WAVE would display a warning if the Feed or Product flowrates are specified as 0 or a negative number.
l Given a feed water flowrate, WAVE would calculate a product flowrate based on a default recovery. Given a
product water flowrate, WAVE would calculate a feed flowrate based on a default recovery.

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l Users can define a preliminary recovery for each icon and thus define either the feed flowrate and recovery or
product flowrate and recovery (as shown in Figure 27).
Figure 27. Specification of preliminary recovery

l Detailed system design with a user defined recovery is currently only possible for RO and ROSC. For other
technologies recovery is known only after all the calculations are completed.
l WAVE does not allow simultaneous specification of the feed and product flowrates.
1.9 pH Adjustment of the Final Product

This involves adjustment of the pH of the Permeate. This feature, as described in Section1, is available to all three
technologies (UF, RO, IX). The steps are as follows (Figure 28):
1. Click on the Home Tab if you are in a different Tab or Window.
2. On the Configuration Ribbon, in the Water Chemistry Adjustments section, click on “Adjust Final pH”.
3. Click on the “pH” button.

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4. Specify the pH of interest then click “OK”.
Figure 28. Specification of RO/NF/ROSC System Pass Feed pH Adjustment
Notes:
l In WAVE, pH adjustment can be deactivated by choosing “pH” button a second time. The green dots would turn
gray.
l In WAVE, pH specifications are limited to between 0 and 14.
l The list of chemicals used for pH adjustment is defined by the user as described in Section 1.
l WAVE allows the simultaneous selection of “pH” without an intermediate degasification step. Thus the user is
urged to review the pH adjustment selections carefully.

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2 Specifying the Feed Water Composition
2.1 Defining the type of water
The Water Types and Subtypes used in WAVE are shown in the WAVE Water Types and Subtypes visible in UF. below. As
WAVE is a multi-technology platform, the same Water Types would be used for the UF, RO and IX. The Subtypes may be
named differently depending on the technology.
2.2 Specifying Water Types and Subtypes

The Water Types and Subtypes are used in WAVE to determine design guidelines. These water types and subtypes are
dependent on technology. In WAVE, there are two locations to specify Water Types.

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2.2.1 Specifying the Water Type in the Home Tab
The steps needed to specify the water Type in the Home Tab are given below and shown in Figure 29:
1. Select the “Home” tab
2. Select the appropriate Water Type from the dropdown menu.
3. Select the “Feed Water” Tab
Figure 29. Choosing the Feed Water Type in the Home Tab in WAVE

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2.2.2 Specifying the Water Type and Subtype in the Feed Water Tab
The steps needed to specify the water Type in the Feed Water Tab are given below.
1. Select the “Feed Water” tab
2. Select the appropriate Water Type from the dropdown menu.
3. Select the appropriate Water Subtype from the dropdown menu
Figure 30. Choosing the Feed Water Type and Subtype in the Feed Water Tab in WAVE
Notes:
l There is only one location to select Water subtypes in WAVE: the Feed Water Tab.
l In WAVE, the water type selected in the Home Tab is reflected in the Feed Water Tab. A Water Subtype (one
suggesting the most conservative design) is picked by WAVE by default. The user can change the water subtype
in the Feed Water Tab.
l Changing the Water Type in the Feed Water Tab would also automatically change the Water Type in the Home
Tab. However, changing the Water Type in the Feed Water Tab would not change the Water Subtype in the
same Tab.
l WAVE would allow the user to proceed to the Feed Water tab without selecting a water type for RO and ROSC. It
would not allow this for UF
l The choice of a water profile from the Water Profile Library does not necessarily correlate to the choice of an
appropriate design guideline. For instance, one can select a Seawater Profile from the Library but, after the
Water Profile is copied to the Feed Water Tab, the design guidelines do not change to Seawater guidelines

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Specifying the Water Type and Subtype for Ultrafiltration
For UF, the NTU Turbidity and TSS are key differentiators.
Table 1. WAVE Water Types and Subtypes visible in UF.

Source Water Turbidity (NTU) TSS (mg/L)
Well Water <2 <5
Softened / Municipal Water <2 <5
Surface Waters <2 <5
<5 < 10
5 - 15 < 20
15 - 50 < 30
50 - 75 < 50
Seawater <5 <5
< 10 < 20
< 20 < 40
Wastewater (Industrial, Secondary, Tertiary Effluent) < 3 <5
<5 < 10
5 – 10 < 20
10 – 20 < 30
< 30 < 40
Notes:
l RO permeate is not included as a Water Type because it is considered unlikely that RO permeate would need
UF treatment.
l Depending on the values introduced in the water characterization, WAVE already gives the water subtype
recommended.

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Defining RO/ROSC Design Guidelines, Water Types and Subtypes
DuPont Water Solutions provides design guidelines based on the element selected and the type of water fed to the
RO/ROSC system. These guidelines apply to:
l Recommended recovery for each element
l Maximum feed flow to each element
l Maximum permeate flow from each element
l Minimum concentrate flow from each element
These guideline values are aligned with specific feed water types; thus a choice of feed water type is effectively a
choice of which guideline to use.
The Water Types and Subtypes used in WAVE are shown in the Table 1 below. For RO/NF/ROSC, the SDI (silt deposition
index) is a key differentiator.
Table 2. WAVE Water Types and Subtypes visible in RO/NF/ROSC.

Source Water Subtype
RO/NF Permeate SDI <1
Softened With DUPONT™ UF, SDI < 2.5
SDI<3
Municipal With DUPONT™ UF, SDI < 2.5
SDI<3
SDI<5
Well water With DUPONT™ UF, SDI < 2.5
SDI<3
Surface Water With DUPONT™ UF, SDI < 2.5
SDI<3
SDI<5
Seawater With DUPONT™ UF, SDI < 2.5
With membrane pretreatment, SDI<3
With conventional pretreatment, SDI<5
Wastewater With DUPONT™ UF, SDI < 2.5
With membrane pretreatment, SDI<3
With conventional pretreatment, SDI<5
2.3 Defining the Feed Water Composition for UF

There are three ways to specify water compositions in WAVE for UF.
WAVE does not require a complete feed water composition to model UF. However, there are a few points to keep in
mind:
l If no ions are specified in the feed water composition, WAVE would ask for mineral acid and alkali doses for CEB
and CIP in mg/L. However, if the composition of even a few ions are specified, WAVE would request mineral
acid and alkali doses in terms of target pH values.
l If there are RO or IX processes downstream of the UF process, then WAVE would ask for a charge-balanced feed
water composition.

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2.3.1 Specification of Feed Water for UF design
The amount of each component can be specified as shown below.
The suggested order is:
1. From the Feed Water tab, select the water type.
2. Enter the solid content properties (NTU, TSS, SDI) and the organic content (TOC).
3. Enter the temperature values and pH.
4. Adjust the pH value using ¨Adjust pH¨ button
Figure 31. Entry of UF specific feed composition

Notes:
l WAVE limits the minimum temperature to 1°C and the maximum temperature in the Feed Water temperature
entry fields to 40°C for UF.
l WAVE does not have a correlation between the Turbidity, SDI and Total Suspended Solids (TSS) fields. The user is
expected to put in the correct values for each field.

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2.3.2 Quick Entry of NaCl concentration only
To enter a feed water stream containing only Na and Cl, the Quick Entry methods described below should be followed.
1. In the ‘Feed setup’ tab put an appropriate value of Total Dissolved Solids in the “mg/L NaCl“ field
2. Click on the “mg/L NaCl“ button. This populates Na and Cl entries
Figure 32. Quick entry of NaCl composition
Notes:
l The water composition entered through the Quick Entry method is always charge balanced.
l Using the Quick Entry method immediately clears the Cations, Anions and Neutrals tables.
l In WAVE, one can clear all the cells by putting in “0 mg/L” in the Quick Entry field.

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2.3.3 Detailed Ionic Content
The amount of each dissolved component can be specified. . The suggested order is:
1. From the Feed Water tab, select the water type.
2. Enter the solid content properties (NTU, TSS, SDI) and the organic content (TOC).
3. Enter the temperature values and pH.
4. Enter the cations, anions and neutrals.
Figure 33. Detailed entry of the ionic feed composition
Notes:
l WAVE limits the minimum temperature to 0°C and the maximum temperature to 100°C. Warnings will be
generated in the Feed Water temperature entry fields based on the water treatment options that were selected.
l Populating the HCO3/CO3 field automatically populates the HCO3/CO3/CO2 fields.
l The definition of TDS depends on the water treatment option. In RO, TDS refers to “Total Dissolved Solids” and
excludes dissolved CO2. In the IX modules, TDS refers to “Total Dissolved Solutes” and includes dissolved CO2.

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2.4 pH Specification
In WAVE, pH is defined as –log10 of the H + concentration (in mol/L). For a solution of fixed composition, the H +
concentration and thus the pH will be a function of the temperature due to the temperature dependence of
equilibrium constants. As an example, the ionization constant of water is a function of temperature, with pK values of
14.94, 14.00, and 13.26 at 0, 25, and 50 °C, respectively. This implies that the pH of pure water is 7.47, 7.00, and 6.63 at 0, 25,
and 50 °C, respectively. The equilibrium constants for carbonate alkalinity reactions
(H2CO3 ↔ HCO3- + H+ ↔ CO32- + 2H+)

and ammonia reactions
(NH3 + H+ ↔ NH4+)
are also functions of temperature. Thus the concentrations of all of these species will be a function of pH and
temperature.
In WAVE, when pH is given as an input, it is assumed that this corresponds to the H + concentration at the design
temperature. If the solution is charge balanced by adding solutes or adjusting solutes, the H + concentration at the design
temperature is fixed. Only if the solution is charged balanced by adjusting pH will the H + concentration at the design
temperature vary. After a solution is charge balanced, WAVE displays on the feed water screen the pH at both the
design temperature and at a standard temperature of 25 °C.
Once you have a charge balanced solution at the design temperature, if a computation is run at a different temperature
then WAVE will automatically determine the correct pH for that temperature and adjust the water chemistry
appropriately. This occurs when the user selects a computation temperature on the RO screen or the summary screen
other than the design temperature (for example, minimum or maximum).
In some cases the pH is known at one temperature, but the design is to be run at a substantially different temperature.
This commonly occurs in condensate polishing, where the pH at 25 °C is known but the system design temperature is
substantially higher. When this situation occurs, the following protocol is recommended to get the most accurate
results.
l Initially determine the water composition at the temperature where the pH is known.
o Enter the known pH.
o Enter the known pH temperature (25 °C) as the design temperature.
o Enter the remaining constituents of the feed water.
o Charge balance the solution using one of the Add Solutes or Adjust Solutes options.
l Determine the water composition at the design temperature

o Enter the actual design temperature
o Charge balance the solution using the Adjust pH option. The total moles of related species will be held
constant, but all of the equilibrium constants will be recomputed for the new temperature and then the
H + concentration and thus the pH will be adjusted to charge balance the solution.
As an example, assume that the pH of an ammonia solution is known to be 9.50 at 25 °C. Inputting those values and
using the Add Ammonia option gives a total NH 3/NH 4+ concentration of 1.615 mg/L as NH 4+. If a design temperature of
55 °C is entered, using the Adjust pH option will give a pH at that temperature of 8.65. Note that the pH at 25 °C is
correctly displayed as 9.50.

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Figure 34. pH entry

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2.5 Condensate Polishing Additional Parameters
In case of Condensate Polishing Feed Water tab allows to include additional parameters specific for this technology as
Amines and CRUD: pH Control anions, 1,2-diaminoethane, 2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol, 3-methoxypropylamine, 5-
aminopentanol, ammonia, cyclohexylamine, ethanolamine, morpholine.
Figure 35. Detailed entry of the condensate polishing additional parameters

Note:
l The Condensate Polishing Popup window will automatically estimate the Total Amine content in the feed water.
2.6 Balancing the Feed Water

In WAVE, the feed water must be charge balanced before the user is allowed to either simulate or specify the system
design. There are several paths for charge balancing the feed water:
2.6.1 Charge Balancing by Addition of Specific Solutes
In WAVE, one can perform charge balancing by adding the following ions
l Cations: Sodium, Calcium, Ammonia
l Anions: Chloride, Sulfate
Depending on whether the specified water has a net positive (requires anions) or negative (requires cations) charge,
WAVE would display buttons to add the appropriate ions (Figure 36 and Figure 37). The user should click on the
appropriate button. The Charge Balance value will drop to a very small number.

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Figure 36. Charge balancing a stream by adding cations
Figure 37. Charge balancing a stream by adding anions

Notes:
l Charge balancing with addition of solutes does not affect the ammonia equilibrium
l The buttons used for Charge Balancing (Adjust pH, Adjust Solutes, Add Solutes) would be grayed out under most
circumstances. However, after several attempts, the buttons are still not greyed out, it means that WAVE is as
close to charge balance as possible. Users can then proceed with the design.
l This method is the simplest charge balance method and is commonly used.

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2.6.2 Charge Balancing by Adjustment of Solute Compositions
Another method to balance the feed charge in WAVE is by adjusting solutes. This would involve proportional
adjustment of cations, anions or both. Three options are given in WAVE:
1. Cations: NH4, K, Na, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba
2. Anions: CO3, HCO3, NO3, Cl, F, SO4
3. Both (Cations and Anions)
As shown, the user can pick the appropriate option.
Figure 38. Charge balancing in WAVE by adjusting solutes

Notes:
l Charge balancing with addition of solutes does not affect the pH
l The carbonate equilibrium is affected by “Adjust Anions” and “Adjust All Ions” options.
l The ammonium equilibrium may be affected by “Adjust Cations” and “Adjust All Ions” options.
l The buttons used for Charge Balancing (Adjust pH, Adjust Solutes, Add Solutes) would be grayed out under most
circumstances. However, after several attempts, the buttons are still not greyed out, it means that WAVE is as
close to charge balance as possible. Users can then proceed with the design.

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2.6.3 Charge Balancing the CO2/HCO3/CO3 composition for a given feed pH
The WAVE calculation engine would determine the equilibrium CO 3/CO 2 composition given a feed pH using proprietary
equations. Thus the composition of the three species can be adjusted to achieve charge balance. The user can click on
“Adjust total CO 2/ HCO 3/CO 3” as shown.
Figure 39. Balancing the CO 2/HCO 3/CO 3 composition for a given feed pH
Notes:
l WAVE automatically calculates the equilibrium CO 2/HCO 3/CO 3 composition given either the HCO 3 or CO 3
l The carbonate equilibrium in the feed water is affected by pH, temperature and TDS. Thus if the user changes
the amount of other ions by a large extent, the carbonate equilibrium will be affected.

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2.6.4 Charge Balancing by Adjusting the pH
The specific composition of several species (e.g. carbonates, ammonia) is affected by pH. Thus by adjusting pH, users
can charge balance the water. This is done in WAVE by clicking on the “Adjust pH” button as shown below.
Figure 40. Charge balance by adjusting pH

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2.7 Import from the Water Library
If a water profile is available in the Water Library, then it can be copied to the Feed Water Tab using the following steps:
1. From the Feed Water tab, click on “Open Water Library” and click on the dropdown list.
Figure 41. Accessing the Water Library from the Feed Water tab and opening the
dropdown for water profiles
2. Select a water profile from the drop down list and click on “Copy to Feed Water”
Figure 42. Accessing the dropdown for water profiles

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3. The water profile is now copied over to the Feed Water Tab.
Figure 43. Transferring the water profile to the Feed Water screen

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2.8 Chemical Addition and pH Adjustment to the UF feed
WAVE enables the following modifications (from what was entered in the Feed Water Tab) to the UF feed stream:
2.8.1 pH Adjustment of UF Feed
This is done by following the steps below:
1. Click on the “Add Chemicals/Degas” button. The Chemical Adjustment Popup Window will appear).
Figure 44. Opening ¨Chemical Adjustment¨ window

2. Click on the “pH” button to enable pH reduction. An acid addition line (named “ACID”) would automatically
appear in the UF System Diagram and an additional column (named “After pH”) would appear in the table
inside the Chemical Adjustment Popup Window.Figure 47. Feed pH specification for UF
3. Click on the dropdown arrow and select an acid. The selected acid, along with its concentration in the ACID
stream, would be shown in the UF System Diagram.
4. Specify a pH. The values in the “After pH” column in the in the table inside the Chemical Adjustment Popup
Window would be updated. In addition, the concentration of the acid in the UF stream needed to achieve the
specified pH is displayed in the UF System diagram.

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5. Click “OK”.
Figure 45. Feed pH specification for UF

6. The tool allows also adding Oxidant and Coagulant.
Note: The acid is selected from the list of chemicals defined by the user as shown in Sections Chemical Library and
Adding a New Chemical.

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2.8.2 Temperature Adjustment of Feed
1. Click on the “Add Chemicals/Degas” button to get the Chemical Adjustment Popup Window.
2. Click on the dropdown box in the Temperature Specification Box. The following options appear: Minimum,
Design, Maximum and Specify
3. Select “Specify” and enter the temperature of interest.
4. Click “OK”.
Figure 46. Specification of feed temperature for UF in WAVE
2.8.3 Oxidant Addition to the UF Feed
1. Click on the “Add Chemicals/Degas” button. The Chemical Adjustment Popup Window will appear.
2. Click on the “Oxidant” button to enable oxidant addition. An oxidant addition line (named “OXIDANT”) would
automatically appear in the UF System Diagram.
3. Click on the dropdown arrow and select an oxidant. The selected oxidant, along with its concentration in the
OXIDANT stream, would be shown in the UF System Diagram.
4. Specify the target concentration of the oxidant in the UF feed stream. The target concentration of the oxidant
in the UF stream is displayed in the UF System diagram.

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5. Click “OK”.
Figure 47. Specification of Oxidant addition for UF in WAVE
Notes:
l The oxidant is selected from the list of chemicals defined by the user as shown in Sections Chemical Library and
Adding a New Chemical.
l The user can add a coagulant from any of the UF windows by clicking on the “Add Chemical/Degas” option.

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2.8.4 Coagulant Addition to the UF Feed
This is done by following the steps (as shown in Figure 48):
1. Click on the “Add Chemicals/Degas” button. The Chemical Adjustment Popup Window will appear.
2. Click on the “Coagulant” button to enable oxidant addition. A coagulant addition line (named “COAGULANT”)
would automatically appear in the UF System Diagram.
3. Click on the dropdown arrow and select a coagulant. The selected coagulant, along with its
concentration in the COAGULANT stream, would be shown in the UF System Diagram.
4. Specify the target concentration of the coagulant in the UF feed stream. The target concentration of the
coagulant in the UF stream is displayed in the UF System diagram.
5. Click “OK”.
Figure 48. Specification of Coagulant addition for UF in WAVE
Notes:
l The coagulant is selected from the list defined by the user as shown in Sections Chemical Library and Adding a
New Chemical.
l The user can add a coagulant from any of the UF windows by clicking on the “Add Chemical/Degas” option.

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2.9 Mixing Feed Streams
By default, WAVE always defines a feed stream (“Stream 1”) regardless of whether or not a process was selected.
However, WAVE provides a possibility for generating a stream combined from several streams.
2.9.1 Adding a Stream
To add another stream in WAVE:
1. From the Feed Water tab, click on “Add Stream”.
Figure 49. Adding a stream from a different water source

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2. Specify the fraction (s) of the two (or more) feed streams which would be blended. The sum of the fractions
should always sum up to 100 %.
Figure 50. Blending feed water streams in WAVE

3. Click on “Blended Composite”
Notes:
l By default a new feed stream is not blended with the pre-existing feed stream. While “Stream 2” is selected, the
user can specify its composition or open the Water Library to load the water.
l As soon as the ‘Blended Composite’ button is clicked, the combined water type is labeled ‘Blended Water’.
WAVE would mix the appropriate ionic content, solid content, TOC content and also estimate the pH and
temperature.

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2.9.2 Removing Feed Streams
To remove streams, the user would click on Red icon. The stream will disappear.
Figure 51. Deleting a stream in WAVE

Notes:
l When a stream is deleted (when there are more than two streams), the fractions of the remaining streams would
not be recalculated automatically. The user would have to recalculate the fractions.
l When a stream is deleted, the combined stream is no longer named ‘Composite’.

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3 Ultrafiltration
3.1 UF System Specification in WAVE 55
3.2 ULTRAFILTRATION - FINAL CALCULATION AND REPORT GENERATION 105
3.1 UF System Specification in WAVE

The Ultrafiltration system design in WAVE is a powerful tool that allows sizing of new systems or evaluating the
performance of existing ones. In order to design a new Ultrafiltration system it is important to understand the main
inputs needed to help get an accurate and optimized design. These inputs include information about the feed water
source (e.g., municipal, seawater, wastewater, well water or surface water), quality, temperature range and required feed
flow or net plant output. On the other hand, the final application of the project is of interest, as in the case of drinking
water applications, specific DUPONT™ UF modules must be used.
For a given feed water type and quality, the appropriate design guidelines must be applied. These design guidelines
have been created based on extensive experiences and references in similar waters. The design guidelines include
suitable operating flux, duration of the filtration cycles or frequency of the chemical cleanings.
Once all this information is introduced in the system design software, it will populate a detailed Ultrafiltration System
Design report, which includes a general process flow diagram, module selection, sizing and quantity of trains, sizing of
water and chemical tanks, process parameters and sequence tables, as well as estimations for chemical and energy
consumption, among others.
UF system specification includes the following steps:
3.1.1 Adding the UF Icon into the WAVE Home Window
The UF Symbol can be dragged and dropped on top of the gray spot to specify a UF process as shown in. If the gray spot
is not visible, simply dragging the UF icon between the two large blue arrows will make the gray spot visible.
Figure 52. Dragging and dropping UF icon

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3.1.2 Removing the UF Icon
There are two ways to remove the UF process icon:
1. Dragging and dropping the icons into the picture of the waste bin
Figure 53. Dragging and dropping the icons into the picture of the waste bin
2. Right-clicking on the icon in question and selecting “Delete“
Figure 54. Right-clicking on the icon in question and selecting ¨Delete¨

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3.1.3 Defining the Feed Water Flowrate and Recovery
Feed and Product water flowrates should be specified using the text boxes in the middle of the blue arrows. First, Feed
or Permeate flow option should be selected using the radio button in the upper part of the arrow, later the flowrate can
be specified.
Figure 55. Definition of feed or product flow for a UF system

Notes:
l WAVE would display a warning if the Feed or Product flowrates are specified as 0 or a negative number
product water flowrate, WAVE would calculate a feed flowrate based on a default recovery. For UF, a default
recovery of 95% is used.

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WAVE does give the user the possibility of defining a recovery that defines feed/product flow if product/feed flow is
known. This is done by:
1. Right-clicking on the UF icon
2. Selecting “Define Recovery”
3. Entering the desired recovery
Figure 56. Definition of recovery for a UF system in the Home page
The default recovery value for UF systems is 95% in WAVE. The recovery defined above is a system recovery and is
used– currently based on UF configuration and strainer recovery
3.1.4 Specifying Feed Water Properties
The way to specify the feed water characteristics is described in detail on Section Specification of Feed Water for UF
design.

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3.1.5 Defining the System Design
Fundamental UF System Design information can be specified on ¨Design¨ window.
Figure 57. UF Plant Design window
UF Feed Flow Rate

The feed flowrate to the UF is specified by the user at the Home Tab as indicated in Section Defining the Feed Water
Flowrate and Recovery.

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UF Module Selection
The UF module of interest can be selected from the Design Window. Once the module is selected, the table of
Recommended Configurations would be updated.
Drinking water modules are included in the list once the ¨Include drinking water modules¨ box is checked.
Figure 58. How to select a UF module type

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IntegraPac™ Ultrafiltration Skids
A subset of the DW&PS product offerings are the IntegraPac™ products. Sliders depicting the minimum and maximum
Skid Sizes would be displayed on the Recommended Configurations table that can be found in the ¨Configuration¨ tab.
Figure 59. IntegraPac™ sliders in WAVE

Note: WAVE may allow the user to set the Min IntegraPac™ Ultrafiltration Skid Size Limit to be larger than the
Maximum IntegraPac™ Skid Size Limit; however, the Recommended Configurations Table would be empty.
If the user enters a number of modules per skid higher than the maximum IntegraPac™ skid size limit (22), a warning
message will appear.
Figure 60. Warning message if the number of IntegraPac™ modules is exceeded

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UF Fluxes and Flowrates
WAVE allows the user to set the following values using text entry boxes.
1. Filtrate flux
2. Backwash flux
3. CEB flux
4. Forward Flush flowrate
5. Airflow
6. CIP Recycle flow rate
Figure 61. UF Fluxes and Flowrates
Note: WAVE populates the flow rates and fluxes by default based on DuPont Ultrafiltration – General Design
Guidelines.

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Design Cycle Intervals and Membrane Integrity Testing
WAVE allows the user to set the cycle intervals for each mode in UF using the number
entry boxes.
1. Filtration Duration – span before interruptions
2. Air scour – span between each successive incidence
3. Acid CEB– span between each successive incidence
4. Alkali/Oxidant CEB– span between each successive incidence
5. CIP– span between each successive incidence
6. Membrane integrity testing
Figure 62. UF Cycle intervals
Note: WAVE populates the cycle intervals by default (based on DUPONT™ Ultrafiltration – General Design Guidelines)
and includes limits on the values that can be input by the user.
Membrane Integrity Testing

The integrity of membranes (made into fibers) is periodically tested in most UF systems. While the test itself involves
little water (mostly compressed air), the time taken during the test would affect the timing of all the other modes in UF.
For that reason it is considered in WAVE. It is possible in WAVE to specify if Membrane Integrity Testing is to be
considered and if so, its duration for each train.
Note: By default, WAVE assumes that Membrane Integrity Testing is not considered when looking at the timing of UF
modes of operation.

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Specifying the Filtration TMP Increase between Processes for UF
WAVE makes possible the specification of increases of pressure drop across the UF membrane (trans membrane
pressure or TMP) between successive Backwash, Acid/Alkali CEB and CIP steps per hour.
It will help to estimate the energy needed for ultrafiltration by taking into account solid accumulation/fouling of the UF
membrane during use. By using the appropriate rates of TMP increase and Backwash/CEB/CIP frequencies, one can
incorporate the effect of deteriorating membrane performance between cleanings.
The TMP increase between processes can be accessed as shown.
Figure 63. The Filtration Specification Window in WAVE for UF modeling

Notes:
l WAVE sets the values for transmembrane pressure drop (TMP) increase with time to zero by default. The user is
urged to use an appropriate value based on data and experience.
l The UF System Diagram is displayed automatically in the Filtration Window and is updated based on the
changes made in other Windows.

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Specifying the Strainer Size and Recovery
WAVE makes possible the specification of Strainer size and recovery (pretreatment for UF). The Strainer Specification
can be accessed as shown.
Figure 64. UF Strainer Specification

Note: The Strainer Recovery is set to 99.5% by default in WAVE. A change in the Strainer Recovery would be
automatically reflected in the filtrate flowrate. However, the rest of the system design is not directly affected.

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3.1.6 Defining the System Configuration
The next window is for definition of the UF Plant Configuration (Figure 65).
Figure 65. UF Configuration window

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Recommended Configurations
The recommended Configurations table is populated based on the flux, cycle duration and module selection (and
DUPONT™ Ultrafiltration – General Design Guidelines).
Figure 66. Recommended Configuration Table in UF for non-IntegraPac™

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It describes the system design as shown below. Modules/Skid and Skids/Train options can be edited for IntegraPac™
systems.
Figure 67. Configuration Table in UF for IntegraPac™

Design options that include the number of Modules/Skid and Skids/Train are supplied by WAVE for IntegraPac™
systems.
Note: By default, WAVE calculated the number of modules per train based on the flux and duration recommendations.

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Choosing a Configuration
There are two ways to choose a UF system configuration:
1. Double clicking on one of the rows in the Recommended Configurations Table
2. Directly specifying the number of online trains, BW/CEB standby, CIP standby trains, modules per train, skids
per train (IntegraPac™), modules per skid (IntegraPac™) in the respective input fields in the Configuration
Window in the Ultrafiltration Tab as shown below.
Figure 68. Direct specification of the UF system configuration in the WAVE Configuration
Window.
Notes:
l By default, WAVE assumes 1 online train with zero standby trains and 1 module per train to start the computation.
For IntegraPac™ systems, WAVE assumes by default 1 skid per train
l The Recommended Configurations Table appears in the Configuration Window. The user can choose a specific
configuration by double-clicking on a row in the Table.
l WAVE highlights the selected configuration in the Selected Configuration table in the Configuration Window
but it does not highlights the selection in the Recommended Table. The user is urged to check the entries in
the Selected Configuration section of the Configuration Window (as shown above) to ensure that the right
configuration is specified.

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Specifying Other Design Options
In addition to flowrates, fluxes, UF mode durations and system configurations, there are additional design options that
can be specified in WAVE (Figure 69 and Figure 70). These options, which affect the size and number of storage tanks,
include:
1. Standby Options
2. Storage Tank Options
Figure 69. Additional UF system design inputs in WAVE (operating mode)
Standby Options
There are two Standby Options:
1. Constant system output, variable operating flux
2. Constant operating flux, variable system output

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Storage Tank Options
WAVE automatically selects Storage Tank Option once the Standby Option is selected. There are two options:
1. BW only: There is no storage tank for the filtrate to ensure constant flow to downstream processes. This might
require additional standby modules. Some of the filtrate is siphoned off to be stored for Backwash purposes.
2. BW + filtration: There is a storage tank for the filtrate to ensure constant flow to downstream processes. This
might require fewer standby modules. Some of the filtrate is siphoned off to be stored for Backwash purposes.
Figure 70. Selection of the Standby option for UF modeling in WAVE
The UF Process Flow Diagram

Based on the information provided in the Design and Configuration Windows, WAVE generated the UF process flow
diagram as shown in Figure 71. It is shown interchangeably with the Recommended Configurations Table. One can
generate the UF System Diagram by clicking on the “Show UF System Diagram” button as shown in Figure 71. The user
can restore the Recommended Configurations Table by clicking on the “Show Recommended Configurations” button as
shown in Figure 71.
As shown in in Figure 71, The UF System Diagram displays:
1. Flowrates (feed, product, Backwash, CIP, air scour, chemicals)
2. Feed water composition (TSS, TOC, NTU, SDI)
3. Number of skids and modules
4. UF module type
5. UF system recovery and strainer recovery
6. Tank sizes (Backwash or Backwash + filtrate, CIP)

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Figure 71. Generating the UF System Diagram restoring the Recommended
Configurations Table
Notes:
l Specifications in the Configuration or Design Windows.
l The UF System Diagram can be generated from the Design Window as well as the Configuration Window using
the same procedure.
l There would be a CIP Tank even though there may not be a CIP (standby) train.
l When the Backwash (BW), CEB and CIP steps are specified, there would be changes to the UF System Flow
Diagram. These are discussed in more detail in upcoming sections.

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3.1.7 UF System Operation Details
WAVE can technically model a UF system given only the system configuration information given in the two subsections
above (with all other required information supplied by default). However, it is possible to define the different modes of
operation of a UF system (Backwash, CEB, CIP) in more detail in WAVE. The windows for specifying the above are
revealed for use by clicking on the “More” button as shown in Figure 72. They can be hidden again using the “Less”
button as shown in Figure 72.
Figure 72. Further options to specify a UF system in WAVE
Specifying the Backwash Mode for UF

Backwash (BW) Mode specification includes the following options:
1. Backwash Temperature
2. Backwash Durations
3. Backwash and Forward Flush Water Sources
4. Oxidant Selection and Dose Specification

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Backwash Temperature
WAVE uses the design temperature (specified in the Feed Water Tab) by default (Figure 73).
Figure 73. Backwash temperature using the design temperature
Backwash Durations
WAVE populates the durations of the multiple steps within the Backwash mode; Air Scour, Drain, Top and Bottom
Backwash, Forward Flush by default based on the feed water type and subtype. However, users can also specify their
own duration values as shown in Figure 74.
Figure 74. Backwash durations

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Notes:
l Currently the effect of different temperatures on the system design (by affecting density/feed pressure) is not
included in WAVE.
l Changes to the Top or Bottom Backwash durations would affect the operating flux and would be reflected
automatically in the UF System Diagram.
l The WAVE user can specify the Backwash Flux and how far apart the Backwashes are in the Design Window. By
modifying the Top and Bottom Backwash durations, the user can effectively modify the amount of water used
for Backwash. This would be reflected in the UF system recovery.
l Modifying the Air Scour and Drain durations would affect the Operating Flux, as these would affect the timing of
the UF system.
l Modifying the duration of Forward Flush, with flowrate specified in the Design Window and source specified in
the Backwash Window, affects the Operating Flux and System Recovery.
l If the user elects to make the CEB durations the same as Backwash durations (as would be discussed in a later
section), the effects of changes in Backwash durations, duplicated in CEB durations, would be magnified.
Backwash and Forward Flush Water Sources

A WAVE user can choose between the following options for backwash water source:
l UF filtrate (product of the UF system being designed in WAVE)
l Pretreated water (water that was passed through the Strainer but not the UF modules)
A WAVE user can choose between the same options for Forward Flush water source. The choice can be made as shown
in Figure 75.
Figure 75. Backwash and Forward Flush water type selection

Note: The effect of choosing different options for Backwash and Forward Flush would be seen after WAVE completes
the UF calculations.

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Oxidant Selection and Dose Specification
WAVE allows for the addition of an oxidant for more effective cleaning of the UF module during Backwash. This is
separate from the use of an oxidant during CEB. An oxidant can be selected and its dose in the Backwash stream
specified by following the steps below (Figure 76)
1. Click on the “Oxidant” button to activate it. The grey area would turn green. In addition a line feeding Oxidant
to the Backwash line (named BW Oxidant) would appear in the UF System Diagram.
2. Click on the dropdown arrow.
3. Select the oxidant chemical of interest. The name of the chemical and its concentration in BW Oxidant stream
would be displayed in the UF System Diagram.
4. Specify the target oxidant concentration in the Backwash stream. The target oxidant concentration in the
Backwash stream would appear in the UF System Diagram.
5. Click over or tab to move elsewhere in the Backwash Window.
Figure 76. Specification of an oxidant for Backwash (a) Activating the Oxidant option (b)
Selecting the Oxidant (c) Specifying the oxidant target concentration in the Backwash
stream
Notes:
l The list of oxidants is defined by the user as described in Sections Chemical Library and Adding a New Chemical.
l In WAVE, NaOCl would appear as the oxidant chemical by default.
l Clicking on the “Oxidant” button a second time would deactivate the input cell and remove the BW Oxidant line
from the UF System Diagram. Setting the target concentration to zero would not remove the BW Oxidant line
from the UF System Diagram.

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Specifying the Chemically Enhanced Backwash (CEB) Mode for UF
This is similar to the specifying the Backwash Mode.
1. CEB Temperature
2. CEB Durations
3. CEB Mineral Acid Selection and Dose Specification
4. CEB Organic Acid Selection and Dose Specification
5. CEB Alkali Selection and Dose Specification
6. CEB Oxidant Selection and Dose Specification
CEB Temperature
WAVE uses the design temperature (specified in the Feed Water Tab) by default for CEB (Figure 77).
Figure 77. UF CEB specification in WAVE, with default temperature highlighted

Note: Currently the effect of different CEB temperatures on the system design (by affecting density/feed pressure) is
not included in WAVE.

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CEB Durations
WAVE populates the durations of the multiple steps within the CEB mode; Air Scour, Drain, Top and Bottom Backwash,
Forward Flush by default based on the feed water type and subtype. However, users can also specify their own duration
values as shown in Figure 78.
Figure 78. UF CEB durations specification in WAVE

Notes:
l Once the CEB durations are specified to be the same as Backwash durations, any changes in Backwash durations
are automatically reflected in CEB durations.
l Changes to the Top or Bottom Backwash durations would affect the operating flux and would be reflected
automatically in the UF System Diagram.
l The WAVE user can specify the CEB Flux and how far apart the CEBs are in the Design Window. By modifying the
Top and Bottom Backwash durations, the user can effectively modify the amount of water used for Backwash.
This would be reflected in the UF system recovery.
l Modifying the Air Scour and Drain durations for CEB would affect the Operating Flux, as these would affect the
timing of the UF system.
l Modifying the duration of Forward Flush, with flowrate specified in the Design Window and source specified in
the Backwash Window, affects the Operating Flux and System Recovery.

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CEB Mineral Acid Selection and Dose Specification
WAVE allows for the addition of a mineral (i.e. inorganic) acid for CEB. This is done by following the steps below (Figure
79):
1. Click on the “Mineral Acid” button to activate it. The grey area would turn green. In addition a line feeding CEB
Acid to the Backwash line (named CEB Acid) would appear in the UF System Diagram.
3. Select the mineral acid of interest. The name of the chemical and its concentration in CEB Acid stream would
be displayed in the UF System Diagram.
4. Specify the target pH for pH reduction in the CEB stream (if the ionic composition of the feed water is
available) or target mineral acid concentration in the CEB stream. The target mineral acid concentration in the
CEB stream would appear in the UF System Diagram.
5. Click over or tab to move elsewhere in the CEB Window.
Specification of a Mineral Acid for CEB (a) Activating the Mineral Acid option (b) Selecting the Mineral Acid (c)
Specifying the target pH or concentration in the CEB stream
Figure 79. Specification of a Mineral Acid for CEB (a) Activating the Mineral Acid option (b)
Selecting the Mineral Acid (c) Specifying the target pH or concentration in the CEB stream

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LSI and S&DI Entry during Acid Addition in CEB
If ionic composition is not defined on the feedwater screen, the LSI cell will be blank. Otherwise, if ionic composition is
defined, the LSI cell as a pH value is specified (Figure 80). The LSI (Langelier Saturation Index) is an indicator used to
determine the need for calcium carbonate scale control. This is important in UF because UF is usually a pretreatment for
RO feed. The LSI is applicable for water streams containing up to 10,000 mg/L of total dissolved solids. For water streams
containing greater than 10,000 mg/L of total dissolved solids, the Stiff & Davis Stability Index (S&DI) is preferredFigure 82).
Changes in Mineral Acid input in CEB with no Ionic Composition
Figure 80. Changes in Mineral Acid input in CEB with no Ionic Composition

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Changes in Mineral Acid input in CIP with feed TDS < 10,000 mg/L
Figure 81. Changes in Mineral Acid input in CIP with feed TDS < 10,000 mg/L
Changes in Mineral Acid input in CIP with feed TDS > 10,000 mg/L
Changes in Alkali input in CIP with feed TDS > 10,000 mg/L

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Notes:
l The list of mineral acids is defined by the user as described in Sections Chemical Library and Adding a New
Chemical.
l The target pH in the CEB stream for pH reduction (if the ionic composition of the feed water is available) or
target mineral acid concentration in the CEB stream interconvert automatically, i.e. if the user initially did not
have ionic composition data and entered target mineral acid concentration, but later enters some ionic
composition data, the target mineral acid concentration is converted to a corresponding pH and vice versa.
l If the “Mineral Acid” button is activated, WAVE would require selection of a mineral acid and a corresponding
pH/target concentration.
l Clicking on the “Mineral Acid” button a second time would deactivate the input cell and remove the CEB Acid
line from the UF System Diagram. Setting the target concentration to zero would not remove the CEB Acid line
CEB Organic Acid Selection and Dose Specification

WAVE allows for the addition of an organic acid for CEB. This is done by following the steps below (Figure 83):
1. Click on the “Organic Acid” button to activate it. The grey area would turn green. In addition a line feeding CEB
Organic Acid to the Backwash line (named CEB Organic Acid) would appear in the UF System Diagram.
3. Select the organic acid of interest. The name of the chemical and its concentration in CEB Organic Acid stream
would be displayed in the UF System Diagram.
4. Specify the target organic acid concentration in the CEB stream. The target mineral acid concentration in the
CEB stream would appear in the UF System Diagram.
Figure 83. Specification of an Organic Acid for CEB: Activating the Organic Acid option;
Selecting the Organic Acid and Specifying the target concentration in the CEB stream

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Notes:
l The list of organic acids is defined by the user as described in Sections Chemical Library and Adding a New
Chemical.
l If the “Organic Acid” button is activated, WAVE would require selection of an organic acid and a corresponding
target concentration.
l Clicking on the “Organic Acid” button a second time would deactivate the input cell and remove the CEB
Organic Acid line from the UF System Diagram. Setting the target concentration to zero would not remove the
CEB Organic Acid line from the UF System Diagram.
CEB Alkali Selection and Dose Specification

WAVE allows for the addition of an alkali for CEB. This is done by following the steps below (Figure 84):
1. Click on the “Alkali” button to activate it. The grey area would turn green. In addition a line feeding CEB Alkali
to the Backwash line (named CEB Alkali) would appear in the UF System Diagram.
3. Select the alkali of interest. The name of the chemical and its concentration in CEB Alkali stream would be
displayed in the UF System Diagram.
4. Specify the target alkali concentration in the CEB stream. The target alkali concentration in the CEB stream
would appear in the UF System Diagram.
Figure 84. Specification of a Alkali for CEB (a) Activating the Alkali option (b) Selecting the Alkali
concentration (c) Specifying the target pH in the CEB stream

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LSI and S&DI Entry during Alkali Addition in CEB
One can note the appearance of the LSI cell as a pH value is specified (note the difference between Figure 85 and
Figure 86). The LSI is applicable for water streams containing up to 10,000 mg/L of total dissolved solids (Figure 86). For
water streams containing greater than 10,000 mg/L of total dissolved solids, the S&DI is preferred (as seen in Figure 88).
CEB Water quality in Alkali input in CEB with feed with no ionic composition
Figure 85. CEB Water quality in Alkali input in CEB with feed with no ionic composition
Changes in Alkali input in CEB with feed TDS < 10.000 mg/L
Figure 86. Changes in Alkali input in CEB with feed TDS < 10.000 mg/L

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Changes in Alkali input in CIP with feed TDS > 10,000 mg/L
Figure 87. Changes in Alkali input in CIP with feed TDS > 10,000 mg/L
Notes:
l The list of alkali chemicals is defined by the user as described in Sections Chemical Library and Adding a New
Chemical.
l The target pH in the CEB stream for pH reduction (if the ionic composition of the feed water is available) or
target alkali concentration in the CEB stream interconvert automatically, i.e. if the user initially did not have ionic
composition data and entered target alkali concentration, but later enters some ionic composition data, the
target alkali concentration is converted to a corresponding pH and vice versa.
l If the “Alkali” button is activated, WAVE would require selection of an alkali and a corresponding pH/target
concentration.
l Clicking on the “Alkali” button a second time would deactivate the input cell and remove the CEB Alkali from the
UF System Diagram. Setting the target concentration to zero would not remove the CEB Alkali line from the UF
System Diagram. (c)
CEB Oxidant Selection and Dose Specification

WAVE allows for the addition of an oxidant for CEB. This is done by following the steps below (Figure 88):
1. Click on the “Oxidant” button to activate it. The grey area would turn green. In addition a line feeding CEB
oxidant to the Backwash line (named CEB Oxidant) would appear in the UF System Diagram.
3. Select the oxidant of interest. The name of the oxidant chemical and its concentration in the CEB Oxidant
stream would be displayed in the UF System Diagram.
4. Specify the target oxidant concentration in the CEB stream. The target oxidant concentration in the CEB
stream would appear in the UF System Diagram.

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Figure 88. Specification of an Oxidant for CEB (a) Activating the Oxidant option (b) Selecting the
Oxidant (c) Specifying the target pH or concentration in the CEB stream
Notes:
l The list of Oxidants is defined by the user as described in Sections Chemical Library and Adding a New
Chemical.
l If the “Oxidant” button is activated, WAVE would require selection of an oxidant and a corresponding target
concentration.
l Clicking on the “Oxidant” button a second time would deactivate the input cell and remove the CEB Oxidant line
from the UF System Diagram. Setting the target concentration to zero would not remove the CEB Oxidant line
Specifying the Clean-In-Place (CIP) Mode for UF

This is similar to the specifying the Backwash and CEB Modes.
1. Number of Backwash (BW) steps within a CIP
2. CIP Source Water
3. CIP Recycle Flowrate
4. CIP Temperature
5. CIP Durations
6. CIP Mineral Acid Selection and Dose Specification
7. CIP Organic Acid Selection and Dose Specification
8. CIP Alkali Selection and Dose Specification
9. CIP Oxidant Selection and Dose Specification

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Number of Backwash (BW) steps within a CIP
The most thorough cleaning for a UF module requires the clean in place (CIP) process. The unit operations of a CIP
involve:
1. An initial Backwash sequence
2. Soak and Backwash for each chemical used
3. The number of Backwashes for the CIP can be specified as shown in .
Figure 89. The CIP specification window for UF modeling in WAVE

Note: By default, WAVE includes 2 backwashes within a CIP

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CIP Source Water
A WAVE user can choose between the following options for CIP water source:
l UF filtrate (product of the UF system being designed in WAVE)
l Pretreated water (water that was passed through the Strainer but not the UF modules)
The choice can be made as shown in Figure 90.
Figure 90. The CIP Water Type specification window for UF modeling in WAVE
Notes:
l The effect of choosing different options for Backwash and Forward Flush would be seen after WAVE completes
the UF calculations.
l The default source water for CIP is UF Filtrate.

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CIP Recycle Flowrate
CIP chemicals are circulated (recycled) through the UF fibers and housing to clean the system. This flowrate can be
specified in the ¨Design¨ window as shown in Figure 92. From the recycle flow rate and duration, the user can calculate
the volume of CIP chemicals needed per module.
Figure 91. The CIP Recycle Flow Rate modification

Notes:
l 2 m3/h/module is used as the default CIP recycle flowrate in WAVE. It is limited between 1 and 4.
l The effect of changing the CIP recycle flowrate is seen after WAVE models the UF system.

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CIP Temperature
The CIP solution can be heated to improve its effectiveness at removing contaminants from the UF membrane. It has
the same limits as CEB temperature (1-40°C). It can be specified as shown in Figure 92.
Figure 92. The CIP temperature specification window for UF modeling in WAVE
Note: Currently the effect of different CIP temperatures on the system design (by affecting density/feed pressure) is
not included in WAVE.

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CIP Durations
Three durations can be defined for CIP in WAVE (as shown in Figure 93):
1. Chemical Soaking duration – the amount of time the UF module is soaked in each chemical during CIP
2. Heating Step duration – the amount of time taken daily to heat the CIP chemicals from the UF system design
temperature up to the CIP temperature ( to calculate energy consumption)
3. CIP Recycle duration – the amount of time during which the CIP solution is circulated through the UF module
Figure 93. The CIP duration specification window for UF modeling in WAVE
Note: Additional energy will be required to maintain the CIP temperature; however, that is outside the scope of WAVE.

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CIP Mineral Acid Selection and Dose Specification
WAVE allows for the addition of a mineral (i.e. inorganic) acid for CIP. This is done by following the steps below (Figure
94):
1. Click on the “Mineral Acid” button to activate it. The grey area would turn green.
3. Select the mineral acid of interest.
4. Specify the target pH for pH reduction for CIP (if the ionic composition of the feed water is available) or target
mineral acid concentration in the CIP stream.
5. Click over or tab to move elsewhere in the CIP Window.
Figure 94. Specification of a Mineral Acid for CIP (a) Activating the Mineral Acid option
(b) Selecting the Mineral Acid (c) Specifying the target pH in the CIP stream

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LSI and S&DI Entry during Mineral Acid Addition in CIP
The LSI value cell appears as a pH value is specified (note the difference between Figure 95 and Figure 96). The LSI
(Langelier Saturation Index) is an indicator used to determine the need for calcium carbonate scale control. The LSI is
applicable for water streams containing up to 10,000 mg/L of total dissolved solids (TDS). For water streams containing
more than 10,000 mg/L of TDS, the Stiff & Davis Stability Index (S&DI) is preferred (as seen in Figure 97).
Figure 95. CIP Water quality in Mineral Acid input in CIP with feed with no ionic composition

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Figure 97. Changes in Mineral Acid input in CIP with feed TDS > 10,000 mg/L
Notes:
l The list of mineral acids is defined by the user as described in Sections Chemical Library and Adding a New
Chemical.
l The target pH in the CIP stream for pH reduction (if the ionic composition of the feed water is available) or
target mineral acid concentration in the CIP stream interconvert automatically, i.e. if the user initially did not
have ionic composition data and entered target mineral acid concentration, but later enters some ionic
composition data, the target mineral acid concentration is converted to a corresponding pH and vice versa.
l If the “Mineral Acid” button is activated, WAVE would require selection of a mineral acid and a corresponding
pH/target concentration.
l Clicking on the “Mineral Acid” button a second time would deactivate the input cell.

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CIP Organic Acid Selection and Dose Specification
WAVE allows for the addition of an organic acid for CIP. This is done by following the steps below (Figure 98):
1. Click on the “Organic Acid” button to activate it. The grey area would turn green.
3. Select the organic acid of interest.
4. Specify the target organic acid concentration in the CIP stream.
Figure 98. Specification of an Organic Acid for CIP (a) Activating the Organic Acid option
(b) Selecting the Organic Acid (c) Specifying the target concentration in the CIP stream

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CIP Alkali Selection and Dose Specification
WAVE allows for the addition of an alkali for CIP. This is done by following the steps below (Figure 99):
1. Click on the “Alkali” button to activate it. The grey area would turn green
3. Select the alkali of interest.
4. Specify the target alkali concentration in the CIP stream.
Figure 99. Specification of Alkali for CIP (a) Activating the Alkali option (b) Selecting the
Alkali (c) Specifying the target pH in the CIP stream

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LSI and S&DI Entry during Alkali Addition in CIP
One can note the appearance of the LSI cell as a pH value is specified (Figure 100 and Figure 101). The LSI is applicable
for water streams containing up to 10,000 mg/L of total dissolved solids (Figure 102). For water streams containing
greater than 10,000 mg/L of total dissolved solids, the S&DI is preferred (as seen in Figure 102).
Figure 100. CIP Water quality in Alkali input in CIP with feed with no ionic composition
Figure 101. Changes Changes in Alkali input in CIP with feed TDS < 10,000 mg/L

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Figure 102. Changes in Alkali input in CIP with feed TDS > 10,000 mg/L
Notes:
l The list of alkali chemicals is defined by the user as described in Sections Chemical Library and Adding a New
Chemical.
l The target pH in the CIP stream for pH reduction (if the ionic composition of the feed water is available) or
target alkali concentration in the CEB stream interconvert automatically, i.e. if the user initially did not have ionic
composition data and entered target alkali concentration, but later enters some ionic composition data, the
target alkali concentration is converted to a corresponding pH and vice versa.
l If the “Alkali” button is activated, WAVE would require selection of an alkali and a corresponding pH/target
concentration.
l Clicking on the “Alkali” button a second time would deactivate the input cell.

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CIP Oxidant Selection and Dose Specification
WAVE allows for the addition of an oxidant for CIP. This is done by following the steps below (Figure 103):
1. Click on the “Oxidant” button to activate it. The grey area would turn green.
3. Select the oxidant of interest.
4. Specify the target oxidant concentration in the CIP stream.
Figure 103. Specification of Oxidant for CIP (a) Activating the Oxidant option (b) Selecting the
Oxidant (c) Specifying the target concentration in the CIP stream
UF System Diagram for CIP

The UF System Diagram is displayed in the CIP Window as shown in Figure 92 and Figure 103. Currently, the CIP changes
would not be reflected in the UF System Diagram.

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3.1.8 Specification of Additional UF Equipment Settings
In addition to the various ultrafiltration modes and the system configuration, WAVE allows the user to specify the
following additional parameter values (as shown in Figure 104):
Figure 104. Additional equipment specifications for UF modeling in WAVE

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Pressure Settings
WAVE allows the user to specify the following:
1. Maximum Air Scour Pressure
2. Filtrate Pressure
3. Filtration Piping Pressure Drop
4. Strainer Pressure Drop
5. Backwash Piping Pressure Drop
6. CIP Piping Pressure Drop
Specifying these values allows the user to better approximate the energy requirement for the system operation.
Notes:
l Default filtrate pressures and piping pressure drops are 0.5 bar in WAVE for UF modeling.
l The default Maximum air scour pressure is 2 bar.

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Power (Control Equipment Energy Consumption)
The UF control system contains multiple controllers, most of which would consume energy to operate. WAVE makes
possible specification of the controller and valve power consumption as shown in Figure 106.

Notes:
l The default PLC power requirement per train in WAVE for UF is 0.5 kW
l The default valve power requirement per train in WAVE for UF is 0.0 kW

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Valve Timing
The valve open/close action durations of the multiple valves opening and closing in WAVE would affect the timing of
downstream steps and are thus included in the WAVE UF modeling as shown in Figure 107.
Note: WAVE assumes 6 valves per train and a valve open/close action duration of 10 seconds by default.

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Specification of Tank Sizes
WAVE makes possible the specification of actual tank sizes vs calculated minima in the Tanks Window as shown in
Figure 108.
Figure 108. Tank specifications for UF modelling in WAVE

This includes:
1. Tank storage times and refill rates

l By specifying how long the chemicals used are stored, given the rate of chemical consumption, WAVE
can estimate the size of the chemical tanks.
l In addition, given the Backwash tank refill rate, and the calculated Backwash flowrate, WAVE can
calculate the size of the Backwash tank
2. Tank size factors

l WAVE allows the user to specify how big a safety factor for the tanks the user needs as shown in
Figure 108. Any changes to these entries would result in recalculation of the tank volumes shown in
the UF System Diagram.
– For the BW or BW+Filtrate tank, WAVE defaults to a value of 100% of the computed minimum
tank size. This is based on an analysis of the flows into and out of the tank. A value <100% means
the tanks could be undersized and a value of >100% provides a safety margin.
– WAVE defaults to a CIP tank which is 200% of the module volume to be cleaned: 100% is the
volume to fill the modules with cleaning solution, while the remaining 100% is assumed to fill
the tank, pump, or pipes.
Note: A larger refill rate (larger % of filtrate flow directed to the tank) would fill up the tank faster.

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3.2 ULTRAFILTRATION - FINAL CALCULATION AND REPORT GENERATION
Once the system design inputs are available in WAVE, WAVE can be run to model the system. The details of the
following actions that can be performed to generate, modify and handle the reports are described below:
3.2.1 Generation and Understanding of Summary report
Once all the required inputs are in place in the Ultrafiltration Tab, the UF system can be simulated by clicking on the
“Summary Report” Tab to generate the Summary Report and the “Detailed Report” button as shown in Figure 109.
Figure 109. WAVE simulation and report generation for UF

In the Summary report the UF system diagram and some key output are described as shown below.

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This table provides an overview of the UF system.
UF operating conditions are also specified, as presented in the table below (Results may vary depending on specific
operating conditions).
These tables provide a quick view of the UF water quality.

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3.2.2 Generating and Understanding the UF Detailed Report
UF Detailed Report can be generated as shown below.
Figure 110. Generation of Detailed Reports in WAVE

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Detailed Report Components are shown below. (Results may vary depending on specific operating conditions.)

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UF Flow Details

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3.2.3 Modification of System Design after Calculation
WAVE makes possible regeneration of the report through:
Modification of the Feed Temperature

After the first simulation of the system, a WAVE user can rerun the simulation at a different temperature by following
these steps (Figure 111):
1. Click on the dropdown arrow under “Temperature” in the Summary Report Tab.
2. Select the appropriate temperature value:
a. Design temperature
b. Maximum temperature
c. Minimum temperature
d. Other values (using the ‘Specify’) option.
3. Click on the “Report” button.
Figure 111. WAVE report regeneration and addition simulation by changing feed
temperature (a) Selection of the appropriate temperature (b) Initiation of calculation
4. The report will be updated with recalculated values.
Notes:
l The same Minimum, Maximum and Design Temperatures specified in the Feed Water Tab would be shown in
the dropdown list in the Report Tab.
l The temperature specified at this step would not be propagated to other windows (e.g. the Chemical
Adjustment Popup Window)

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Modification of the System Recovery
WAVE makes it possible to send the System Recovery calculated at the Report Tab to the Home Tab to be used for
additional work. This can be done through the following steps (as shown in Section Defining the Feed Water Flowrate
and Recovery):
1. Click on the “Update Estimated Recovery” button in the Report Tab.
2. Click on the Home Tab and right-click on the Technology symbol
3. Select “Define Recovery” from the dropdown list. The Define Recovery Popup Window would appear.
4. Select the radio button next to “Use Last Calculated Value” and click “OK”
5. Click on the Report Tab
Note: The “Update Estimated Recovery” button only updates the System Recovery.

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3.2.4 Handling the Reports (Saving and Exporting)
The Summary Report serves as a quick look at the results. The Summary Report can be exported as a PDF document to a
folder location of the user’s choice Figure 112.
Figure 112. Export of Summary Report in WAVE as PDF

The reports can be exported to PDF or to Excel, Word or PDF as shown in Figure 113 and Figure 114. All of these options
lead to a folder location where the user can save the PDF, Excel or Word file.
Figure 113. Export of Detailed Reports in WAVE - selecting the dropdown

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Figure 114. Export of Detailed Reports in WAVE - selecting the option

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4 Reverse Osmosis
4.1 Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration system specification 118
4.2 REVERSE OSMOSIS - FINAL CALCULATION AND REPORT GENERATION 144
4.1 Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration system specification

RO/NF/ROSC system specification includes the following steps:
4.1.1 Adding RO/NF/ROSC icon into the WAVE Home Window
The RO Symbol can be dragged and dropped on top of the gray spot to specify an RO/NF process as shown in Figure 115.
The same applies for the ROSC. If the gray spot is not visible, simply dragging the RO icon between the two large blue
arrows will make the gray spot visible.
Figure 115. Dragging and dropping RO icon

l RO stands for Reverse Osmosis. With this option 8 inch elements designs can be performed
l ROSC stands for Reverse Osmosis Small Commercial. Wwith this option 4 inch and smaller elements designs can
be performed
l NF stands for Nanofiltration. With this option different sizes NF elements designs can be performed
Notes:
l WAVE does not allow the inclusion of both RO and ROSC in the same system design.
l WAVE allows only one of RO or ROSC in a system design.

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4.1.2 Removing RO/NF/ROSC Process Icon from the WAVE Home
There are two ways to remove the RO/NF/ROSC process icons as shown in Figure 116 and Figure 117:
Figure 116. Removing an RO icon by dragging and dropping onto the waste bin
2. Right-clicking on the icon in question and selecting “Delete”
Figure 117. Removing an RO icon by right-clicking and selecting “Delete”

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4.1.3 Defining the Feed Water Flowrate and System Recovery
Feed and product water flowrates can be specified using the text boxes in the middles of the blue arrows as shown
below. First, Feed or Permeate flow option should be selected using the radio button in the upper part of the arrow, later
the flowrate can be specified.
Figure 118. Definition of feed or product flow for an RO system

Notes:
l WAVE would display a warning if the Feed or Product flowrates are specified as 0 or a negative number
product water flowrate, WAVE would calculate a feed flowrate based on a default recovery
l WAVE does not allow simultaneous specification of the feed and product flowrates

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l WAVE does give the user the possibility of defining a recovery that defines feed/product flow if product/feed
flow is known (shown in Figure 119).
This is done by:
1. Right-clicking on the RO/ROSC icon
2. Selecting “Define Recovery”
3. Entering the desired recovery
4. Clicking “OK”
Figure 119. Definition of recovery for an RO/ROSC system in the Home page
The default recovery value for RO & ROSC systems is 75% in WAVE. The recovery defined above is a system recovery,
not necessarily a stage/pass recovery.
Additional Information: System Design Guidelines
4.1.4 Defining the feed water type and composition
Please refer to section Defining the Feed Water Composition for UF.

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4.1.5 Defining the RO/NF/ROSC System Configuration
The Number of Passes

WAVE provides the option of adding a pass to set up a two-pass system. By default, every RO/NF/ROSC system would be
a single pass system. The additional pass can be added as shown below:
Click on “Add Pass” as shown in Figure 120.The additional pass (Pass 2) can be removed by:
1. Select the second pass (Pass 2)
2. Click on the red oval beside the Pass 2 button as shown in Figure 120.
Figure 120. Adding and removing passes in RO system
Notes:
l Once a second pass (Pass 2) is defined, the “Add Pass” button becomes inactive. It would be reactivated if Pass 2
is deleted
l It is not possible to delete Pass 1
Additional Information : Select the flow configuration and number of passes

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The Flow Factor
The Flow Factor is used in WAVE to account for flow loss due to fouling. It can be specified for each pass as shown
below in Figure 121:
1. Click on the Pass of interest (Pass 1 or Pass 2)
Update the Flow Factor
Note: The Flow Factor must be between 0 and 2.
2. 0
Figure 121. Specification of Flow Factor

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The Number of Stages
One can specify up to 5 stages for each pass. By default WAVE assigns a single stage per pass. The number of stages can
be specified for each pass as shown below in Figure 122:
2. Update the Number of Stages. Note the change in the Process Flow Diagram and Table.
Figure 122. Specification of the Number of Stages in WAVE
Note: WAVE users can click on each box corresponding to a stage in the RO/NF/ROSC Process Flow Diagram and the
corresponding column in the table would be highlighted. By default, the 1st element (thus the 1st column in the
table) is highlighted.
Additional Information : Select the Number of Stages
Specifying Elements, Number of Pressure Vessels and Elements per Pressure Vessel
Standard Design
In WAVE one can specify the RO/NF/ROSC elements to be used in each stage, the number of pressure vessels in each
stage and the number of elements per pressure vessel. The number of pressure vessels in each stage and the number
of elements per pressure vessel can only be specified from the Reverse Osmosis Tab. By default, both of these values
are 1.
There are two ways of specifying the RO/NF/ROSC elements to be used in each stage.
1. Specifying the elements using the Drop down list
2. Specifying the elements using the Element Specifications Pop-up Window

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1. Specifying the RO/NF/ROSC elements using the Drop down list
One can specify the RO/NF/ROSC elements to be used in each stage, the number of pressure vessels in each stage and
the number of elements per pressure vessel as shown in Figure 123.
2. For each stage, click on the dropdown box under “Element Type”
3. Select the appropriate element
4. Update the number of pressure vessels and the number of elements per pressure vessel for each stage
Figure 123. Specification of the RO/NF/ROSC elements, number of pressure vessels and
number of elements per pressure vessel for each stage in the Reverse Osmosis Tab in
WAVE
2. Specifying RO/NF/ROSC elements using the Element Specifications Pop-up Window

One can specify the RO/NF/ROSC elements from the Element Specifications Pop-up Window as shown below and in
Figure 124.
1. Click on the Pass of interest (Pass 1 or Pass 2).
2. Click on “Specs” under the Element Type row header.
3. For each stage, click on the dropdown box under “Element Type”. The Element Specifications Pop-up Window
will appear.
4. Double click on the appropriate element.

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5. Close the Element Specifications Pop-up Window by clicking on the red box at the top right corner or clicking
on ‘Close Window”.
Figure 124. Specification of the RO/NF/ROSC elements from the Element Specifications
Pop-up Window in WAVE
Notes:
l Selecting an element by double-clicking on the appropriate element in the Element Specifications Pop-up
Window will apply for every stage in the pass. If different elements are desired for the different stages, the user
must individually select the appropriate elements for each stage.
l Once an element is selected in the table in the Reverse Osmosis Tab, the same element is used as default in all
the downstream stages in the Pass unless specified otherwise.
Additional Information :
FILMTEC" Elements
Select the Number of Elements, Pressure Vessels

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Internally Staged Design (ISD)
WAVE allows the specification of different elements within a pressure vessel; essentially creating stages within a stage.
This is called Internally Staged Design or ISD. The following steps can be used for ISD:
2. For the stage of interest, click on the dropdown box under “Element Type”
Figure 125. Specification of ISD in WAVE (a) Selection of the ISD option (b) Selection of
the element in the first position (c) Selection of the element in an intermediate position (d)
Finalizing the ISD
3. Select “ISD”. The ISD Specification Pop-up Window will appear.
4. Select the appropriate element for the first position (Element 1). WAVE would use the selected element as the
default selection. The ISD Specification Pop-up Window will be filled with information on the selected
element.
Figure 126. Edition of the ISD Specification Pop-up Window

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5. Select the appropriate element for the rest of the positions (2nd, 3rd etc.). WAVE would identify each element
with a different color.
6. A user can modify an ISD by clicking on the “Edit ISD” as shown in Figure 125 and Figure 126. The Specification
Pop-up Window will appear.
Notes:
l WAVE would not allow the user to specify an element in any other position unless he/she specifies the element
in the first position in ISD.
l WAVE allows the user to specify a different element for every position in an ISD. However, the elements must
have the same diameter.
l WAVE allows the user to specify an ISD for every stage.
l One can remove an ISD design by selecting an element in the Reverse Osmosis Tab instead of ISD.
l Once an element is selected in the ISD window, the same element is used as default in all the downstream
positions in the pressure vessel unless specified otherwise.
l One can specify an ISD design in WAVE even if there is only one element in the pressure vessel.
l WAVE users can tell which stages are ISD either from the table in the Reverse Osmosis Tab or by hovering their
mouse cursor over the relevant box in the RO/NF/ROSC Process Flow Diagram.
4.1.6 Specifying Feed Pressure, Boost Pressure, Back Pressure and Pre-stage Pressure Drop
The different pressure specifications for the RO/NF/ROSC system can be incorporated in WAVE as shown in Figure 127.
The default values for Feed Pressure, Feed Pressure and Feed Pressure are all 0, while the default pre-stage pressure
drop is 0.34 bar (5 psi).
Figure 127. Specification of Feed Pressure, Boost Pressure, Back Pressure and Pre-stage
Pressure Drop

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Notes:
l WAVE users can tell how much Feed Pressure, Boost Pressure and Back Pressure were applied from the table in
the Reverse Osmosis Tab or by hovering their mouse cursor over the relevant symbol in the
l RO/NF/ROSC Process Flow Diagram.
l If the Feed Pressure is specified in WAVE, then the user would not be able to specify a recovery for the
l RO/NF/ROSC system. Even though WAVE allows the user to specify a recovery value in the Home Tab (for a
system including only RO/NF/ROSC), the Calculation Engine would ignore the specified recovery value.
l WAVE allows the user to specify a Feed Pressure for one pass and a recovery for another pass.
l WAVE allows the user to specify different Feed Pressures for each pass.
l WAVE allows specification of Feed Pressure only for the 1st stage in each pass (even ISD).
l WAVE does not allow the specification of Boost Pressure for the 1st stage in each pass, as it is assumed that any
boost needed is included in the Feed Pressure.
4.1.7 Specifying Recovery
In WAVE, the RO/NF/ROSC recovery can be defined at two levels:
Recovery for the Entire System

The recovery for the RO/NF/ROSC system can be defined in one of two ways:
1. RO/NF/ROSC system recovery definition at the Home Tab
2. RO/NF/ROSC system recovery definition at the Flow Calculator Pop-up Window

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a. RO/NF/ROSC system recovery definition at the Home Tab
If the only process modeled in WAVE is RO/NF/ROSC, the Recovery for the RO/NF/ROSC system can be defined as
follows (shown in Figure 128):
1. Click on the Home Tab.
2. Right-click on the RO or ROSC icon and select “Define Recovery”.
3. Select the “Specify” radio button and put in the appropriate Recovery value.
Figure 128. Specification of RO/NF/ROSC system recovery in the Home Tab

4. Click ‘OK”
Notes:
l The Basic Default Recovery for an RO/NF/ROSC system is 75% in WAVE
l Once the pass level Recovery is specified, WAVE would calculate the appropriate system Recovery and populate
the “Based on RO Config.” Field
l Once an RO/NF/ROSC system has been modeled, WAVE would have calculated a System Recovery (possibly
based on Feed Pressure). This calculated System recovery would appear in the “Use Last Calculated Value” field.

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System Recovery Definition at the Flow Pop-Up Window
b. RO/NF/ROSC System Recovery Definition at the Flow Calculator Pop-up Window
The Recovery for the RO/NF/ROSC system can be defined as follows using WAVE’s (shown in Figure 129):
1. Click on the Reverse Osmosis Tab if you are in a different Tab or Window.
2. Click on any entry field in the Flow Specification area (shown in Figure 129. The Flow Calculator Pop-up
Window will appear.
3. Specify the Recovery for each pass. The System Recovery would be automatically calculated and displayed in
the ‘RO System recovery’ box at the top right corner of the Flow Calculator Pop-up Window.
4. Click “OK”.
Figure 129. Specification of RO/NF/ROSC system recovery in the Flow Calculator Pop-up
Window: accessing the Flow Specification area and defining the Pass Recovery
Notes:
l WAVE assumes a default RO/NF/ROSC System Recovery of 75%. If the Recovery of only one of two passes is
updated by the user, WAVE automatically recalculates the Recovery of the other Pass to maintain a System
Recovery of 75%.
l WAVE allows the user to manually change the Feed Flow rate value at the Flow Calculator Pop-up Window to
see its effect. However, this Feed flow rate would not be used in calculations outside the Flow Calculator and
would not be transferred to the Home Tab.

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4.1.8 Specifying Flow Patterns (Stage Recirculation, Recycle, Bypass, Split)
Concentrate Recirculation between Stages

WAVE makes it possible to define recirculation of concentrate from downstream elements to the Feed in the same
stage. This can be done as shown below (and in Figure 130):
2. For each stage and each pass, define the % Stage Recirculation. Note the change in the RO/NF/ROSC Process
Flow Diagram.
Figure 130. Specification of RO/NF/ROSC system Concentrate Percent Recirculation to

Feed in a stage: Before (Upper image) and After (Bottom image)
Note: WAVE allows 0-100% recirculation to the feed for each stage, though when more than 30% is recirculated, an
error warning will appear
Concentrate Recycle between the Passes

To help improve System Recovery, a WAVE user may be interested in recirculating the concentrate from a pass to the
feed of the same or a different pass. This can be done as follows (and shown in Figure 131):
2. Click on any entry field in thelow Specification area (shown in Figure 131). The Flow Calculator Pop-up
WindoSpecification of RO/NF/ROSC system Concentrate Recycle to Feed: Before (Upper image)

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3. Specify the Concentrate Recycle from each Pass and where the Recycle stream would go (Pass 1 or Pass 2). The
System Recovery would be automatically calculated and displayed in the ‘RO System recovery’ box at the top
right corner of the Flow Calculator Pop-up Window. However the RO/NF/ROSC Process Flow Diagram would
not update until the user clicks “OK”.
Figure 131. Specification of RO/NF/ROSC system Concentrate Recycle to Feed: Before

(Upper image) and After (Bottom image)
4. Click “OK”.
Notes:
l WAVE does not allow splitting of the recirculated Concentrate stream to two passes (e.g. 50% of the concentrate
from Pass 2 sent to Pass 1 feed, 50% sent to Pass 2 feed)
l WAVE does not allow recirculating the Concentrate from Pass 1 to the feed of Pass 2.
l In WAVE, the user can specify the % of the Concentrate stream to recycle, not the amount. However, WAVE
automatically calculates the corresponding Concentrate flow and displays it underneath the % specification
fields.

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Feed Bypass
To meet permeate quality requirements, it might be necessary to bypass a given Pass and mix the bypassing portion of
the Feed with the Permeate from that Pass. WAVE makes this possible using the steps below (as shown in Figure 132 and
Figure 133):
2. Click on any entry field in the Flow Specification area (shown in Figure 21). The Flow Calculator Pop-up Window
will appear.
3. Select the “Bypass” radio button for the Pass of interest.
4. Specify the % Bypass (% of total feed to the Pass that bypasses that Pass and becomes part of the Feed of the
next Pass or becomes part of the RO/NF/ROSC product). The System Recovery would be automatically
calculated and displayed in the ‘RO System recovery’ box at the top right corner of the Flow Calculator Pop-up
Window. However the RO/NF/ROSC Process Flow Diagram would not update until the user clicks “OK”.
Figure 132. Specification of RO/NF/ROSC system Feed Bypass to Product Before

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5. Click “OK”.
Figure 133. Plant scheme once Feed Bypass is specified for RO/NF/ROSC system
Notes:
l In WAVE, the user can specify the % of the Feed stream to recycle, not the amount. However, WAVE
automatically calculates the corresponding bypassing stream flow and displays it underneath the % specification
fields.
l In WAVE the user can remove the Bypass stream by clicking on the radio button next to “None” at the top right
corner of the Pass Optimization box.
l WAVE always mixes the bypassing Feed stream and the Permeate from the Pass.

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Split Permeate
WAVE allows the user to take permeate from intermediate points along the pressure vessel containing the RO/NF/ROSC
elements. These intermediate points might be in between elements or sometimes partway through an element. The
Permeate upstream of each intermediate point would be ‘split off’ and set directly to product (from that Pass) instead of
being mixed with the Permeate streams coming from elements further downstream. The Split Permeate amount can
be specified in WAVE as follows (and shown in Figure 134 and Figure 135):
2. Click on any entry field in the Flow Specification area (shown in Figure 134). The Flow Calculator Pop-up
Window will appear.
Figure 134. Specification of RO/NF/ROSC system Permeate Split

3. Select the “Split Permeate” radio button for the Pass of interest.
4. Specify the % Permeate Split (% of total permeate from that stage that becomes part of the RO/NF/ROSC
product). The System Recovery would be automatically calculated and displayed in the ‘RO System Recovery’
box at the top right corner of the Flow Calculator Pop-up Window. However the

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5. RO/NF/ROSC Process Flow Diagram would not update until the user clicks “OK”.
Figure 135. Plant scheme once Permeate Split is specified for RO/NF/ROSC system
6. Click “OK”.
Notes:
l In WAVE, the Split Permeate stream is defined at the Pass level.
l WAVE requires at least two passes for Split Permeate to work.
l In WAVE, the user can specify the % of the Permeate split off to product, not the amount. However, WAVE
automatically calculates the corresponding permeate split stream flow and displays it underneath the %
specification field.
l In the RO/NF/ROSC Process Flow Diagram, the Split Permeate is always shown to emerge from the 1st stage in
WAVE.
l In WAVE the user can remove the Split Permeate by clicking on the radio button next to “None” at the top right
corner of the Pass Optimization box.
4.1.9 Specifying pH Adjustment/Degasification and Calculating the Risk of Scaling
pH Adjustment of the Feed to Each Pass

WAVE provides the possibility for increasing or decreasing the pH of a Feed to a given Pass as shown below (and in
Figure 136):
2. Select the Pass of interest (Pass 1 or Pass 2 in WAVE).

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3. Click on the “Add Chemicals/Degas” button. The Chemical Adjustment Popup Window will appear. This
Window includes options for adjusting pH, degasification, addition of Antiscalants/SMBS (only the 1st Pass),
specifying the process temperature and Pass recovery. This Window also includes a Table with the Feed
composition (before adjustment) and the Concentrate composition calculated by WAVE.
4. Click on either of the “pH” buttons. The gray dots on the buttons would turn green. The Table in the Chemical
Adjustment Popup Window would now include a column named “After pH”
5. Click on the entry fields for either pH or S&DI (Stiff & Davis Index) and specify the desired pH or S&DI value.
WAVE would populate the “After pH” columns in the Table in the Chemical Adjustment Popup Window. This
would be reflected in the RO/NF/ROSC Process Flow Diagram after the user clicks “OK” (arrows in the feed
streams to each pass with named chemicals).
6. Choose the appropriate chemical from dropdown list. This list would be different for increasing pH vs.
decreasing pH.
7. Click “OK”.
Notes:
l In WAVE, pH adjustment can be deactivated by choosing either of “pH” buttons a second time. The green dots
would turn gray.
l WAVE allows addition of Antiscalants and SMBS only in the 1st Pass and does not allow pH adjustment between
stages
l WAVE does not prevent the simultaneous selection of “pH” without an intermediate degasification step. Thus
the user is urged to review the pH adjustment selections carefully.

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pH Adjustment of the Final Product
This involves adjustment of the pH of the Permeate from the RO/NF/ROSC system. This feature, as described in
Section1, is available to all three technologies (UF, RO/NF/ROSC/ IX). The steps are as follows (Figure 137):
1. Click on the Home Tab if you are in a different Tab or Window.
2. Click on “Adjust Final pH”.
3. Click on the “pH” button.
4. Specify the pH of interest then click “OK”.
Notes:
l In WAVE, pH adjustment can be deactivated by choosing “pH” button a second time. The green dots would turn
gray.
l WAVE allows the simultaneous selection of “pH” without an intermediate degasification step. Thus the user is
urged to review the pH adjustment selections carefully.
Degasification
Carbon dioxide removal from RO/NF/ROSC feed streams can be modeled in WAVE. This process is usually accompanied
by pH adjustment. The steps below can be used (as shown in Figure 138):
2. Select the Pass of interest (Pass 1 or Pass 2 in WAVE).

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4. Click on the “Degas” button, which should turn green. The Table in the Chemical Adjustment Popup Window
would now include a column named “After Degas”. This would be reflected in the RO/NF/ROSC Process Flow
Diagram after the user clicks “OK” (degasification symbol).
5. Click on one of the radio buttons next to entry fields for either” CO2 % Removal”, “CO2 Partial Pressure” or “CO2
Concentration (mg/L)”. WAVE would populate a grey box on the Ro diagram in the RO screen.
6. Click “OK”.
Figure 138. Specification of RO/NF/ROSC System Degasification Specification:

Choosing “Add Chemicals/Degas”; Choosing Degasification; Specifying CO2 removal
and completion
WAVE would populate a grey box with red border on the RO diagram in the RO screen.
Antiscalant and SMBS Addition

WAVE provides the possibility for adding Antiscalants or SMBS (Sodium Meta-BiSulfite) in a similar manner to pH
adjustment as shown below (and in Figure 139):
2. Select the Pass of interest (Pass 1 in WAVE).

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4. Click on the “Anti-Scalant” and/or “SMBS” buttons. The gray dots on the buttons would turn green.
5. Click on the entry fields for Anti-Scalant and/or SMBS and specify the desired composition in the Feed in
mg/L. This would be reflected in the RO/NF/ROSC Process Flow Diagram after the user clicks
6. “OK” (arrows in the feed streams to each pass with named chemicals).
7. Choose the appropriate chemical from dropdown list for Antiscalant and SMBS and click “OK”.
Figure 139. Specification of RO/NF/ROSC System Antiscalant and SMBS Specification

(a) Choosing “Add Chemicals/Degas” (b) Choosing Antiscalant/ SMBS (c) Specifying
amounts and completion

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Notes:
l WAVE does not consider the effect of the addition of Antiscalants and/or SMBS on the Feed or Concentrate
composition.
l The addition of Antiscalants and/or SMBS can be deactivated by choosing the “Anti-Scalant” and/or “SMBS”
buttons a second time. The green dots would turn gray.
l The list of chemicals for Antiscalants in defined by the user as shown in Section 1. Antiscalant manufacturers
should always be consulted for the appropriate dosage of antiscalant.
l WAVE allows addition of Antiscalants and SMBS only in the 1st Pass and does not allow chemical addition
between stages.
Calculation of Scaling Risk

The Chemical Adjustment Popup Window in WAVE provides a convenient way to calculate the risk of scaling. Within
the Chemical Adjustment Popup Window, the user can modify pH, temperature and Pass Recovery.
To calculate scaling risk at different Recovery values, one must follow these steps:
1. Click on the dropdown arrow next to the Recovery field.
2. Select the appropriate Recovery value:
a. Basic default (75%),
b. One based on the given RO/NF/ROSC configuration,
c. One based on the previous WAVE run
d. Another values (using the ‘Specify’) option.
3. The composition table would be updated automatically.
Figure 140. Scaling risk calculation using: Different recovery values

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To calculate scaling risk at different temperature values, one must follow these steps:
1. Click on the dropdown arrow next to the temperature field.
3. The composition table would be updated automatically.
Figure 141. Scaling risk calculation using: Different recovery values and Different
temperatures
Notes:
l Scaling risk in the Chemical Adjustment Popup Window is calculated in terms of the Langelier Saturation Index
(LSI), Stiff & Davis Index (S&DI) as well as % saturation for some salts (CaSO4, BaSO4, SrSO4, CaF2), Mg(OH)2 and
SiO2 .
l WAVE does not provide a mechanism to estimate the efficacy of antiscalants. Thus the user is advised to consult
with an antiscalant manufacturer.
l Even though the user can estimate the scaling risk using different recovery and temperature values, neither the
recovery nor the temperature values are transferred outside of the Chemical Adjustment Popup Window. If the
user discovers a combination of temperature and recovery that would minimize scaling risk, he/she would have
to copy over the values into the Home and Reverse Osmosis Tabs and perform the design again.

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4.2 REVERSE OSMOSIS - FINAL CALCULATION AND REPORT GENERATION
4.2.1 Generation and Understanding of Summary report
Once all the required inputs are in place in the Ultrafiltration Tab, the RO system can be simulated by clicking on the
“Summary Report” Tab to generate the Summary Report and the “Detailed Report” button as shown in Figure 142.
Figure 142. WAVE simulation and report generation for UF

In the Summary report the RO system diagram and some key output are described as shown below.
The RO system is described in a Pass level Process Flow diagram as shown below. The streams are numbered for clarity.
This would look different from the RO/NF/ROSC Process Flow Diagram in the Reverse Osmosis Tab (which describes the
process at the Stage level).

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These tables provide an overview of the RO/NF/ROSC system.

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There are several components to note from the Overview Table
1. The Chemicals added to adjust pH and prevent scaling
2. In the case of more complicated designs (e.g. involving permeate split or feed bypass), there would be
asterisks on the Stage and Pass respectively that mark where the split or bypass happened. The user is then
urged to look at the RO system diagram and flow tables for clarification.
The RO Water Quality Table provides a convenient summary of the process by describing the feed and permeate
compositions for all passes and permeate split streams, as well as a blended final product stream.

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WAVE provides Design warnings as well as potential solutions. The Pass, Stage and Element at which the warning is
triggered is identified:
The scaling risk is summarized in the table below. In the RO Scaling Table, WAVE would flag % saturation values > 100,
LSI >0 and S&DI >0 by changing the color of the number to red. However, only one of LSI or S&DI would be displayed in
the top panel. The display is based on the concentrate characteristics.

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Standard Mode without Compaction
Once all the required inputs in the Reverse Osmosis Tab, the Flow Calculator Pop-up Window and the Chemical
Adjustment Popup Window are in place, the RO/NF/ROSC system can be simulated using the following step (Figure 143):
1. Click on the “Summary Report” tab. The simulation results would be generated in a Summary report.
2. For Detailed Report, click on ¨Detailed Report¨tab.
Figure 143. WAVE simulation and report generation

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Standard Mode with Compaction
RO/NF membrane compact when feed pressure is applied on them; however there is little lasting impact on
performance estimated by default in WAVE. It is possible to incorporate the possibility of lasting impact on membrane
performance by the combination of increased temperature and operation at high pressure in WAVE as follows (and in
Figure 144):
1. Click on the Reverse Osmosis Tab.
2. Click on the “Compaction” button. The Compaction Feature Popup Window will appear.
3. Click on the checkbox next to “Account for flux loss at high temperature”
4. Set the highest temperature the system is exposed to
5. Click “Save”
Figure 144. WAVE report regeneration and additional simulation by including compaction:
Selecting Compaction and Setting the highest temperature and enabling the compaction
calculations
Notes:
l The highest temperature entry in the Compaction Feature Popup Window can be different from the Maximum
temperature set in the Feed Water Tab but it has to be between the Minimum and Maximum temperatures set
in the Feed Water Tab.
l The Compaction button would be active only for seawater feed.
l There is a second way of modeling compaction; using the Batch Processing mode as described next.

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Batch Mode
In designing RO/NF/ROSC systems, there is often interest in understanding the behavior of the system at multiple
design conditions. Rather than changing the parameters one at a time, WAVE provides the possibility of simulating the
system at multiple values of select parameters: Temperature and Flow Factor. WAVE is run in Batch mode as described
below.
1. Create a case and generate the Summary Report.
2. Click on the “Run Batch” button. The Batch Processing Popup Window will appear (Figure 145).
Figure 145. Running WAVE in Batch Mode: Activating Batch Mode

3. Update the Minimum and Maximum temperature values if needed.
4. Update the number of intermediate points of interest between the Minimum and Maximum temperature
values. WAVE would automatically calculate the temperature step size.
5. Update the Startup and Long term Flow Factor values for the relevant Pass. By default, the values are 1 and 0.85
respectively for all passes.
6. If compaction needs to be considered, check the box next to “Account for flux loss at high temperature” and
specify the highest temperature the membrane is exposed to.

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7. Click on the Output Parameters Tab in the Batch Processing Popup Window and confirm that all the variables
of interest are going to be displayed Figure 146).
Figure 146. Running WAVE in Batch Mode: Confirming desired output of Batch run

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8. Click on the Batch Cases Tab in the Batch Processing Popup Window and select which combinations of
Temperature and Flow Factor are to be converted to Cases. WAVE would generate a table with all the possible
combinations of the given Flow Factors and the Temperature values (including the minimum, maximum and
all intermediate values) and the corresponding results (Figure 147).
Figure 147. Running WAVE in Batch Mode: Selection of which combinations to test and
implementing the batch run
9. To generate Cases, click on the ‘Create Case” button (Figure 147).

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10. Click “Calculate Batch”. WAVE would start to populate the empty fields (selected in the Output Parameters tab)
with calculation results (Figure 148).
Figure 148. Running WAVE in Batch Mode:Final output
Note: By default the temperature entries in the Input Parameters tab of the Batch Processing Window are taken from
the entries in the Feed Water Tab but they can be over-ridden for Batch calculations.
4.2.2 Generating and Understanding the RO Detailed Report
RO Detailed Report can be generated as shown on Figure 149.

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Detailed Report Components are given on page 2 of the report and are shown below.
Further details of the simulation results are given below.
Flows, stream concentrations and scaling risks are detailed per pass. More flow details are provided at the Stage level
and Element level for each pass.

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In case of permeate split, WAVE does not create an additional element; instead it ‘extends’ or ‘shrinks’ the adjoining
elements so that the number of elements in the pressure vessel remains constant. The elements marked in the
asterisks are thus virtual elements.
Solute concentration is given in a below table:

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Costs are reported for the RO system as shown below.
The service water costs have two components:
l Non-product feed water – this is water that the plant would have paid to get but would not be using (because it
is discharged).
l Waste water – this is water that the plant has to pay to remove from the premises

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Even though in simple systems the non-product feed water and the waste water are the same, in more complicated
systems they would not be. For instance, if extensive chemical cleaning is used in RO to maintain recovery, the non-
product feed water cost would remain the same but the wastewater disposal cost would increase.

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WAVE makes possible regeneration of the report through:
Modification of the Feed Temperature

After the first simulation of the system, a WAVE user can rerun the simulation at a different temperature by following
these steps (Figure 150:
3. Click on the “Summary Report” button.
Figure 150. WAVE report regeneration and addition simulation by changing feed
temperature
4. The report will be updated with recalculated values.
Notes:
the dropdown list in the Report Tab.

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Modification of the System Recovery
WAVE makes it possible to send the System Recovery calculated at the Report Tab to the Home Tab to be used for
additional work. This can be done through the following steps (as shown in Figure 151):
1. After running a report, click on the Home Tab and right-click on the Technology symbol
2. Select “Define Recovery” from the dropdown list. The Define Recovery Popup Window would appear.
3. Select the radio button next to “Use Last Calculated Value” and click “OK”
4. Click on the Report Tab
Figure 151. WAVE report regeneration and additional simulation by changing recovery;
Updating estimated System Recovery and Selecting the new estimated System Recovery
Note: The “Update Estimated Recovery” button only updates the System Recovery.

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4.2.4 Handling the Reports (Saving and Exporting)
The Summary Report serves as a quick look at the results.
The Summary Report can be exported as a PDF document to a folder location of the user’s choice (Figure 152).
Figure 152. Export. of Summary Report in WAVE as PDF

The Detailed Report can be exported to PDF or to Excel, Word or PDF as shown in Figure 153 and Figure 154. All of these
options lead to a folder location where the user can save the PDF, Excel or Word file.

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5 Ion Exchange
The Ion Exchange (IX) system design in WAVE allows sizing of new systems, evaluating the performance of existing ones
and retrofitting existing plants to the UPCORE™ system. In order to design a new Ion Exchange system, it is important to
understand the main inputs needed to help obtain an accurate and optimized design. These inputs include information
about the feed water composition, required feed water or product water flow rate, vessels and regeneration system,
regeneration conditions and product.
Once all this information is introduced in the system design software, it will populate a detailed Ion Exchange System
Design report which includes a general process flow diagram, resins properties, sizing of vessels, regeneration protocols,
water quality and estimation of chemicals and energy consumption, among others.
IX system specification includes the following steps:
5.1 Ion Exchange System Specification 164

5.2 Ion Exchange Final Calculation and Report Generation 193
5.1 Ion Exchange System Specification

Ion Exchange system specification includes the following steps:

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5.1.1 Adding IX Process Icons into the WAVE Home Window
The relevant IX icon can be dragged and dropped on top of the gray spot to specify a specific IX process (e.g. IXS/D, IXD,
IXMB) as shown in Figure 155. If the gray spot is not visible, simply dragging the relevant IX icon between the two large
blue arrows will make the gray spot visible.
WAVE provides the following IX process options:
l IXS/D = Ion Exchange Softening/Dealkalization
l IXOS = Ion Exchange Organic Scavenging
l IXD = Ion Exchange Demineralization
l N = Nitrate Removal
l B = Boron Removal
l IXMB = Ion Exchange Mixed Bed
l IXCP = Ion Exchange Condensate Polishing
Figure 155. Dragging and dropping IX icon

Notes:
l WAVE will only allow the IX icons associated with Pretreatment to be placed upstream of any WAVE icons (IX or
otherwise) associated with Bulk Demineralization, Trace Contaminant Removal or Polishing.
l WAVE will only allow the IX icons associated with Bulk Demineralization to be placed upstream of any WAVE
icons (IX or otherwise) associated with Trace Contaminant Removal or Polishing but downstream of the WAVE
icons (IX or otherwise) associated with Pretreatment
l WAVE will only allow the IX icons associated with Trace Contaminant Removal to be placed upstream of any
WAVE icons (IX or otherwise) associated with Polishing but downstream of the WAVE icons (IX or otherwise)
associated with Pretreatment or Bulk Demineralization.

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5.1.2 Removing IX Process Icons
There are two ways to remove the IX process icons:
2. Right-clicking on the icon in question and selecting “Delete”
Figure 156. Dragging and dropping the icons into the picture of the waste bin
Figure 157. Right-clicking on the icon in question and selecting “Delete”

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5.1.3 Defining the Feed Water Flowrates and System Recoveries
Feed and product water flow rates can be specified using the text boxes in the middle of the blue arrows.
Notes:
l WAVE would display a warning if the Feed or Product flow rates are specified as 0 or as a negative number
l Given a feed water flowrate, WAVE would calculate a product flow rate based on a default recovery . In a simlar
way, given a product water flowrate, WAVE would calculate a feed flow rate based on a default recovery
l WAVE does not allow simultaneous specification of the feed and product flow rates
l The default system recovery for an IX process is 97% (see section Define Recovery for more information on
defining system recovery)
5.1.4 Defining the type of water
See Specifying the Feed Water Composition for information on defining the feed water type and composition.
5.1.5 The IX Initialization Window: Defining the Modeling Objective, Train Configuration and
Regeneration Frequency
The IX Initialization Window allows the WAVE user to specify:
The Modeling Objective

WAVE can be used in three different ways to model IX processes (as shown in Figure 158):
Figure 158. IX Initialization Window

1. New Plant Design: according to user inputs a resin volume or an operating cycle will be calculated to meet the
specifications.

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2. Evaluate Existing Plant: according to the existing plant details, the performance of one point in time will be
evaluated (runtime is fixed). Alternatively, WAVE will try to find the maximum runtime to meet the specified
leakage and operating capacity according to the existing plant details (runtime is optimized).
3. Retrofit Plant to a UPCORE™ system: according to the existing plant design, the plant can be retrofitted to
incorporate the UPCORE™ technology. Given vessel sizing, resin volume and performance will be calculated.
New Plant Design: according to user inputs a resin volume or an operating cycle will be cal-
culated to meet the specifications. Click for more detail.
From the IX Initialization Window, select “New Plant Design” option. This option allows the user to design a new plant.
The key design parameters needed to design ion exchange systems are feed water quality, feed water or product water
flow rate, chemicals quantity, and the number of vessels and trains. There is not a unique solution for the design, as
there are several tradeoffs that can be made.
Evaluate Existing Plant: according to the existing plant details, the performance of one point in time will be evaluated
(runtime is fixed). Alternatively, WAVE will try to find the maximum runtime to meet the specified leakage and
operating capacity according to the existing plant details (runtime is optimized). Click for more detail.
Evaluate Existing Plant:
l From the IX Initialization Window, select “Evaluate Existing Plant” option.
l A new window called “Existing Plant Description” will be added at the bottom of the left-hand navigation area, as
shown in Figure 159.
Figure 159. IX Initialization Window. The Modeling Objective: Evaluate Existing Plant
Run Time specification: Once “Evaluate Existing Plant” option is selected, the modeling objective must be specified as
follow (see Figure 159):
1. Runtime is fixed: according to existing plant details, the product water quality at one point in time (the
specified runtime) will be evaluated.
2. Runtime is optimized: the software will calculate the maximum runtime to meet the specified leakage and
operating capacity according to the existing plant details.

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Retrofit plant to an UPCORE™ system: according to the existing plant design, the plant can
be retrofitted to incorporate the UPCORE™ technology. Given vessel sizing, resin volume and per-
formance will be calculated. Click for more information
l From the IX Initialization Window, select “Retrofit Plant to UPCORE™” option. This option allows the user to
convert any existing plant to an UPCORE™ design.
l The key design parameters needed to retrofit an existing plant are feed water quality, feed water or product
water flow rate, quantity chemicals, and the vessels sizing.
Note: Selecting either Evaluate Existing Plant or Retrofit Plant to UPCORE™ will add an eighth button called Existing
Plant Description to the left-hand navigation area (see Figure 159). For more details about this Window see
Existing Plant Description
Train Configuration
The Train Configuration section of the IX Initialization window allows the user to specify the number of trains Online and
in Standby.
In the case of no Standby trains, the following selection should be made (as shown in Figure 160):
1. Use Feed Water flow as system daily average: this means that IX operating flow will be higher than the
specified, as some time for regeneration is required.
2. Use Feed Water flow for vessel design: this means that IX daily average flow will be smaller than the specified,
as some time for regeneration is required.
Figure 160. Train Configuration

Note: In multicomponent designs, if there are no Standby trains, the only available option will be “Use Feed Water flow
as system daily average”. Therefore, the IX operating flow will be higher than the specified, as some time for
regeneration is required.

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In case that a standby train is used, input flow would equal the operating flow.
If desired, certain percentage of feed flow could also bypass the mix bed. This is shown Figure 161
Figure 161. Bypass flow
IX Flow Rate
The IX Flow Rate section of the IX Initialization window shows either:
l The IX Feed Flow Rate: If the Feed Water is specified in the Home tab (see Figure 162).
l The IX Product Flow Rate: If the Product Water is specified in the Home tab (see Figure 163).
Notes:
l If the system daily average option is selected in the Train Configuration section, the value shown for the IX
Feed/Product Flow Rate corresponds to the system daily average.
l If the vessel design option is selected in the Train Configuration section, the value shown for the IX
Feed/Product Flow Rate corresponds to the design flow rate.

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Figure 162. IX Initialization Window. IX Feed Flow Rate
Figure 163. IX Initialization Window. IX Product Flow Rate

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Regeneration Frequency
There are two options to set up the regeneration frequency (as shown in Figure 164):
1. Selecting the length of operating cycles (in hours or days): this is the time that the system remains in operation
between the end of one regeneration and the beginning of the next regeneration. It calculates the resin
volume needed and recommends a vessel size.
2. Selecting the specific velocity (BV/h): according to the operating flow and the specific velocity value, the resin
volume would be fixed and the length of operating cycles calculated. It will also recommend the vessel size.
Figure 164. Regeneration Frequency

For the Condensate Polishing (IXCP) process, a third Regeneration Frequency option is available (as shown in
Figure 164)
3. Selecting Prebed on Time, Rest on Specific Velocity: the regeneration frequency of the first vessel is defined
by the Length of Operating Cycles. The regeneration frequency of the second (and third) vessel is defined by
the Specific Velocity.

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Figure 165. IX Initialization Window. Regeneration Frequency. IX Condensate Polishing
Note: The option “Selecting Prebed on Time, Rest on Specific Velocity” will be gray out until the users specifies the
Resin Arrangement in the Vessel and Regeneration System window (see Resin Arrangement). The option
“Selecting Prebed on Time, Rest on Specific Velocity” is available for Resin Arrangements with, at least, 2 vessels
(i.e. [SAC]-[SBA], [SAC]-[SAC SBA] or [SAC]-[SBA]- [SAC])
Sub-process Option
For some IX applications, WAVE provides additional sub-processes modeling capabilities. Table 3 shows the sub-
processes options for the different IX Processes. These can be selected as shown in Figure 166.
Table 3. IX Initialization Window. IX Sub-process.

IX Process IX Sub-Processes
Softening SAC (Na)
Softening WAC (H)
Brackish Softening WAC (H/Na)
Dealkalization WAC (H)
Dealkalization SBA (Cl)
Dealkalization WAC + Softening SAC
Demineralization
RO Permeate Polishing
IX Demin Polishing
Process HOH Cycle

Low Pressure Power (< 140 bar) HOH Cycle
High Pressure Power (> 140 bar) HOH Cycle

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Figure 166. IX Initialization Window. IX Softening/Dealkalization Sub-processes
New Plant Design

This option allows the user to design a new plant from scratch.
Note: Key design parameters for ion exchange systems are water quality, quantity and cost of chemicals, number and
geometry of the vessels, and whether all of the resins/vessels can be operated within our design guidelines.
There is not a unique solution to the design, as there are several tradeoffs that can be made. This bears some
similarity to UF system designs.
5.1.6 Defining the Vessel and Regeneration System
The Vessel and Regeneration System window allows the WAVE user to specify:
Note: The IX System Diagram appears once the Regeneration System has been selected.

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Resin Arrangement
The content of the Vessel and Regeneration System screen is dynamic and depends on the type of ion exchange sub-
process previously selected in the IX Initialization window. The various combinations of ion exchange resin types are
represented in WAVE as follows:
l [XXX] = Resin in a single bed
l [WXX] – [SXX] = Weak resin and Strong resin in separate vessels
l [WXX SXX] = Weak resin and Strong resin in a layered bed (same vessel)
l [WXX | SXX] = Weak resin and Strong resin in single vessel with separated compartments
l [SAC | SBA] = Strong Acid Cation resin and Strong Base Anion resin in single vessel with separated compartments
l [SAC SBA] = = Strong Acid Cation resin and Strong Base Anion resin n in the same vessel (i.e., a Mixed Bed)
l [SAC] - [SBA] = Strong Acid Cation resin and Strong Base Anion resin in separate vessels
l [SAC] - [SAC SBA] = Strong Acid Cation resin in a single bed followed by Strong Acid Cation resin and Strong Base
Anion resin in the same vessel (i.e., a Mixed Bed)
l [SAC] - [SBA] – [SAC] = Strong Acid Cation resin, Strong Base Anion resin and Strong Acid Cation resin in separate
vessels
WAVE will display the appropriate Resin Arrangement options depending on the IX process and sub-process selected.
For example, if the option Softening WAC (H) sub-process was selected in the IX Sub-process section of the IX
Initialization window (IXS/D process), only the option WAC will be displayed in the Resin Arrangement section. This is
shown in Figure 167.
Figure 167. Vessel and Regeneration System. Resin Arrangement options for the Softening WAC
(H) sub-process

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On the other hand, if the Demineralization option was selected in the IX Sub-process section of the IX Initialization
window (IXD process), all the various combinations of ion exchange resin types listed above will be displayed for both
cation and anion vessels. This is shown in Figure 168.
Figure 168. Vessel and Regeneration System. Resin Arrangement options for the
Demineralization sub-process

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Regeneration System
WAVE allows for the following types of regeneration systems:
l Co-current
l UPCORE™
l AMBERPACK™
l Air Block
l Water Block
l MB: Internal regeneration (only available for mixed beds)
l MB: External regeneration (only available for mixed beds)
WAVE will display the appropriate number of vessels and Regeneration System options depending on the IX sub-
process and the Resin Arrangement previously selected. As an example, Figure 169 the figure below shows the
Regeneration System options available when the Resin Arrangement [SAC] + [WBA | SBA] is selected in a
demineralization design.
Figure 169. Vessel and Regeneration System. Regeneration System selection for
demineralization with [SAC] + [WBA | SBA] Resin Arrangement
Once the user selects the Regeneration System, the IX System Diagram and the Degasification System options appear.
Note: WAVE deactivates some Regeneration System options depending on the Resin Arrangement selected.

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Degasification System
The amount of degasification from the IX effluent stream can be quantified in WAVE in terms of (as shown in Figure
170):
l CO 2 Percentage Removal
l CO 2 Partial Pressure
l CO 2 Concentration
WAVE provides the possibility of placing the degasification step at various positions in relation to the IX resin beds for
some IX processes (as shown in Figure 170):
l After WAC, before SAC
l After cation resin, before anion resin
l After WBA, before SBA
Figure 170. Vessel and Regeneration System. Degasification System selection

Note:
l Degasification is only available for some processes.
l WAVE deactivates some options for placing the degasification depending on the IX Sub-process and the Resin
Arrangement selected.
IX Process Flow Diagram

WAVE can display the IX System Diagram in the Vessel and Regeneration System window once the Regeneration
System has been selected.

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5.1.7 Resin Selection
The user can filter the preferred brand by checking the different options to limit resin choices and make resin selection
easier. The user can also select the delivered ionic form and the resin packaging size. These selections can affect the
final recommended design.
Notes:
l WAVE will display the suitable resins list depending on the IX Sub-process, Resin Arrangement and Regeneration
System selected.
l The IX process flow diagram can be displayed by clicking on the “Show IX System Diagram” button (see Figure
165).
Figure 171. Resin Selection

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5.1.8 Defining the Regeneration Conditions
WAVE allows to specify some regeneration conditions in the Regeneration Condition Window, as shown in Figure 172.
The following conditions can be specified for both cation and anion resins:
l Regenerant chemicals
l Regeneration temperature
l Number of regeneration steps, concentration and dose fraction
l Source of service water (Feed water, Treated water, Other water)
Select the required regenerants and specify the dosing temperature. It is also possible to dose the regenerant in a
maximum of 3 different steps at three different concentrations, however the sum of all different dose fractions must be
100%. For the cation resin using sulfuric acid, WAVE will recommend regeneration conditions based on the feed water
calcium to total cations ratio.
Finally, select the quality of service water for the backwash and the regeneration. The water quality selected for the
regeneration is the water quality that will be used for injection and displacement rinse. For refill and fast rinse steps,
feed water will be used.
Figure 172. Regeneration Conditions

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Notes:
l In WAVE, the user must select a regenerant for cation/anion resins. The regenerant is selected from the list of
default chemicals and other chemicals defined by the user (as described in Chemical Library).
l Based on the selected process, default values for regenerant concentration are recommended.
l When required (i.e., Brackish Softening with a WAC), WAVE will display the options for Step 1 (regeneration with
acid) and Step 2 (resin conversion to Na form), as shown in Figure 173.
l WAVE allows 2 different options for the dosing temperature.

1. Design: the dosing temperature will be the same as the one specified for the feed water in the Feed
Water Tab
2. Specify: when this option is selected, WAVE allows the user to specify the dosing temperature.
l WAVE will deactivate the water quality options for backwash according to the Regeneration System previously
selected.
l In IX Condensate Polishing the only available source of service water is Other Water.
Figure 173. Regeneration Conditions for Brackish Softening with a WAC (H/Na)

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5.1.9 Defining the Advanced Regeneration Conditions
WAVE makes possible specification of additional regeneration conditions in the Advanced Regeneration Window, as
shown below in Figure 174. The Advanced Regeneration Window is hidden by default but can be displayed by clicking
on the ‘More’ button as shown in below in Figure 174. The following variables can be specified in WAVE: Backwash
Frequency, Backwash Expansion, Backwash Duration, Compaction Duration, Regeneration Specific Velocity, SBA/SAC
Regeneration Flow Ratio, Regeneration Hold-Down Factor, Displacement Rinse Flow, Displacement Rinse Volume, Fast
Rinse Volume, Fast Rinse Recycle, and Settling Duration.
l Backwash Frequency - Number of cycles between 2 consecutive backwashes. This option is displayed as MB
Separation Backwash Frequency only for the Mixed Bed (IXMB and IXCP Process).
l Backwash Expansion - Percentage expansion for the ion exchange bed. This option is displayed as MB
Separation Backwash Expansion only for the Mixed Bed (IXMB and IXCP Process).
l Backwash Duration - Time specified for backwash. This option is displayed as MB Separation Backwash Duration
only for the Mixed Bed (IXMB and IXCP Process).
l Compaction Duration
l Regeneration Specific Velocity: WAVE allows the user to specify the specific velocity for the different
regenerants. Note: For the IXMB Process:
– for internal regeneration the user is able to modify the regeneration specific velocity for cation resin.
Anion specific velocity will be calculated based on the specific cation velocity, SBA/SAC regeneration
flow ratio and resin volume. Anion linear velocity (m/h) = cation linear velocity (m/h) x SBA/SAC regen
flow ratio.
– for external regeneration the user is able to modify the regeneration specific velocity for both cation
and anion resin.
l SBA/SAC Regeneration Flow Ratio (this variable is only displayed for IXMB and IXCP Process)
l Regeneration Hold-Down Factor
l Displacement Rinse Flow

– @ regeneration flow: the same flow used during regeneration (regenerant + dilution water) will be used
for displacement rinse.
– @ dilution flow: the dilution water flow used during regeneration will be used for displacement rinse.
Note: The dilution flow will always be smaller than the regeneration flow.
l Displacement Rinse Volume: After the specified quantity of regenerant has been introduced, the regenerant
chemical injection is stopped and only the dilution water continues to be injected to displace the regenerant.
l Fast Rinse Volume: Fast final rinse is carried out at service flow rate and direction until the required effluent
quality is obtained
l Fast Rinse Recycle: WAVE gives the option to rinse to waste or to recycle the fast rinse.
– None: Rinse to waste.
– After 3 minutes: 3 min of rinse to waste prior to recycle.
– Full: All the water used during the Fast Rinse step will be recycled.

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l Settling Duration
Figure 174. Advanced Regeneration Conditions
5.1.10 Defining the Equipment
WAVE allows the user to specify additional information regarding equipment settings in the Equipment Window (as
shown in Figure 175). The following parameters can be specified:
1. Typical pressure drop of internal distributors
2. Typical pressure drop of external piping
3. Effluent pressure
4. Bulk chemical storage tank temperature
Figure 175. Equipment Settings

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In the case of IXMB and IXCP processes, if external regeneration is selected, WAVE will display the External
Regeneration and Other Equipment Window instead of the Equipment Window and, in addition to the Equipment
Setting options, the External Regeneration Equipment Setting options (i.e. Backwash Tower Diameter, SAC Regeneration
Vessel Diameter, and SBA Regeneration Vessel Diameter) will be displayed (see Figure 176).
Figure 176. External regeneration equipment settings (option available for the IXMB and IXCP
processes with external regeneration)

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5.1.11 Defining the Product Quality and Regeneration Dose
The Product Quality and Regenerant Dose Window allows the WAVE user to specify (as shown in Figure 177):
Figure 177. Product Quality and Regeneration Dose Selection

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The Effluent Quality
WAVE allows the user to specify the desired quality of the produced water. Depending on the IX process the user will be
asked to specify:
IX Process Effluent Quality

Softening l Average hardness leakage
l Hardness end point
Dealkalization l Average alkalinity leakage
l Alkalinity end point
Demineralization For Cation resin the effluent quality parameters can be specified in two ways:
l Average sodium leakage (this would be the expected average conductivity at the outlet of the anion vessel)
l Sodium end point
or
l Average conductivity value
l Conductivity end point
Note: Only one of the options above should be specified and the other one will be automatically calculated.
For Anion resin specify the effluent quality parameter as
l Average silica leakage
l Silica end point
Mixed Bed For Cation resin the effluent quality parameters can be specified in two ways:
l Average sodium leakage
l Sodium end point
or
l Average conductivity value (this would be the expected average conductivity at the outlet of the anion vessel)
For Anion resin specify the following effluent quality parameters
l Silica end point and
l Organics removal efficiency: introduce the expected percentage of organics removal.
Condensate Polishing For Cation resin the effluent quality parameters can be specified in two ways:
+
l Average NH 4 /NH 3 leakage
+
l NH 4 /NH 3 end point
or
l Average conductivity value (this would be the expected average conductivity at the outlet of the anion vessel)
For Anion resin specify the effluent quality parameter as
l Silica end point
Notes:
l Average leakage referes to the expected average leakage during the operation cycle
l End point refers to the point when the system will stop operating and start regeneration

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The Regenerant Dose
The Regenerant Dose section allows the user to specify the following parameters for the cation and the anion resins (as
well as for the different regeneration steps when appropriate, i.e. Brackish softening with WAC (H/Na)):
l Safety Factor: the lower the value, the higher the safety is being taken. The higher the value, the smaller the
safety is being taken.
In this screen the user’s input would be the minimum safety factor accepted. The final safety factor used will be
based on the following: Effective Operating Capacity / Theoretical Operating Capacity (appears in the report as
Operating Capacity).
Effective operating capacity is the total ionic load divided by total resin volume. As resin volume can be adjusted
for resin packaging sizes for example, the effective operating capacity will be equal or lower than theoretical
operating capacity. Therefore, final safety factor value will be equal or smaller than user’s safety value input
(meaning that always the same or more safety will be finally taken).
Note: If the user manually enters a volume on the Final Parameter Adjustments screen (see Section ‎7 .13) less
than what WAVE computed, it is possible to get an actual safety factor greater than the user’s input. In
that case, WAVE will include a warning in the project report.
l WAC Overrun/WBA Overrun: amount of ionic load carried over from the WAC to the SAC resin or from the
WBA to the SBA when the “Manual” option is selected in the Overrun Computation box (see Section 7.11.4 for
more details).
l Regenerant Dose: mass of regenerant 100% pure per volume of SAC (or SBA) resin in reference form.
l Regeneration Ratio: level of regeneration expressed in percentage of the WAC (or WBA) operating capacity (e.g.
115 % Regeneration Ratio on a WAC means that a quantity of H+ ions equal to 1.15 time the quantity of ions fixed
on the resin will be used).

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Neutral Water Effluent
WAVE provides the option of neutralizing the IX waste stream. This can be activated by clicking on “Required (will over-
ride dose inputs)” option in the Neutral Waste Effluent box (see Figure 178). As stated, WAVE would over-ride regenerant
dose values to achieve a pH-neutral waste stream.
Figure 178. Product Quality and Regeneration Dose Window

Notes:
l Neutral Waste Effluent option is only available for IX processes where a cation and anion are involved.
l If the Dose Optimization option is selected (see Dose Optimization), the Neutral Waste Effluent option will not
be available.
l In demineralization systems involving a weak/strong couple, the Neutral Waste Effluent option will be available
only if the Regenerant Dose is specified as Dose but not as Regeneration Ratio.

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Overrun Computation
For WAC-SAC or WBA-SBA resin couples in demineralizers, WAVE will calculate the overrun to increase the load on the
strong resin by increasing the ionic leakage from the weak resin. Depending on the options previously specified, WAVE
will adjust the overrun in order that:
l The total quantity of chemical meets minimum recommended stoichiometric ratio.
When the “Length of Operating Cycles” and the regenerant “Dose” are specified, respectively, in the IX
Initialization Window and in the Product Quality and Regenerant Dose Window, WAVE calculates the amount of
regenerant required based on strong resin. However, most of the ions are picked up by the weak resin. If there is
not enough regenerant left over for the weak resin, then WAVE ‘over-runs’ to increase the load on the strong
resin and the total quantity of regenerant needed. WAVE adjusts the overrun so that there is sufficient chemical
to ensure that both resins are well regenerated (which also gives the best match of capacity and hydraulics).
l The total volume of resin (weak + strong combination) is minimized.
When the “Length of Operating Cycles” and the “Regeneration Ratio” are specified, respectively, in the IX
Initialization Window and in the Product Quality and Regenerant Dose Window, the amount of regenerant is
given by the ionic load and the Regeneration Ratio. In this case, WAVE adjusts the overrun in order to minimize
the total volume (weak + strong) resin.
l Weak resin potential run time and strong resin potential run time are comparable.
When the Length of Operating Cycle is to be determined (e.g. Evaluating Existing Plant mode), WAVE adjusts
the overrun so that weak resin potential run time and strong resin potential run time are comparable.
WAVE also provides the user with the option to input the amount of over-run by clicking on the radio button for
“Manual” in the Overrun Computation box.
Dose Optimization
WAVE allows the user to optimize the design in two different ways
l Optimize the chemical dosage. WAVE will calculate the optimum regenerant concentration to meet the target
quality and it will override user’s inputs.
If Dose Optimization is not selected, a warning will appear in the report if the selected design does not reach the
target quality. If regenerant is overdosed, the product water quality in the report will be higher than required and
the dose can be manually adjusted.
l Optimize design to minimize chemical consumption while meeting run length, leakage, stoichiometry, and
hydraulic constraints.

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5.1.12 Existing Plant Description
If “Evaluate Existing Plant” or “Retrofit Plant to UPCORE ™” options are selected during the description of the Modeling
Objective (see The Modeling Objective), an eighth button called Existing Plant Description will be added to the left-
hand navigation area (see Figure 179).
The Existing Plant Description Window allows the user to specify the following parameters (as shown in Figure 179):
1. Resin Volumes
2. Vessel Diameter
3. Inert Bed Height (only available for some Regeneration Systems)
4. Vessel Cylindrical Height
5. Vessel Wall Thickness
6. Resin Packaging Size
Figure 179. Existing Plant Description

Notes:
l At the bottom of the Existing Plant Description window, only the option “Use Vessel Geometry and Resin
Volume values” is available.
l If the Vessel Height input is inconsistent with the Resin Volume and Vessel Diameter inputs, WAVE will issue a
warning indicating the minimum required Vessel Height, as shown in Figure 180.

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Figure 180. Existing Plant Description. Height Warning
5.1.13 Final Parameter Adjustments
After running the summary report (see Section 8.1), if the WAVE user goes back to any of the IX Process screens (IX
Soft/Dealk, IX Demin or IX MB Polish), the option of Final Parameter Adjustments will appear on the left (see Figure 181).
In this screen it is possible to fine tune the following parameters:
1. Resin volumes
2. Vessel diameter
3. Vessel cylindrical height
4. Vessel wall thickness
5. Resin packaging size: this option will override the selected resin packaging size selected in the Resin Selection
screen.
Finally, at the bottom of this screen one of the three following options should be selected:
l Use Vessel Geometry and Resin Volume values: WAVE will use the resin volume and vessel diameter specified
in this screen.
l Use Vessel Geometry values, ignore Resin Volume values: WAVE will use the vessel volume geometry specified
and fill it with resins. The volume of resins will not be adjusted to cycle length but to vessel dimensions.
l Ignore Vessel Geometry and Resin Volume values: WAVE will ignore all resin volumes that have been
introduced and vessel sizing and will recalculate the suggested resin volume and size according user’s design
inputs (as it does in the first run).

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Figure 181. Final Parameters Adjustment Window

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5.2 Ion Exchange Final Calculation and Report Generation
5.2.1 Generating and Understanding Summary Report
Once all the required inputs are in place in the IX Processes Tab (IXS/D, IX Demin and/or IXMB) , the IX system “Summary
Report” can be generated as shown in Figure 182.
Figure 182. WAVE Summary Report and Detailed Report generation for IX

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In addition to the IX System Overview, the Summary Report includes 4 tables summarizing the key plant details,
operating parameters and performance (results may vary depending on specific operating conditions):
1. IX System Overview
2. IX Resins and Vessels
3. IX Water Quality
4. IX Design Warnings

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5.2.2 Generating and Understanding the IX Detailed Report
IX Detailed Report can be generated as shown below:

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Detailed Report Components are shown below (Results may vary depending on specific operating conditions).
1. IX System Overview (including Flow Diagram)
2. IX Resins and Vessels
3. IW Water Quality
4. IX Design Warnings
5. IX Resins
6. IX Vessels
7. IX Regeneration (including Chemical Consumption, Service Water Consumption, Regeneration Efficiency and
Regeneration Protocol)
8. IX Water Composition
9. IX Utility and Chemical Costs (including Service Water and Electricity)

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After the first simulation of the system, WAVE allows the user to rerun the simulation at a different temperature by
following these steps (Figure 184):
Select the appropriate temperature value:
2. Click on the “Refresh Report” button (see Figure 184).
The report will be updated with recalculated values. WAVE will use the existing resin volumes and vessel geometry
obtained during the previous simulation and the “Length of Operating Cycles” (or “Specific Velocity”) specified on the IX
Initialization Window.
Figure 184. Re-evaluating the design at a different feed temperature

Notes:
the dropdown list in the Calculate & Report Tab.

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5.2.4 Define Recovery
WAVE automatically sends the System Recovery calculated at the Report Tab to the Home Tab. However, if needed the
recovery can be modified. This can be done through the following steps:
1. Click on the Home Tab and right-click on the Technology symbol
2. Select “Define Recovery” from the dropdown list. The Define Recovery Popup Window would appear
3. Select the radio button next to selected option and click “OK”:
l Basic Default: This is the default recovery that WAVE is assuming when starting the design
l Specify: User specified initial recovery value that WAVE will assume when starting the design.
l Based on IX Process configuration: this option will only appear once the summary report has been
generated. This is the calculated IX Process recovery based on the design inputs and it is the recovery
that WAVE will be using.
Figure 185. WAVE define recovery option

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5.2.5 Handling the Reports (Saving & Exporting)
The Summary Report serves as a quick look at the results. The Summary Report can be exported as a PDF document to a
folder location of the user’s choice.
Figure 186. Export of Summary Report in WAVE as PDF

The Detailed reports can be exported to PDF, Excel or Word as shown in Figures below. All of these options lead to a
folder location where the user can save the PDF, Excel or Word file.

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It is also possible to create stacked report. By clicking this option, WAVE will create detailed report of all the different
cases selected in one single pdf file.
Figure 189. Stacked report in WAVE

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6 Case Management
WAVE allows users to create variations of a water treatment process by defining multiple cases. Case management in
WAVE involves the following:
6.1 Adding New Cases 209

6.2 Accessing Cases 211
6.3 Deleting Cases 216
6.4 Saving and Exporting 217

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6.1 Adding New Cases
New Cases can be created in WAVE using two ways:
6.1.1 Using the Add Case button in the Home Tab
New cases can be defined in WAVE by clicking on the “Add Case” button in the Home tab (Figure 190).
Figure 190. Creating a new case using the Add Case button from the Home window
Notes:
l By default, WAVE creates a case when a new project is started
l By selecting a case of interest (Case A), then right-clicking on it and clicking on the “Add Case” button, the user
can create multiple copies of Case A.

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6.1.2 Using the Add Case button in the Case Manager Window
New cases can be defined in WAVE as follows:
1. Click on the “Manage” button in the Home Tab (as shown in Figure 191)
Figure 191. Creating a new case using the Case Manger – accessing the Case Manager
2. Select the case of interest and click on “Add” in the Case Manager window (Figure 192).
Figure 192. Creating a new case using the Case Manger Add Case button

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3. After the case is created, click on “Close” (Figure 193).
Figure 193. New case creation and where the user is notified
Notes:
l By default, WAVE creates a case when a new project is started
l Users can see that a new case is created by looking at the name of the project displayed at the Case
Management window and the Quick Nav window (as shown in Figure 193).
6.2 Accessing Cases

Cases which have been created in WAVE can be accessed in three ways:

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6.2.1 Using the Case Management Window
The list of Cases that have been created can be seen from the Case Management window by clicking on the “Manage“
button as shown in Figure 194 and Figure 195. The Case Management Window allows the user to order the different
cases and rename them.
Figure 194. Accessing the Case Management window
Figure 195. The Case Management window

Note: The Case Management window allows the user to reorder the Cases and rename them. It does not let the user
delete, add or open a case.

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6.2.2 Using the Quick-Nav Window
The Quick-Nav Window, accessible from every Tab except for the Summary Report Tab, is another way to access the list
of cases (Figure 196 and Figure 197). From the Quick - Nav window, the user can open or delete a Case.
l WAVE prevents the user from deleting the last or only case in the Quick-Nav window.
l The Quick-Nav window does not allow the user to add or reorder a case.
Figure 196. Accessing cases through the Quick-Nav window – accessing Quick Nav
Figure 197. Accessing the Case Management window

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6.2.3 Using the Project Open Window
A third way of accessing is by using the “Open Existing Project” window . The steps are:
1. Click on “File”, then select “Open Project” (as shown in Figure 198)
2. Click on the “Show Cases” checkbox, as shown in Figure 199. The cases in that project are displayed as shown in
Figure 200.
Figure 198. Choosing the ‘Open Project’
Figure 199. Selecting 'Show Cases'.

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Figure 200. Display of cases in the 'Open Existing Projects' window.
Notes:
l By right-clicking on the Case of interest, the user can Open, Delete and Rename a Case in the “Open Existing
Project” window. The user can promote one of the cases to a ‘root project’ so that more cases can be generated
from it.
l The ‘Open Existing Project’ window does not allow the user to re-order the cases or create a new case.

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6.3 Deleting Cases
Cases can be deleted in WAVE in one of three ways:
1. Using the Case Manager: Cases can be deleted by selecting them and clicking on ‘Delete Project’.
2. Using the Quick-Nav Window: Cases can be deleted by right clicking on them and selecting “Delete”.

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3. Using the Open Existing Project Window: Cases can be deleted by right clicking on them and selecting
“Delete Case”.
6.4 Saving and Exporting
6.4.1 Saving
WAVE projects can be saved using “File” then “Save” or “Save as” as shown. . The user is prompted to provide a name for
the project the first time it is saved.
Figure 201. Project saving in WAVE

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6.4.2 Exporting
WAVE projects are saved in a database and cannot be shared. However they can be exported as DWPX files which can
be saved and e-mailed. If the user clicks on “Export” they would be directed to a folder to which they can export the
Project. By the same token, a user can Import a project from a folder using the Import button.
Figure 202. Project export in WAVE

Notes:
l WAVE does not allow a user to export a project that has not been saved
l Importing a DWPX file will bring the project into the “Open Existing Project” window. The user has to go to the
“Open Existing Project” window from File to open the Project.

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6 Definitions of Terms and Abbreviations
Absolute Weight of wet resin that displaces a unit volume, expressed as grams per unit volume in a specific
density ionic form.
Air mixing Process of using air to mix two ion exchange materials of different densities in a water
Air Scour Cleaning method where air is used to shake the fibers and help to dislodge the solids from its
surface. Also known as Air Scrub.
Alk leak at The normal end-point for a WAC resin is 10% alkalinity leakage. In this condition, the downstream SAC
end-point resin should remove the permanent hardness and the monovalent cations. This situation generally
leads to a big discrepancy between WAC (large) and SAC (low) resin volumes. Increasing the end
point value above 10% means that the SAC resin has to deal with a part of alkalinity, resulting in a
better: utilization of both resins and better optimization. This item can be entered as any value
between 10 and 80%.
Amount NaOH The amount of NaOH used for one regeneration expressed as equivalent unit.
used
Anion salinity The gross ionic load on the anion exchange resins between two regenerations.
Anion A positively charged synthetic particle that can freely exchange associated anions based on
exchange resin differences in the selectivities of the anions. Also referred to as anion resin.
Attrition Breakage and abrasion of resin beads occurring when the beads rub against other beads or other
solids.
Backwash Hydraulic cleaning method where filtrate water is pumped from the filtrate to the feed side of the
membrane in order to remove accumulated foulants. Also known as Backflush or Backpulse.
Upward flow of water through an ion exchange resin bed to remove foreign material and reclassify
the bed after exhaustion and prior to regeneration. Also used to reduce compaction of the bed.
Base exchange Exchange of cations between a solution and cation exchange resin.
Batch Method of using ion exchange resins in which the resin and the solution to be treated are mixed in a
operation: vessel, and the liquid is decanted or filtered off after equilibrium is attained.
Bed Ion exchange resin contained in a column.
Bed depth Depth of ion exchange resin in a column.
Bed expansion Separation and rise of ion exchange resin beads in a column during backwashing.
Bed volume Volume of ion exchange material of specified ionic form contained in a column or
Bed volume Measure of the volume flow rate through an ion exchange material contained in a column or
per hour operating unit, expressed as BV/h, m3/h/m3, or gal/min/ft3.
Bed warm-up Step just prior to regenerant injection where hot dilution water is added to the resin bed to heat the
bed to the appropriate temperature. This is to enhance polymerized silica removal.
Boiler feed Water used in steam boilers and some industrial processes. Boiler feed water may possibly be raw
water water, treated water, condensate, or mixtures, depending on the need.
Breakthrough Volume of effluent where the concentration of the exchanging ion in the effluent reaches a
predetermined limit. This point is usually the limit of the exhaustion cycle and where the backwash
cycle begins.
Capacity Number of equivalents of exchangeable ion per unit volume, unit wet weight, or dry weight of an ion
exchange material in specified ionic form.
Cation Negatively charged synthetic particle that can freely exchange associated cations based on
exchange resin differences in the selectivities of the cations. Also referred to as cation resin.
Channeling Creation of isolated paths of lower resistance in an ion exchange resin bed caused by the
introduction of air pockets, dirt, or other factors that result in uneven pressure gradients in the bed.
Channeling prevents the liquid being processed from uniformly contacting the entire resin bed.

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Chemically Chemical cleaning method, typically initiated automatically, where some chemicals are added into
Enhanced the Backwash stream in order to help improve the effectiveness of the cleaning. Usually includes a
Backwash soaking step.
(CEB)
Chemical Ability of an ion exchange resin to resist changes in its physical properties when in contact with
stability aggressive chemical solutions such as oxidizing agents. Also the ability of an ion exchange resin to
resist inherent degradation due to the chemical structure of the resin.
Chloride anion Anion exchange system that is regenerated with salt and caustic and exchanges chloride ions for
dealkalization bicarbonate and sulfate ions in the water being treated.
Classification Obtained by backwashing an ion exchange resin bed, which results in a bed that is graduated in resin
bead size from coarse on the bottom to fine on the top. This is less important when using uniform
particle size resins
Clean-In-Place Chemical cleaning method, typically initiated manually, where one or several chemical solutions are
(CIP) consecutively applied in the ultrafiltration trains in order to restore clean membrane condition.
Clumping Formation of agglomerates in an ion exchange bed due to fouling or electrostatic charges.
Co-current Ion exchange operation in which the process water and regenerant are passed through the bed in
operation the same direction, normally downflow.
Color throw Color imparted to a liquid from an ion exchange resin.
Column Most common method for employing ion exchange in which the liquid to be treated passes through
operation a fixed bed of ion exchange resin.
Concentrate The water stream leaving the membrane system as waste.
Condensate Use of a cation resin or mixed-bed column to remove impurities from condensate.
polisher
Conductivity Ability of a current to flow through water as a measure of its ionic concentration, measured in
micromhos/cm (μmho/cm) or microsiemens/cm (μS/cm).
Contact time Amount of time that the process liquid spends in the ion exchange bed, expressed in minutes.
Determined by dividing the bed volume by the flow rate, using consistent units.
Counter- Ion exchange operation in which the process liquid and regenerant flows are in opposite directions.
current Also referred to as counter-flow operation.
operation
Deaerator Device that reduces oxygen as well as CO 2 and all other gases to a very low level. It is a preferred as a
means of CO 2 reduction when demineralizing boiler water make-up. It eliminates water pollution and
reduces corrosion problems when transferring water through steel equipment. Usually results in
longer anion exchange resin life.
Dealkalization Anion exchange process for the removal or reduction of alkalinity in a water supply.
Decationization Exchange of cations for hydrogen ions by a strong acid cation exchange material in the hydrogen
form. See Salt splitting.
Degasifier Used to reduce carbon dioxide content of the effluent from hydrogen cation exchangers. Reduces
CO 2 to approximately 5–10 ppm but saturates water with air. Also referred to as a decarbonator.
Degradation Physical or chemical reduction of ion exchange properties due to type of service, solution,
concentration used, heat, or aggressive operating conditions. Some effects are capacity loss, particle
size reduction, excessive swelling, or combinations of the above.
Deionization Removal of ionizable (soluble) constituents and silica from a solution by ion exchange processing.
Normally performed by passing the solution through the hydrogen form of cation exchange resin
and through the hydroxide form of an anion exchange resin, either as a two-step operation or as an
operation in which a single bed containing a mixture of the two resins is employed.
Deionized Water that has had all dissolved ionic constituents removed. Cation and anion exchange resins, when
water properly used together, will deionize water.
Dissociation Process of ionization of an electrolyte or salt upon being dissolved in water, forming cations and
anions.

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Distributor Piping inside an ion exchange vessel that evenly distributes flow across the resin bed.
Double pass Process by which a stream is treated twice in series by ion exchange resins. Normally a cation
exchange resin and anion exchange resin are followed by a mixed bed or another cation exchange
resin and anion exchange resin step
Downflow Operation of an ion exchange column in which the regenerant enters the top of the ion exchange
column and is withdrawn from the bottom. This is the conventional direction of water flow in a co-
current ion exchange column.
Dry weight Amount of exchange capacity present in a unit weight of dried resin.
capacity
Eductor Device that draws a solution into the water stream by using a flow of water to create a vacuum.
Effective size Particle size expressed in millimeters equal to the 90% retention size determined from a particle size
analysis.
Efficiency Measure of the quantity of regenerant required to remove a chemical equivalent weight of
contaminant in the influent water. For a sodium softener, this is usually expressed as pounds of salt
per kilogram or kg salt per equivalent of hardness removed.
Effluent The solution that emerges from an ion exchange column or vessel.
Eluate The solution resulting from an elution process.
Elution The stripping of sorbed ions from an ion exchange resin by passing solutions containing other ions in
relatively high concentrations through the resin column.
Eductor Device that draws a solution into the water stream by using a flow of water to create a vacuum.
Effective size Particle size expressed in millimeters equal to the 90% retention size determined from a particle size
analysis.
Exchange sites The reactive groups on an ion exchange resin.
Exchanger bed Ion exchange resin contained in a suitable vessel and supported by material, such as grated gravel,
screen-wrapped pipe, or perforated plate, which also acts as a liquid distribution system.
Exhaustion Step in an ion exchange cycle in which the undesirable ions are removed from the liquid being
processed. When the supply of ions on the ion exchange resin that are being exchanged for the ions
in the liquid being processed is almost depleted, the resin is said to be exhausted.
Fast rinse Portion of the rinse that follows the slow rinse. Usually passed through the ion exchange bed at the
service flow rate.
Feed The water stream entering the membrane system.
Flow Factor Factor of permeability applied to model boundary conditions in a RO/ROSC/NF designs.
Filtrate The water stream that goes through the membrane, and is free from impurities.
Flow Feed flow is the rate of feedwater introduced to the membrane element or membrane system,
usually measured in gallons per minute (GPM) or cubic meters per hour (m3/h).
Flux The throughput of a membrane filtration system expressed as flow per unit of membrane area (e.g.,
gallons per square foot per day (GFD) or liters per hour per square meter (LMH).
FMA leak at The normal end-point for a WBA resin corresponds to the chloride breakthrough that can be set just
end-point above 0%. In this condition, the downstream SBA resin should remove the carbon dioxide and silica
ions. This situation generally leads to a big discrepancy between WBA (large) and SBA (low) volumes.
Increasing the value above 0% means that the SBA has to deal with a part of FMA (mainly chloride),
resulting in a better utilization of both resins and a better optimization. This item can be entered as
any value between 0 and 80%.
Forward Flush Step in a UF backwash sequence during which, feed water is used to rinse the system to remove
remaining solids and the air that might have got trapped in the system during the precedent steps.
Water flows on the outside of the fibers (feed side) with the filtrate valve closed, and exits through
the module top outlet.
Free mineral Due to the presence of acids such as H 2SO 4, HCl, and nitric acid (HNO 3), expressed in ppm or mg/L as
acidity calcium carbonate.

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Freeboard Space provided above the resin bed in the column to accommodate the expansion of resin particles
during backwashing.
Functional Atom or group of atoms on an ion exchange resin that gives the resin its specific chemical
group characteristics.
Gel Term applied to the bead structure of certain ion exchange resins that have a microporous matrix
structure with small pores generally <10 Å. Gel resins offer good operating capacity and regeneration
efficiency. Porous gel resins also exhibit good resistance to organic fouling.
Gross The volume of water that the resin is able to deionize. It includes the water used for regeneration, in
throughput contrast to the NET throughput that excludes it.
Hardness, total Currently defined as the sum of calcium and magnesium concentrations, both expressed as calcium
carbonate in ppm or mg/L.
Hydraulic Tendency of small resin particles to rise to the top of the resin bed during a backwash operation and
classification the tendency of large resin particles to settle to the bottom.
Hydrogen Term used to describe a cation resin regenerated with acid to exchange hydrogen ions (H+) for other
cation cations.
exchanger
Hydrogen Cation exchange resin operation in which the regenerated ionic form of the resin is the hydrogen
cycle form.
Hydroxide Anion exchange operation in which the regenerated form of the ion exchange material is the
cycle hydroxide form.
Influent Solution entering an ion exchange column.
Integrity Test Physical test applied to a membrane unit to detect integrity breaches.
Internally The principle of Internally Staged Design (ISD) is that elements with the lowest production and
Staged Design highest rejection are installed in the first positions and elements with the highest production in the
rear positions of the vessel.
Interstitial Space between the particles in an ion exchange resin bed.
volume
Ion exchange Process by which ionic impurities in water are attached to active groups on and in an ion exchange
resin, and more desirable ions are discharged into water.
Ionic form The resin performances are always reported to the shrunken form of the resins. It corresponds to the
following ionic forms:
l Hydrogen for WAC
l Sodium for SAC
l Free base for WBA
l Chloride for SBA

Ionic strength Half of the sum of the product of ion concentrations and the square of their charges.
Ionization Separation of part or all of the solute molecules into positive (cationic) and negative (anionic) ions in a
dissociating medium such as water.
Inert resin The value displayed corresponds to the volume of inert material in each vessel or in each
volume compartment. For plant retrofit or design using standard vessels, if there is no top nozzle plate, the
value includes the volume of material required to fill the dome, providing you checked the
corresponding box in plant retrofit step.
ISD Internally Staged Design
Layered bed Two ion exchange materials (e.g., weak and strong base anion resins) with sufficient differences in
density and hydraulic characteristics to be layered in the same vessel, in place of two separate
vessels.

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Langelier WAVE uses ASTM International practice D 3739 (Standard Practice for Calculation and Adjustment of
Saturation the Langelier Saturation Index for Reverse Osmosis) as the basis for the LSI calculations performed.
Index (LSI) The LSI is an indicator used to determine the need for calcium carbonate scale control. It is
applicable for water streams containing up to 10,000 mg/L of total dissolved solids. For water streams
containing greater than 10,000 mg/L of total dissolved solids, the Stiff & Davis Stability Index is
preferred.
Leakage Phenomenon caused by incomplete regeneration of an ion exchange bed. Since complete
(hardness, regeneration is usually inefficient, most ion exchange processes operate at one-half to one-third of
sodium, silica, the total capacity of the ion exchange system.
etc.)
Macroporous Term applied to the bead structure of certain ion exchange resins that have a tough, rigid structure
with large discrete pores. Macroporous resins offer good resistance to physical, thermal, and osmotic
shock and chemical oxidation. Macroporous anion resins also exhibit good resistance to organic
fouling.
Mixed bed Use of a mixture of cation and anion resins in the same column to produce water of extremely high
quality.
Module This refers to the simplest unit composed of the membranes, the vessel, the end-caps, the feed and
air inlets, the filtrate outlet and the waste outlet. Several modules form a membrane train, rack, bank
or skid.
Molality Number of gram-molecules weight of a solute per kilogram of solvent.
Molarity Number of gram-molecules weight of a solute per liter of solution.
NF Nanofiltration
Operating Portion of the total exchange capacity of an ion exchange resin bed that is used in a practical ion
capacity exchange operation. Commonly expressed in kilograms per cubic foot (kg/ft3) or milliequivalents per
liter (meq/L).
Operating Complete ion exchange process consisting of a backwash, regeneration, rinse, and service run.
cycle
Osmotic shock Expansion or contraction of resin beads due to volume changes imposed by repeated applications of
dilute and concentrated solutions.
Osmotic Ability of an ion exchange material to resist physical degradation due to osmotic shock.
stability
Passage The percentage of dissolved constituents (contaminants) in the feedwater allowed to pass through
the membrane.
Permeate The purified product water produced by a membrane system.
Permeate Split Capability of splitting a portion of the pass 1 permeate from the first stage to the final system
permeate.
pH It is a numeric scale used to express the acidity or alkalinity of the water. Solutions with a pH less than
7 are acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic. Pure water has a pH of 7 and is neutral. In
water, high pH causes a bitter taste, water pipes and equipment become encrusted with deposits.
Low-pH water will corrode or dissolve metals and other substances.
Polisher Mixed-bed ion exchange unit usually installed after a two-bed deionizer system to remove the last
traces of undesirable ions.
Polydispersed Resin composed of particles of a wide range of particle sizes.
resin
Pressure drop Loss in liquid pressure resulting from the passage of the solution through the bed of ion exchange
resin.
Pretreatment A series of steps that includes flocculation, settling, filtration, or any treatment water receives prior to
ion exchange

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Process water Any water mixed with a product, or becoming part of a product, or used to wash a product. These
supplies require various kinds of treatment such as clarification and filtration. In many cases ion
exchange resins are used to soften, dealkalize, or completely deionize the water.
Recovery The ratio of feed water that is converted to filtrate. Recovery equals to filtrate flow produced by the
membrane unit divided by the feed flow and is expressed as percentage
Regenerant Chemical used to convert an ion exchange resin to the desired ionic form for reuse.
Regeneration Displacement from the ion exchange resin of the ions removed from the process solution. This may
be performed either by co-current or counter-current operation. Lower ion leakages are typically
obtained with counter-current regeneration at comparable regenerant dosages.
Regeneration Measure of the amount of capacity of an ion exchange resin compared to the amount of regenerant
efficiency applied. This is expressed as a ratio of equivalents of capacity to equivalents of regenerant and is
therefore <100%.
Regeneration Amount of regenerant used per cycle. Commonly expressed in lb/ft3 of resin or g/L of resin. Also
level referred to as regeneration dosage.
Rejection The percentage of solute concentration removed from system feedwater by the membrane. In
reverse osmosis, a high rejection of total dissolved solids (TDS) is important, while in nanofiltration the
solutes of interest are specific, e.g. low rejection for hardness and high rejection for organic matter.
Reversible Ability of an ion exchange resin to use variations in component concentrations and selectivity to
allow a resin to be regenerated.
Rinse Passage of water through an ion exchange resin bed to flush out excess regenerant.
RO Reverse Osmosis
ROSC Reverse Osmosis Small Commercial
RTMP Transmembrane Pressure (bar or psi). It is the pressure difference between the feed and the filtrate
side of the UF module or skid.
Run time Time between regenerations or the duration of the service cycle.
SAC Strong Acid Cation
Salt splitting Conversion of salts to their corresponding acids or bases by passage through strong acid cation or
strong base anion exchange resins, respectively.
SBA Strong Base Anion
Scavenger Polymer matrix or ion exchange material used to specifically remove organic species from the
process liquid before the solution is deionized.
Selectivity Difference in attraction of one ion over another to an ion exchange resin.
Silt density Particulate or colloidal fouling can seriously impair performance by lowering UF productivity. An early
index(SDI) sign of colloidal fouling is often an increased pressure differential across the system. The particulates
or colloids can be bacteria, clay, colloidal silica, and iron corrosion products. The best measure of the
colloidal fouling potential of the feedwater is the measurement of Silt Density Index (SDI). The
Standard Test Method has been described in ASTM test D 4189-82.
Slow rinse Portion of the rinse that follows the regenerant solution and is passed through the ion exchange
material at the same flow rate as the regenerant.
Sluicing Method of transporting resin from one tank to another with water. Sluicing is usually used in mixed-
bed deionization systems with external regeneration systems.
Sodium form Cation exchange resin, regenerated with salt (NaCl). Exchanges sodium ions (Na+) for metal cations
cation resin (Mg+2, Ca+2, etc.), forming sodium salts (sulfates, carbonates, etc.).
Stiff & Davis WAVE uses ASTM International practice D 4582 (Standard Practice for Calculation and Adjustment of
Stability Index the Stiff and Davis Stability Index for Reverse Osmosis) as the basis for the S&DSI calculations
(S&DSI) performed. The S&DSI is an indicator used to determine the need for calcium carbonate scale
control. It is applicable for water streams containing greater than 10,000 mg/L of total dissolved
solids. For water streams containing less than 10,000 mg/L of total dissolved solids, use Langelier
Saturation Index.
Stability: Capability of a resin to resist chemical and physical degradation.

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Strong acid Part of the total cation exchange capacity that is capable of converting neutral salts to their
capacity: corresponding acids.
Strong acid Resins employed in softening and deionization systems. When regenerated with salt, the sodium
cation resin: ions on the resin will effectively exchange for divalent cations such as calcium and magnesium.
When regenerated with H 2SO 4 or HCl, the resin will split neutral salts, converting the salt to its
corresponding acid. The resin usually receives its exchange capacity from sulfonic groups.
Strong base Resins employed in chloride anion dealkalizers and deionization systems. When regenerated with
anion resin salt, the chloride ions exchange for bicarbonate and sulfate anions. When regenerated with caustic
soda, the resin removes both strong and weak acids from cation exchange resin effluent. The resin
usually receives its exchange capacity from quaternary ammonium groups.
Strong base Part of the total anion exchange capacity capable of converting neutral salts to their corresponding
capacity bases.
Throughput Amount of product water generated during the service cycle.
TOC (Total It is the most widely used parameter to determine the organic content in water. It includes Natural
Organic Organic Matter (NOM) and synthetic sources. It is indicative of the tendency of the water to cause
Carbon) organic fouling and biofouling in membranes. It is expressed in mg/L.
TSS (Total It is the measure of the total weight of solids contained in a water sample, and is expressed in mg/L.
Suspended This parameter is more accurate than turbidity (i.e., turbidity usually does not detect very fine
Solids) particles).
Total capacity Maximum exchange ability of an ion exchange resin expressed on a dry weight, wet weight, or wet
volume basis.
Train Single ion exchange system capable of producing the treated water desired, such as a strong acid
cation resin bed followed by a strong base anion resin bed, with multiple trains being duplicates of
the single system.
Turbidity Sediments, clay, silt, small particles, solids etc. cause a liquid to appear turbid, “hazy”. These particles
can, besides, host or shield microorganisms like bacteria and viruses. Turbidity is measured by the
intensity of light that passes through the water sample, and expressed in NTU (Nephelometric
Turbidity Units). Ultrafiltration gives consistent product water with turbidity values < 0.1 NTU.
Ultrafiltration A pressure-driven membrane filtration process that typically employs hollow-fiber membranes with a
pore size range of approximately 0.01 – 0.05 μm.
UF Ultrafiltration
Under drain Piping inside an ion exchange vessel that evenly collects the treated water after it has passed
through the resin bed.
UPCORE™ A version of the Packed bed, counter-current regeneration technology in which process flow is
downflow and regeneration is upflow after a compaction step. A floating layer of inert particles is
used to provide self-cleaning capability. UPCORE™ (up¢ kō rā) systems are self-cleaning, eliminating
the need for backwash and increasing regeneration efficiency and productivity while minimizing
leakage. The names comes from UPflow Counter-current Regeneration.
Upflow Operation of an ion exchange column in which the regenerant enters the bottom of the ion
exchange column and is withdrawn from the top. Regeneration efficiency and column leakage may
be improved by this process.
Water Amount of water, expressed as a percent of the wet weight, retained within and on the surface of a
retention fully swollen and drained ion exchange material.
Water Exchange of sodium for the hardness in water by ion exchange.
softening
Weak acid Used in dealkalization and desalination systems and in conjunction with strong acid cation resins for
cation resin deionization. When regenerated with acid, the resin will split alkaline salts, converting the salt to
carbonic acid. This resin exhibits very high regeneration efficiency. It usually receives its exchange
capacity from carboxylic groups.

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Weak base Used to remove mineral acids from solution. When regenerated with soda ash, ammonia, or caustic
anion resin soda, the resin adsorbs strong acids such as HCl and H 2SO 4 from the cation bed effluent. The resin
usually receives its exchange capacity from tertiary amine groups.
www.dupont.com/water/contact-us
All information set forth herein is for informational purposes only. This information is general information and may differ from that based on actual conditions. Customer is responsible for determining whether products and
the information in this document are appropriate for Customer's use and for ensuring that Customer's workplace and disposal practices are in compliance with applicable laws and other government enactments. The
product shown in this literature may not be available for sale and/or available in all geographies where DuPont is represented. The claims made may not have been approved for use in all countries. Please note that
physical properties may vary depending on certain conditions and while operating conditions stated in this document are intended to lengthen product lifespan and/or improve product performance, it will ultimately
depend on actual circumstances and is in no event a guarantee of achieving any specific results. DuPont assumes no obligation or liability for the information in this document. References to “DuPont” or the “Company”
mean the DuPont legal entity selling the products to Customer unless otherwise expressly noted. NO WARRANTIES ARE GIVEN; ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR
PURPOSE ARE EXPRESSLY EXCLUDED. No freedom from infringement of any patent or trademark owned by DuPont or others is to be inferred.
DuPont™, the DuPont Oval Logo, and all trademarks and service marks denoted with ™, ℠ or ® are owned by affiliates of DuPont de Nemours Inc. unless otherwise noted. © 2020 DuPont.
UPCORE™ is a trademark of The Dow Chemical Company used under license by DuPont.

Page 226 of 226
January 2020
Water Solutions
Ultrafiltration Technical
Manual
Version 4
June 2019
NOTICE: The information provided in this literature is given in good faith for informational purposes only. (Undefined variable:
General.Company_Name) assumes no obligation or liability for the information presented herein. NO WARRANTIES ARE GIVEN; ALL IMPLIED
WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE EXPRESSLY EXCLUDED.
Table of contents
1 INTRODUCTION TO ULTRAFILTRATION 6
1.1 Introduction 6
1.2 Ultrafiltration Applications 7
1.3 Ultrafiltration Advantages 7
1.4 Ultrafiltration Operating Modes 8
1.4.1 Dead-End Mode 8
1.4.2 Cross-Flow and Bleed Mode 8
1.5 Ultrafiltration Module and System Configuration 9
1.6 Ultrafiltration Membrane Features 10
1.6.1 Materials 10
1.6.2 Flow Pattern 10
1.7 Ultrafiltration Filtrate Quality 11
2 WATER CHEMISTRY AND PRETREATMENT 12
2.1 Water chemistry 12
2.2 ULTRAFILTRATION PRETREATMENT 14
3 DUPONT ULTRAFILTRATION MODULES DESCRIPTION 17
3.1 DuPont Ultrafiltration Module Features 17
3.2 DuPont Ultrafiltration Certifications 18
3.3 DuPont Ultrafiltration Product Code 19
3.4 DuPont Ultrafiltration Product Portfolio 21
3.4.1 DuPont UF 26/28 Series Modules 23
3.4.2 IntegraFlux™ Series Modules 24
3.4.3 IntegraPac™ Ultrafiltration Modules 25
3.4.4 IntegraPac™ Ultrafiltration Skids 27
3.4.5 IntegraFlux™ UXA-2680XP Modules: 31
3.5 DuPont Ultrafiltration Product Selection Guidelines 33
3.6 DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules Installation 33
4 DUPONT ULTRAFILTRATION SYSTEM DESIGN 40
4.1 Introduction 40
4.2 System design software 40
5 DUPONT ULTRAFILTRATION PROCESS DESCRIPTION 41
5.1 Filtration 42
5.2 Air Scour 43
5.3 Gravity Drain 44
5.4 Backwash Top 45
5.5 Backwash Bottom 46
5.6 Forward Flush 47
6 DUPONT ULTRAFILTRATION CLEANING 48
6.1 Membrane Fouling 48
6.2 Chemically Enhanced Backwash (CEB) 49
6.3 Cleaning In Place (CIP) 50
6.3.1 Introduction 50
6.3.2 Safety Precautions 50
6.3.3 CIP Requirements 51
6.3.4 CIP Equipment 52
6.3.5 CIP Procedure 53
6.3.6 CIP Tips 56
6.3.7 CIP Chemicals 56
6.4 Alternative Cleaning Protocols 57
6.4.1 Mini-CIP 57
6.4.2 Elimination of Backwash 58
6.4.3 Backwash with RO Brine 58
7 HANDLING AND STORAGE PROCEDURES FOR DUPONT ULTRAFILTRATION MODULES 59
7.1 General 59
7.2 Factory Storage & Shipping of DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules 59
7.3 Storage of New DUPONT Ultrafiltration Modules 60
7.4 Short-Term Shutdown & Storage of Used DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules 61
Form No. 795-50269, Rev. 4

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7.4.1 Short-Term Shutdown & Storage, Off-Skid Storage 61
7.4.2 Short-Term Shutdown & Storage, On-Skid Storage 61
7.5 Long-Term Shutdown & Storage of Used DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules 62
7.5.1 Long-Term Shutdown & Storage, Off-Skid Storage 62
7.5.2 Long-Term Shutdown & Storage, On-Skid Storage 63
7.6 Freeze-Protection of Used DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules 63
7.7 Re-Wetting of Dried Out DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules 64
8 DUPONT ULTRAFILTRATION MAINTENANCE AND TROUBLESHOOTING 65
8.1 Introduction 65
8.2 Instruments for System Operation 65
8.3 Record Keeping 66
8.4 Data Normalization 68
8.4.2 Normalization of DuPont Ultrafiltration Performance Data 69
8.4.3 DuPont Ultrafiltration Normalization Tool 71
8.5 DuPont Ultrafiltration Module Integrity Test 71
8.5.2 Physical Inspection of Modules 72
8.5.3 Pressure Decay Direct Integrity Test Procedure 72
8.6 DuPont Ultrafiltration Fiber Repair 74
8.6.2 Equipment 74
8.6.3 Fiber Test and Repair Procedure 74
8.7 DuPont Ultrafiltration Troubleshooting Guide 77
9 ADDENDUM 78
9.1 Terminology 78
9.2 Acronyms 80
10 Key Word Index 82
Form No. 795-50269, Rev. 4

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Table of figures
Figure 1. Separation Filtration Spectrum 6
Figure 2. Dead-End Operating Mode 8
Figure 3. Concentrate Recirculation Operating Mode 9
Figure 4. Concentrate Bleed Operating Mode 9
Figure 5. Inside/Out vs. Outside/In Operation 10
Figure 6. SDI15 filters before and after the test 12
Figure 7. Wall Cross Section of the Hollow Fiber 18
Figure 8. Family of DuPont Ultrafiltration SFP/D and IntegraFlux™ modules 21
Figure 9. IntegraPac™ and IntegraPac™ XP modules and skids 22
Figure 10. IntegraFlux™ UXA-2680XP module 22
Figure 11. DuPont Ultrafiltration SFP/D 2660 Module 24
Figure 12. DuPont Ultrafiltration SFP/D-2860/2880 and IntegraFlux™ SFP/D-2860/2880XP Module Reference Draw-
ing for Dimensions 24
Figure 13. IntegraPac™ Module 25
Figure 14. IntegraPac™ IP/D-51, IP/D-51XP, IP/D-77, and IP/D-77XP Module Reference Drawing for Dimensions 26
Figure 15. IntegraPac™ skid Reference for Dimensions. 29
Figure 16. IntegraPac™ Skid Components 30
Figure 17. IntegraFlux™ UXA-2680XP Module Reference 32
Figure 18. DuPont Ultrafiltration Product Selection guide 33
Figure 19. Installation Drawing of DuPont Ultrafiltration SFP/D-2660 Module 34
Figure 20. Installation Drawing Typical of DuPont Ultrafiltration SFP/D-2860/2860XP and SFP/D-2880/2880XP Mod-
ule 35
Figure 21. Installation Drawing for IntegraPac™ IP/D-51, IP/D-51XP, IP/D-77 and IP/D-77XP Modules 36
Figure 22. Installation Drawing for Type I IntegraFlux™ UXA-2680XP Modules 37
Figure 23. Installation Drawing for Type II IntegraFlux™ UXA-2680XP Modules 38
Figure 24. Installation Drawing for Type III IntegraFlux™ UXA-2680XP Modules 39
Figure 25. Filtration Step for DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules 42
Figure 26. Air Scour Step for DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules 43
Figure 27. Gravity Drain Step for DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules 44
Figure 28. Backwash Top Step for DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules 45
Figure 29. Backwash Bottom Step for DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules 46
Figure 30. Forward Flush Step for DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules 47
Figure 31. CIP System Flow Diagram 52
Figure 32. Example of DuPont UF Operation Log Sheet 67
Figure 33. Example of DuPont UF CIP Log Sheet 68
Figure 34. TCF vs Temperature (°C) 70
Figure 35. Pressure Decay Test diagram 73
Figure 36. Applying water to the filtrate end of the fibers 75
Figure 37. Identifying leaking fiber at location of large bubble 75
Figure 38. Applying glue to pin 76
Form No. 795-50269, Rev. 4

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Table of tables
Table 1. Recommended Water Quality Sampling Program 13
Table 2. Qualified Feed Water Quality Parameters 14
Table 3. Strainer selection guidelines 15
Table 4. Regulatory Certifications Information 18
Table 5. DuPont Ultrafiltration SFP/SFD modules Dimensions, Connections and Specifications 23
Table 6. Dimensions, connections and specifications of IntegraPac™ IP/D-51/77 and IntegraPac™ IP/D-51/77XP 26
Table 7. IntegraPac™ IP/D-51, IntegraPac™ IP/D-77 and IntegraPac™ IP/D-51XP, IntegraPac™ IP/D-77XP skid details 28
Table 8. IntegraFlux™ UXA-2680XP Module Dimensions, Connections and Specifications 31
Table 9. DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules Operating Conditions 41
Table 10. Summary of the fouling types and methods of control 49
Table 11. pH and temperature limits during cleaning 50
Table 12. Recommended CIP Feed Flowrate per UF module 53
Table 13. General Valve Sequence Table for CIP Procedure 54
Table 14. General CIP Cleaning Solutions 57
Table 15. Summary of the target glycerin strengths 63
Table 16. Minimum instruments recommended in an Ultrafiltration system 65
Table 17. Temperature vs TCF 69
Table 18. DuPont UF System Troubleshooting Guide 77
Form No. 795-50269, Rev. 4

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1 INTRODUCTION TO ULTRAFILTRATION
1.1 Introduction
A separation spectrum diagram is shown on Figure 1. It depicts the most common technologies applied for the removal
of diverse contaminants or substances present in a feed stream of water supplies. While Electrodeionization (EDI), Ion
Exchange (IER), Reverse Osmosis (RO) and Nanofiltration (NF) target the removal of solutes from the feed stream,
Ultrafiltration (UF), Fine Particle Filtration (FPF) and Microfiltration (MF) separate fine particles, suspended solids, colloidal
matter, microorganisms (e.g., cryptosporidium or giardia cysts) and low molecular weight species.
UF is a pressure-driven process that achieves separation through sieving (i.e., size exclusion) depending on its pore size
and molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) expressed in kilodaltons (kDa). The pore size is the nominal diameter of the
micropores in the membrane expressed in microns (µm). The MWCO is the molecular mass or weight of a solute that is
rejected greater than 90 percent. UF membranes can be as fine as 3 kDa or as coarse as 150 kDa. Typically, coarse UF
membranes in the range of 80 – 150 kDa (equivalent to a pore size of 0.02 – 0.03 µm) are used in water treatment
applications as they have a good balance between rejection and permeability. This pore size can provide a barrier to
viruses often found in water sources.
Figure 1. Separation Filtration Spectrum
Form No. 795-50269, Rev. 4

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1.2 Ultrafiltration Applications
The increasingly stringent requirements for quality standards of water supplies have facilitated the widespread
application of UF in the industrial and municipal markets, offering an excellent choice among conventional filtration
processes (e.g., media filtration, or coagulation-flocculation-sedimentation). Compared to Microfiltration, UF can offer
higher virus removal capability. By physically removing pathogens, UF membrane filtration can also significantly reduce
downstream chemical addition (e.g., chlorine).
UF is widely used as well in an integrated membrane treatment scheme as pretreatment to RO or NF to reduce

membrane fouling potential. As RO membranes are widely accepted for the removal of ionic impurities from water
bodies, the water sources that are being used to feed RO systems demand good pretreatment. RO membrane
manufacturers recommend a Silt Density Index (SDI) of 3 or less to help achieve improved performance, which UF
membranes fall well under.
The main applications for UF in the water and wastewater field are seawater RO pretreatment, seawater NF
pretreatment (e.g., water injection in the Oil & Gas field), groundwater or surface water treatment (e.g., to produce
drinking water, as a stand-alone technology), water treatment for industrial use and wastewater treatment (either
municipal or industrial, e.g., for reuse).
1.3 Ultrafiltration Advantages

There are several reasons to consider Ultrafiltration as an excellent choice for pretreatment as opposed to conventional
technologies:
1. Ability to cope with difficult and variable waters: Ultrafiltration membranes are a physical barrier against most
particles, suspended matter, colloids, bacteria and even viruses, that can produce an excellent water quality
independently of variations in the influent water quality.
2. Improved and more consistent product quality: Due to their fine pores, ultrafiltration membranes can provide
a very high quality filtrate, with typical ultrafiltrate turbidity less than 0.1 NTU (independent of the raw water
turbidity), SDI less than 3%/min and 6-log or more removal of pathogens such as Cryptosporidium-i1- and -i-
Giardia cysts.
3. Smaller plant footprint and less weight: UF pretreatment systems require a smaller footprint (up to 50% lower)
and weight than media filtration systems. This can lead to a reduced cost of land acquisition, building design,
and transport.
4. Module and skid Integrity Testing can be done easily on line to detect potential leakages without significant
plant downtime.
5. Membrane modules can be individually isolated for repair, maintenance or replacement without
compromising the plant output.
6. Ease of design and operation: Despite requiring more focus on sustained permeability and productivity,
ultrafiltration systems offer much more stable water quality than a multimedia filtration system, without the
need to monitor filter ripening time or breakthrough, or the need of ensuring appropriate layering of
multimedia after backwash. Therefore process design is less complicated and control is more automated than
with conventional pretreatment.
7. Lower environmental impact: Conventional systems typically require chemical pretreatment such as
coagulation and pH adjustment for the removal of silt and fine particles, but UF can remove these
contaminants just by size exclusion due to the small size of the membrane pores. This can lead to lower
chemical consumption and lesser environmental concerns for wastewater disposal.
8. Lower RO stage cost: The potential for lower downstream cost, based on improved and more consistent water
quality facilitated by the UF system, is a key aspect. UF as pretreatment also allows higher design flux in the RO
stage, as well as lower requirements for membrane cleaning and ultimately lower replacement rates, by
facilitating a RO feed water with lower fouling tendency. In addition, cartridge filters use can be significantly
reduced or eliminated (especially when there is no break tank in between UF and RO).
Form No. 795-50269, Rev. 4

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1.4 Ultrafiltration Operating Modes
Ultrafiltration systems in water treatment applications often work in the so called Dead-End (or Direct Filtration) mode as
opposed to the Concentrate Recirculation (or Cross-Flow) or Bleed Operation modes, which will be described below. As
contaminants build on the membrane surface the membrane permeability drops and the transmembrane pressure
(TMP) increases until the operation would become inefficient and the membrane would need to be restored. In order to
minimize contaminant build-up and maintain stable plant performance, these strategies include Air Scour, Gravity Drain,
Backwash, Forward Flush or chemical based aids such as Chemically Enhanced Backwash (CEB). All of them are described
in this document.
1.4.1 Dead-End Mode
In the Dead-End operation mode (also known as “Deposition Mode”), all the feed volume entering the UF elements
passes through the membrane (there is no reject stream) and is collected on the filtrate side, so there is 100% recovery
of the water. The contaminants that are not small enough to pass through the membrane are either trapped on the
membrane surface or stuck inside the pore channels, leading to an increase in the TMP and a decline of permeability. At
some point the system is taken off-line and the membranes are cleaned hydraulic or chemically.
Figure 2. Dead-End Operating Mode

The Dead-End mode uses less energy and the plant design and operation is simpler as opposed to the modes involving
tangential flow (See Figure 2). For this reason it has become the main operating choice in most ultrafiltration systems.
The higher fouling rate associated to this operating mode is counteracted with more frequent backwashes and
chemical cleanings.
1.4.2 Cross-Flow and Bleed Mode
These operating modes are used on high fouling waters to avoid excessive build-up of contaminants on the membrane
surface. The shear force generated on the membrane surface by the tangential flow (parallel to the membrane) reduces
the fouling rate as it continuously removes the contaminants away from the module.
In the Concentrate Recirculation mode (or Cross-Flow), the concentrate flow exceeds the filtrate flow passing through
the membrane (typically in a ratio of 5:1 or higher). The concentrate stream is then typically recycled back to the feed
tank or to the recirculation pump suction side (see Figure 3). This allows increasing the flow velocity through the feed
channels and therefore achieving a shear force effect.
Form No. 795-50269, Rev. 4

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Figure 3. Concentrate Recirculation Operating Mode
The main disadvantages of the Cross-Flow operation mode are the higher energy consumption due to the high flows
used to create enough flow velocity, the cost of the recirculation pump (or a larger feed pump) and the greater
complexity of the system design.
In the Bleed Operation (see Figure 4), half way between Dead-End and Cross-Flow mode, most of the feed water will
pass through the membrane while the rest will get out of the UF element directly through the concentrate side
(typically 5 – 15% of the feed flow). This concentrate stream will carry part of the contaminants out of the elements and is
normally sent to drain. This operating mode is typically achieved by just partially opening the concentrate valve of the
UF skid during the filtration cycle, and can be a good alternative to dead-end operation to better control the fouling rate
during episodes of worsened feed water quality.
Figure 4. Concentrate Bleed Operating Mode
1.5 Ultrafiltration Module and System Configuration

Most of the UF products use hollow fibers, unlike RO/NF elements which are dominated by spiral wound configuration.
Hollow fiber UF modules usually consist of several thousand fibers bundled together. The inner diameter of the hollow
fibers is typically less than 1 mm. The main advantage of hollow fibers is that they can be backwashed.
Depending on the type of driving filtration force, the UF modules can be categorized as pressurized or vacuum driven. In
the pressurized form, the membranes are placed inside pressure vessels (with vertical or horizontal orientation), and the
UF modules are grouped in parallel to form skids, racks, or trains. Typical operating pressure of pressurized UF systems is
up to 2.5 barg (35 psi). The vertical orientation allows easier drain, the use of air as an aid to increase cleaning efficiency
and the elimination of extra vessels or housings.
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Vacuum driven UF modules are typically submerged in a feed tank with no membrane housing, and can only operate at
low suction pressures, typically below 0.8 barg (vacuum pressure). Due to this limitation in the maximum pressure that
can be applied, they must operate at a lower flux than pressurized systems and are more sensitive to water temperature
fluctuations. Also the module installation, cleaning, fiber repair, isolation or maintenance are more laborious in
submerged systems.
1.6 Ultrafiltration Membrane Features
1.6.1 Materials
The most common materials for UF membranes for water treatment applications are organic polymers, such as
Polyvinylidene Difluoride (PVDF), Polysulfone (PS), Polyethersulfone (PES), Polypropylene (PP) or Cellulose Acetate (CA).
PVDF and PES are the most common product in the market.
The polymer desired properties are good permeability, hydrophilicity (easier to wet and more resistant to adsorptive
fouling), narrow pore size distribution, good tolerance to pH, temperature and chemicals, robustness (strength and
elongation), and long life.
PVDF is a very flexible and robust material (i.e., good strength and elongation), with excellent break resistance and
superior tolerance to chlorine (significantly higher than other materials such as PS/PES or PP), which is a key advantage
in water treatment applications.
1.6.2 Flow Pattern
In a hollow fiber the flow pattern can be from “inside to outside” or from “outside to inside” and is manufacturer specific.
When operated in an inside-out mode, the feed water enters the fiber lumen and passes through the fiber wall to
produce filtrate in the outer side. When operated in the outside-in mode, on the contrary, the feed water enters the
module, passes through the fibers from the outer wall and the filtrate is collected in the inside lumen.
In Outside-In configuration there is no risk of fiber plugging, so the UF modules can cope better with challenging feed
water conditions and are more suitable for treatment of higher fouling waters. In addition, it allows the use of air for
fouling control and needs lower volume for backwash compared to Inside-Out fibers. Typically a flexible and robust
material such as PVDF is used in Outside-In hollow fibers.
Figure 5. Inside/Out vs. Outside/In Operation
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1.7 Ultrafiltration Filtrate Quality
DuPont's ultrafiltration modules are very suitable for removing turbidity with typical filtrate values of < 0.1 NTU, SDI < 3,
cyst-sized pathogens removal of more than 6-log and virus removal higher than 2.5-log. The absolute barrier achieved
with UF membranes and the uniformity of the pore size, facilitates a consistent filtrate quality regardless of fluctuations
in the feed water characteristics, unless there is an integrity problem in the fibers or modules. The main feature and
objective of UF systems is to consistently provide low turbidity filtrate.
However, dissolved substances are not removed by UF membranes at a high extent (removal of e.g., Dissolved Organic
Carbon is typically < 15%). Removing these substances by UF requires them to be transformed first into particulate form,
e.g., through oxidation, pre-coagulation or adsorption.
Removal of metals such as Iron (Fe) and Manganese (Mn) is dependent on the oxidation state of these species. UF can
remove Fe and Mn if they are in precipitate form (not in dissolved form). Fe and Mn can be oxidized upstream of the UF
with aeration (more effective for Fe) or chemical oxidizing agents such as chlorine, permanganate, ozone or chlorine
dioxide. Higher pH favors precipitation.
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2 WATER CHEMISTRY AND
PRETREATMENT
2.1 Water chemistry

As introduced in the previous chapter, ultrafiltration is a size exclusion membrane process that rejects particles,
pathogens, high molecular weight species, and ultimately lowers turbidity. However, UF does not reject any dissolved
salts, dissolved organics, or other species like true color or taste and odor. Feed water can encounter different type of
compounds that can lead to membrane fouling. A deeper introduction to fouling is addressed in Chapter 6.
In order to have a comprehensive understanding of the feed water quality and its fouling potential, there are a few key
parameters that need to be monitored during operation. This section will introduce these parameters, which are
summarized in Table 1 together with their recommended monitoring frequency.
Turbidity: Sediments, clay, silt, small particles, solids etc. cause a liquid to appear turbid, “hazy”. These particles can, host
or shield microorganisms like bacteria and viruses. Turbidity is measured by the intensity of light that passes through the
water sample, and expressed in NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Units). DuPont's ultrafiltration modules provide consistent
product water with turbidity values < 0.1 NTU.
TSS (Total Suspended Solids): It is the measure of the total weight of solids contained in a water sample, and is expressed
in mg/L. This parameter is more accurate than turbidity (i.e., turbidity usually does not detect very fine particles).
SDI (Silt Density Index): Is a Fouling Index. This parameter provides an indication of the particulate fouling potential of
the water (see Figure 6). It is based on the measurement of the time it takes to collect 500 mL of water sample through
a paper filter of 0.45 µm at the start of the test (ti) and after the water has flowed through the filter at 2.1 bar (tf) for 15
minutes (T). SDI number is calculated by Equation 1:
Eq. 1
Figure 6. SDI15 filters before and after the test

TOC (Total Organic Carbon): It is the most widely used parameter to determine the organic content in water. It includes
Natural Organic Matter (NOM) and synthetic sources. It is indicative of the tendency of the water to cause organic
fouling and biofouling in membranes. It is expressed in mg/L. A TOC value > 2 mg/L indicates a high probability of
biofouling. The recommended TOC level for RO feed water is < 3 mg/L.
DOC (Dissolved Organic Carbon): Fraction of TOC which is dissolved (filtered through 0.45 µm). Generally TOC and DOC
are the same value, except in wastewaters and some surface waters.
COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand): It is a measure of the amount of compounds in a sample which have been oxidized
by a strong oxidizing agent. Although inorganic substances such as Fe may also be subject to oxidation, for most natural
and industrial waters, the matter to be oxidized is organic in nature.
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BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand): Similar to COD except BOD detects substances that are susceptible to biological
oxidation which indicates biologically active organics. Therefore COD & BOD can be used to characterize the organic
load of water. Expressed as mg/L of Oxygen.
UV254 Absorbance: It is an indirect measurement of NOM, based on the fact that most organics compounds can absorb
UV light. Expressed in cm-1. Surrogate of TOC. Above 0.5 cm-1 indicates biofouling is likely.
SUVA (Specific UV Absorbance): Ratio between UV254 and DOC (if > 4, mostly humic matter; if < 2, indication of algae
bloom).
O&G (Oil & Grease, Hydrocarbons): Even in very small quantities i.e., < 0.05 mg/L, it can cause accelerated fouling in
membranes.
Iron and Manganese: If they are in oxidized form, behave as particles and can be rejected by membrane systems, but
will cause fouling. Iron (Fe) can be naturally occurring (e.g., well waters), coming from corrosion of upstream piping
and/or equipment, or residuals from pre-coagulation processes.
Calcium and Magnesium: Hardness in water is due primarily to Ca and Mg ions. Based on hardness, the water can be
classified as Soft (up to 60 mg/L as CaCO 3), Hard (up to 180 mg/L as CaCO 3) and Very Hard (> 180 mg/L as CaCO 3).
Hardness has no harmful effects on health, but leads to formation of scaling deposits in pipes, equipment or
membranes.
Conductivity: The electrical conductivity of water is linearly related to the total dissolved solids (TDS). It is the ability of
the water to conduct an electrical current. Expressed in µS/cm.
pH: Is a numeric scale used to express the acidity or alkalinity of the water. Solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic and
solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic. Pure water has a pH of 7 and is neutral. In water, high pH causes a bitter
taste, water pipes and equipment become encrusted with deposits. Low-pH water will corrode or dissolve metals and
other substances.
Silica: Can be Reactive Silica (Soluble) or Un-Reactive Silica (Colloidal). Colloidal form can cause fouling in membrane
systems.
Table 1. Recommended Water Quality Sampling Program

Parameter Units Analytical Method Frequency Sample source
Minimum Recommended Parameters:
Turbidity NTU APHA 2130B Weekly Feed + filtrate
Total Suspended Solids (TSS) mg/L APHA 2540D / EPA 160.2 Weekly Feed + filtrate
Total Organic Carbon (TOC) mg/L APHA 5310C Weekly Feed + filtrate
Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC) mg/L EPA 415.1 Weekly Feed + filtrate
Iron, Fe mg/L APHA 3120B / EPA 200.7 Weekly Feed
Calcium, Ca mg/L APHA 3120B / EPA 200.7 Weekly Feed
Magnesium, Mg mg/L APHA 3120B / EPA 200.7 Weekly Feed
Additional Recommended Parameters:
Conductivity µS/cm APHA 2510B / EPA 120.1 Weekly Feed
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) mg/L APHA 2540C Weekly Feed
Total Volatile Suspended Solids (TVSS) mg/L APHA 2540E Weekly Feed
Total Alkalinity mg/L as CaCO 3 APHA 2320B / EPA 310.1 Weekly Feed
Total Oil & Grease - Total Fraction mg/L APHA 5520C Weekly Feed
Silica mg/L ASTM D859 - 10 Weekly Feed
Manganese, Mn mg/L APHA 3125B / EPA 200.7 Weekly Feed
Sulfate, SO 4 mg/L ASTM D516 / EPA 300 Weekly Feed
UV-254 Abs/cm APHA 5910B Weekly Feed
Chlorophyll-A mg/m 3 APHA 10200H Weekly Feed
Total Coliform CFU/100 mL Cultivation Weekly Feed + filtrate
APHA 9215 & 9222
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Parameter Units Analytical Method Frequency Sample source
Minimum Recommended Parameters:
Total Viable Counts (22°C, 37°C) CFU/100 mL Cultivation Weekly Feed + filtrate
APHA 9215 & 9222
Enterococci/ E-Coli CFU/100 mL Cultivation Weekly Feed + filtrate
APHA 9215 & 9222
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) mg/L ASTM D4012 - 81 Weekly Feed + filtrate
Parameters In-Line or by Handheld Instrumentation:
Turbidity NTU ASTM D6855 & D6698 Daily Feed + filtrate
Conductivity µS/cm ASTM D1125 Daily Feed
pH -- ASTM D1293 Daily Feed
Temperature °C - Daily Feed
Silt Density Index -- ASTM-4189-95 Daily Feed + filtrate
DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules designs are based on qualified feed water conditions as shown in Table 2. The UF
modules can tolerate period excursions in feed water quality as shown as the maximum recommended. If the feed
water quality is outside of the design basis range shown below, a pilot study should be operated to confirm performance
or pretreatment must be considered. If the system is designed and installed to the qualified conditions below but the
feed water quality is not maintained DuPont Water Solutions should be consulted.
Table 2. Qualified Feed Water Quality Parameters

Parameter Unit Desirable Maximum Recommended[1]
Turbidity NTU < 50 300
TSS mg/L < 20 100
TOC mg/L < 10 40
CODMn mg/L < 20 60
Oil & Grease mg/L 0 <2
Particle Size micron < 150 300
pH continuous - 6-9 2-11
pH cleaning - 2-11.5 1-12
Temperature °C < 35 40
Feed Pressure bar <3 6.25 @ 20°C
TMP bar <1 2.1
Cl2 continuous mg/L <0.5 200
Cl2 cleaning mg/L 2,000 5,000
Notes:
[1] Note: Maximum values recommended refer to continuous operation, consult your local representative for values beyond those shown.
2.2 ULTRAFILTRATION PRETREATMENT

Depending on the feed water characteristics pretreatment might be needed in combination with the UF process.
Dissolved substances are not removed by UF membranes, so they must be transformed into particulate form if they are
the target of the UF process.
Otherwise, very little pretreatment is required if microorganisms and particles are the target contaminants. Prefilters
(100 – 300 µm) need to be installed upstream the UF process to protect the UF system from large particles, sand, etc. See
Table 3 for strainer selection guidelines. A variety of technologies can be used such as self-cleaning screens and bag,
cartridge, or disc filters.
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Table 3. Strainer selection guidelines
Source Water Strainer Size [1]
Bore Well / Ground ≤ 300 μm
City / Tap Water ≤ 300 μm
Surface (Pretreated) ≤ 300 μm
Surface (Untreated) ≤ 300 μm
Seawater 100 – 300 μm [2]
Wastewater (Secondary, Tertiary Effluent) ≤ 300 μm
Notes:
[1] Recommended for initial specification, and to be reviewed against site-specific raw water quality and project drivers.
[2] Strainer size of 100 µm or lower is recommended to control the growth of barnacles and mussel larvae inside the UF system pipes, as well as to prevent sand particles to reach
the UF membranes.
Depending on the type of water or range of feed water parameters other pretreatment technologies such as
coagulation/flocculation, clarification/sedimentation, flotation or granular media filtration may also be recommended.
Coagulation/Flocculation: Chemical and Physical process to form particle aggregates (flocs) from silt, clay, colloids,
suspended material, microorganisms, NOM (by adsorption in the flocs) for removal in subsequent steps such as
clarification, flotation or granular media filtration. In coagulation, chemicals such as alum or ferric salts are added to the
water to reduce repulsion forces between particles (“destabilization”). This enables particles to become attached to each
other. It is achieved by rapid mixing (“flash mixing”) in order to disperse the coagulant quickly in the water. In contrast,
flocculation consists in a low-intensity mixing to increase the rate of agglomeration. Chemicals might be used to assist,
such as cationic, anionic or non-ionic polymers.
Clarification/Sedimentation: Basins designed to decrease solids concentration typically after a Coagulation + Flocculation
step, or removal of settleable solids from turbid waters without coagulant addition. This pretreatment is typically used in
inlet waters with average turbidities > 30 NTU or spikes above 50 NTU. It can achieve clarified water < 2 NTU and SDI < 6.
The water retention time in the basins is typically 2 – 4 hours. Types of this pretreatment include:
l High-Rate Sedimentation (Lamella Settlers): It uses inclined plates for more efficient removal of solids (by
providing a larger settling area), typically at 60° and 5 cm separation. It allows higher loading rates; reduced
footprint (65 – 80% compared to conventional clarifiers). Appropriate when inlet turbidity > 50 NTU.
l Microsand Ballasted Clarification: Small sand grains are added in the flocculation basin to act as nucleus for floc
formation. Increased settling velocity. Reduced time and footprint requirements.
l Dissolved Air Flotation (DAF): Solids removal occurs at the surface of the clarifier, through flotation, rather than at
the floor (i.e., clarified water is removed from bottom, instead of from top). Smaller footprint than conventional
settlers. DAF is ideal for removal of light particles with slow settling time (e.g., coagulated NOM), algae or Oil &
Grease, when turbidity < 50 NTU. Micro air bubbles (∼50 µm) adhere or push-up the flocs at the DAF inlet and
force them to float. It includes Coagulation + Flocculation chambers. It can achieve clarified water < 0.5 NTU.
Granular Media filtration: It is the oldest (4000 BC) and most commonly used pretreatment process. The water flows
through one or more layers of porous granular medium (e.g., sand, pumice, anthracite) to remove suspended solids.
Typically it removes 90 – 99% of the solids. There are different types of granular media filtration:
l Single-Medium: Typically sand or anthracite, only if feed turbidity is < 2 NTU, TSS < 3 mg/L.
l Multimedia: Pumice or Anthracite over Sand. It is the most common.

l Two-Stage (for > 20 NTU and TOC > 6 mg/L): Typically 1st stage is coarse single or dual filter (60 – 80% removal)
and 2nd stage is polishing dual-media filter which removes 99% remaining fine solids. TOC removal is low,
typically 20 – 30% or even up to 50% if a carbon layer is installed at the top. It can achieve outlet turbidity < 0.1
NTU.
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In addition, granular media filtration systems can be classified:
As per Driving Force:
l Gravity Filters: Need only 2 – 3 meters (6.5 – 9.8 ft) head, housed in open tanks.
l Pressurized Filters: need higher pressure; enclosed in steel vessels.
As per Filtration Rate:
l Slow Sand Filters: Gravity. Typically < 0.5 m/h (gpm/ft2) loading rate. Best for feeds < 5 – 10 NTU and TOC < 3
mg/L. They can achieve filtrate turbidity < 1 NTU.
l Rapid Sand Filters: they can be gravity or pressurized. Up to 12 m/h (gpm/ft2). Usually require pre-coagulation.
They can achieve filtrate turbidity < 1 NTU.
l High-Rate Filters: Pressurized filters. Up to 30 m/h (gpm/ft2). They can achieve filtrate turbidity < 0.5 NTU with
coagulant aid.
As per Direction of Flow:
l Downflow: It is the most common type. Water flows downwards.
l Upflow: Rarer, water flows upwards. Used typically in activated carbon filters or roughing filters.
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3 DUPONT ULTRAFILTRATION MODULES
DESCRIPTION
This section includes the description of DuPont Ultrafiltration SFP/D-2660, SFP/D-2860, SFP/D-2880, IntegraFlux™ SFP/D-
2860XP, SFP/D-2880XP modules, IntegraPac™ IP/D-51, IntegraPac™ IP/D-77, IntegraPac™ IP/D-51XP, IntegraPac™ IP/D-
77XP modules and skids and IntegraFlux™ UXA-2680XP modules.
3.1 DuPont Ultrafiltration Module Features

The DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules are made of high strength, hollow fiber membranes with features and benefits
including:
l 0.03 µm nominal pore diameter for removal of bacteria, viruses, and particulates including colloids.
l PVDF fibers free of macro voids for high mechanical strength with excellent chemical resistance offering long
membrane life and reliable operation.
l Hydrophilic PVDF fibers for easy cleaning and wettability that help maintain long term performance.
l Outside-In flow configuration for high tolerance to feed solids and the use of air scour cleaning.
l U-PVC housings eliminate the need for pressure vessels and are resistant to UV light.
l In addition, the XP fiber products provide up to 35% higher permeability than previous generation modules
improving operating efficiencies and productivity.
The outside-in flow configuration allows the use of highly effective air scour cleaning which enhances particle removal
and improves recovery. A dead-end flow format achieves higher recovery and energy savings. The module housing
design eliminates the need for separate pressure vessels while the vertical orientation allows gravity draining and
facilitates the removal of air from cleaning and integrity testing processes.
The hollow fiber membranes are 1.3 mm outside diameter and 0.7 mm inside diameter and are made from PVDF
polymer. The fibers are strong because of a combination of the PVDF polymer, dense substructure and selective active
layer formed on the feed side of the fiber. The PVDF membranes offer high chemical resistance, coping with NaOCl
concentrations up to 2000 mg/L, and are tolerant to temperatures of 40°C. The hydrophilicity of the PVDF fibers is
increased by using a proprietary treatment during manufacturing.
The 0.03 μm nominal pore size combines high filtration performance and high flux. The smaller pore size provides
stabile long term filtration performance compared to microfiltration membranes.
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A cross section of the standard fiber is shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7. Wall Cross Section of the Hollow Fiber
3.2 DuPont Ultrafiltration Certifications

Table 4 covers the certifications for the DuPont Ultrafiltration product portfolio.
Table 4. Regulatory Certifications Information

Product Name SFP/SFD IntegraFlux™ IntegraPac™ IntegraPac™ XP
Product Model SFP/D-2660 SFP/D-2860 SFP/D-2880 SFP/D-2860XP UXA-2680XP IP-51 IP-77 IP/D-51XP
SFP/D-2880XP IPD-51 IPD-77 IP/D-77XP
NSF/ANSI Std. 61[1] D type only D type only D type only D type only Yes D type only D type only D type only
NSF/ANSI Std. 419[1] No No D type only D type only Yes No D type only D type only
CADPH Drinking Water No D type only No No No No No No
CDPH Water Recycle Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Criteria
(Title 22)
D type D type
China (MOH) No D type only D type only Yes No No
only only
Italy Drinking No D type only D type only D type only No Yes Yes Yes
Water Certificate (D.M. 174)
Poland Certificate D type D type
No D type only D type only No No No
(NIPH-NIH) only only
Notes:
[1] Refer to NSF listings webpage for certifications.
The DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules should be rinsed prior to startup to remove preservative fluid shipped in the
modules. Flushing should be performed until no foam is observed in the wash water. Depending on the treatment
application, additional rinsing or disposal of the filtrate may be required.
NSF / ANSI Standard 61 certified modules require the following conditioning rinse prior to producing potable water:
1. Rinse the modules at a feed rate of 40 LMH minimum for a period of 4 hours.
2. Achieve a minimum total rinse volume of 160 LMH·hours using the feed water available.
3. The concentrate bleed rate should be set from between 0 – 20% with the balance being filtrate.
4. During the rinse cycle, perform standard cleaning protocols as per DuPont's recommendations which are
specifically designed to consider the feed water quality available.
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5. The filtrate should be sent to the appropriate disposal system based on the regulations that apply to the
location where the conditioning rinse is carried out and not used as potable water.
6. Local regulations may require additional conditioning of the system prior to producing potable water.
3.3 DuPont Ultrafiltration Product Code

The DuPont Ultrafiltration product codes consist of a string of letters and digits as described below.
l DuPont's UF SFD/SFP series:
l IntegraFlux™ SFD/SFP series:
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l IntegraPac™ Module:
l IntegraPac™ Skid:
l IntegraFlux™ UXA-2680XP Modules:
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3.4 DuPont Ultrafiltration Product Portfolio
An image of DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules is shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8. Family of DuPont Ultrafiltration SFP/D and IntegraFlux™ modules
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An image of IntegraPac™ and IntegraPac™ XP modules and skids is shown in Figure 9.
Figure 9. IntegraPac™ and IntegraPac™ XP modules and skids

An image of IntegraFlux™ UXA-2680XP module is shown in Figure 10.
Figure 10. IntegraFlux™ UXA-2680XP module
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3.4.1 DuPont UF 26/28 Series Modules
The 2660 module is an excellent choice for systems capacities of 50 m3/hr (220 gpm) or less. This 1.5 m (60 inch) length
module offers higher efficiencies over a wider range of feed water conditions compared to longer length modules. The
15 cm (6 inch) diameter module allows a more compact design for space constrained installations.
The 2860, which is shorter in length, is recommended for smaller systems and where building height is a concern. The
2880 has higher membrane area for the same footprint offering a more economical design.
There are four connections in each module. Feed flow enters and is distributed into the modules through the side feed
port located at the side bottom of each module. The air inlet is located at the bottom of the module and is used for air
scouring and integrity testing. The concentrate (discharge of waste flows from the outside of the fiber) is the top central
port and the filtrate (inside of fiber) is located at the side top port of the module.
Table 5 shows dimensions, connections and specifications for the DuPont Ultrafiltration SFP/D and SFP/D XP modules
family, as depicted in Figure 11 and Figure 12. Note that manufacturing and thermal expansion tolerances and the
thickness of the base clip are not included in the dimensions below. Refer to the installation drawings for this
information.
Table 5. DuPont Ultrafiltration SFP/SFD modules Dimensions, Connections and Specifications

Product Name DuPont Ultrafiltration SFP/D and IntegraFlux™ SFP/D XP modules family
SFP/D-2860 SFP/D-2880
Product Model SFP/D-2660
SFP/D-2860XP SFP/D-2880XP
Units SI US SI US SI US
Active Area 33 m 2 355 ft 2 51 m 2 549 ft 2 77 m 2 829 ft 2
1500
Fibers Length 59.1 in 1500 mm 59.1 in 2000 mm 78.7 in
mm
Max Module Inlet Pressure
6.25 bar 90.65 psi 6.25 bar 90.65 psi 6.25 bar 90.65 psi
@ 20°C/68°F
Max Module Inlet Pressure
4.75 bar 68.89 psi 4.75 bar 68.89 psi 4.75 bar 68.89 psi
@ 40°C /104°F
Length - L 1863 mm 73.3 in 1863 mm 73.3 in 2363 mm 93.0 in
1500
Length - L1 59.1 in 1500 mm 59.1 in 2000 mm 78.7 in
mm
Length - L2 1613 mm 63.5 in 1633 mm 64.3 in 2133 mm 84.0 in
Diameter 165 mm 6.5 in 225 mm 8.9 in 225 mm 8.9 in
Width - W1 125 mm 4.9 in 180 mm 7.1 in 180 mm 7.1 in
Empty / Shipping / Flooded 25/30/41 55/66/90
48/55/83 106/121/183 61/71/100 135/156/220
Weight kg lbs
Volume per module 16 L 4.2 gal 35 L 9.3 gal 39 L 10.3 gal
DN50 NPS 2"
DN50 NPS 2" DN50 NPS 2"
Feed Port Side Side
Side Coupling Side Coupling Side Coupling Side Coupling
Coupling Coupling
DN50 NPS 2"
Filtrate Port Side Side
Coupling Coupling
NPS 1
DN32
1/4" DN50 NPS 2" DN50 NPS 2"
Concentrate Port Top
Top Top Coupling Top Coupling Top Coupling Top Coupling
Coupling
Coupling
G 3/8” (Standard) or DN32 Glued G 3/8” (Standard) or DN32 Glued
Air Scour Connection G 3/8” (Standard)
Fitting (Option) Bottom Fitting (Option) Bottom
Housing UPVC UPVC UPVC UPVC UPVC UPVC
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Figure 11. DuPont Ultrafiltration SFP/D 2660 Module
Reference Drawing for Dimensions
Figure 12. DuPont Ultrafiltration SFP/D-2860/2880 and IntegraFlux™ SFP/D-2860/2880XP

Module Reference Drawing for Dimensions
3.4.2 IntegraFlux™ Series Modules
IntegraFlux™ Ultrafiltration Modules with XP fiber are made from high permeability, high mechanical strength, hollow
fiber PVDF membranes. The modules provide excellent performance, industry leading membrane area with low energy
and chemical consumption. IntegraFlux™ modules have up to 35% higher permeability than previous generation
modules, helping to improve operating efficiencies and productivity.
These modules are an excellent choice for systems with capacities greater than 50 m3/hr (220 gpm). The shorter SFP-
2860XP or SFD-2860XP modules are well suited for installations with limited height. Larger and longer, 20 cm (8 inch)
diameter and 2 m (80 inch) in length, the SFP-2880XP or SFD-2880XP modules offer a high effective membrane area
combined with high permeability that provides the most economical and efficient membrane system design.
There are four connections in each module. Feed flow enters and is distributed into the modules through the side feed
port located at the side bottom of each module. The air inlet is located at the bottom of the module and is used for air
scouring and integrity testing. The concentrate (discharge of waste flows from the outside of the fiber) is the top central
port and the filtrate (inside of fiber) is located at the side top port of the module.
Table 5 shows dimensions, connections and specifications for the DuPont Ultrafiltration SFP/D and SFP/D XP modules
family, as depicted in Figure 11 and Figure 12. Note that manufacturing and thermal expansion tolerances and the
thickness of the base clip are not included in the dimensions below. Refer to the installation drawings for this
information.
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3.4.3 IntegraPac™ Ultrafiltration Modules
Innovative end-cap design helps direct coupling of IntegraPac™ modules reducing the need for piping and manifolds.
These modules are an ideal choice for systems requiring a small footprint. The IP-77 and IPD-77 modules offer a high
effective membrane area, which contributes to a more economical membrane system design. The IP-51 and IPD-51
modules are shorter in height and are suitable for applications where there is a head space constraint. The IP-77XP
module offers a high effective membrane area combined with high permeability fibers that offer an economical and
efficient membrane system design. The IP-51XP module is shorter in height and is suitable for applications where height
is a constraint while maximizing productivity and efficiency with high permeability fibers.
The IntegraPac™ module is shown in Figure 13. There are six connections on each module. Feed flow enters and is
distributed into the modules through the side feed ports located on the bottom end cap. Feed flow enters the module
on the outside of the fiber. The air connection is located on the side of the bottom end cap and is used for air scouring
and integrity testing. The concentrate (discharge of waste flows from the outside of fiber) and filtrate port (inside of
fiber) are located on the top cap.
Included with the module are the couplers, air fitting, and transparent filtrate elbow.
Figure 13. IntegraPac™ Module

Table 6 shows dimensions, connections and specifications for the IntegraPac™ IP-51, IntegraPac™ IP-77 and IntegraPac™
IP-51XP, IntegraPac™ IP-77XP modules family, as depicted in Figure 14. Note that manufacturing and thermal expansion
tolerances and the thickness of the base clip are not included in the dimensions below. Refer to the installation
drawings for this information.
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Table 6. Dimensions, connections and specifications of IntegraPac™ IP/D-51/77 and IntegraPac™
IP/D-51/77XP
Product Name IntegraPac™ family
IP/D-51 IP/D-77
Product Model
IP/D-51XP IP/D-77XP
Units SI US SI US
Active Area 51 m 2 549 ft 2 77 m 2 829 ft 2
Fibers Length 1500 mm 59.1 in 2000 mm 78.7 in
Max Inlet Pressure @ 20°C/68°F 6.25 bar 90.65 psi 6.25 bar 90.65 psi
Max Inlet Pressure @ 40°C/104°F 4.75 bar 68.89 psi 4.75 bar 68.89 psi
Length - L 1998 mm 78.28 in 2488 mm 97.95 in
Length - L1 1500 mm 59.1 in 2000 mm 78.7 in
Diameter 225 mm 8.9 in 225 mm 8.9 in
Width - W1 360 mm 14.2 in 360 mm 14.2 in
Width - W2 342 mm 13.5 in 342 mm 13.5 in
Empty / Shipping / Flooded Weight 53/60/102 117/132/225 66/72/119 146/158/262
Volume per module 49 L 13 gal 53 L 14 gal
Feed Port
DN40 NPS 1 1/2" DN40 NPS 1 1/2"
Filtrate Port
Top Union Top Union Top Union Top Union
Concentrate Port
Air Scour Connection G 3/8” G 3/8”
Housing UPVC UPVC UPVC UPVC
Figure 14. IntegraPac™ IP/D-51, IP/D-51XP, IP/D-77, and IP/D-77XP Module Reference Drawing
for Dimensions
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3.4.4 IntegraPac™ Ultrafiltration Skids
The IntegraPac™ skid with IP/D-51(XP) or IP/D-77(XP) modules is a pre-engineered, standardized skid design consisting of
IntegraPac™ Ultrafiltration Modules, auxiliary parts and piping. It is designed to significantly streamline design, assembly
and installation, making possible lower skid costs, reduced engineering design costs, easy assembly, smaller footprint
and shortened delivery schedule. Features include:
l Direct coupling of modules eliminate ancillary piping, help saving costs and reducing footprint.
l Modular and scalable for design across a wide range of flowrates.
l Materials of construction selected for corrosion resistance and chemical compatibility.
l Shipped unassembled to lower transportation cost and help prevent damage in transit.
l Standardized and pre-fabricated components eliminate measuring, cutting, gluing and welding.
l Easily accessible for physical inspection or replacement at end of life.
l Operator-friendly transparent filtrate elbow designed and located for easy visual integrity inspection.
l High pressure rating to enable direct feed to reverse osmosis feed pumps.
Table 7 shows skid details for the IntegraPac™ IP/D-51, IntegraPac™ IP/D-77 and IntegraPac™ IP/D-51XP, IntegraPac™
IP/D-77XP skids, as depicted in Figure 15 and Figure 16.
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Table 7. IntegraPac™ IP/D-51, IntegraPac™ IP/D-77 and IntegraPac™ IP/D-51XP, IntegraPac™
IP/D-77XP skid details
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Figure 15. IntegraPac™ skid Reference for Dimensions.
14-modules IntegraPac™ Arrangement
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Figure 16. IntegraPac™ Skid Components
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3.4.5 IntegraFlux™ UXA-2680XP Modules:
The IntegraFlux™ UXA-2680XP UF module, featuring enhanced XP fibers, provides an ideal drop-in replacement for 50
m2 active area modules, having 10% more membrane area compared to 50 m2 active area modules, reducing plant
footprint and producing more water per module with no need of hardware or process changes. Additionally,
IntegraFlux™ UXA-2680XP ultrafiltration membrane with 0.03 µm nominal pore diameter provides a higher removal
efficiency of bacteria, viruses, and particulates as compared to a microfiltration membrane.
The IntegraFlux™ UXA-2680XP UF module bottom feed port and top filtrate port are both DN50 (2”) connections, while
the top side concentrate port is DN40 (1 ½”). Air and water both enter at the bottom of the module.
Table 8 shows dimensions, connections and specifications for the IntegraFlux™ UXA-2680XP modules, and Figure 17
depicts detailed drawings of the modules and the three different available versions for the End-Caps.
Table 8. IntegraFlux™ UXA-2680XP Module Dimensions, Connections and Specifications

Product Name IntegraFlux™ UXA-2680XP
End-Cap Model Type I Type II Type III
Units SI US SI US SI US
Active Area 55 m 2 592 ft 2 55 m 2 592 ft 2 55 m 2 592 ft 2
Max Feed Pressure @ 20°C/68°F 3 bar 43.5 psi 3 bar 43.5 psi 3 bar 43.5 psi
Length - L 2418 mm 95.2 in 2338 mm 92 in 2332 mm 91.8 in
Length - L2 144 mm 5.7 in 144 mm 5.7 in 101 mm 4 in
Diameter 165 mm 6.5 in 165 mm 6.5 in 165 mm 6.5 in
Empty / Shipping / Flooded
28/34/51 kg 62/75/112 lbs 28/34/51 kg 62/75/112 lbs 28/34/51 kg 62/75/112 lbs
Weight
Volume per module 23 L 6 gal 23 L 6 gal 23 L 6 gal
DN50 NPS 2" DN50 NPS 2" DN50 NPS 2"
Feed Port
Bottom Coupling Bottom Coupling Bottom Coupling Bottom Coupling Bottom Coupling Bottom Coupling
Filtrate Port DN50 NPS 2" DN50 NPS 2" DN50 NPS 2"
Top Coupling Top Coupling Top Coupling Top Coupling Top Coupling Top Coupling
DN40 NPS 1 ½ " DN40 NPS 1 ½ " DN40 NPS 1 ½ "
Concentrate Port Top Side Top Side Top Side Top Side Top Side Top Side
Coupling Coupling Coupling Coupling Coupling Coupling
Air Scour Connection N/A N/A N/A
Housing UPVC UPVC UPVC UPVC UPVC UPVC
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Figure 17. IntegraFlux™ UXA-2680XP Module Reference
Drawings for Dimensions of Type I, II and III End-Caps
There are three connections on each module. Feed flow enters and is distributed into the modules through the side
feed port located on the bottom end cap. Feed flow enters the module on the outside of the fiber. The concentrate
(discharge of waste flows from the outside of fiber) and filtrate port (inside of fiber) are located on the top cap.
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3.5 DuPont Ultrafiltration Product Selection Guidelines
Representatives from DuPont Water Solutions can guide you in the process of choosing the right product for any
application. Figure 18 can be used as a guide to target the proper product.
Figure 18. DuPont Ultrafiltration Product Selection guide
3.6 DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules Installation

Figure 19 and Figure 20 provide the installation details for DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules.
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Figure 19. Installation Drawing of DuPont Ultrafiltration SFP/D-2660 Module
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Figure 20. Installation Drawing Typical of DuPont Ultrafiltration SFP/D-2860/2860XP and
SFP/D-2880/2880XP Module
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Detailed installation instructions are provided for the IntegraPac™ skids upon request. Figure 21 provides the installation
details for IntegraPac™ modules.
Figure 21. Installation Drawing for IntegraPac™ IP/D-51, IP/D-51XP, IP/D-77 and IP/D-77XP
Modules
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Figure 22, Figure 23 and Figure 24 provide the installation details for IntegraFlux™ UXA 2860XP module.
Figure 22. Installation Drawing for Type I IntegraFlux™ UXA-2680XP Modules
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Figure 23. Installation Drawing for Type II IntegraFlux™ UXA-2680XP Modules
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Figure 24. Installation Drawing for Type III IntegraFlux™ UXA-2680XP Modules
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4 DUPONT ULTRAFILTRATION SYSTEM
DESIGN
4.1 Introduction
The Ultrafiltration system design software is a powerful tool that allows to size new systems or evaluate the performance
of existing ones. In order to design a new Ultrafiltration system it is important to understand the main inputs needed to
get an accurate and optimized design. These inputs include information about the feed water source (e.g., municipal,
seawater, wastewater, well water or surface water), quality (refer to Section 2.1 of this document), temperature range and
required feed flow or net plant output. On the other hand, the final application of the project is of interest, as in the case
of drinking water applications, specific DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules must be used (refer to Section 3.3. of this
document).
For a given feed water type and quality, the appropriate design guidelines must be applied. These design guidelines
have been created based on extensive experiences and references in similar waters. The design guidelines include
suitable operating flux, duration of the filtration cycles or frequency of the chemical cleanings. Further information on
Ultrafiltration system operation can be found in Sections 5 and 6 of this document.
Once all this information is introduced in the system design software, it will populate a detailed Ultrafiltration System
Design report, which includes a general process flow diagram, module selection, sizing and quantity of trains, sizing of
water and chemical tanks, process parameters and sequence tables, as well as estimations for chemical and energy
consumption, among others.
4.2 System design software

DuPont Water Solutions has designed Water Application Value Engine (WAVE) – a digital modeling tool that will save
time and increase efficiency for evaluating components as well as designing water treatment systems. The innovative
modeling software combines ultrafiltration membranes, reverse osmosis membranes and ion exchange resins (IER) into
one fully integrated tool.
The WAVE technology uses a powerful hydraulic modeling calculation engine which improves the accuracy of the
model. WAVE capabilities help engineers and original equipment manufacturers (OEM) configure water treatment
components better and faster through integrating all DWS technologies into one tool - allowing for easier iterations as
the design process proceeds. The WAVE tool also offers accurate water quality predictions for multiple components
simultaneously – reducing calculation errors and data re-entry from one calculation tool to another.
More information about WAVE can be found at www.dupontwatersolutions.com.
At initial plant start-up the modules must be flushed in order to remove any residual storage chemicals or air trapped
during the module installation. This flush occurs on the outside of the fibers, i.e., no filtrate is produced. Once the initial
flush is done, the plant can begin producing filtrate. When starting the initial filtration cycle the flow should be slowly
increased before being put into operation at the design conditions.
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5 DUPONT ULTRAFILTRATION PROCESS
DESCRIPTION
The basic operating conditions for the DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules are shown in Table 9 below. Operating
parameters for the cleaning steps are provided in Section 6.
Table 9. DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules Operating Conditions

Operating Conditions SI US
Maximum Inlet Feed Pressure 6.25 bar @ 20°C 90.65 psi @ 68°F
Operating TMP (Maximum) 2.1 bar 30.50 psi
Backwash TMP (Maximum) 2.5 bar 36.25 psi
Operating Air Scour Flow (Recommended) 12 Nm 3/h/module 7 scfm/module
(7 Nm 3/h/module for SFP/D-2660) (4 scfm/h/module for SFP/D-2660)
Air Scour Pressure 0.35 – 2.5 bar 5.0 – 36.25 psi
Filtrate Flux @25°C 40 – 110 LMH 24 – 65 gfd
Temperature 1 – 40°C 34 – 104°F
Operating pH Range 2 - 11
NaOCl, Cleaning Maximum 2,000 mg/L
At initial plant start-up the modules must be flushed in order to remove any residual storage chemicals or air trapped
during the module installation. This flush occurs on the outside of the fibers, i.e., no filtrate is produced. Once the initial
flush is done, the plant can begin producing filtrate. When starting the initial filtration cycle the flow should be slowly
increased before being put into operation at the design conditions.
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5.1 Filtration
Ultrafiltration systems are most of the time in Filtration mode while in operation. The feed water is pumped through the
membrane and is converted to filtrate. Typically all feed is converted to filtrate, in what is referred as dead-end filtration
(as opposed to cross-flow filtration where a fraction of the feed leaves the system as reject). Filtration cycles typically
range from 20 – 90 minutes, depending on the feed water source and quality. Figure 25 shows a diagram of the Filtration
step in DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules.
Figure 25. Filtration Step for DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules

Ultrafiltration systems are typically designed to operate at constant flowrate. As the solids build on the membrane
surface, the transmembrane pressure (TMP) increases and eventually the foulants must be removed through a
Backwash sequence. The Backwash sequence is generally initiated based on time. Alternatively, it can be initiated based
on volume of filtrate or TMP set point (the latter is more appropriate for highly variable feed water quality). The
Backwash sequence includes Air Scour, Gravity Drain, Backwash through the module top outlet, Backwash through the
module bottom outlet and a final Forward Flush or rinse.
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5.2 Air Scour
The Air Scour step is used to loosen particulates deposited on the outside of the membrane surface. Oil-Free air is
introduced through the bottom of the module creating a stream of ascending bubbles which help to scour material off
the membrane. Displaced water volume is allowed to discharge through the top port of the module for disposal, as
shown in Figure 26. After a minimum of 20 – 30 seconds of continuous Air Scour, the module is drained by gravity.
Figure 26. Air Scour Step for DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules
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5.3 Gravity Drain
Once the Air Scour step is finished, the module must be drained by gravity in order to flush out of the system the
material dislodged from the membrane surface by the preceding air scour step, as shown in Figure 27. The duration of
this step will depend on the system volume and piping layout, but it is typically set to 30 – 60 seconds. If gravity drain is
not possible due to the system configuration, or it takes too long, it can be substituted by a forced flush through the
bottom outlet of the module using the backwash pump, however this will consume more water and energy.
Figure 27. Gravity Drain Step for DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules
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5.4 Backwash Top
After the gravity drain step, the backwash step is initiated. Filtrate water is pumped backwards, i.e., from the inside to the
outside of the fibers, in order to push the accumulated material off the membrane. Then it is flushed out to waste
through the top module outlet (see Figure 28). The Backwash flux ranges from 100 – 120 LMH, and the duration of the
step is 30 – 45 seconds. Sometimes, depending on the application, chlorine might be added to the backwash stream to
help remove foulants or inhibit microbiological activity. Air scour can be combined with the Backwash Top step to
increase cleaning effectiveness.
Figure 28. Backwash Top Step for DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules
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5.5 Backwash Bottom
After the Backwash Top step, the filtrate continues to flow from the inside of the fiber to the outside but now it is
flushed out through the bottom outlet of the module (see Figure 29), ensuring the entire length of fibers have been
cleaned. The backwash pump is not stopped in the transition between Backwash Top and Backwash Bottom. The valves
must be sequenced to prevent damaging the membranes. Similarly to the Backwash Top step, the duration of the
Backwash Bottom is typically 30 – 45 seconds and optionally chlorine might be added to help remove foulants or inhibit
microbiological activity. The backwash steps can be repeated numerous times depending on the degree of fouling.
Monitoring the backwash wastewater quality can be useful to optimize the durations of these steps.
Figure 29. Backwash Bottom Step for DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules
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5.6 Forward Flush
The backwash sequence finalizes with a Forward Flush. In this step, feed water is used to rinse the system to remove
remaining solids and the air that might have got trapped in the system during the precedent steps. Water flows on the
outside of the fibers (feed side) with the filtrate valve closed, and exits through the module top outlet, as shown in
Figure 30. This step typically lasts 30 – 60 seconds or long enough to refill the modules and purge air and water from the
outlet. After this, the systems returns to Filtration mode and the cycle starts again.
Figure 30. Forward Flush Step for DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules
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6 DUPONT ULTRAFILTRATION CLEANING
6.1 Membrane Fouling

Fouling in UF process is understood as the phenomenon that leads to a gradual increase in the transmembrane pressure
(TMP) for a constant product flow (or vice versa, a decrease in the filtrate flow at a constant feed pressure), typically
caused by deposition or adsorption of the contaminants present in the feed stream on the membrane surface or in the
inner structure.
Occasionally, fouling of the membrane surface occurs and is caused by:
l Inadequate pretreatment
l Overdosing of upstream process coagulants
l Improper materials selection (pumps, piping, etc.)
l Failure of chemical dosing systems
l Inadequate backwash and unsuitable shutdown
l Improper operational control
l Slow build-up of precipitates over extended periods
l Change in feed water composition
l Biological contamination of the feed or filtrate water
l Oil & inorganic contamination of the feed water
From the point of view of the fouling mechanism, there are basically three categories for fouling, being cake formation,
pore adsorption and pore blocking.
Cake Formation normally occurs when the contaminants are too large to enter the membrane pores, so they deposit on
the membrane surface and create an additional resistance to the passage of water, resulting in a TMP increase.
Pore Adsorption typically happens when the contaminants are smaller than the membrane pore size, so they deposit on
the internal walls of the pores, hence reducing the diameter of the pores and therefore providing also an additional
resistance to the flow.
Finally, Pore Blocking takes place when the contaminants are of similar size to the membranes pores, so that blocking
occurs and therefore the number of actual pores is reduced, providing also an additional resistance to the flow.
According to the nature of the contaminants, the fouling can also be categorized as follows:
Particulate: This type of fouling is caused by organic and inorganic particles, suspended solids, colloids and turbidity
present in the feed, which are not in dissolved form, and typically larger than the pore size. This can be reduced by
operations upstream the UF system such us coagulation, sedimentation, clarification or media filtration. The common
cleaning method for this type of fouling is air scour and backwash.
Biological fouling: This is caused by the attachment and growth of microorganisms on the membranes, which can also
lead to the formation of a viscous biofilm. This can be reduced by using in-line chemical feed of chlorine or biocide or
by elimination of nutrients by using adsorption (e.g., powdered or granular activated carbon, PAC or GAC), or coagulation
upstream the UF system. The common cleaning method for removal of biological fouling is cleaning with oxidizers or
biocides (e.g., Cl2, H 2O 2, SBS). Note PAC is available in different grades and can damage the membranes. If using PAC
consult with DuPont TS&D.
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Inorganic fouling: This is caused by the precipitation of inorganics on the membrane (e.g., Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn), and can be
reduced by using oxidation/precipitation and filtration as pretreatment to the UF or in some cases using low hardness
water for the alkali chemically enhanced backwash. The common cleaning method for removal of inorganic fouling is
chemically enhanced backwash with acid at pH 2 (e.g., HCl, H 2SO 4, Citric, or Oxalic Acid).
Organic fouling: This is the one of the major causes of fouling in the UF processes and is caused by organics adsorbing
on the membrane (silt, organic acids, humic substances), as the majority of these substances are too small to be retained
by the membrane and hence go through. This can be reduced by using PAC, GAC, or coagulation upstream the UF
system. The common cleaning method for removal of organic fouling is cleaning regimes with alkali at pH 12 (e.g.,
NaOH).
Table 10. Summary of the fouling types and methods of control

Fouling
Type Cause Prevention Cleaning Method
Particles SS, Colloids, Turbidity Coagulation, Clarifiers… Air Scour / Backwash
Biological Microorganisms growth Bacteriological Control (e.g., Cl2 CEB/CIP with oxidizers/biocides
in line).
Elimination of nutrients (PAC,
GAC, Coagulation,…)
Inorganic Inorganic precipitation (e.g., Fe, Mn, Ca) Oxidation/Precipitation + CEB/CIP Acid @ pH ~ 2 (e.g., HCl, H 2SO 4,
Filtration. Citric Acid, Oxalic Acid…)
Use low hardness water for CEB
Alkali.
Organic Organics adsorption (silt, organic acids, Coagulation, PAC, GAC,… CEB/CIP Alkali @ pH ~ 11 – 12 (e.g., NaOH)
humic substances,…)
6.2 Chemically Enhanced Backwash (CEB)

CEB operation refers to a Chemically Enhanced Backwash, where chemicals (e.g., chlorine, acid or base) are added in the
Backwash stream in order to increase the cleaning effectiveness. The type of chemical used depends on the foulant
(refer to Table 9 above), which might be a combination of different ones or change seasonally. The frequency of a CEB is
dependent on the feed water quality, but typically is once per day to once per week. For high quality feed waters it may
not be required.
The CEB process is typically programmed to occur automatically at a preset frequency but this can be field adjusted
after gaining site specific operating experience. Alternatively it can be initiated based on a TMP set point. The CEB is
performed using UF filtrate.
The CEB is performed following the same steps of a normal backwash sequence except a soak step is added after the
addition of the chemicals, for 5 – 20 minutes, to allow time for the chemicals to react with contaminants that have
attached to the membrane surface or penetrated the fiber wall. It is recommended however to invert the order of the
backwash steps, i.e., backwash bottom first and then backwash top as the second step, to make sure that the system
remains filled with the chemical solution during the soaking time. Intermittent air scour (e.g., 5 – 10 seconds every 5
minutes) can be applied as well during the soak step to increase effectiveness.
After the soak a routine backwash including air scour, gravity drain, top and bottom backwash, and forward flush is
performed to remove any remaining particulates and purge residual chemicals. After a CEB and at the start of the
operating step, the initial filtrate produced might need to be sent to waste to remove residual chemicals. This step is
dependent on the system piping and valve design and the downstream requirements for the filtrate. In addition, the
CEB can be performed at reduced flux than that used for standard backwash (e.g., 80 LMH).
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6.3 Cleaning In Place (CIP)
6.3.1 Introduction
The fouling of membrane surfaces results in the gradual performance decline of the UF System in terms of high
operating transmembrane pressure , lower sustainable filtrate flow or flux, and/or high chemical and power
consumption.
Clean-in-Place (CIP) may be accomplished effectively due to the excellent physical properties and chemical tolerances
of the DuPont Ultrafiltration Hydrophilic-Polyvinyldifluoride (H-PVDF) membrane material and module components,
which are compatible and resistant to elevated levels of pH, chlorine oxidants, and temperature. Concentration,
cleaning time, temperature, intermittent air scour, and hydraulic conditions during the cleaning process are important
considerations which will affect cleaning efficiency.
UF system performance should be monitored on a regular and frequent basis. If cleaning is delayed too long, fouling
may become irreversible and result in potential physical damage to the UF module or appurtenance equipment. The
DuPont Ultrafiltration Normalization Tool may be used to analyze UF system performance on a normalized basis, to
remove or minimize the effects of temperature, pressure, and flow so that the user may differentiate between normal
phenomena and real performance upsets due to fouling. The DuPont Ultrafiltration Normalization Tool is available from
your local DWS Technical Service.
CIP is most effective if it is tailored to remove the specific fouling problem. Sometimes a wrong choice of cleaning
chemicals can make a situation worse. Therefore, the type of foulants on the UF membrane surface should be
understood prior to the CIP, so that the most effective CIP cleaning solution and sequence may be used for the
procedure. There are different ways to accomplish this:
l Analyze feed water quality.
l Review results of previous cleanings.
l Remove and inspect the feed end of the DuPont Ultrafiltration Module for indication of contaminants.
l Inspect the waste discharge after air scour in the backwash step for indication of contaminants. Sample may be
visually inspected or analyzed in laboratory.
l Analyze spent SDI filter paper after grab sample SDI-5 test at UF feed water.
l Destructive autopsy if methods above fail to identify the foulant.
6.3.2 Safety Precautions
l When using any chemicals indicated here or in subsequent sections, follow accepted safety practices. Consult
the chemical manufacturer for detailed information about safety, handling and disposal.
l When preparing cleaning solutions, ensure that all chemicals are dissolved and well mixed before circulating
the solutions through the modules.
l During pumping and recirculation of cleaning solutions, observe maximum temperature and pH limits. Please
refer to Table 11 below.
Table 11. pH and temperature limits during cleaning

Chemical Type pH, Max/Min Temp., Max
Alkaline Solution 12, Max. 40°C (95°F)
Acid Solution 2, Min. 40°C (95°F)
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6.3.3 CIP Requirements
During regular operation, the surface of the fibers of the UF modules may become fouled by particles, biological matter,
colloidal particles and/or insoluble organic constituents. Deposits build up on the fiber surfaces during operation, until
they result in an increase of TMP to levels or a decrease of normalized filtrate flow that cannot be recovered on
sustainable basis by regular backwash and CEBs.
DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules should be cleaned to restore membrane permeability, when one or more of the below
parameters are encountered during regular operation, after a CEB event. Permeability is the flux, per unit of
transmembrane driving force, and is expressed as LMH/bar or gfd/psi.
l Normalized Permeability drops by 50%
l Normalized TMP increases by 1 bar (14.5 psig) from initial TMP
l Operating TMP reaches a maximum 2.1 bar (30.5 psig)
l In the event that you do not normalize your operating data, please use the above values for general indication of
when to initiate a cleaning event
If delayed too long, the membrane fouling may become irreversible, where cleaning may not restore membrane
permeability. Heavily fouled membranes are more challenging to clean as it becomes more difficult for the cleaning
chemical to penetrate the membrane surface, and flushing the foulants out of the membranes. Furthermore, the time
between cleanings may become more frequent as the membranes which are not completely cleaned foul or scale
more rapidly.
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6.3.4 CIP Equipment
The equipment for CIP is shown in the CIP system flow diagram below (Figure 31). The materials of construction for
selected equipment and ancillaries of the CIP system should be compatible with the pH, chemical types and
concentrations, and temperature of the CIP solutions.
Figure 31. CIP System Flow Diagram

CIP TANK Chemical Mixing Tank Polyethylene, Polypropylene or FRP
CIP PUMP Low-Pressure Pump 316SS, or non-metallic composite
CIP Cartridge Filter Polypropylene, 5 or10 micron PVC, FRP, or SS housing
HT CIP Tank Heater (Optional)
TIT Temperature Transmitter
LIT Level Transmitter
LG Level Gauge
PG Pressure Gauge
FIT Flow Transmitter
AIT pH Analyzer
1. The CIP Tank may be constructed of polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), or fiberglass-reinforced plastic
(FRP). The tank should be provided with a removable cover and a temperature gauge/transmitter. The
cleaning procedure is more effective when performed at an elevated temperature. The chemical solution
should be maintained in accordance to the pH and temperature guidelines listed in Table 1. It is
recommended to not use a cleaning temperature below 15°C (59°F), because of the slower chemical kinetics
at low temperatures. Cooling after a heated CIP may also be required in certain geographic regions.
A general rule of thumb used in sizing of the CIP Tank is to use the approximate volume of all of the UF
modules, and add the hold-up volume in the feed and return lines, within the boundaries of the UF system
to be cleaned in one CIP event plus enough volume to maintain a Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) for the
CIP pump.
For example, to clean a DuPont Ultrafiltration system containing ten (10) nos. of DuPont Ultrafiltration SFD /
SFP–2880 modules, to be cleaned in one CIP event, the following calculations may be considered:
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a. Volume in UF Modules
Vmodule = 39 L (10.3 gal) / module
V10 modules = 0.039 m3 x 10 = 0.39 m3 (103.03 gal)
b. Volume in Pipes
(assume 10 m (32.8 ft) length of DN50 PN10 (2-in. SCH 80) UPVC pipe)
; where r = radius; l = length
Vpipe = 3.14 x (0.025 m)2 x 10 m
Vpipe = 0.0196 m3 (5.18 gal)
c. Volume in UF Modules and Pipes (or, CIP Tank Volume)

V10 modules + pipe = 0.39 m3+ 0.0196 m3= 0.41 m3 (108.2 gal)
Therefore, the CIP tank should be minimum 0.41 m3 (108.2 gal).
2. The CIP Pump should be sized for the flows and pressures given in Table 12, making allowances for pressure
loss in the piping and across the CIP cartridge filter.
Table 12. Recommended CIP Feed Flowrate per UF module

DuPont Ultrafiltration Product Feed Flowrate (per UF module) Feed Pressure (at UF module)
3
m /h gpm bar psig
SFP/SFP-2660 1.0 4.4 < 3.0 < 43.5
SFD/SFP-2860(XP); IP(D)-51(XP) 1.5 6.6 < 3.0 < 43.5
SFD/SFP-2880(XP); IP(D)-77(XP) 1.5 6.6 < 3.0 < 43.5
UXA-2680XP 1.5 6.6 < 3.0 < 43.5
3. Appropriate valves, flow meters and pressure gauges should be installed to adequately control the flow.
Service lines may be either hard-piped or use flexible hoses. In either case, the flow velocity should be
maintained at 3 m/s (10 ft/s) or less.
4. Ensure that the CIP concentrate and filtrate return lines are submerged in the CIP Tank to minimize foaming.
6.3.5 CIP Procedure
The cleaning duration for each CIP solution is expected to require about 6 hours, depending on target recycle and soak
durations, and actual time required to prepare chemicals and equipment. The permeability of the UF membranes to be
cleaned should be measured with online instrumentation for before and after the CIP with each type of solution, to
allow for baseline and assessment of chemical cleaning efficiency and indication of the type of fouling. Permeability
(LMH/bar, or gfd/psi) may be measured on normalized terms using the DuPont Ultrafiltration Normalization Tool, or on
approximate basis using field measured values of flow and pressure at the feed and filtrate.
Table 13 provides a general valve sequence table for the steps of the CIP procedure. A description of each step of the
CIP procedure follows in this section.
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Table 13. General Valve Sequence Table for CIP Procedure
Step No. CIP Step 1

1 Install CIP Cartridge Filter Elements O X X X X X X X X
2 Make-up Cleaning Solution O X X O O X X X O
3 Regular Backwash, Pre-CIP X O O O O X X X O
4 Remove from Service X X X O O X X X O
5 Drain X X X O O X X X O
6 Low-flow Pumping X X X O O O O X O
7 Recycle X X X O O O O O O
8 Soak 2 X X O3 X X X X X X
9 Final Recycle X X X O O O O O O
10 Flush Out X X X O X O O O O
11 Regular Backwash, Post-CIP X O O X X X X X X
12 Return to Service O X X X X X X X X
Notes:
X – Valve Closed, or Equipment Off
O – Valve Open, or Equipment On
1
Valve positions and equipment status are dependent on the previous step in the sequence. For example, during Regular Backwash, Pre-CIP (Step 3) the CIP Pump is not required
to be On in the stand-alone step, however the CIP Pump continues to be On to allow for mixing of cleaning solution (Step 2) which occurs in-parallel.
2
Valve sequence will differ if low-flow recirculation is practiced during extended soak duration. Refer to Section 6.2.6, CIP Tips.
3
If intermittent air scour is practiced during Soak step, the Forward Flush Valve should be opened to allow venting of air introduced into UF modules. Elevation of system piping
will help prevent drain out of CIP solution during this process.
1. Install CIP cartridge filter elements (5 or 10 µm rating).
2. Make up cleaning solution. Preheat cleaning solution to desired temperature, and meanwhile, open the CIP
recycle valve to mix the solution with pump and/or agitator. For seawater applications, RO permeate is
preferred for the UF CIP make-up solution; however, potable water or UF filtrate may be used if there is no
alternative water source. Always add the chemical to the CIP make up water to avoid exothermic reactions.
3. Regular backwash, pre-CIP. Conduct a regular backwash of the UF skid to remove loose contaminants prior to
the CIP.
4. Remove from Service. Remove the UF skid to be cleaned from service by normal shutdown procedures.
Ensure manual and actuated valves are in correct position prior to the CIP.
5. Drain out water in the UF skid. Residual water in UF skid will dilute the concentration of cleaning solution.
Therefore, drain the residual water by opening the forward flush outlet valve and backwash outlet valve, and
close when the UF skids are drained of standing water.
6. Low-flow pumping. After the UF skid is drained of residual water, activate the CIP pump. Pump mixed, pre-
heated cleaning solution through the feed side of the UF modules (i.e., filtrate valve closed) at conditions of
low flowrate (about half of that shown in Table 12) and low pressure to displace remaining standing water and
solids in the UF modules and rack.
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7. Recycle. Recycle the cleaning solution at the flowrates shown in Table 12. CIP solution continues to be
introduced into the UF modules from the feed side. Continue to recycle and allow the temperature to
stabilize. Measure the pH of the solution and adjust the pH, if needed – e.g., if pH falls or increases by greater
than 1 pH unit from target level. If NaOCl is included in the CIP solution, the recycled solution may also be
measured for free chlorine using a portable colorimeter, where NaOCl chemical is replenished if the
measured chlorine falls below 75% of target concentration. The recycle step typically lasts 1 hour, depending
on extent of fouling. Initially, recycle only through the feed side of the module (i.e., filtrate valve closed) so that
the solids accumulated on the membrane surface are flushed out of the system and not pushed back again
into the membrane; after 15 – 20 minutes open as well the filtrate valve (while the concentrate/reject valve
remains partially open) so that the chemical solution also flows through the fiber and filtrate piping back to the
CIP tank (target 10 – 20% filtrate and 80 – 90% concentrate returns).
8. Soak. Deactivate the CIP Pump and CIP Tank Heater. Close the CIP inlet, outlet and return valves, and allow the
modules to soak. The soak step is typically 2 hours, depending on extent of fouling; sometimes, an overnight
soak of 10 – 15 hours is effective for recovery of severe fouling. To maintain a high temperature and to
improve cleaning efficiency during an extended soak period, use a slow recirculation rate (about 10% of that
shown in Table 11). We recommend intermittent air scour for a few seconds, every 30 minutes of the soak
period, to agitate fibers for enhanced cleaning benefits; if intermittent air scour is practiced during soak step,
the Forward Flush Valve should be opened to allow venting of air introduced into UF modules.
9. Final Recycle. Recycle the cleaning solution at the flowrates shown in Table 11. CIP solution is again introduced
into the UF modules from the feed side. The final recycle step typically lasts 20 – 30 minutes duration.
10. Flush out. After the final recycle period, drain the modules and drain the CIP Tank. Fill the tank with RO
permeate (preferred, for seawater applications), potable water, or UF filtrate to prepare for the Flush out step.
RO permeate is preferred for seawater applications, to prevent reaction of impurities in the flush-out water
with the remaining cleaning solution. Perform the Flush out of the CIP tank and piping by repeat of Low-flow
pumping (Step 6), and Recycle (Step 7) for a period of 10 minutes. A plan for discharge of the chemical wastes
in accordance to local regulations should be developed prior to performing the CIP.
11. Regular backwash, post-CIP. Conduct a regular backwash of the UF skid to prepare the system for return to
service.
12. Return to Service.
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6.3.6 CIP Tips
1. The fouling of membrane modules typically consists of a combination of fouling mechanisms, e.g., a mixture
of organic fouling, colloidal fouling and biofouling, which often requires a two-step cleaning program: alkaline
cleaning followed by acid cleaning. We recommend alkaline cleaning as the first cleaning step. Acid cleaning
should only be applied as the first cleaning step if it is known that only calcium carbonate or iron hydroxide is
present on the membrane surface. Acid cleaners typically react with silica, organics (e.g., humic acids), and
biofilm present on the membrane surface, which may cause further decline of membrane performance if
being introduced first.
2. Always measure the pH during cleaning. If the pH increases more than 1 pH units during acid cleaning, more
acid needs to be added. If the pH decreases more than 1 pH units during alkaline cleaning, more caustic needs
to be added.
3. Inspect the appearance of the spent CIP solution at various points during the recycle and soak steps. The
visual appearance sometimes provides indication of the type of fouling, especially in the case of inorganic
metals.
4. Long soak times. It is possible for the chemical cleaning solution to be fully saturated, which allows the
foulants to precipitate back onto the fiber surface. In addition, the temperature will drop during this period;
therefore the soaking becomes less effective. It is recommended to circulate the solution regularly in order to
maintain the temperature (temperature should not drop more than 5°C/41°F) and add chemicals if the pH
needs to be adjusted.
5. Fresh cleaning solution needs to be prepared when the cleaning solution becomes turbid and/or discolored.
The cleaning is repeated with a fresh cleaning solution.
6. Intermittent air scour immediately before the CIP (prior to Step 5, Drain out water in UF skid), during, and just at
the end of the soaking step (Step 8, Soak), can benefit the cleaning effectiveness in more challenging cases. It
might occur that due to the aeration and depending on the system piping layout, some of the chemical
solution volume is lost through the module top port; in this case the system must be refilled again with
chemical solution using the CIP pump.
7. Thermal Shock should be considered in cold water environments, to prevent damage to UF modules and
piping systems in cases where high-temperature CIP solution is introduced into low-temperature system (e.g.,
Step 6, Low-flow Pumping), or low-temperature flush water is introduced into a warm or heated system (e.g.,
Step 10, Flush Out). In this case it is recommended to recirculate the solution while it is being heated-up up for
a gradual temperature increase. Similarly, at the end of the cleaning, it is recommended to let the system cool
down before flushing it out (Step 10 of previous section) with cold water.
8. Use the least harsh cleaning solution possible, including cleaning parameters of pH, temperature, and solution
strength.
6.3.7 CIP Chemicals
Table 14 lists general cleaning chemicals that are effective to recover membrane permeability in most situations.
Generic acid cleaners and alkaline cleaners are standard, widely available cleaning chemicals. Acid cleaners are used to
remove inorganic precipitates (e.g., including iron), while alkaline cleaners are used to remove organic fouling (e.g.,
biological matter). Specialty cleaning chemicals may be used in cases of severe fouling, or unique cleaning
requirements. For seawater applications, RO permeate is preferred for the UF CIP make-up solution; in cases when RO
permeate is not available, please discuss project-specific conditions of water quality with DWS Technical Service to
evaluate if potable water or UF filtrate may be used as an alternative water source. Depending on the make-up solution
water source, the feed water may be highly buffered (i.e, high alkalinity), where additional acid or base chemical may
need to be added to reach the target pH level – which is pH 2 for acid cleans, and pH 12 for alkaline cleans. Also, a
softener can be used on the CIP make up water system to remove hardness.
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Table 14. General CIP Cleaning Solutions
Cleaning Solution Solution 1 Solution 2 Solution 3 Solution 4
0.2% (W) HCl, at pH 2% (W) Citric Acid at 2% (W) Oxalic Acid at 0.2% (W) NaOCl + 0.1% (W) NaOH,
Targeted Foulants 2, 35°C (95°F) max. pH 2, 35°C (95°F) max. pH 2, 35°C (95°F) max. at pH 11.5, 35°C (95°F) max.
Inorganic Preferred Alternative Alternative
Particulate / Colloidal Preferred Alternative Alternative Preferred
Microbial / Biological Preferred
Organic Preferred
Combined Metals and Preferred Alternative
Organic Complexes
Notes:
1. (W) denotes weight percent of active ingredient.
2. Solution 2 (Citric Acid) should be thoroughly flushed from system before return to service due to organics loading.
6.4 Alternative Cleaning Protocols

The following section details several non-standard strategies, as alternatives to the described above, to manage
membrane fouling with the aim of simplifying the process, reducing the system footprint and installation costs, reducing
the energy and chemical consumption, generating less waste, or increasing the system availability and recovery. These
strategies are project specific and need to be validated depending on the application and feed water source and quality.
For further details please contact DuPont.
6.4.1 Mini-CIP
This approach consists of substituting the standard approach based on regular Chemically Enhanced Backwash (CEB) by
Cleanings in Place (CIP) of short duration, and is applicable to all water types. For this purpose, the existing auxiliary
system used for the standard CIP is employed to perform more frequent but shorter chemical cleanings, called mini-CIP,
so there is no need of additional installation or hardware. However, due to the relatively high frequency of mini-CIP (i.e.
typically from 1 to 3 times per week), it is recommended to automate the process in order to reduce labor.
The total duration of the mini-CIP is typically 30 minutes and includes a regular Backwash pre-cleaning, a heated
chemical solution recirculation step with a soaking period in between (with intermittent Air Scour), and a final Backwash
post-cleaning. Note that the mini-CIP substitutes the CEB, not the standard intensive CIP program which still might be
needed regularly.
Some of the benefits of the mini-CIP approach as compared to CEB are:
l Increased UF system recovery and availability (as the frequency of mini-CIP and water consumption is typically
lower than CEB).
l Lower UF system footprint and system complexity, by reducing the hardware associated to the CEB systems.
l Higher cleaning efficiency, due to the use of recirculation, temperature aid, higher flexibility to use special
chemicals and the possibility to use low TDS water (e.g. RO permeate) as solvent.
l Reduced chemical consumption and waste, due to the operation in a closed loop as opposed to CEB’s flush-
through mode.
l Lower risk of RO membrane oxidation in integrated systems due to the lower system exposure to chlorine as
compared to more frequent on-line CEB’s.
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6.4.2 Elimination of Backwash
Depending on the feed water source and quality it might be possible as well to remove the backwash step from the UF
operation (and therefore all the equipment associated to it) and rely on regular Air Scour and Forward Flush as the only
hydraulic methods to help removing membrane fouling. However, regular chemical cleanings must be still applied.
Please contact DuPont for further details.
Some of the benefits of the elimination of the Backwash step are:
l Increased UF system recovery.
l Reduced UF trains size (i.e. fewer UF modules needed).
l Reduced UF system footprint and process complexity (due to the elimination of backwash pumps, tanks, piping,
CEB dosing pumps and injection points, etc.).
l Reduced energy consumption.
l Less volume of waste generated.
6.4.3 Backwash with RO Brine
In integrated systems where UF is used as pretreatment of RO, it might be possible to backwash the UF system with RO
brine, instead of the standard approach using ultrafiltrate water, with no detrimental impact on the UF system
performance or membrane integrity. This is only feasible for specific water sources and under certain conditions, and
simply refers to backwash and not to chemical cleanings. Please contact DuPont for further details.
Some of the benefits of using RO brine for UF backwash as opposed to ultrafiltrate water are:
l Increased UF system recovery.
l Reduced UF trains size (i.e. fewer UF modules needed).
l Potential to eliminate the equipment associated to backwash pumping, and reduce energy consumption, if the
residual brine pressure is used.
l Less volume of waste generated.
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7 HANDLING AND STORAGE PROCEDURES
FOR DUPONT ULTRAFILTRATION MODULES
This chapter provides general information for the handling and storage of DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules. The
information in this bulletin applies to the DuPont Ultrafiltration products including SFD / SFP-2660, -2860, and -2880,
IntegraPac™ IP/ IPD-77, -51(XP), IntegraFlux™ SFP/D -2860/80XP, and IntegraFlux™ UXA-2680XP.
DuPont Water Solutions (DWS) recommends that the procedures for DuPont Ultrafiltration long-term shutdown &
storage, in particular, be closely coordinated with local DWS technical service to facilitate a positive experience, and to
train facility operations & engineering staff.
7.1 General
DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules should be handled in such a way to help control the spread of and reduce bio-growth
during long-term storage, shipping or system shutdowns. DWS recommends that the modules be shipped and stored in
their original factory packaging, and loaded into the system skids just prior to start-up. There are cases when the
customer may prefer to install the modules onto the skids with significant time before start-up and commissioning;
storage guidelines for these cases are also addressed in this chapter. If the module is exposed to air for an extended
period of time, the membrane may become dry and at risk to irreversible damage; therefore, it is important to keep the
membrane wetted.
7.2 Factory Storage & Shipping of DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules

As part of the quality assurance program, all DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules are tested for integrity and performance
(“wet tested”) at the factory, prior to packaging and shipment. To control dehydration and biological growth, DuPont
Ultrafiltration Modules are shipped wetted and preserved in a non-hazardous standard storage solution containing pH
buffered 1 wt% food-grade SMBS. The storage solution inhibits biological growth during storage and shipping of the
modules. SDS for these chemicals are available from DWS.
Preservative solution is automatically delivered into the module housings prior to sealing of the module’s feed and
outlet ports by blinds at the grooved couplings and plug at the threaded air connection. The approximate volume of
standard storage solution used at shipping for each module is 2 L (0.5 gal) for SFD / SFP-2660; 4 L (1 gal) for SFD / SFP-
2860(XP), IP / IPD-51(XP) and UXA-2680XP; and 6 L (1.6 gal) for SFD / SFP-2880(XP) and IP / IPD-77(XP). If glycerin is added
for freeze protection the holdup module volume will be used. After adding preservative and sealing the openings, the
modules are wrapped in plastic bags prior to boxing for dust protection. Precise solution volume and good sealing of the
couplings help ensure a stable preservative environment during transportation and storage of new modules.
The wrapped modules are stored in cardboard boxes, with one module per box. A small box containing installation parts
is inserted into each cardboard box shipped. Saddle-shaped cushion inserts are located at both ends and along the
module to support and protect the modules from damage during shipping and handling. The modules are stored in the
horizontal position, with the sealed port connections facing upwards. Labels to identify the port locations and position
the boxes are provided on the exterior of the packaging to allow proper storage. To prevent collapse of the boxed
modules, stacking is limited to four layers for all SFD / SFP, IntegraPac™, IntegraFlux™ and IntegraFlux™ UXA products.
Depending on the total number of modules and required shipping method, the boxed modules are either palleted or
crated for transportation.
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Modules must be protected from freezing or excessive heat during shipping and storage. The temperature limits for
modules during standard shipping and storage are 1°C (33.8°F) to 40°C (104°F). Avoid abrupt variations in temperature;
equalization should be allowed to occur at a maximum temperature differential of ± 1°C (1.8°F) per minute. Irreversible
damage to the membrane and damage of the module components may result if the modules are exposed to
temperatures outside these limits. If freezing conditions are anticipated during the customer’s shipping and storage of
modules, please notify DWS at the time of order placement. Glycerine can be added to the storage solution by DWS at
the factory prior to shipping to protect the modules under freezing conditions.
Mechanical damage to module housing, membrane, and connections may result if the module, boxed module, pallet, or
crate is dropped, and otherwise miss-handled. The modules should be handled with care, with particular attention
during transportation.
7.3 Storage of New DUPONT Ultrafiltration Modules

Modules are recommended to be shipped and stored in their original packaging separate from the system skids, and
loaded into the system just prior to start-up. There may be cases where the customer prefers to pre-install the modules
on the system skids; for example, to allow factory acceptance testing of packaged or mobile systems prior to shipping,
or work scheduling at site to eliminate the separate step for module loading. In cases where pre-installation of modules
onto the system skids are preferred for alignment of process/mechanical piping, frame and supports, blank or “dummy”
modules are available from DW&PS to assist in alignment and shipping of system skids from the customer’s facility to
the project site. It is recommended that seals and plugs for isolation and storage solution containment be saved for
future use.
These guidelines should be followed for storage of new DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules:
l Keep modules in original factory packaging. There are cases when the customer may prefer to load the
modules onto the skids with prior to start-up & commissioning; guidelines for storage of modules installed on-
skid are provided in the Sections 7.4 and 7.5, Short-Term and Long-Term Shutdown & Storage of Used DuPont
Ultrafiltration Modules.
l To minimize the potential for leakage of preservative, modules should be stored in horizontal position, with the
sealed port connections facing upwards. Labels of the port locations are provided on the exterior of the box to
facilitate storage. If leakage is observed, please refer to guidelines for replenishment of storage solution
provided in the Sections 7.4 and 7.5, Short-Term and Long-Term Shutdown & Storage of Used DuPont
l To prevent collapse of the boxed modules, limit vertical stacking to four layers for all SFD/SFP, IntegraPac™,
IntegraFlux™ and IntegraFlux™ UXA modules.
l Store inside a cool and dry building or warehouse, away from sources of heat, ignition, and direct sunlight. An
ambient temperature of 20°C (68°F) to 35°C (95°F) is recommended for ideal storage conditions.
l Temperature limits for modules during shipping and storage is 1°C (33.8°F) to 40°C (104°F). Modules must be
protected from freezing or excessive heat during shipping and storage. Avoid abrupt variations in temperature;
equalization should be allowed to occur at a maximum temperature differential of ± 1°C (1.8°F) per minute. If
freezing conditions are anticipated during the customer’s shipping and storage of modules, please notify
DW&PS at the time of order placement. Glycerin may be added to the storage solution by DW&PS at the factory
prior to shipping to allow for shipment and storage at freezing conditions.
l Sealed modules may be stored up to 18 months from date of manufacture, at the recommended storage
conditions in the original packaging, without additional measures required for storage. If storage exceeds 18
months from date of manufacture, guidelines for confirmation and replenishment of storage are provided in
Section 7.5, Long-Term Shutdown & Storage of Used DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules.
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7.4 Short-Term Shutdown & Storage of Used DuPont Ultrafiltration
Modules
This section provides guidelines for the short-term shutdown & storage of used (installed and operated) DuPont
Ultrafiltration Modules, and addresses cases where the modules are either (a) stored off-skid as individual modules, or (b)
stored on-skid. Short-term is considered as periods where the modules have been drained or used in-service, and will
remain out of operation for less than 4 days.
Note that the quantities of storage solution required for on-skid storage is greater than for off-skid storage to allow for
complete wetting of fibers; off-skid storage allows for horizontal storage which decreases the amount of required
solution.
If the modules are expected to be exposed to freezing conditions, glycerin should be added to the storage solution for
either short- or long-term shutdown & storage conditions. Refer to Section 7.6, Freeze-Protection of Used DuPont
7.4.1 Short-Term Shutdown & Storage, Off-Skid Storage
For cases of short-term shutdown & storage, where the modules will be stored off-skid, and the modules will be placed
in service within the next 4 days, SMBS storage solution is not required. Clean water alone is sufficient to keep the fibers
in wetted condition to avoid dehydration. Clean water sources may be from potable water or RO permeate. The
approximate volume of water required for each module is 2 L (0.5 gal) for SFD / SFP-2660; 4 L (1 gal) for DuPont SFD /
SFP-2860(XP), IP / IPD-51(XP) and IntegraFlux™ UXA-2680XP and 6 L (1.6 gal) for SFD / SFP-2880(XP) and IP / IPD-77(XP).
If the modules have been in-service, a normal system chemical enhanced backwash (CEB) of alkaline, followed by acid,
should be conducted before removal of the modules for short-term shutdown & storage. If CEB facilities are not
available, then a normal backwash consisting of water and air scour steps should be conducted prior to removal of
modules off the skid.
Once the modules are removed water may be fed into the module through the feed port by gravity or low-rate
pumping. The module should be kept in horizontal position at time of fill, with the far side filtrate and concentrate ports
sealed by blind disc at the grooved couplings. Once the water is added into the module, all service port connections
should be sealed tightly using the original blind discs and plugs to retain the solution inside the module. If these parts
have not been retained an isolation package can be ordered from the DuPont Ultrafiltration Module Spare Parts List. To
minimize the potential for leakage of preservative, modules should be stored in the horizontal position, with the sealed
port connections facing upwards. Modules may be kept in the original cardboard boxes. Labels of the port locations are
provided on the exterior of the box to facilitate storage.
7.4.2 Short-Term Shutdown & Storage, On-Skid Storage
For cases of short-term shutdown & storage, where the modules will be stored on the skid, and the modules will be
placed in service within the next 4 days, clean water alone is sufficient to keep the fibers in wetted condition to avoid
dehydration. As for off-rack storage, clean water sources from potable water or RO permeate should be used. The
approximate volume of water required for each module is 16 L (4 gal) for SFD/SFP-2660; 23 L (6 gal) for IntegraFlux™
UXA-2680XP; 35 L (9 gal) for SFD/SFP-2860(XP); 39 L (10 gal) for SFD/SFP-2880(XP); 49 L (13 gal) for IP/IPD-51(XP) and 53 L
(14 gal) for IP/IPD-77(XP). These quantities of water allow for near to complete fill of the module with water.
If the modules have been in-service, a normal system CEB of alkaline, followed by acid, should be conducted on the
modules before short-term shutdown & storage. If CEB facilities are not available, then a normal backwash consisting of
water and air scour steps should be initiated prior to short-term shutdown & storage.
DWS recommends that the UF CIP system be used for delivery of the water into the modules from the feed side. Refer
to section 6.2.5 in this document for general procedure.
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7.5 Long-Term Shutdown & Storage of Used DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules
This section provides guidelines for the long-term shutdown & storage of used DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules, and
addresses cases where the modules are either (a) stored off-skid as individual modules, or (b) stored on-skid. Long-term
is considered as periods where the modules have been drained or used in-service, and will remain out of operation for
more than 4 days.
Note that the quantities of storage solution required for on-skid storage is greater than for off-skid storage to allow for
complete wetting of fibers; off-skid storage allows for horizontal storage which decreases the amount of required
solution.
Re-preserved elements should be visually inspected for biological growth every three months. If the storage solution is
not clear, the module should be re-preserved and re-packed as described above. Contact of the SMBS solution with air /
oxygen will oxidize bisulfite to sulfuric acid. Therefore, the pH of the solution should be spot checked on random
modules every 3 months. Re-storage is required when the measured pH is 3 or lower. For medium to large orders, to
avoid inspection of every module, a representative sampling of the total number of modules (e.g. 5%) may be inspected
for visual appearance and pH.
either short- or long-term shutdown & storage conditions. Refer to Section 7.6, Freeze-Protection of Used DuPont
7.5.1 Long-Term Shutdown & Storage, Off-Skid Storage
For cases of long-term shutdown & storage, where the modules will be stored off-skid, and the modules will remain out-
of-service for more than 4 days, a storage solution containing pH buffered 1 wt% food-grade SMBS is required to
effectively minimize biological growth in the modules during the storage period.
If the modules have been in-service, a normal system CEB and CIP should be conducted on the modules before removal
of the modules for long-term shutdown & storage. Refer to Section 6.2.5 in this document for CIP Procedure. If CEB
and/or CIP facilities are not available, then a normal backwash consisting of water and air scour steps should be initiated
prior to removal of modules off the skid.
The approximate volume of storage solution required for each module is 2 L (0.5 gal) for SFD / SFP-2660; 4 L (1 gal) for
SFD / SFP-2860(XP), IP / IPD-51(XP) and IntegraFlux™ UXA-2680XP; and 6 L (1.6 gal) for SFD / SFP-2880(XP) and IP / IPD-77
(XP). For every liter of solution required, 12 grams of food-grade SMBS are added for biostat, and 8 grams of sodium
hydroxide and 27 grams of citric acid for pH buffer (quantities refer to active ingredient). Scale-up the preservative
formulation to prepare the required volumes of storage solution for number and type of modules to be preserved.
The storage solution may be fed into the module through the feed port by gravity or low-rate pumping. The module
should be kept in horizontal position at time of fill, with the far side filtrate and concentrate ports sealed by blind disc at
the grooved couplings. Once the target volume of storage solution is added into the module, all service port
connections should be sealed tightly using the original blind discs and plugs to retain the solution inside the module. To
minimize the potential for leakage of preservative, modules should be stored in horizontal position, with the blanked
port connections facing upwards. Modules may be kept in the original cardboard boxes. Labels of the port locations are
provided on the exterior of the box to facilitate storage.
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7.5.2 Long-Term Shutdown & Storage, On-Skid Storage
For cases of long-term shutdown & storage, where the modules will be stored on the skid, and the modules will remain
out-of-service for more than 4 days, a storage solution containing pH buffered 1 wt% food-grade SMBS is required to
effectively minimize biological growth in the modules during the storage period.
Similar to off-skid storage, if the modules have been in-service, a normal system CEB and CIP should be conducted
before removal of the modules for long-term shutdown & storage. If CEB and/or CIP facilities are not available, then a
normal backwash consisting of water and air scour steps should be initiated prior to removal of modules off the skid.
The approximate volume of storage solution required for each module is 16 L (4 gal) for SFD/SFP-2660; 23 L (6 gal) for
IntegraFlux™ UXA-2680XP; 35 L (9 gal) for SFD/SFP-2860(XP); 39 L (10 gal) for SFD/SFP-2880(XP); 49 L (13 gal) for IP/IPD-51
(XP); and 53 L (14 gal) for IP/IPD-77(XP). These quantities of solution allow for near to complete fill of the module with
water. For every liter of solution required, 12 grams of food-grade SMBS are added for biostat, 8 grams of sodium
hydroxide and 27 grams of citric acid for pH buffer (quantities refer to active ingredient). Scale-up as required during the
solution preparation procedure to prepare the required quantities of storage solution for number and type of modules
to be preserved.
DWS recommends that the UF CIP system be used for delivery of the storage solution into the modules from the feed
side. Refer to Section 6.2.5 in this document for CIP general procedure.
7.6 Freeze-Protection of Used DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules

Modules must be protected from freezing during storage. The temperature limits for modules during storage is 1°C
(33.8°F), minimum. Irreversible damage to the membrane and damage of the module components may result if the
modules are exposed to temperatures below this limit.
either short- or long-term shutdown & storage conditions. For cases when freezing is expected and notified to DWS,
glycerin is added to the storage solution by DWS at the factory prior to shipping to allow for shipment and storage at
freezing conditions. For re-storage by customer, food-grade glycerin should be applied to the storage solution, at the
target strengths detailed in Table 15.
Table 15. Summary of the target glycerin strengths

Glycerin Viscosity Freezing Point Depression Freezing Point Depression
(wt%) (cP) (°C) (°F)
0.5 1.011 0.07 0.13
3.0 1.074 0.63 1.13
5.0 1.127 1.08 1.94
9.0 1.256 2.06 3.71
12.0 1.365 2.88 5.18
14.0 1.445 3.47 6.25
16.0 1.533 4.09 7.36
20.0 1.737 5.46 9.83
24.0 1.988 7.01 12.62
28.0 2.279 8.77 15.79
32.0 2.637 10.74 19.33
36.0 3.088 12.96 23.33
40.0 3.653 15.50 27.90
44.0 4.443 17.73 31.91
48.0 5.413 20.39 36.70
52.0 6.666 23.22 41.80
56.0 8.349 26.23 47.21
60.0 10.681 29.41 52.94
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7.7 Re-Wetting of Dried Out DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules
Modules that have dried out membranes due to improper storage may irreversibly lose water permeability. Re-wetting
may be successful with one of the three following methods:
1. Soak modules in 50/50% ethanol/water or propanol/water for 15 minutes.
2. Pressurize the module with UF feedwater to a target pressure of 4.75 bar (68.9 psi). The UF feed pump should
be of adequate capacity to meet the target pressure at low flow conditions. During pressurization, slowly close
the filtrate until the target pressure is achieved. Close the feed and filtrate valves for hold at the target
pressure for 30 minutes. Take care that the filtrate port is re-opened slowly as the feed pressure is released. Do
not exceed a transmembrane pressure (TMP) (pressure drop from feed to filtrate side of the membrane) of 2.1
bar (30.5 psi). This procedure should be carried out while the modules are installed on the skid.
3. Soak modules in 1% HCl or 4% HNO 3 solution for 24 hours. During fill of the module, ensure that the module is
in a vertical position to allow the escape of entrapped air.
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8 DUPONT ULTRAFILTRATION
MAINTENANCE AND TROUBLESHOOTING
8.1 Introduction
Proper data record keeping and plant performance normalization are indispensable for early detection of performance
issues in ultrafiltration systems. Adequate instruments and regular calibration are also critical to ensure accurate
readings and anticipate potential operating issues. This section will cover basic aspects for a proper maintenance of
ultrafiltration systems as well as some troubleshooting tips.
8.2 Instruments for System Operation

For a proper control and monitoring of the ultrafiltration system, the appropriate instruments must be put in place. Table
16 below shows the usual instruments required for the ultrafiltration system (provided by the equipment manufacturer).
The data is typically logged by the plant SCADA system every 1 – 10 seconds.
Table 16. Minimum instruments recommended in an Ultrafiltration system

Parameter Feed Filtrate Backwash CEB CIP Air Scour
Pressure X X X X X X
Flow X X X X X
Temperature X X
pH X X
Turbidity X X
For a detailed Process and Instrumentation Diagram of a typical UF system using DuPont UF Modules contact DuPont.
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8.3 Record Keeping
In order to assess the performance of the Ultrafiltration system, it is important that all relevant data are manually
recorded and collected on a daily basis (ideally once per shift) for each UF train/rack, independently of the data stored
automatically by the plant data acquisition systems. This allows keeping track of the performance, establishing baseline
performance, and confirmation of the readings of transmitters and gauges. Besides it is a valuable tool for
troubleshooting and warranty claims.
The following list shows the minimum recommended measurements to be taken in an ultrafiltration system:
l Date and Time.
l Feed Water Temperature.
l Pre-Screen Inlet and Outlet Pressure.
l UF Feed Water and Filtrate Pressure (and concentrate pressure in case of Cross-Flow or Bleed-Mode operation).
Take measurements before and after events such as Backwash or Chemical Cleanings in order to evaluate the
effectiveness of the cleanings.
l Backwash interval.
l Filtrate Flow (and Cross-Flow or Bleed-Flow if applicable).
l Feed and Filtrate Turbidity.
l Feed and Filtrate SDI.
l Backwash flow (and calculate flux) and duration (including Air Scour, gravity drain, backwash top and backwash
bottom, and forward flush steps).
l CEB frequency, duration, chemical concentrations used/pH, etc.
l CIP frequency, duration, chemical concentrations used/pH, etc.
l Calibration of all gauges and meters based on manufacturers' recommendations as to method and frequency.
l Any unusual incidents, for example, pretreatment upsets or feed water excursions, integrity failures, fiber repairs,
shutdowns, etc.
Refer to Chapter 2 for details of the recommended water quality parameters to be monitored on a regular basis during
the operation of the plant.
Examples of data logging sheets are shown in Figure 32 and Figure 33 below.
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DuPont UF Data Log Sheet
Customer:
System Information: (pretreatment process, chemical feed type and dosages, etc):
UF Module Type: Number of Skids: Number of Modules/skid: Membrane Area:
Date: Time: Cumulative hours of operation: Recorded By:
Parameters Unit Recorded Value Comments
Data Collected
Temperature (T) °C or °F
Pre-filter Inlet Pressure psi or bar
Pre-filter Outlet Pressure psi or bar
UF Feed Pressure (Pf) psi or bar
UF Filtrate Pressure (Pp) psi or bar
UF Concentrate Pressure (Pc ) psi or bar
UF Filtrate Flow / skid (Q p) gpm or m 3/hr
UF Conc. Bleed Flow / skid (Q c ) gpm or m 3/hr
UF Backwash Flow / skid (Q bw) gpm or m 3/hr
UF Forward Flush / skid (Q ff) gpm or m 3/hr
Filtration time per cycle (t f) minutes
Backwash time per cycle (t bw) seconds
Forward flush time per cycle (t ff) seconds
Air Scour time per cycle seconds
CEB Alkali frequency hours
CEB Alkali pH ---
CEB Acid frequency hours
CEB Acid pH ---
UF Feed Turbidity NTU
UF Filtrate Turbidity NTU
UF Feed TSS ppm or mg/L
UF Filtrate TSS ppm or mg/L
UF Filtrate SDI15 %/min
Performance
Gross Flux (J) gfd or lmh
Transmembrane Pressure (TMP) psi or bar
Permeability (LN, 20 ) gfd/psi or lmh/bar
Equations to Calculate Performance
Transmembrane Pressure (TMP) = Pf - Pp
Recovery (R) = (Q p* t f - Q bw* t bw) / (Q p* t f + Q ff * t ff) * 100
Figure 32. Example of DuPont UF Operation Log Sheet
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DuPont UF CIP Record Sheet
Customer:
System Information: (pretreatment process, chemical feed type and dosages, etc.)
UF Module Type: Number of Number of Cumulative hours of Total number of
Skids: Modules/skid: operation: cleaning:
Date: Time: Cumulative hours of operation after last cleaning: Recorded By:
Item Unit First Solution Second Solution Remarks
Pre-cleaning Air Scour and Backwash
Backwash Water Source ---
Backwash Flux LMH or gfd
Air flowrate per module Nm 3/h or scfm
Cleaning Chemicals
Volume of cleaning L or US gal
solution
Acid (also list type used) L or US gal
Caustic soda (%) L or US gal
Sodium hypochlorite (%) L or US gal
Others Chemicals L or US gal
CIP Operating Conditions
Solution concentration %
pH ---
Temperature °C or °F
Circulation flowrate m 3/h or gpm
Duration of initial minutes
circulation
Soaking period minutes
Duration of final minutes
circulation
Final Backwash and Flush/Rinse
Source of water ---
Flowrate m 3/h or gpm
Duration minutes
pH of waste streams ---
Figure 33. Example of DuPont UF CIP Log Sheet
8.4 Data Normalization
8.4.1 Introduction
The temperature of the feed water affects the permeability of a membrane filtration system. At lower temperatures
water becomes increasingly viscous (approximately 3% for every Celsius degree); therefore, lower temperatures require
increasing the transmembrane pressure (TMP) to maintain a constant flux or reduce the flux through the membrane at
constant TMP, as the resistance through the membrane increases. Consequently, this viscosity effect should be
considered in the facility design to ensure adequate production capacity in all scenarios and understand the impact to
energy consumption.
The term “Normalization” is an industry practice for correcting variations that would otherwise appear as a filtrate flux or
TMP change, and lead to misinterpretations of the membrane process performance (e.g., a decrease in membrane
permeability (i.e., flux divided by TMP) that would mistakenly be interpreted as a result of a fouling phenomenon, when
it is only due to a decrease in water temperature). The technical basis for Normalization is provided in the ASTM D5090
standard, however, membrane manufacturers modify these formulas to allow better calibration and fit to the membrane
characteristics of their product as demonstrated in fiber construction and field operating performance.
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The basic idea of the Normalization practice is to eliminate the temperature effect from the operational data, so that
any deviation in membrane performance at same operating conditions (e.g., same feed water quality, filtration cycle
duration, same backwash and chemical washes frequency, etc.) can be related to fouling phenomena. DuPont UF uses
25°C as temperature of reference for data Normalization.
8.4.2 Normalization of DuPont Ultrafiltration Performance Data
DuPont uses a viscosity-temperature correction factor based on the latest expression for the viscosity of liquid water
from the International Association for the Properties of Water and Steam (IAPWS,
www.iapws.org/relguide/LiquidWater.html).
The Temperature Correction Factor (TCF) follows Equation 2:
Eq. 2
Where:
TCF: Temperature Correction Factor, dimensionless.
T K : Temperature in Kelvin degrees (i.e., °C + 273.15).
The numerator is the dynamic viscosity of water at 25°C in µPa·s, the denominator is the viscosity of water at the actual
operating temperature. This expression results in a TCF of 1 at 25°C.
Table 17 shows the different values of the TCF from 0 – 40°C (32 – 104°F) at 5°C increments, based on Equation 2 above:
Table 17. Temperature vs TCF

Temperature (°C) Temperature (°F) TCF
0 32 0.50
5 41 0.59
10 50 0.68
15 59 0.78
20 68 0.89
25 77 1.00
30 86 1.12
35 95 1.24
40 104 1.36
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And Figure 34 depicts TCF values versus Temperature:
Figure 34. TCF vs Temperature (°C)

The formulas to calculate Normalized TMP and Normalized permeability are shown in Equations 3 and 4:
Normalized TMP = Actual TMP x TCF Eq. 3
Normalized Permeability = Actual Permeability / TCF Eq. 4
(Permeability is defined as operating Flux (L/m2·h) divided by TMP (bar), with units of L/m2·h·bar, also expressed as
LMH/bar).
As an example to illustrate the importance of data Normalization, let us consider two hypothetical scenarios of UF plant
performance:
Scenario 1: Winter Scenario 2: Summer

Operating Flux: 65 LMH Operating Flux: 65 LMH
Temperature: 15°C Temperature: 25°C
Temperature Correction Factor (as table and graph above): Temperature Correction Factor (as table and graph above):
0.78 1.00
Actual (measured) TMP = 0.40 bar Actual (measured) TMP = 0.35 bar
Actual Permeability = 65 / 0.40 = 162.5 LMH/bar Actual Permeability = 65 / 0.35 = 185.7 LMH/bar
Normalized Permeability (as per Eq. 3 above) = 162.5 / 0.78 = Normalized Permeability (as per Eq. 3 above) = 185.7 / 1.00 =
208.3 LMH/bar 185.7 LMH/bar
In this example it can be seen that it we look only at the actual values, in summer we seem to have a more favorable
scenario, with lower TMP (0.35 vs. 0.40) and higher membrane permeability compared to winter (185.7 vs. 162.5 LMH/bar).
However, if we apply the temperature correction factors, the normalized permeability in summer is actually lower than
in winter (185.7 vs. 208.3), which might be an indication of a more fouled membrane, a fact which would have been
overlooked had we not considered temperature normalization.
Therefore, data Normalization is a very important tool to assess UF performance, as it allows studying trends of TMP and
membrane permeability without the distortion of the temperature effect, so that fouling episodes can be anticipated
and the operating parameters and cleaning activities can be adjusted accordingly.
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8.4.3 DuPont Ultrafiltration Normalization Tool
The DuPont Ultrafiltration Normalization tool is an Excel based file that allows the plant operator to enter the operating
parameters to automatically calculate the normalized values based on the formulas described above. General plant
information are the inputs to be filled by the plant operator, which includes parameters like water temperature, UF feed
pressure, UF filtrate pressure, flows or feed water quality. The tool also has the option to simulate concentrate-bleed
operation.
The tool calculates the Temperature Correction Factor, as well as the Normalized TMP and the Normalized Permeability
as described above, and automatically populates the following graphs:
l Normalized Permeability vs. Date
l Normalized TMP vs. Date
l UF Feed and UF filtrate Turbidity vs. Date
l UF Feed and UF filtrate SDI vs. Date
8.5 DuPont Ultrafiltration Module Integrity Test
8.5.1 Introduction
DuPont UF membranes are considered to be an absolute barrier to most of suspended matter, particles and
microorganisms (such as Crypstosporidium, Giardia or even viruses), producing a very high filtrate quality (typically with a
SDI < 2.5 and Turbidity < 0.1 NTU).
However, occasionally, a seal or valve may leak or a fiber break during operation, resulting in a loss of integrity. Leaking
seals or broken fibers could allow contaminants to pass to the filtrate side and compromise its quality. This is not
generally detected by the measurement instruments located in the filtrate side, like turbidity meters, as they are not
sensitive enough to detect small leaks.
Therefore, a specific test should be employed to detect and isolate modules (or racks) containing leaks, for subsequent
repair. Direct Integrity Testing (as opposed to Indirect Integrity Testing, which are based on the monitoring of some
parameters of the filtrate water quality, such us turbidity or particle count) represent the most accurate and reliable way
of determining the integrity of a membrane filtration system and is able to detect even small breaches in the
membranes.
The Pressure Decay Test (PDT) is an example of Direct Integrity Test. In the PDT, a pressure below the bubble point is
applied to the membrane, and the subsequent loss in pressure is measured during several minutes (typically 5 – 10
minutes). An integral membrane will maintain the initial pressure or will show a very slow rate of decay (due to the
normal air diffusion through the membrane).
This is based on the Bubble Point Theory. The bubble point of a membrane is referred as the threshold air pressure
required to displace water from the membrane pores in a fully wetted membrane. Integrity breaches such as broken
fibers or defects on its surface are detected when applying pressures below the bubble point.
The general practice is to carry out the Pressure Decay Test applying a minimum pressure able to detect breaches of 3
microns or less, corresponding to the conservative size of the Cryptosporidium oocyst. The corresponding test pressure
is dependent on several factors, such as the intrinsic properties of the membrane fiber and module design, but typically
1 – 2 barg (14.5 – 30 psig) is applied.
In case of an integrity breach, a bubble formation will be observed during the PDT in the clear pipes located in the
filtrate side of each DuPont Ultrafiltration Module. It is important to note that a small passage of air is normal due to air
diffusion through the membrane. A real integrity breach would result in a significant continuous stream of bubbles,
accompanied by boiling water like noise and vibration.
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8.5.2 Physical Inspection of Modules
If routine direct integrity testing will be performed it is recommended that the piping design include a transparent
filtrate pipe section on each module. The transparent pipe will make it easy to identify modules having integrity issues
during the direct integrity test. If large continuous bubbles combined with a failed pressure decay test occur, identify or
mark these modules. While the modules are pressurized also inspect the clamps and couplers for leaks around gaskets
and seals. A soapy water solution can be applied to detect these types of leaks.
8.5.3 Pressure Decay Direct Integrity Test Procedure
There are two types of membrane integrity testing. In the “Indirect” integrity test methods, a filtrate water quality
parameter (e.g., turbidity or particle counts) is monitored to detect compromised membrane units. The advantage of
the indirect test methods is that the membrane unit does not need to be taken off-line, and continuous monitoring
provides real-time integrity indication. However they are not as sensitive or accurate as the “Direct” integrity test
methods. In the “Direct” integrity test methods, a physical test is applied to a membrane unit to detect leaks. Examples
of “Direct” integrity test methods are the Pressure Decay Test, the Diffusive Air Flow Test, the Water Displacement Test,
or the Seeding Test.
DuPont recommends the Pressure Decay Test in order to check the integrity of the ultrafiltration membranes, due to its
simplicity and sensitivity. The test must be done off-line to the individual UF trains. For municipal/drinking water
installations the frequency of testing is set by the local regulatory agency. Once a leak is detected, visual inspection
through a transparent pipe is used to identify the leaking module.
The integrity test will be carried out manually on-demand or automatically. Testing is performed after the membrane
rack has been cleaned. A fouled membrane could hide some membrane defects.
The procedure for the Pressure Decay Test would be as follows:
1. Take the UF unit, skid or module out of the filtration mode (they should be in clean condition to avoid foulants
to interfere in the results). Isolate the skid being tested from other skids in the system. Close the feed and
concentrate valves (refer to Figure 35 below). Open the filtrate valve to allow water flow through the
transparent pipe.
2. Pressurize the skid using oil free compressed air (note that a blower is not suitable for this purpose, consult
DuPont for further details) from the air inlet valve, and slowly raise the air pressure to 1.5 bar (~20 psi). Do not
exceed 2 bar (~30 psi). Note that a minimum of 1.25 bar (~18 psi) is required to detect a 3 micron resolution.
Displaced water may flow through the filtrate side for approximately two minutes.
3. Close the air inlet valve. Allow the pressure to stabilize.
4. Hold the pressure for 5 minutes (unless duration is specified by the local regulatory agency) to determine
whether there are leaks or broken fibers. While the pressure hold test is ongoing visually inspect the modules
for leaks. If installed, look for large continuous bubbles in the transparent filtrate pipes.
5. The integrity test is successful if the pressure drop is ≤ 0.05 bar (~0.73 psi) for the 5-minute test or the
calculated value as determined by the EPA Membrane Filtration Guidance Manual (2005) for the specific
system design.
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Figure 35. Pressure Decay Test diagram
Example of calculating pressure decay rate: Using an initial feed pressure of 1.5 bar (21.7 psi), an end feed pressure of 1.27
bar (18.4 psi), and test duration of 5 minutes results in a pressure decay rate of (see Equation 5):
Eq. 5
If the module exceeds the allowable pressure decay rate, the membrane might be compromised or leaking valves,
instruments, pipes, etc. may exist. Check for system leaks or repair the modules and hollow fibers following the fiber test
and repair procedure described below.
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8.6 DuPont Ultrafiltration Fiber Repair
8.6.1 Introduction
There are several reasons that could lead to fiber breakage:
l Excessive vibrations during shipping, handling or installation.
l Foreign/Abrasive matter entering the UF system (e.g., sand).
l Excessive TMP operation.
l Operation at Flux and/or Temperature above guidelines.
l Water surges (e.g., air trapped in the system).
l Thermal shock (e.g., during CIP).
l Chemical attack (e.g., too extreme pH cleaning)
If a broken fiber is detected, it can be disabled in order to avoid by-pass of feed water to the filtrate side, and hence
contamination.
8.6.2 Equipment
The following items are needed to complete the fiber repair procedure:
l DuPont UF Fiber Repair Kit, available from DuPont and which includes concentrate tube plug, glue and repair
pins).
l A clean source of water with at least UF filtrate quality.
l Oil-free compressed air (meeting ISO 8573-1, Class 1/3/1 for oil/water/particles)
l Air connection (if module repaired off skid)
l Personal protection equipment (gloves, safety glasses, etc.)
8.6.3 Fiber Test and Repair Procedure
1. Drain the water from the feed side of the modules. Close the filtrate valve to avoid water draining from the
filtrate pipe. Remove the top end cap of the module (the bottom end cap is not removed).
2. Close or seal concentrate connections and feed valve. Supply air to module.
3. Provide a clean water source to wet the filtrate/permeate end of the fibers.
4. Pressurize the feed side (outside of membrane) of the wetted membrane with oil free compressed air (a
blower is not suitable for this purpose). Slowly increase the pressure to the value identified above. Air will be
supplied through the air inlet connection on the module.
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5. Introduce water to the top of the fibers to wet the filtrate surface (as shown in Figure 36). If there are
compromised fibers, large air bubbles will appear as the pressure is raised. Mark the leaking fiber with a pin or
marker where the bubble appears.
Figure 36. Applying water to the filtrate end of the fibers

6. After identifying the broken fiber(s) as shown in Figure 37, depressurize the module. The top of the module
should be free of water.
Figure 37. Identifying leaking fiber at location of large bubble

7. Use gloves for hand protection when working with glue.
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8. Apply glue to a pin (shown below in Figure 38). Then insert the pin with glue into the marked fiber bore
several millimeters.
Figure 38. Applying glue to pin

9. Allow the repair to set for 5 – 10 minutes before operating and re-testing. Remove the remaining protrusion of
the pin by carefully cutting or twisting off the head.
10. Repeat steps b - i to make sure all broken fibers are repaired.
11. To determine whether the membrane has been properly repaired follow the pressure decay test procedure
described above.
For further information and visual demonstration, watch the DVD included in the Fiber Repair Kit, or consult the website
www.dupont.com/water/ultrafiltration.html
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8.7 DuPont Ultrafiltration Troubleshooting Guide
The following section (see Table 18) lists the major issues that may occur during the operation of the UF system, the
most likely cause, and the typical approach to solve it.
Table 18. DuPont UF System Troubleshooting Guide

Symptom Possible cause Solution
Transmembrane Modules are fouled Identify the foulant. Follow the appropriate cleaning procedure as per DuPont
pressure (TMP) Guidelines. Refer to Section 6 in this document.
high Flux/Flow too high Reduce flowrate.
Improper BW/CEB/CIP programs Adjust operating conditions (contact DuPont in case of doubt). Refer to
Section 6 in this document.
Feed temperature low Adjust feed water temperature / Reduce operating flux.
Change in feed water conditions Check feed water analysis and pretreatment for abnormal changes. Refer to
Section 2 in this document.
Poor quality of chemicals, Evaluate the quality of the CEB/CIP chemicals. Consider using soft water for
inefficient chemical cleanings CIP solution makeup
Membrane drying Contact DuPont.
Product flow low Modules are fouled Identify the foulant. Follow the appropriate cleaning procedure as per DuPont
Guidelines. Refer to Section 6 in this document.
Abnormal valve open degree Check the status and open degree of valves
Flow instruments malfunction Keep instruments calibrated. Refer to Section 8.2 in this document.
Feed water pressure low Diagnose and solve the problem
Feed temperature low Adjust feed water temperature / Increase flow.
Poor filtrate Instruments malfunction Keep instruments calibrated. Cross-check values with handheld devices or
quality off-line laboratory. Refer to Section 8.2 in this document.
Module integrity problem Carry out membrane Integrity Test / Fiber repair. Check seals. Check for
exposure to extreme temperatures, too high chemical concentration or water
hammer. Refer to Section 8.5 in this document.
Membrane abrasion Check prefilters, debris in pipes, examine module feed side. Refer to Section
2.2 in this document.
Membrane aging, drying or Contact DuPont.
damage
Valve failure to Compressed air pressure low Increase pressure
open/close No lubrication in actuator Inject lubrication to actuator
Improper place of cap in valve Open actuator cap and adjust it
status monitor
Feed pump not in service Check for proper wiring. Restart pump manually and switch to auto mode
after normal running.
System cannot High TMP Refer to high TMP Symptom above.
start In Auto PLC problem Check PLC
status Tank Level low Check tank level and level transmitters
CIP Filter Too high flowrate Reduce flowrate through filters
pressure drop Approaching filter retention Replace filter. Check chemical solution and replace if necessary. Refer to
high capacity. Foulant is being Section 6.3 in this document.
removed from the membranes.
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9 ADDENDUM
9.1 Terminology
Air Scour Cleaning method where air is used to shake the fibers and help to dislodge the solids from its
surface. Also known as Air Scrub.
Backwash Hydraulic cleaning method where filtrate water is pumped from the filtrate to the feed side of the
membrane in order to remove accumulated foulants. Also known as Backflush or Backpulse.
Bleed-Mode Flow pattern where most of the feed water will pass through the membrane while the rest will get
Operation out of the membrane element directly through the concentrate side (typically 5 – 15% of the feed
flow). This concentrate stream will carry part of the contaminants out of the elements and is normally
sent to waste.
BOD Similar to COD except BOD detects substances that are susceptible to biological oxidation which
(Biological indicates biologically active organics. Therefore COD & BOD can be used to characterize the organic
Oxygen load of water. Expressed as mg/L of Oxygen.
Demand)
Chemically Chemical cleaning method, typically initiated automatically, where some chemicals are added into
Enhanced the Backwash stream in order to improve the effectiveness of the cleaning. Usually includes a
Backwash soaking step.
(CEB)
Clean-In- Chemical cleaning method, typically initiated manually, where one or several chemical solutions are
Place (CIP) consecutively applied in the ultrafiltration trains in order to restore clean membrane condition.
COD It is a measure of the amount of compounds in a sample which have been oxidized by a strong
(Chemical oxidizing agent. Although inorganic substances such as Fe may also be subject to oxidation, for most
Oxygen natural and industrial waters, the matter to be oxidized is organic in nature.
Demand)
Concentrate The water stream leaving the membrane system as waste.
Conductivity The electrical conductivity of water is linearly related to the total dissolved solids (TDS). It is the ability
of the water to conduct an electrical current. Expressed in µS/cm.
Cross-Flow Flow pattern where the concentrate flow exceeds the filtrate flow passing through the membrane
Operation (typically in a ratio of 5:1 or higher). The concentrate stream is then typically recycled back to the
feed. This allows increasing the flow velocity through the feed channels and therefore achieving a
shear force effect that helps to reduce membrane fouling.
Dalton Unit of mass (Symbol: Da), typically used as unit to measure the molecular weight cut-off of the
ultrafiltration membranes.
Dead-End Flow pattern, also known as “Deposition Mode”, where all the feed volume entering the system flows
Operation through the membrane (i.e., there is no waste stream) and is collected in the filtrate side, while the
foulants build up on the membrane.
Direct Physical test applied to a membrane unit to detect integrity breaches.

Integrity Test
Form No. 795-50269, Rev. 4

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DOC Fraction of TOC which is dissolved (filtered through 0.45 µm).
(Dissolved
Organic
Matter)
Feed The water stream entering the membrane system.
Filtrate The water stream that goes through the membrane, and is free from impurities.
Flux The throughput of a membrane filtration system expressed as flow per unit of membrane area (e.g.,
gallons per square foot per day (GFD) or liters per hour per square meter (LMH).
Fouling The gradual reduction in filtrate flow at constant pressure (or increase in transmembrane pressure at
constant filtrate flow) due to adsorption or deposition of contaminants within or on the membrane.
Hollow-Fiber A configuration in which hollow-fiber membranes are bundled horizontally or vertically and either
Module encased in a pressure vessel or submerged in a tank.
Indirect Some filtrate water quality parameter is monitored to detect compromised membrane units.
Integrity Test
Integrity Any leak in the membrane system that could lead to by-pass of feed to filtrate side, and hence
Breach contamination.
Log Removal Filtration removal efficiency for a target organism, particulate, or surrogate expressed as log10
Value (LRV) [Concentrationfeed/Concentrationfiltrate ].
Lumen The bore or inner side of a hollow-fiber.
Microfiltration A pressure-driven membrane filtration process that typically employs hollow-fiber membranes with a
pore size range of approximately 0.1 – 0.5 µm.
Module This refers to the simplest unit composed of the membranes, the vessel, the end-caps, the feed and
air inlets, the filtrate outlet and the waste outlet. Several modules form a membrane train, rack, bank
or skid.
Molecular Lowest molecular weight (expressed in Daltons) in which 90% of the solute is removed by the
Weight Cut- membrane.
off or MWCO
O&G Oil & Grease, Hydrocarbons.Even in very small quantities i.e., < 0.05 mg/L, it can cause accelerated
fouling in membranes.
pH It is a numeric scale used to express the acidity or alkalinity of the water. Solutions with a pH less than
7 are acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic. Pure water has a pH of 7 and is neutral. In
water, high pH causes a bitter taste, water pipes and equipment become encrusted with deposits.
Low-pH water will corrode or dissolve metals and other substances.
Permeability The capability of a membrane to allow the flow of water. It is the best indicator for membrane
performance. It is calculated as Flux divided by TMP and expressed in LMH/bar or gfd/psi, and is
typically temperature-corrected (i.e., “normalized”) to 20°C or 25°C.
Pore Size The size of the openings of a porous membrane, expressed either as nominal (average) or the
absolute (maximum), typically in terms of microns.
Recovery The ratio of feed water that is converted to filtrate. Recovery equals to filtrate flow produced by the
membrane unit divided by the feed flow and is expressed as percentage.
Form No. 795-50269, Rev. 4

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June 2019
SDI (Silt Fouling Index. This parameter provides an indication of the particulate fouling potential of the water.
Density Index) It is based on the measurement of the time it takes to collect 500 mL of water sample through a
paper filter of 0.45 µm at the start of the test and after the water has flowed through the filter for 15
minutes.
Silica Can be present as Reactive Silica (Soluble) or Un-Reactive Silica (Colloidal). Colloidal form can cause
fouling in membrane systems.
Specific Flux Synonymous with permeability.
SUVA Ratio between UV254 and DOC (if > 4, mostly humic matter; if < 2, indication of algae bloom).
(Specific UV
Absorbance)
TMP Transmembrane Pressure (bar or psi). It is the pressure difference between the feed and the filtrate
side of the UF module or skid.
TOC (Total It is the most widely used parameter to determine the organic content in water. It includes Natural
Organic Organic Matter (NOM) and synthetic sources. It is indicative of the tendency of the water to cause
Carbon) organic fouling and biofouling in membranes. It is expressed in mg/L.
TSS (Total It is the measure of the total weight of solids contained in a water sample, and is expressed in mg/L.
Suspended This parameter is more accurate than turbidity (i.e., turbidity usually does not detect very fine
Solids) particles).
Turbidity Sediments, clay, silt, small particles, solids etc. cause a liquid to appear turbid, “hazy”. These particles
can, besides, host or shield microorganisms like bacteria and viruses. Turbidity is measured by the
intensity of light that passes through the water sample, and expressed in NTU (Nephelometric
Turbidity Units). DuPont Ultrafiltration gives consistent product water with turbidity values < 0.1 NTU.
Ultrafiltration A pressure-driven membrane filtration process that typically employs hollow-fiber membranes with a
pore size range of approximately 0.01 – 0.05 μm.
UV254 It is an indirect measurement of NOM, based on the fact that most organics compounds can absorb
Absorbance UV light. Expressed in cm-1. Surrogate of TOC.
9.2 Acronyms
ANSI American National Standards Institute
AS Air Scour
BOD Biological Oxygen Demand
BW Backwash
CDPH California Department of Public Health
CEB Chemically Enhanced Backwash
CIP Clean-In-Place
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
DOC Dissolved Organic Carbon
DWS DuPont Water Solutions
EDI Electrodeionization
FRP Fiberglass-reinforced plastic
GAC Granular Activated Carbon
GFD U.S. gallons/ft2/day
Form No. 795-50269, Rev. 4

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June 2019
gpm U.S. gallons/minute
IER Ion Exchange Resins
kDa Kilodalton
LMH Liter/m2·h
LRV Log Removal Value
MF Microfiltration
MWCO Molecular Weight Cut-Off
NF Nanofiltration
NSF National Science Foundation
NOM Natural Organic Matter
NPSH Net Positive Suction Head

NTU Nephelometric Turbidity Units
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturers
O&G Oil & Grease
PAG Powder Activated Carbon
PDT Pressure Decay Test
PES Polyethersulfone
PLC Programmable Logic Controller
PP Polypropylene
PS Polysulfone
PSI Pounds per square inch

PVDF Polyvinylidene Difluoride
RO Reverse Osmosis
SCADA Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition
SDI Silt Density Index
SUVA Specific UV Absorbance
TDS Total Dissolved Solids
TMP Transmembrane Pressure

TOC Total Organic Carbon
TSS Total Suspended Solids
UF Ultrafiltration
WAVE Water Application Value Engine
Form No. 795-50269, Rev. 4

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10 Key Word Index
Aeration 12-14, 17-18, 52- Iron 11, 13 Ultrafiltration 6-12, 14, 17-
53, 55, 59, 71, 74, 79-80 Log Removal Value 79 19, 21, 23-25, 27, 33, 37,
Air 8, 15, 23, 26, 31, 41-44, Log Removal Value 41-47, 50-53, 59-66, 69,
49, 65-68, 72, 74, 78, (LRV) 79 71, 74, 77, 80-81
80 Manganese 11, 13 Viscosity 63
Air Scour 43 Membrane 7, 10, 48, 67, waste 23, 45, 50
ASTM 13-14, 68 72, 77 Waste 15
Backwash 8, 41-42, 45- Microfiltration 6, 79, 81
46, 49, 54, 65-68, 78, Module 9, 17, 20, 24-26, 32,
80 34-35, 61, 67-68, 77, 79
Bleed 8 NOM 12-13, 15, 80-81
Bleed-Flow 66 NSF 18, 81
Cake 48 Oil & Grease 13-15, 79, 81
CDPH 18, 80 Permeability 51, 53, 67,
CEB 8, 49, 51, 61-63, 65-67, 70-71, 79
77-78, 80 PES 10, 81
CIP 49-57, 61-63, 65-66, pore 6
68, 74, 77-78, 80 Pore 48, 79
CLEANING 48 Pressure 14, 23, 26, 31, 41,
Cleanings 66 52-53, 65-67, 71-73, 80-
COD 12 81
Cross-Flow 8-9, 66, 78 Pump 14, 52-55
DOC 12-13, 79-80 PVDF 10, 17, 19, 24, 50, 81
Filter 52, 54, 77 Recirculation 8-9
Filtration 42 Recycle 18, 54-55
flux 45, 49 SDI 7, 11-12, 15, 50, 66, 71,
Flux 41, 67-68, 70, 74, 77, 80-81
79-80 Silica 13, 80
Foulant 77 Skid 20, 61-63
Foulants 57 Skids 27
Fouling 12, 48-49, 79-80 strainer 14
Guidelines 33, 77 Strainer 15
Hardness 13 Surface 15
Hollow-Fiber 79 Temperature 14, 41, 52,
hollow fibers 9 60, 65-71, 74
Hydrophilic 17, 50 temperatures 17
Instrumentation 14, 65 TOC 12-16, 79-81
IntegraFlux 59-63 TSS 12-15, 67, 80-81
IntegraFlux™ 17, 24, 59 Turbidity 12-14, 49, 65-67,
IntegraPac™ 17, 25, 31 71, 80-81
All information set forth herein is for informational purposes only. This information is general information and may differ from that based on actual conditions. Customer is responsible for determining whether products and the information in
this document are appropriate for Customer's use and for ensuring that Customer's workplace and disposal practices are in compliance with applicable laws and other government enactments. The product shown in this literature may not
be available for sale and/or available in all geographies where DuPont is represented. The claims made may not have been approved for use in all countries. Please note that physical properties may vary depending on certain conditions
and while operating conditions stated in this document are intended to lengthen product lifespan and/or improve product performance, it will ultimately depend on actual circumstances and is in no event a guarantee of achieving any
specific results. DuPont assumes no obligation or liability for the information in this document. References to “DuPont” or the “Company” mean the DuPont legal entity selling the products to Customer unless otherwise expressly noted. NO
WARRANTIES ARE GIVEN; ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE EXPRESSLY EXCLUDED. No freedom from infringement of any patent or trademark owned by DuPont
or others is to be inferred.
DuPont™, the DuPont Oval Logo, and all trademarks and service marks denoted with ™, ℠ or ® are owned by affiliates of DuPont de Nemours Inc. unless otherwise noted. © 2019 DuPont.
Form No. 795-50269, Rev. 4

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June 2019
Water Solutions
FilmTec™ Reverse Osmosis

Membranes Technical Manual
Version 4
October 2020
NOTICE: The information provided in this literature is given in good faith for informational purposes only. (Undefined variable:
General.Company_Name_Short) assumes no obligation or liability for the information presented herein. NO WARRANTIES ARE GIVEN; ALL
IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE EXPRESSLY EXCLUDED.
Table of contents
1 Basics of Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration 9
1.1 Historical Background 9
1.2 Desalination Technologies and Filtration Processes 9
1.3 Principle of Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration 12
1.4 Membrane Description 16
1.5 Membrane Performance 17
1.6 FilmTec™ Membrane Safe for Use in Food Processing 18
1.7 Element Construction 19
1.8 Element Characteristics 20
2 Water Chemistry and Pretreatment 23
2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 Feedwater Type and Analysis 24
2.3 Scale Control 30
2.3.2 Acid Addition 31
2.3.3 Scale Inhibitor Addition 31
2.3.4 Softening with a Strong Acid Cation Exchange Resin 32
2.3.5 Dealkalization with a Weak Acid Cation Exchange Resin 32
2.3.6 Lime Softening 33
2.3.7 Preventive Cleaning 34
2.3.8 Adjustment of Operating Variables 34
2.4 Scaling Calculations 34
2.4.1 General 34
2.4.2 Calcium Carbonate Scale Prevention 36
2.4.2.1 Brackish Water 36
2.4.2.2 Seawater 41
2.4.3 Calcium Sulfate Scale Prevention 45
2.4.4 Barium Sulfate Scale Prevention /8/ 47
2.4.5 Strontium Sulfate Scale Prevention 47
2.4.6 Calcium Fluoride Scale Prevention 48
2.4.7 Silica Scale Prevention 51
2.4.8 Calcium Phosphate Scale Prevention 56
2.5 Colloidal and Particulate Fouling Prevention 58
2.5.1 Assessment of the Colloidal Fouling Potential 58
2.5.2 Media Filtration 60
2.5.3 Oxidation–Filtration 61
2.5.4 In-Line Filtration 61
2.5.5 Coagulation-Flocculation 62
2.5.6 Microfiltration/Ultrafiltration 62
2.5.7 Cartridge Microfiltration 62
2.5.8 Other Methods 63
2.5.9 Design and Operational Considerations 63
2.6 Biological Fouling Prevention 64
2.6.2 Assessment of the Biological Fouling Potential 64
2.6.2.1 Culture Techniques 65
2.6.2.2 Total Bacteria Count 65
2.6.2.3 Assimilable Organic Carbon (AOC) 66
2.6.2.4 Biofilm Formation Rate (BFR) 66
2.6.3 Chlorination / Dechlorination 66
2.6.4 Sodium Bisulfite 69
2.6.5 DBNPA 69
2.6.6 Combined Chlorine 70
2.6.7 Other Sanitization Agents 70
2.6.8 Biofiltration 71
2.6.9 Microfiltration/Ultrafiltration 71
2.6.10 Ultraviolet Irradiation 71

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2.6.11 Use of Fouling-Resistant Membranes 71
2.7 Prevention of Fouling by Organics 71
2.8 Prevention of Membrane Degradation 72
2.9 Prevention of Iron and Manganese Fouling 72
2.10 Prevention of Aluminum Fouling 73
2.11 Treatment of Feedwater Containing Hydrogen Sulfide 74
2.12 Guidelines for Feedwater Quality 76
2.13 Summary of Pretreatment Options 77
3 System Design 80
3.1 Introduction 80
3.2 Batch vs. Continuous Process 84
3.3 Single-Module System 85
3.4 Single-Stage System 86
3.5 Multi-Stage System 87
3.6 Plug Flow vs. Concentrate Recirculation 88
3.7 Permeate-Staged (or Double-Pass) System 91
3.8 Special Design Possibilities 93
3.9 Membrane System Design Guidelines 95
3.9.1 Membrane System Design Guidelines for 8-inch FilmTec™ Elements 97
3.9.2 Membrane System Design Guidelines for Midsize FilmTec™ Elements 98
3.10 Temperature and Pressure Limits for 8-inch FilmTec™ Seawater RO Elements 99
3.10.1 Elements with Standard Endcaps 99
3.10.2 Elements with iLEC™ Interlocking Endcaps 100
3.11 The Steps to Design a Membrane System 101
3.12 System Performance Projection 104
3.12.1 System Operating Characteristics 104
3.12.2 Design Equations and Parameters 107
3.13 Testing 111
3.13.1 Screening Test 111
3.13.2 Application Test 111
3.13.3 Pilot Tests 112
3.14 System Components 112
3.14.1 High-Pressure Pump 112
3.14.2 Pressure Vessels 113
3.14.3 Shut-down Switches 113
3.14.4 Valves 114
3.14.5 Control Instruments 114
3.14.6 Tanks 114
3.15 Materials of Construction, Corrosion Control 116
3.16 System Design Considerations to Control Microbiological Activity 117
3.17 System Design Suggestions for Troubleshooting Success 118
4 Loading of Pressure Vessels 120
4.1 Preparation 120
4.2 Element Loading 120
4.3 Shimming Elements 122
4.4 Element Removal 124
4.5 Interconnector Technology for 8-inch Diameter FilmTec™ Elements 125
4.5.1 New Interconnector Advantages 125
4.5.2 Summary of Large Element Interconnectors 126
4.6 Installing an Element Spacer 127
5 System Operation 128
5.1 Introduction 128
5.2 Initial Start-Up 128
5.2.1 Equipment 128
5.2.2 Pre-Start-Up Check and Commissioning Audit 129
5.2.3 Start-Up Sequence 130
5.2.4 Membrane Start-Up Performance and Stabilization 132
5.2.5 Special Systems: Double-Pass RO 132
5.2.6 Special Systems: Heat-Sanitizable RO 132
5.3 Operation Start-Up 133
5.4 RO and NF Systems Shut-down 133

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5.5 Adjustment of Operation Parameters 134
5.5.2 Brackish Water 134
5.5.3 Seawater 134
5.6 Record Keeping 135
5.6.2 Start-Up Report 135
5.6.3 RO Operating Data 135
5.6.4 Pretreatment Operating Data 138
5.6.5 Maintenance Log 138
5.6.6 Plant Performance Normalization 138
6 Cleaning and Sanitization 143
6.2 Safety Precautions 144
6.3 Cleaning Requirements 144
6.4 Cleaning Equipment 145
6.5 Cleaning Steps 146
6.6 Cleaning Tips 147
6.7 Effect of pH on Foulant Removal 148
6.8 Cleaning Chemicals 149
6.9 Cleaning Procedure for Specific Situations 149
6.9.1 General Considerations 149
6.9.2 Sulfate Scale 149
6.9.3 Carbonate Scale 150
6.9.4 Iron Fouling 151
6.9.5 Organic Fouling 152
6.9.6 Biofouling 153
6.9.7 Emergency Cleaning 153
6.10 Sanitizing RO/NF Membrane Systems 154
6.10.2 Hydrogen Peroxide and Peracetic Acid 154
6.10.3 Chlorinated and Other Biocidal Products 155
6.10.4 Heat Sanitization 155
7 Handling, Preservation and Storage 156
7.1 General 156
7.2 Storage and Shipping of New FilmTec™ Elements 156
7.3 Used FilmTec™ Elements 157
7.3.1 Preservation and Storage 157
7.3.2 Re-wetting of Dried Out Elements 157
7.3.3 Shipping 158
7.3.4 Disposal 158
7.4 Preservation of RO and NF Systems 158
8 Troubleshooting 159
8.2 Evaluation of System Performance and Operation 160
8.3 System Tests 162
8.3.1 Visual Inspection 162
8.3.2 Type of Foulant and Most Effective Cleaning 162
8.3.3 Localization of High Solute Passage 162
8.3.3.1 Profiling 162
8.3.3.2 Probing 163
8.4 Membrane Element Evaluation 165
8.4.1 Sample Selection 165
8.4.2 System Optimization Services℠ (SOS) 165
8.4.3 Visual Inspection and Weighing 165
8.4.4 Vacuum Decay Test 165
8.4.5 Performance Test 166
8.4.6 Cleaning Evaluation 167
8.4.7 Autopsy 167
8.4.8 Membrane Analysis 168
8.5 Symptoms of Trouble, Causes, and Corrective Measures 168

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8.5.1 Low Flow 168
8.5.1.1 Low Flow and Normal Solute Passage 169
8.5.1.2 Low Flow and High Solute Passage 170
8.5.1.3 Low Flow and Low Solute Passage 173
8.5.2 High Solute Passage 174
8.5.2.1 High Solute Passage and Normal Permeate Flow 174
8.5.2.2 High Solute Passage and High Permeate Flow 175
8.5.3 High Pressure Drop 175
8.5.4 Troubleshooting Grid 178
9 Addendum 179
9.1 Terminology 179
9.2 Conductivity of Ions 192
9.3 Conductivity of Solutions 193
9.4 Conversion of Concentration Units of Ionic Species 195
9.5 Conversion of U.S. Units into Metric Units 197
9.6 Ionization of Carbon Dioxide Solutions 197
9.7 Osmotic Pressure of Sodium Chloride 198
9.8 Osmotic Pressure of Solutions 198
9.9 Testing Chemical Compatibilities with FilmTec™ Membranes† 199
9.9.1 Summary 199
9.9.2 Test Equipment 200
9.9.2.1 Flat Cell Unit 200
9.9.2.2 Element Test Units 202
9.9.3 Antiscalants 202
9.9.3.1 Microbiological Growth Test. 202
9.9.3.2 Membrane Compatibility Test. 203
9.9.4 Coagulants and Flocculants 203
9.9.5 Cleaning Chemicals 203
9.9.5.1 Two-Hour Cleaning Test 204
9.9.5.2 Two-Week Soak in Cleaning Solution 204
9.9.6 Biocides 204
9.9.6.1 Option 1 – One-Week Continuous Operation Test 205
9.9.6.2 Option 2 – 1,000-Hour Continuous Operation Test 205
9.9.7 Membrane Preservatives 206
9.10 Accelerated Start-Up Technique for Dry Membranes 206
9.10.1 Summary 206
9.10.2 Step 1: Pre-Flushing 206
9.10.3 Step 2: Soaking 207
9.10.4 Step 3: Post-Flushing 207

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Table of figures
Figure 1. Major desalination processes 10
Figure 2. Crossflow membrane filtration 10
Figure 3. Ranges of filtration processes 11
Figure 4. Overview of osmosis 12
Figure 5. Reverse osmosis process 13
Figure 6. Performance vs. pressure 15
Figure 7. Performance vs. temperature 15
Figure 8. Performance vs. recovery 15
Figure 9. Performance vs. feedwater salt concentration 15
Figure 10. Schematic cross-section of a FilmTec™ Thin-film Composite Membrane 16
Figure 11. Barrier layer of the FT30 aromatic polyamide membrane 16
Figure 12. Barrier layer of the aromatic/aliphatic polyamide nanofiltration membrane 17
Figure 13. Construction of spiral-wound FilmTec™ RO Membrane Element 19
Figure 14. Cross-section of a permeate water tube through the side glue lines of the leaves 19
Figure 15. Nomenclature of elements < 8 inches 20
Figure 16. Major water types being treated by RO and NF 25
Figure 17. pH versus methyl orange alkalinity/free CO2 39
Figure 18. Langelier saturation index 40
Figure 19. Conversion of calcium and alkalinity to pCa and pAlk 43
Figure 20. “K” versus ionic strength and temperature 44
Figure 21. Ksp for CaSO4 versus ionic strength /9/ 46
Figure 22. Ksp for BaSO4 versus ionic strength /10/ 49
Figure 23. Ksp for SrSO4 versus ionic strength /10/ 50
Figure 24. Ksp for CaF2 versus ionic strength /11/ 51
Figure 25. Solubility of SiO2 versus temperature /16/ 54
Figure 26. SiO2 pH correction factor /16, 17/ 55
Figure 27. Critical phosphate concentration under various pH at 25°C 57
Figure 28. Apparatus for measuring the silt density index 59
Figure 29. Continuous RO process 84
Figure 30. Batch RO process 84
Figure 31. Single-module system 86
Figure 32. Single-stage system 86
Figure 33. Two-stage system 87
Figure 34. Two-stage system with internal concentrate recirculation 88
Figure 35. System salt passage for a plug flow and a concentrate recirculation system 90
Figure 36. Tapered recirculation system 90
Figure 37. Permeate-staged system 91
Figure 38. Bicarbonate Equilibrium 92
Figure 39. Temperature and Pressure Limits for Elements with Standard Endcaps 100
Figure 40. Temperature and Pressure Limits for Elements with iLEC™ Interlocking Endcaps 100
Figure 41. Typical two-stage configuration for spiral-wound RO/NF elements 105
Figure 42. Individual element performance in a system with a 2:1 array of 8-inch BW30 elements (example) 106
Figure 43. Shim and placement on vessel adapter at feed end of pressure vessel. 123
Figure 44. O-ring cross-section of 2 O-ring and “dog-boned” interconnector ends 125
Figure 45. Product water tube misalignment 126
Figure 46. Element spacer properly installed in a pressure vessel 127
Figure 47. Typical RO/NF system 132
Figure 48. Cleaning system flow diagram 145
Figure 49. Effect of pH on the removal of calcium carbonate 148
Figure 50. Effect of pH on the removal of biofouling 148
Figure 51. Conductivity profile 164
Figure 52. Permeate probing apparatus for spiral-wound membrane 164
Figure 53. Vacuum decay test 166
Figure 54. Picture of biofilm on membrane surface 169
Figure 55. Picture of feed spacer with biofilm 170
Figure 56. Picture of iron fouled feed side of an element with telescoping damage and signs of mechanical force 171
Figure 57. Picture of scaled membrane surface with imprints from the feed spacer 172

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Figure 58. Picture of membrane with permeate backpressure damage 175
Figure 59. The endcap has been pushed off 176
Figure 60. High pressure drop due to biofouling has pushed out the feed spacer 176
Figure 61. Picture of damaged fiberglass shell 176
Figure 62. Conductivity of ionic solutions at 77°F (25°C) 193
Figure 63. Conductivity of ionic solutions at 77°F (25°C) 194
Figure 64. Ionization of carbon dioxide solutions as functions of the pH at 77°F (25°C) 197
Figure 65. Osmotic pressure of sodium chloride 198
Figure 66. Osmotic pressure of solutions 198
Figure 67. Flow schematic 201

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Table of tables
Table 1. Factors influencing reverse osmosis performance 15
Table 2. Performance of some FilmTec™ Membranes 18
Table 3. FilmTec™ Element types 22
Table 4. Standard test conditions for FilmTec™ Elements 22
Table 5. Standard seawater composition 26
Table 6. Inorganic composition of seawater with different salinity 26
Table 7. Salinity and conductivity of seawaters 26
Table 8. Examples of brackish water composition 27
Table 9. Water analysis for RO/NF 28
Table 10. Standard procedures relevant to water analysis for RO/NF applications 29
Table 11. Solubility products of sparingly soluble inorganic compounds 30
Table 12. Feedwater Analysis 36
Table 13. Low solubility phosphate compounds 56
Table 14. Various fouling indices 58
Table 15. Guidelines for feedwater quality 76
Table 16. Pretreatment options for scaling and fouling 77
Table 17. System design information 82
Table 18. Water analysis for reverse osmosis/nanofiltration 83
Table 19. Comparison of plug flow and recirculation systems 88
Table 20. Special Design Possibilities 93
Table 21. Special Design Flow Diagrams 94
Table 22. Design guidelines for 8-inch FilmTec™ Elements in water treatment applications 97
Table 23. Design guidelines for FilmTec™ Elements in light industrial and small seawater applications 98
Table 24. Design guidelines for FilmTec™ Elements in small commercial applications 99
Table 25. Number of stages of a brackish water system 102
Table 26. Number of stages of a seawater system 102
Table 27. Design equations for projecting RO system performance: individual element performance 108
Table 28. Design equations for projecting RO system performance: system average performance 109
Table 29. Symbol definitions 110
Table 30. Maximum dynamic permeate backpressure for pressure vessels with FilmTec™ Elements 113
Table 31. Provisions against undue operating conditions 113
Table 32. Composition of stainless steels 117
Table 33. FilmTec™ interconnector (coupler) summary 126
Table 34. Reverse osmosis operating log (example) 137
Table 35. Factors for estimating TDS from conductivity 138
Table 36. pH range and temperature limits during cleaning 144
Table 37. Recommended feed flowrate per pressure vessel during high flowrate recycle 146
Table 38. Simple cleaning solutions 149
Table 39. Sulfate scale cleaning solutions 150
Table 40. Carbonate scale cleaning solutions 151
Table 41. Iron fouling cleaning solutions 151
Table 42. Organic fouling cleaning solutions 152
Table 43. Biofouling cleaning solutions 153
Table 44. Symptoms, causes and corrective measures 178
Table 45. Conductivity of ions expressed as μS/cm per meq/L, infinitely diluted 192
Table 46. Conductivity of solutions, acids, alkalies and salts 77°F (25°C) expressed as μS/cm per meq/L 193
Table 47. Conductivity correction factors 193
Table 48. Conversion factors for the conversion of concentration units of ionic species 195

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1 Basics of Reverse Osmosis and
Nanofiltration
1.1 Historical Background

Since the development of reverse osmosis (RO) and ultrafiltration (UF) as practical unit operations in the late 1950’s and
early 1960’s, the scope for their application has been continually expanding. Initially, reverse osmosis was applied to the
desalination of seawater and brackish water. Increased demands on the industry to conserve water, reduce energy
consumption, control pollution and reclaim useful materials from waste streams have made new applications
economically attractive. In addition, advances in the fields of biotechnology and pharmaceuticals, coupled with
advances in membrane development, are making membranes an important separation step, which, compared to
distillation, offers energy savings and does not lead to thermal degradation of the products.
Basic membrane research is the foundation of FilmTec Corporation. Since the creation of the FilmTec™ FT30
Membrane, new products have been developed and existing products have undergone enhancements in their ability to
improve permeate quality and lower the total cost of water.
In general, RO membranes now offer the possibility of higher rejection of salts at significantly reduced operating
pressures, and therefore, reduced costs. Nanofiltration membrane technology provides the capability of some selectivity
in the rejection of certain salts and compounds at relatively low operating pressures.
FilmTec Corporation was founded in Minneapolis USA in 1977. After evolving product changes and company
development between 1981 and 1984, the FilmTec Corporation became a wholly owned subsidiary of The Dow Chemical
Company in 1985 and then of DuPont de Nemours Inc. in 2019.
With the intent to assure a continuous, consistent, high-quality supply of FilmTec™ products to the rapidly growing
reverse osmosis and nanofiltration markets, significant capital and other resources to upgrade and expand its
manufacturing capabilities at FilmTec has been committed. The adoption of ISO quality assurance programs coupled
with investment in advanced manufacturing techniques and equipment, intending to ensure high levels of product
performance and consistency.
1.2 Desalination Technologies and Filtration Processes

FilmTec™ reverse osmosis (RO) and nanofiltration (NF) membrane technologies are widely recognized to offer highly
effective and economical process options. From small-scale systems, through to very large-scale desalination, RO and NF
can handle most naturally occurring sources of brackish and seawaters. Permeate waters produced satisfy most currently
applicable standards for the quality of drinking waters.
RO and NF can reduce regeneration costs and waste when used independently, in combination or with other processes,
such as ion exchange. They can also produce very high quality water, or, when paired with thermal distillation processes,
can improve asset utilization in power generation and water production against demand.
Figure 1 gives an approximate representation of the salinity range to which the main desalination processes can be
generally applied economically.
The most typical operating range of the four major desalination processes is shown in Figure 1. Also shown is typical
operating ranges for several generic FilmTec™ membrane types.

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Figure 1. Major desalination processes
The various filtration technologies which currently exist can be categorized on the basis of the size of particles removed
from a feed stream. Conventional macrofiltration of suspended solids is accomplished by passing a feed solution
through the filter media in a perpendicular direction. The entire solution passes through the media, creating only one
exit stream. Examples of such filtration devices include cartridge filters, bag filters, sand filters, and multimedia filters.
Macrofiltration separation capabilities are generally limited to undissolved particles greater than 1 micron.
For the removal of small particles and dissolved salts, crossflow membrane filtration is used. Crossflow membrane
filtration (see Figure 2) uses a pressurized feed stream which flows parallel to the membrane surface. A portion of this
stream passes through the membrane, leaving behind the rejected particles in the concentrated remainder of the
stream. Since there is a continuous flow across the membrane surface, the rejected particles do not accumulate but
instead are swept away by the concentrate stream. Thus, one feed stream is separated into two exit streams: the
solution passing through the membrane surface (permeate) and the remaining concentrate stream.
Figure 2. Crossflow membrane filtration

There are four general categories of crossflow membrane filtration: microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, and
reverse osmosis.
Microfiltration (MF)
Microfiltration removes particles in the range of approximately 0.1 – 1 micron. In general, suspended particles and large
colloids are rejected while macromolecules and dissolved solids pass through the MF membrane. Applications include
removal of bacteria, flocculated materials, or TSS (total suspended solids). Transmembrane pressures are typically 10 psi
(0.7 bar).

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Ultrafiltration (UF)
DuPont's ultrafiltration modules provide macro-molecular separation for particles ranging in size from approximately 20
– 1,000 Å (up to 0.1 micron). All dissolved salts and smaller molecules pass through the membrane. Items rejected by the
membrane include colloids, proteins, microbiological contaminants, and large organic molecules. Most UF membranes
have molecular weight cut-off values between 1,000 and 100,000. Transmembrane pressures are typically 15 – 100 psi (1 –
7 bar).
Nanofiltration (NF)
Nanofiltration refers to a speciality membrane process which rejects particles in the approximate size range of 1
nanometer (10 Å), hence the term “nanofiltration.” NF operates in the realm between UF and reverse osmosis. Organic
molecules with molecular weights greater than 200 – 400 are rejected. Also, dissolved salts are rejected in the range of
20 – 98%. Salts which have monovalent anions (e.g., sodium chloride or calcium chloride) have rejections of 20 – 80%,
whereas salts with divalent anions (e.g., magnesium sulfate) have higher rejections of 90 – 98%. Typical applications
include removal of color and total organic carbon (TOC) from surface water, removal of hardness or radium from well
water, overall reduction of total dissolved solids (TDS), and the separation of organic from inorganic matter in specialty
food and wastewater applications. Transmembrane pressures are typically 50 – 225 psi (3.5 – 16 bar).
Reverse Osmosis (RO)

Reverse osmosis is among the finest levels of filtration available. The RO membrane generally acts as a barrier to all
dissolved salts and inorganic molecules, as well as organic molecules with a molecular weight greater than
approximately 100. Water molecules, on the other hand, pass freely through the membrane creating a purified product
stream. Rejection of dissolved salts is typically 95% to greater than 99%, depending on factors such as membrane type,
feed composition, temperature, and system design.
The applications for RO are numerous and varied, and include desalination of seawater or brackish water for drinking
purposes, wastewater recovery, food and beverage processing, biomedical separations, purification of home drinking
water and industrial process water.
Also, RO is often used in the production of ultrapure water for use in the semiconductor industry, power industry (boiler
feedwater), and medical/laboratory applications. Utilizing RO prior to ion exchange (IX) can substantially reduce
operating costs and regeneration frequency of the IX system. Transmembrane pressures for RO typically range from 75
psig (5 bar) for brackish water to greater than 1,200 psig (84 bar) for seawater.
The normal range of filtration processes is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Ranges of filtration processes

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1.3 Principle of Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration
How Reverse Osmosis Works
The phenomenon of osmosis occurs when pure water flows from a dilute saline solution through a membrane into a
higher concentrated saline solution.
The phenomenon of osmosis is illustrated in Figure 4. A semipermeable membrane is placed between two
compartments. “Semipermeable” means that the membrane is permeable to some species, and not permeable to
others. Assume that this membrane is permeable to water, but not to salt. Then, place a salt solution in one
compartment and pure water in the other compartment. The membrane will allow water to permeate through it to
either side. But salt cannot pass through the membrane.
Figure 4. Overview of osmosis

As a fundamental rule of nature, this system will try to reach equilibrium. That is, it will try to reach the same
concentration on both sides of the membrane. The only possible way to reach equilibrium is for water to pass from the
pure water compartment to the salt-containing compartment, to dilute the salt solution.
Figure 4 also shows that osmosis can cause a rise in the height of the salt solution. This height will increase until the
pressure of the column of water (salt solution) is so high that the force of this water column stops the water flow. The
equilibrium point of this water column height in terms of water pressure against the membrane is called osmotic
pressure.
How Nanofiltration Works

If a force is applied to this column of water, the direction of water flow through the membrane can be reversed. This is
the basis of the term reverse osmosis. Note that this reversed flow produces a pure water from the salt solution, since
the membrane is not permeable to salt.
The nanofiltration membrane is not a complete barrier to dissolved salts. Depending on the type of salt and the type of
membrane, the salt permeability may be low or high. If the salt permeability is low, the osmotic pressure difference
between the two compartments may become almost as high as in reverse osmosis. On the other hand, a high salt
permeability of the membrane would not allow the salt concentrations in the two compartments to remain very
different. Therefore the osmotic pressure plays a minor role if the salt permeability is high.

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How to Use Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration in Practice
In practice, reverse osmosis and nanofiltration are applied as a crossflow filtration process. The simplified process is
shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5. Reverse osmosis process

With a high-pressure pump, feedwater is continuously pumped at elevated pressure to the membrane system. Within
the membrane system, the feedwater will be split into a low-saline and/or purified product, called permeate, and a high
saline or concentrated brine, called concentrate or reject. A flow regulating valve, called a concentrate valve, controls
the percentage of feedwater that is going to the concentrate stream and the permeate which will be obtained from the
feed.
The key terms used in the reverse osmosis / nanofiltration process are defined as follows.
Recovery - the percentage of membrane system feedwater that emerges from the system as product water or
“permeate”. Membrane system design is based on expected feedwater quality and recovery is defined through initial
adjustment of valves on the concentrate stream. Recovery is often fixed at the highest level that maximizes permeate
flow while preventing precipitation of super-saturated salts within the membrane system.
Rejection - the percentage of solute concentration removed from system feedwater by the membrane. In reverse
osmosis, a high rejection of total dissolved solids (TDS) is important, while in nanofiltration the solutes of interest are
specific, e.g., low rejection for hardness and high rejection for organic matter.
Passage - the opposite of “rejection”, passage is the percentage of dissolved constituents (contaminants) in the
feedwater allowed to pass through the membrane.
Permeate - the purified product water produced by a membrane system.
Flow - Feed flow is the rate of feedwater introduced to the membrane element or membrane system, usually measured
in gallons per minute (gpm) or cubic meters per hour (m3/h). Concentrate flow is the rate of flow of non-permeated
feedwater that exits the membrane element or membrane system. This concentrate contains most of the dissolved
constituents originally carried into the element or into the system from the feed source. It is usually measured in
gallons per minute (gpm) or cubic meters per hour (m3/h).
Flux - the rate of permeate transported per unit of membrane area, usually measured in gallons per square foot per day
(gfd) or liters per square meter and hour (L/m2h).

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Factors Affecting Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration Performance
Permeate flux and salt rejection are the key performance parameters of a reverse osmosis or a nanofiltration process.
Under specific reference conditions, flux and rejection are intrinsic properties of membrane performance. The flux and
rejection of a membrane system are mainly influenced by variable parameters including:
l pressure
l temperature
l recovery
l feedwater salt concentration
The following graphs show the impact of each of those parameters when the other three parameters are kept constant.
In practice, there is normally an overlap of two or more effects. Figure 6, Figure 7, Figure 8 and Figure 9 are qualitative
examples of reverse osmosis performance. The functions can be understood with the Solution-Diffusion-Model, which is
explained in more detail in Section 3.12.2. In nanofiltration, the salt rejection is less depending on the operating
conditions.
Not to be neglected are several main factors which cannot be seen directly in membrane performance. These are
maintenance and operation of the plant as well as proper pretreatment design. Consideration of these three
‘parameters’, which have very strong impact on the performance of a reverse osmosis system, is a must for each OEM
(original equipment manufacturer) and end-user of such a system.
Pressure
With increasing effective feed pressure, the permeate TDS will decrease while the permeate flux will increase as shown
in Figure 5.
Temperature
If the temperature increases and all other parameters are kept constant, the permeate flux and the salt passage will
increase (see Figure 6).
Recovery
Recovery is the ratio of permeate flow to feed flow. In the case of increasing recovery, the permeate flux will decrease
and stop if the salt concentration reaches a value where the osmotic pressure of the concentrate is as high as the
applied feed pressure. The salt rejection will drop with increasing recovery (see Figure 7).

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Feedwater Salt Concentration
Figure 9 shows the impact of the feedwater salt concentration on the permeate flux and the salt rejection.
Figure 6. Performance vs. pressure Figure 7. Performance vs. temperature
Figure 8. Performance vs. recovery Figure 9. Performance vs. feedwater salt

concentration
Table 1 shows a summary of the impacts influencing reverse osmosis plant performance.
Table 1. Factors influencing reverse osmosis performance

Increasing Permeate Flow Salt Passage
Effective pressure ↓
Temperature
Recovery ↓
Feed salt correction ↓
Increasing Decreasing ↓

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1.4 Membrane Description
The FilmTec™ Membrane is a thin-film composite membrane consisting of three layers: a polyester support web, a
microporous polysulfone interlayer, and an ultra-thin polyamide barrier layer on the top surface. Each layer is tailored to
specific requirements. A schematic diagram of the membrane is shown in Figure 10.
Figure 10. Schematic cross-section of a FilmTec™ Thin-film Composite Membrane

Polyamide, Microporous Polysulfone, Polyester Support Web, Ultra-thin Barrier Layer
0.2 µm, 40 µm, 120 µm
FilmTec produces two different types of polyamide membranes for use in water purification. The first is the FT30
chemistry, which is an aromatic polyamide and is used in all FilmTec's reverse osmosis membranes and the NF90
nanofiltration membrane patented by John Cadotte at FilmTec in 1969. The second type is a mixed aromatic, aliphatic
polyamide used in all nanofiltration membranes and was also initially developed by John Cadotte at FilmTec. Decades of
further innovations at FilmTec have led to the broadest range of nanofiltration and reverse osmosis membranes in the
industry. FilmTec™ Membranes cover a flux performance range from 0.04 – 0.55 gfd/psi (1 – 14 L/m2-h-bar). This 14-fold
difference in water permeability is covered by two polyamide types with small changes in composition and larger
changes in the water content of the membrane: the aromatic FT30 membrane and the aliphatic/aromatic nanofiltration
membrane. The latter type is sometimes referred to as polypiperazine membrane.
Figure 11 represents the approximate structure of the FT30 aromatic polyamide membrane. The presence of both amine
and carboxylate end groups are shown.
Figure 11. Barrier layer of the FT30 aromatic polyamide membrane

The FT30 membrane is an aromatic polyamide made from 1,3 phenylene diamine and the tri-acid chloride of benzene.
This remarkably chemically resistant and structurally strong polymer contains carboxylic acid and free (not reacted)
amines at different levels. High chemical stability makes it the most durable and easy to clean membrane material
available.

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The approximate structure of most of FilmTec's nanofiltration membrane is shown in Figure 12. This is an
aromatic/aliphatic polyamide with amine and carboxylate end groups.
Figure 12. Barrier layer of the aromatic/aliphatic polyamide nanofiltration membrane

Because of the trace additives and the different dissociation constants of the piperazine found in this polymer we are
able to have a wider range of both monovalent and divalent salts transporting through this polymer. This has allowed us
to design a wide range of nanofiltration membranes that have different salt selectivity for different separations.
The major structural support is provided by the non-woven web, which has been calendered to produce a hard, smooth
surface free of loose fibers. Since the polyester web is too irregular and porous to provide a proper substrate for the salt
barrier layer, a microporous layer of engineering plastic (polysulfone) is cast onto the surface of the web.
The polysulfone coating is remarkable in that it has surface pores controlled to a diameter of approximately 150 Å. The
barrier layer, about 2,000 Å thick, can withstand high pressures because of the support provided by the polysulfone layer.
The combination of the polyester web and the polysulfone layer has been optimized for high water permeability at high
pressure.
The barrier layer is relatively thick; making FilmTec™ Membranes highly resistant to mechanical stresses and chemical
degradation.
1.5 Membrane Performance

FilmTec™ Thin-film Composite Membranes give excellent performance for a wide variety of applications, including low-
pressure tap water use, seawater desalination, brackish water purification, chemical processing and waste treatment. This
membrane exhibits excellent performance in terms of flux, salt and organics rejection, and microbiological resistance.
FilmTec™ Elements can operate over a pH range of 2 – 11, are resistant to compaction and are suitable for temperatures
up to 45°C. They can be effectively cleaned at pH 1 and pH 13, depending on temperature. Their performance remains
stable over several years, even under harsh operating conditions.
The membrane shows some resistance to short-term attack by chlorine (hypochlorite). The free chlorine tolerance of
the membrane is < 0.1 ppm. Continuous exposure, however, may damage the membrane and should be avoided. Under
certain conditions, the presence of free chlorine and other oxidizing agents will cause premature membrane failure.
Since oxidation damage is not covered under warranty, FilmTec recommends removing residual free chlorine by
pretreatment prior to membrane exposure. Please refer to Section 2.6.3 for more information.
The parameters which characterize the performance of a membrane are the water permeability and the solute
permeability. The ideal reverse osmosis membrane has a very high water permeability and a zero salt permeability. The
ideal nanofiltration membrane has also a very high water permeability, but the ideal permeability of solutes might be
zero or some positive value, depending on the solute and on the application; for example zero permeability for
pesticides and 50% permeability for calcium ions.

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Membrane systems are typically designed and operated at a fixed average flux, see Section 3.1, Membrane System
Design. Membranes with a high water permeability require a low feed pressure and thus a low energy to operate at a
given flux. Table 2 shows a comparison of the performance of different membranes based on a given flux as typically
encountered in membrane systems.
Table 2. Performance of some FilmTec™ Membranes

SW30HR BW30 XLE NF270
Feed pressure (psi) 370 150 70 50
Feed pressure (bar) 25 10 5 3.5
Rejection (%)
Sodium chloride NaCl 99.7 99.4 98.6 80
Calcium chloride CaCl2 99.8 99.4 98.8 50
Magnesium sulfate MgSO 4 99.9 99.7 99.2 99.3
At 18 gfd (30 lmh), 2,000 mg/L solute concentration, 25°C, pH 7 – 8, 10% recovery per 40-inch element.
As a general rule, membranes with a high water permeability (low feed pressure) also have a higher salt permeability
compared to membranes with lower water permeability. The permeability of solutes decreases (the rejection increases)
with an increase in the:
l degree of dissociation: weak acids, for example lactic acid, are rejected much better at higher pH when the
dissociation is high
l ionic charge: e.g., divalent ions are better rejected than monovalent ions
l molecular weight: higher molecular weight species are better rejected
l nonpolarity: less polar substances are rejected better
l degree of hydration: highly hydrated species, e.g., chloride, are better rejected than less hydrated ones, e.g.,
nitrate
l degree of molecular branching: e.g., iso-propanol is better rejected than n-propanol.
1.6 FilmTec™ Membrane Safe for Use in Food Processing

Under the food additive provision of the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act, contact surfaces of components used in
the production of food, including water, must comply with established regulations set forth by the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) in order to receive approval for safe use. In accordance with its long-standing commitment to
quality, petitions were submitted to the FDA for the FilmTec™ FT30 reverse osmosis membrane and all FilmTec™ NF
membranes for evaluation and approval.
The procedure for FDA approval is rigorous and thorough. First, a food additive petition must be submitted to the FDA.
This petition includes information about the chemical identity and composition of the component and its physical,
chemical and biological properties. The petitioner must also describe the proposed use of the component, including all
directions, recommendations and suggestions. Data must be included which establish that the component will have the
intended effect when used in this manner. In addition, experimental data must show the extent that the component
directly or indirectly affects the safety of the food with which it comes in contact. The petition must finally analyze the
environmental impact of the manufacturing process and the ultimate use of the component.
The FDA evaluates the petition for the specific biological properties of the component and its demonstrated safety for
the proposed use. The data and experimental methods are also evaluated for adequacy and reliability. As a guideline for
this evaluation, the FDA uses the principles and procedures for establishing the safety of food additives stated in current
publications of the Nation Academy of Sciences–National Research Council.

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Reverse osmosis and nanofiltration membranes received FDA clearance for use in processing liquid foods and in
purifying water for food applications. This clearance is published in the Code of Federal Regulations under Title 21,
Section 177.2550, Reverse Osmosis Membranes. The FT30 reverse osmosis membrane as well as all nanofiltration
membranes comply with this regulation.
1.7 Element Construction

FilmTec™ Membranes are thin-film composite membranes packed in a spiral-wound configuration. Spiral-wound
designs offer many advantages compared to other module designs, such as tubular, plate-and-frame and hollow-fiber
module design for most of the reverse osmosis applications in water treatment. Typically, a spiral-wound configuration
offers significantly lower replacement costs, simpler plumbing systems, easier maintenance and greater design freedom
than other configurations, making it the industry standard for reverse osmosis and nanofiltration membranes in water
treatment.
The construction of a spiral-wound FilmTec™ Membrane Element as well as its installation in a pressure vessel is
schematically shown in Figure 13. A FilmTec™ Element contains from one, to more than 30 membrane leaves,
depending on the element diameter and element type. Using DuPont's unique automated manufacturing process, each
leaf is made of two membrane sheets glued together back-to-back with a permeate spacer between them. DuPont's
automated process produces consistent glue lines about 1.5 in (4 cm) wide that seal the inner (permeate) side of the leaf
against the outer (feed/concentrate) side. There is a side glue line at the feed end and at the concentrate end of the
element, and a closing glue line at the outer diameter of the element. The open side of the leaf is connected to and
sealed against the perforated central part of the product water tube, which collects the permeate from all leaves. The
leaves are rolled up with a sheet of feed spacer between each of them, which provides the channel for the feed and
concentrate flow. In operation, the feedwater enters the face of the element through the feed spacer channels and
exits on the opposite end as concentrate. A part of the feedwater—typically 10 – 20%— permeates through the
membrane into the leaves and exits the permeate water tube.
When elements are used for high permeate production rates, the pressure drop of the permeate flow inside the leaves
reduces the efficiency of the element. Therefore, FilmTec™ Elements have been optimized with a higher number of
shorter membrane leaves and thin and consistent glue lines. The FilmTec™ Element construction also optimizes the
actual active membrane area (the area inside the glue lines) and the thickness of the feed spacer. Element productivity
is enhanced by high active area while a thick feed spacer reduces fouling and increases cleaning success. Such precision
in element manufacture can only be achieved by using advanced automated precision manufacturing equipment. A
cross-section of a permeate water tube with attached leaves is shown in Figure 14.
In membrane systems the elements are placed in series inside of a pressure vessel. The concentrate of the first element
becomes the feed to the second element and so on. The permeate tubes are connected with interconnectors (also
called couplers), and the combined total permeate exits the pressure vessel at one side (sometimes at both sides) of the
vessel.
Figure 14. Cross-section of a

Figure 13. Construction of spiral-wound FilmTec™ RO permeate water tube through the side
Membrane Element glue lines of the leaves

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1.8 Element Characteristics
FilmTec™ Elements cover a wide range of applications. They can be characterized by membrane type, outer wrap, size
and performance. The nomenclature of FilmTec™ Elements provides some of this information.
Nomenclature
Elements less than 8 inches in diameter are named according to Table 3. The first part of the name indicates the
membrane and its typical use; for example, BW30 is a Brackish Water FT30 membrane used for brackish water. The
second part of the name indicates the element size; for example 2540 is an element with a diameter of 2.5 inches and a
length of 40 inches.
The element nomenclature for FilmTec™ Elements is for example as follows:
Figure 15. Nomenclature of elements < 8 inches
Eight-inch elements are always 8 inches in diameter and 40 inches in length. They are named according to the actual
active membrane area in square feet, for example the BW30-400 element has an active membrane area of 400 square
feet.
Some elements types have an extension to their name, e.g., FF or FR. These stand for special element or membrane
features:
FR: Fouling-Resistant
FF: Fullfit

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Membrane
The following membrane types are used with FilmTec™ Elements:
l BW30 – High-rejection brackish water FT30 membrane for brackish water RO
l BW30HR – Very high rejection proven at broad total dissolved salts (TDS) range, coupled with reduced footprint
installations
l BW30HRLE – Delivers low operating pressure coupled with a good permeate purity
l Eco – State-of-the-art solution to deliver high salt rejection at low operating pressure, reducing CAPEX and OPEX
l Fortilife™ – A forward-thinking portfolio of low-salinity membranes which combine durability, fouling-resistant

properties and excellent cleanability for the most challenging waters and applications.
l HSRO – Heat-sanitizable version of the RO membrane used in fullfit elements
l NF – Nanofiltration membrane used in non-water applications
l NF245 – Food and dairy membrane for a variety of desalting, purification, and other separations
l NF270 – High-productivity nanofiltration membrane for removal of organics with medium salt and hardness
passage
l NF90 – Nanofiltration membrane for 90% salt removal, high removal of iron, pesticides, herbicides, TOC
l RO – Reverse osmosis membrane used in fullfit elements for sanitary applications
l Seamaxx™ – Smart choice for systems treating high-salinity waters targeting the lowest energy consumption
l SW30 – Seawater RO membrane, typically used for low-salinity or cold seawater RO and high-salinity brackish
water RO
l SW30HR – Seawater RO membrane with high salt rejection, typically used for single-pass seawater desalination
l SW30HRLE – Seawater RO membrane with high salt rejection, typically used for low-energy seawater
desalination
l SW30XFR – Designed specifically to handle biofouling in seawater desalination plants and equipped with
advanced fouling-resistant and cleanability features
l SW30XHR – Highest rejection seawater RO element enabling stringent water quality requirements
l SW30XLE – Membrane for seawater desalination with extremely low energy consumption
l TW30 – High rejection brackish water FT30 membrane, typically used for tap water RO
l XLE – Extremely low-energy RO membrane for lowest pressure brackish water RO
For a full list of products, please visit our website at https://www.dupont.com/brands/filmtec.html.
Element Size
The standard length of a membrane element is 40 inches (1,016 mm). For small and compact systems shorter elements
are available, such as 14 inches (356 mm) and 21 inches (533 mm).
Home Drinking Water RO elements are 12 inches long and 1.8 inches in diameter to fit into nominal 2-inch I.D. housings.
The standard diameter of FilmTec™ Elements is 2.5, 4 and 8 inches (61 – 99 – 201 mm). They are sized to fit into 2.5-, 4-
and 8-inch pressure vessels, respectively.
Element Outer Wrap

The outer wrap of FilmTec™ Elements is tape, fiberglass or a polypropylene mesh. Tap water and home drinking water
RO elements are tape-wrapped, all other elements except fullfit elements are fiberglass wrapped. Fiberglass adds more
physical strength to the element for operation under harsh conditions. Fullfit elements have a designed bypass during
operation to minimize stagnant areas; such elements are optimal for applications requiring a sanitary design.

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Element Performance
The performance of all FilmTec™ Elements is stated on their respective product information data sheets. An overview
about the available sizes and their flow performance range is shown in Table 3.
Table 3. FilmTec™ Element types

Element type Diameter Permeate flow1 at standard test conditions Maximum operating pressure
(inch) (gpd) (L/h) (bar) (psi)
NF270 2.5, 4, 8 850 – 14,700 134 – 2,300 41 600
NF200 2.5, 4, 8 460 – 8,000 73 – 1,260 41 600
NF90 2.5, 4, 8 525 – 10,300 83 – 1,620 41 600
TW30 1.8 24 – 100 3.8 – 16 21 300
TW30, TW30HP 2, 2.5, 4 100 – 3,200 16 – 500 41 600
BW30 2.5, 4, 8 750 – 10,500 120 – 1,660 41 600
BW30LE 4, 8 2,000 – 11,500 320 – 1,830 41 600
XLE 2.5, 4, 8 330 – 13,000 52 – 2,040 41 600
SW30 2.5, 4 150 – 1,950 24 – 300 69 1,000
SW30HR 8 6,000 950 84 1,200
SW30HRLE 8 7,500 1,200 84 1,200
SW30XLE 8 9,000 1,400 69 1,200
1
Varying with different element dimensions and test conditions.
The standard element test conditions vary depending on the membrane type. summarizes the test conditions used to
specify the performance of FilmTec™ Elements.
Table 4. Standard test conditions for FilmTec™ Elements

Pressure
Element type Feedwater Temperature psi bar pH Recovery Test time
NF200 MgSO 4, 2,000 ppm 77°F (25°C) 70 4.8 8 15% 20 min
NF270
NF90
NF200 CaCl2, 500 ppm 77°F (25°C) 70 4.8 8 15% 20 min
NF270
NF90 NaCl, 2,000 ppm 77°F (25°C) 70 4.8 8 15% 20 min
LPTW Tap water, 250 ppm 77°F (25°C) 50 3.45 8 15% 20 min
BW30LE NaCl, 2,000 ppm 77°F (25°C) 150 10.3 8 15% 20 min
XLE NaCl, 500 ppm 77°F (25°C) 100 6.9 8 15% 20 min
TW30 NaCl, 2,000 ppm 77°F (25°C) 225 15.5 8 15% 20 min
BW30
SW30 NaCl, 32,000 ppm 77°F (25°C) 800 55 8 10%† 20 min
SW30HR NaCl, 32,000 ppm 77°F (25°C) 800 55 8 8% 20 min
†
8% for 2.5-inch and 4-inch diameter elements.

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2 Water Chemistry and Pretreatment
2.1 Introduction
To increase the efficiency and life of reverse osmosis and nanofiltration (RO/NF) systems, effective pretreatment of the
feedwater is required. Selection of the proper pretreatment will maximize efficiency and membrane life by minimizing:
l Fouling
l Scaling
l Membrane degradation
Optimizing:
l Product flow
l Product quality (salt rejection)
l Product recovery
l Operating & maintenance costs
Fouling is the accumulation of foreign materials from feedwater on the active membrane surface and/or on the feed
spacer to the point of causing operational problems. The term fouling includes the accumulation of all kinds of layers on
the membrane and feed spacer surface, including scaling. More specifically, colloidal fouling refers to the entrapment of
particulate or colloidal matter such as iron flocs or silt, biological fouling (biofouling) is the growth of a biofilm, and
organic fouling is the adsorption of specific organic compounds such as humic substances and oil on to the membrane
surface. Scaling refers to the precipitation and deposition within the system of sparingly soluble salts including calcium
carbonate, barium sulfate, calcium sulfate, strontium sulfate and calcium fluoride.
Pretreatment of feedwater must involve a total system approach for continuous and reliable operation. For example, an
improperly designed and/or operated clarifier will result in loading the sand or multimedia filter beyond its operating
limits. Such inadequate pretreatment often necessitates frequent cleaning of the membrane elements to restore
productivity and salt rejection. The cost of cleaning, downtime and lost system performance can be significant.
The proper treatment scheme for feedwater depends on:
l Feedwater source
l Feedwater composition
l Application
The type of pretreatment system depends to a large extent on feedwater source (i.e., well water, surface water, and
municipal wastewater). In general, well water is a consistent feed source that has a low fouling potential. Well water
typically requires a very simple pretreatment scheme such as acidification and/or antiscalant dosing and a 5-µm
cartridge filter.
Surface water, on the other hand, is a variable feedwater source that is affected by seasonal factors. It has a high-fouling
potential, both microbiological and colloidal. Pretreatment for surface water is more elaborate than pretreatment for
well water. Additional pretreatment steps often include chlorination, coagulation/flocculation, clarification, multimedia
filtration, dechlorination, acidification and/or antiscalant dosing.
Industrial and municipal wastewaters have a wide variety of organic and inorganic constituents. Some types of organic
components may adversely affect RO/NF membranes, inducing severe flow loss and/or membrane degradation
(organic fouling), making a well-designed pretreatment scheme imperative.

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Once the feedwater source has been determined, a complete and accurate analysis of the feedwater should be made.
The importance of a feedwater analysis cannot be overemphasized. It is critical in determining the proper pretreatment
and RO/NF system design.
Finally, the application often determines the type or extent of RO/NF pretreatment required. For example, pretreatment
in an electronics application might be much more sophisticated than for a municipal system due to the different
product water quality requirements.
Pretreatment is a continuous water treatment process upstream of a continuous membrane process. Water treatment
chemicals may be dosed continuously or intermittently during operation of the RO/NF system. Any offline application of
chemicals (i.e., when the system is not in production mode) is described in Section 6.1, Cleaning and Sanitization.
2.2 Feedwater Type and Analysis

The major water types being treated by RO/NF can be roughly characterized from the total dissolved solids (TDS)
content and the organic load (total organic carbon, TOC), see Figure 16.
l Very-low-salinity, high-purity waters (HPW) coming from the first RO systems (double-pass RO system) or the
polishing stage in ultrapure water (UPW) systems with TDS up to 50 mg/L.
l Low-salinity tap waters with TDS up to 500 mg/L.
l Medium-salinity groundwater with high natural organic matter (NOM) and TDS up to 5,000 mg/L.
l Medium-salinity brackish waters with TDS up to 5,000 mg/L.
l Medium-salinity tertiary effluent with high TOC and biological oxygen demand (BOD) levels and TDS up to 5,000
mg/L.
l High-salinity brackish waters with TDS in the range of 5,000 – 15,000 mg/L. Seawater with TDS in the range of
35,000 mg/L.

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Figure 16. Major water types being treated by RO and NF
Seawater
Seawater with TDS of 35,000 mg/L is considered standard seawater constituting, by far, the largest amount of water
worldwide. The composition is nearly the same all over the world. The actual TDS content may, however, vary within
wide limits from the Baltic Sea with 7,000 mg/L to the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf with up to 45,000 mg/L. The actual
compositions can be proportionally estimated from the standard seawater composition (Table 5). The water from
seashore wells, however, depending on the soil, influx from inland, etc., can often have salinity and composition quite
different from water taken from the sea itself.

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Table 5. Standard seawater composition
Ion Concentration (mg/L)
Calcium 410
Magnesium 1,310
Sodium 10,900
Potassium 390
Barium 0.05
Strontium 13
Iron < 0.02
Manganese < 0.01
Silica 0.04 – 8
Chloride 19,700
Sulfate 2,740
Fluoride 1.4
Bromide 65
Nitrate < 0.7
Bicarbonate 152
Boron 4–5
Other
TDS 35,000 mg/L
pH 8.1
In Table 6 and Table 7, some chemical and physical characteristics of seawaters with different salinity are shown.
Table 6. Inorganic composition of seawater with different salinity

K Na Mg Ca Cl SiO 2
Water (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) HCO 3 (ppm) (ppm) SO 4 (ppm) (ppm)
Standard seawater – 32,000 ppm 354 9,854 1,182 385 130 17,742 2,477 0.9
Table 7. Salinity and conductivity of seawaters

Salinity Conductivity Factor
TDS K K/TDS
Location ppm μS/cm μS/(cm·ppm)
South Pacific < 36,000 < 51,660 1.43 – 1.44
Gran Canaria (Atlantic Ocean) 37,600 53,280 1.42
Sardinia (Mediterranean Sea) 40,800 57,240 1.40
Bahrain 42,500 59,350 1.40
Egypt (Red Sea) 44,000 62,990 1.38

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The characteristic features of seawater have to be considered in the design and operation of the pretreatment and the
reverse osmosis process. As a consequence of the high salinity of seawater involving a high osmotic pressure, the
recovery of the system is limited to typically 40 – 50% in order to not exceed the physical pressure limits of the
membrane element, or to limit the energy consumption associated with higher feed pressures at higher recoveries, or
to limit the salinity and/or the boron concentration in the product water. Seawaters from open intakes may cause
biofouling of the RO membranes if no biofouling prevention measures are in place (see Section 2.6.1, Biological Fouling
Prevention).
Brackish Water
The composition of brackish waters is of extremely wide variation, and a water analysis is a must for a good process
design. Several examples of brackish water analyses are given in Table 8.
In brackish water treatment, the factor limiting recovery is mainly of a chemical nature (i.e., precipitation and scale
formation by compounds such as calcium carbonate or calcium sulfate). The potential for biofouling is also another
limiting factor in brackish water treatment. A number of methods are available to assess the biological fouling potential
(see Section 2.6.2, Assessment of the Biological Fouling Potential). In industrial and municipal wastewater treatment, a
wide variety of organic and inorganic constituents may be present. Thus, the limiting factors are sometimes governed
by additional characteristics of feedwaters, for example the organic matter or the phosphate scaling potential.
Table 8. Examples of brackish water composition

Pretreated tertiary
Parameter Unit Well watera Well waterb Lake waterc Surface waterd effluent e
Calcium mg/L 84 113 54 102 40 – 64
Magnesium mg/L 6 2.7 23 11 
Sodium mg/L 36 23 87 20 150 – 200
Potassium mg/L 3.3 2 6.6 4 
Iron mg/L < 0.05 0.2 0.05 ND – 015 0.02 – 0.09
Manganese mg/L 0.01 0.1 < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.05
Barium mg/L 0.07 0.1 0.09  0.01 – 0.1
Strontium mg/L 0.7 1 1  0.2 – 1
Ammonium mg/L < 0.05   0.3 22 – 66
Aluminum mg/L 0.02  0.02 ND – 0.15 0.03
Chloride mg/L 45 52 67 33 150 – 500
Bicarbonate mg/L 265 325 134 287 48.8 – 97.6
Sulfate mg/L 24 8 201 56 120 – 160
Nitrate mg/L 4.3 4 <1.0 15 40 – 60
Fluoride mg/L 0.14 0.7  0.25 0.7 – 0.7
Phosphate mg/L < 0.05 0.6 0.01 1.2 6.1 – 12.2
Silica mg/L 9 11 3.1 7 – 17 6 – 10
Hydrogen mg/L  1.5   ND
Sulfide
TDS mg/L 478 377 573 400 500 – 1,300
TOC mg/L 1.5 10 3.6 2.4 20 – 30 (COD)
Color Pt <5 40  <5 13 (Hazen)
Turbidity NTU    2 – 130 0.4 – 1.7
pH  7.5 7.4 8.2 8 6.6 – 7.4
Conductivity μS/cm 590  879 400 – 700 700 – 2,200
Temperature °C 12 23 – 28  3 – 25 25 – 35
1. Well water: Germany

2. Well water: The Turnpike Aquifer in Florida (design of the Boynton Beach, FL Membrane Softening Water Treatment, Proc. AWWA Annual Conference, Eng.
And Op., 139 (1992))
3. Lake Mead, Nevada (2000)
4. River Oise, France
5. Tertiary effluent: industrial water in Jurong Island, Singapore (Water Reclamation – The Jurong Island Experience – SUT Seraya using Fouling Resistant RO
Membrane to Reclaim Wastewater, IDA, Bahrain (2002))

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With such wide variation in feedwater quality, the first step is to know the water characteristics. Before a projection of an
RO or NF system design can be run, a complete and accurate water analysis must be provided. A water analysis form
(Table 9) must be completed and balanced to electroneutrality (i.e., anion and cation concentrations must be identical
when stated in terms of the calcium carbonate equivalent). If the water analysis is not balanced, the addition of either
Na+ or Cl– to achieve electroneutrality is recommended.
Table 9. Water analysis for RO/NF
Sample Identification: ....................................................................................................................................................................

Feed Source: ...................................................................................................................................................................................
Conductivity: ........................................ pH: ................ Temperature (°C): ...........................................................
Feedwater Analysis: NH4+ .......................... CO2 ..........................
+ 2–
Please give units (mg/L as ion K .......................... CO3 ..........................
+ –
or ppm as CaCO3 or meq/L) Na .......................... HCO3 ..........................
2+ –
Mg .......................... NO3 ..........................
2+ –
Ca .......................... Cl ..........................
2+ –
Ba .......................... F ..........................
Sr 2+
.......................... SO42– ..........................
2+ 3–
Fe .......................... PO4 ..........................
2–
Fe (tot) .......................... S ..........................
Mn2+ .......................... SiO2 (colloidal) ..........................
Boron .......................... SiO2 (soluble) ..........................
3+
Al ..........................
Other Ions: ....................................................................................................................................................................................
TDS (by method): ............................................................................................................................................................................

TOC: ..................................................................................................................................................................................................
BOD: ..................................................................................................................................................................................................
COD: .................................................................................................................................................................................................
AOC: ..................................................................................................................................................................................................
BDOC: ...............................................................................................................................................................................................
Total Alkalinity (m-value): ...............................................................................................................................................................

Carbonate Alkalinity (p-value): ......................................................................................................................................................
Total Hardness: ...............................................................................................................................................................................
Turbidity (NTU): ...............................................................................................................................................................................
Silt Density Index (SDI): ..................................................................................................................................................................
Bacteria (count/ml): ........................................................................................................................................................................
Free Chlorine: ..................................................................................................................................................................................
Remarks: .........................................................................................................................................................................................
(odor, smell, color, biological activity, etc.) ................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................................
Analysis By: ......................................................................................................................................................................................
Date: ..................................................................................................................................................................................................

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Ba2+ and Sr2+ must be analyzed at the 1 µg/L (ppb) and 1 mg/L (ppm) level of detection, respectively. It is also important
that the temperature be given as a range rather than an absolute value. Temperature variation can impact the scaling
potential of an RO system, especially when silica and bicarbonate levels in the feedwater are high.
After the membrane system is in service, the feedwater should be analyzed on a regular basis so that the pretreatment
and the plant operation can be adjusted accordingly. Many standards are available for water analysis techniques. It is
recommended to use the standards of ASTM International (www.astm.org) or the latest edition of “Standard Methods for
the Examination of Water and Wastewater”/1/.
A guide for water analysis for reverse osmosis applications is given in ASTM D 4195 /2/; this can be applied to
nanofiltration as well. A listing of the relevant ASTM procedures and Standard Methods for the Examination of Water
and Wastewater are given in Table 10.
Table 10. Standard procedures relevant to water analysis for RO/NF applications
ASTM Standard Methods / 1/
Calcium and magnesium D 511 3500-Ca, Mg
Chloride D 512 4500-Chloride
Carbon dioxide, bicarbonate, carbonate D 513 4500-Carbon dioxide, 2320
Phosphorus D 515 4500-P
Sulfate D 516 4500-Sulfate
Aluminum D 857 3500-Al
Manganese D 858 3500-Mn
Silica D 859 4500-Silica
Dissolved oxygen D 888 4500-O
Iron D 1068 3500-Fe
Fluoride D 1179 4500-Fluoride
COD D 1252, D 6697 5220
Residual chlorine D 1253 4500-Cl
pH D 1293 4500-pH value
Lithium, potassium, sodium D 1428, D 3561 3500-Li, Na, K
Ammonia nitrogen D 1426 45-NH 3
Particulate and dissolved matter D 1888 2560
Turbidity D 1889 2130
Total organic carbon (TOC) D 2579, D 4129, D 4839, D 5904 5310
Arsenic D 2972 3500-As
Boron D 3082 4500-B
Strontium D 3352 3500-Sr
Practices for sampling water D 3370 1060
Nitrite - nitrate D 3867 4500-Nitrogen
Silt density index D 4189 
Barium D 4382 3500-Ba
Microbiological contaminants in water F 60 
Oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) D 1498 2580
BOD  5210
AOC  9217

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2.3 Scale Control
2.3.1 Introduction
Scaling of RO/NF membranes may occur when sparingly soluble salts are concentrated within the element beyond their
solubility limit. For example, if a reverse osmosis plant is operated at 50% recovery, the concentration in the concentrate
stream will be almost double the concentration in the feed stream. As the recovery of a plant is increased, so is the risk
of scaling.
Due to water scarcity and environmental concern, adding a brine (RO concentrate) recovery system to increase recovery
has become more popular. To minimize precipitation and scaling, it is important to establish well-designed scale control
measures and avoid exceeding the solubility limits of sparingly soluble salts. In an RO/NF system, the most common
sparingly soluble salts encountered are CaSO 4, CaCO 3, and silica. Other salts creating a potential scaling problem are CaF2,
BaSO 4, SrSO 4, and Ca3(PO 4)2. Solubility products of sparingly soluble inorganic compounds are listed in Table 11.
Table 11. Solubility products of sparingly soluble inorganic compounds

Substance Formula Temp. °C Solubility product Negative log Ksp
Aluminum hydroxide Al(OH)3 25 3 × 10 -34 33.5
Aluminum phosphate AlPO 4 25 9.84 × 10 -21 20
Barium carbonate BaCO 3 25 2.58 × 10 -9 8.6
Barium sulfate BaSO 4 25 1.1 × 10 -10 10
Calcium carbonate CaCO 3 25 Calcite: 3.36 × 10 -9 8.5
Aragonite: 6 × 10 -9 8.2
Calcium fluoride CaF2 25 3.45 × 10 -11 10.5
Calcium phosphate Ca 3(PO 4)2 25 2.07 × 10 -33 32.7
Calcium sulfate CaSO 4 25 4.93 × 10 -5 4.3
Iron(II) hydroxide Fe(OH)2 25 4.87 × 10 -17 16.3
Iron(II) sulfide FeS 25 8 × 10 -19 18.1
Iron(III) hydroxide Fe(OH)3 25 2.79 × 10 -39 38.6
Iron(III) phosphate dihydrate FePO 4⋅2H 2O 25 9.91 × 10 -16 15
Lead carbonate PbCO 3 25 7.4 × 10 -14 13.1
Lead fluoride PbF2 25 3.3 × 10 -8 7.5
Lead sulfate PbSO 4 25 2.53 × 10 -8 7.6
Magnesium ammonium MgNH 4PO 4 25 2.5 × 10 -13 12.6
phosphate
Magnesium carbonate MgCO 3 12 2.6 × 10 -5 4.58
25 6.82 × 10 -6 5.17
Magnesium fluoride MgF2 18 7.1 × 10 -9 8.15
25 5.16 × 10 -11 10.3
Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 18 1.2 × 10 -11 10.9
25 5.61 × 10 -12 11.25
Magnesium phosphate Mg3(PO 4)2 25 1.04 × 10 -24 24
Manganese hydroxide Mn(OH)2 18 4.0 × 10 -14 13.4
25 2 × 10 -13 12.7
Strontium carbonate SrCO 3 25 5.6 × 10 -10 9.25
Strontium sulfate SrSO 4 17.4 3.8 × 10 -7 6.42
Zinc carbonate ZnCO 3 25 1.46 × 10 -10 9.84
The following design practices can be used to prevent scaling of a membrane.

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2.3.2 Acid Addition
Most natural surface and ground waters are almost saturated with CaCO 3. The solubility of CaCO 3 depends on the pH, as
can be seen from the following equation:
Ca2+ + HCO 3– ↔ H + + CaCO 3
By adding H + as acid, the equilibrium can be shifted to the left side to keep calcium carbonate dissolved. Use food-grade
quality acid.
Sulfuric acid is easier to handle and in many countries more readily available than hydrochloric acid, however, additional
sulfate is added to the feed stream, potentially causing sulfate scaling (Sections 2.4.3, 2.4.4, 2.4.5).
CaCO 3 tends to dissolve in the concentrate stream rather than precipitate. This tendency can be expressed by the
Langelier Saturation Index (LSI) for brackish waters and the Stiff & Davis Stability Index (S&DSI) for seawaters. At the pH of
saturation (pH s), the water is in equilibrium with CaCO 3.
The definitions of LSI and S&DSI are:
LSI = pH – pH s (TDS < 10,000 mg/L)

S&DSI = pH – pH s (TDS > 10,000 mg/L)
where the methods predicting pH s are different for LSI and S&DSI (see Section 2.4.2.1 ).
To control calcium carbonate scaling by acid addition alone, the LSI or S&DSI in the concentrate stream must be
negative. Acid addition is useful to control carbonate scale only.
2.3.3 Scale Inhibitor Addition
Scale inhibitors (antiscalants) can be used to control carbonate scaling, sulfate scaling, and calcium fluoride scaling.
There are generally three different types of scale inhibitors: sodium hexametaphosphate (SHMP), organophosphonates
and polyacrylates.
SHMP is inexpensive but unstable compared to polymeric organic scale inhibitors. Minor amounts adsorb to the surface
of microcrystals, preventing further growth and precipitation of the crystals. Food-grade quality SHMP should be used.
Care must be taken to avoid hydrolysis of SHMP in the dosing feed tank. Hydrolysis will not only decrease the scale
inhibition efficiency, but also create a calcium phosphate scaling risk. Therefore, SHMP is generally not recommended.
Organophosphonates are more effective and stable than SHMP. They act as antifoulants for insoluble aluminum and
iron, keeping them in solution. Polyacrylates (high molecular weight) are generally known for reducing silica scale
formation via a dispersion mechanism.
Polymeric organic scale inhibitors are also more effective than SHMP. Precipitation reactions may occur, however, with
negatively charged scale inhibitors and cationic polyelectrolytes or multivalent cations (e.g., aluminum or iron). The
resulting gum-like products are very difficult to remove from the membrane elements. For dosage rates on all
antiscalants, please contact the antiscalant manufacturers. Overdosing should be avoided. Make certain that no
significant amounts of cationic polymers are present when adding an anionic scale inhibitor.
In RO plants operating on seawater with TDS in the range of 35,000 mg/L, scaling is not as much of a problem as in
brackish water plants because the recovery of seawater plants is limited by the osmotic pressure of the concentrate
stream to 30 – 45%. For safety reasons, however, a scale inhibitor is recommended when operating above a recovery of
35%.

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2.3.4 Softening with a Strong Acid Cation Exchange Resin
In the ion exchange softening process, the scale-forming cations, such as Ca2+, Ba2+ and Sr2+, are removed and replaced
by sodium cations. The resin is regenerated with NaCl at hardness breakthrough. The pH of the feedwater is not
changed by this treatment and, therefore, no degasifier is needed. Only a little CO 2 from the raw water is present that
can pass into the permeate, creating a conductivity increase there. The permeate conductivity can be lowered by
adding some NaOH to the softened feedwater (up to pH 8.2) to convert residual carbon dioxide into bicarbonate, which
is then rejected by the membrane. The rejection performance of the FT30 membrane is optimal at the neutral pH
range.
With ion exchange resins, the removal efficiency for Ca2+, Ba2+, and Sr2+ is greater than 99.5%, which usually eliminates
any risk of carbonate or sulfate scaling.
Softening with a strong acid cation exchange resin is effective and safe, provided the regeneration is done properly. It is
used mainly in small- or medium-size brackish water plants, but not in seawater plants.
A drawback of this process is its relatively high sodium chloride consumption, potentially causing environmental or
economic problems. With AmberLite™ Ion Exchange Resins and a counter-current regeneration technique such as
Upcore™ or Amberpack™ Packed Bed Systems, it is possible to minimize the sodium chloride consumption to 110% of
the stoichiometric value.
2.3.5 Dealkalization with a Weak Acid Cation Exchange Resin
Dealkalization with a weak acid cation exchange resin is used mainly in large brackish water plants for partial softening
to minimize the consumption of regeneration chemicals.
In this process, only Ca2+, Ba2+, and Sr2+ associated with bicarbonate alkalinity (temporary hardness) are removed and
replaced by H +, thus lowering the effluent pH to 4–5. Because the acidic groups of the resin are carboxylic groups, the
ion exchange process stops when the pH reaches 4.2, where the carboxylic groups are no longer dissociated. It is,
therefore, only a partial softening. Only those scale-forming cations are removed that are bound to bicarbonate. This
process, therefore, is ideal for waters with high bicarbonate content. The bicarbonate is converted into carbon dioxide:
HCO 3– + H + ↔ H 2O + CO 2
In most cases, carbon dioxide is not desired in the permeate. It can be removed by degassing either in the permeate or
in the feed stream.
Degassing the permeate is favored where a potential for biofouling is suspected (e.g., surface waters, high TOC, high
bacteria counts). A high CO 2 concentration on the membranes helps to keep bacteria growth low. Degassing the feed is
preferred when optimal salt rejection is the priority. Removing CO 2 also leads to an increase in pH (see equation above),
and at pH > 6 the rejection is better than at pH < 5.
The advantages of dealkalizing with a weak acid cation exchange resin are:
l For regeneration, acid of not more than 105% of the stoichiometric value is needed. This minimizes operating
costs and environmental impact.
l The TDS value of the water is reduced (by the removal of bicarbonate salts) by either the amount of hardness or
alkalinity, whichever is lower. Accordingly, the permeate TDS value is also lower.

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The disadvantages are:
l Residual hardness.
If complete softening is required, a sodium exchange process with a strong acid cation exchange resin can be
added, even in one vessel (layered bed). The overall consumption of regenerant chemicals via thoroughfare
regeneration is still lower than softening with a strong acid cation exchange resin alone. Due to the higher
investment costs, however, this combination will only be attractive for plants with high capacity. Another
possibility to overcome this drawback of incomplete softening is to dose an antiscalant into the dealkalized
water.
l Variable pH of the treated water.
The pH of the dealkalized water ranges from 3.5 – 6.5 depending on the degree of exhaustion of the resin. This
cyclic pH variation makes it difficult to control the salt rejection of the plant. At pH < 4.2, the passage of mineral
acid may increase the permeate TDS content. It is therefore recommended that more than one filter be used in
parallel and regenerated at different times to minimize the variability in pH. Other possibilities to avoid
extremely low pH values are CO 2 removal or pH adjustment by NaOH afterwards.
2.3.6 Lime Softening
Lime softening can be used to remove carbonate hardness by adding hydrated lime:
Ca(HCO 3)2 + Ca(OH)2 → 2 CaCO 3 + 2 H 2O

Mg(HCO 3)2 + 2 Ca(OH)2 → Mg(OH)2 + 2 CaCO 3 + 2H 2O
The noncarbonate calcium hardness can be further reduced by adding sodium carbonate (soda ash):
CaCl2 + Na2CO 3 → 2 NaCl + CaCO 3
The lime-soda ash process can also be used to reduce the silica concentration. When sodium aluminate and ferric
chloride are added, the precipitate will include calcium carbonate and a complex with silicic acid, aluminum oxide, and
iron.
With the hot lime silicic acid removal process at 60 – 70°C, silica can be reduced to 1 mg/L by adding a mixture of lime
and porous magnesium oxide.
With lime softening, barium, strontium, and organic substances are also reduced significantly. The process requires a
reactor with a high concentration of precipitated particles serving as crystallization nuclei. This is usually achieved by
upflow solids-contact clarifiers. The effluent from this process requires media filtration and pH adjustment prior to the
RO elements. Iron coagulants with or without polymeric flocculants (anionic and nonionic) may be used to improve the
solid-liquid separation.
Lime softening should be considered for brackish water plants larger than 200 m3/h (880 gpm). More details are
described in water treatment textbooks. /3, 4, 5/

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2.3.7 Preventive Cleaning
In some applications, scaling is controlled by preventive membrane cleaning. This allows the system to run without
softening or dosage of chemicals. Typically, these systems operate at low recovery in the range of 25%, and the
membrane elements are replaced after 1 – 2 years. Accordingly, these systems are mainly small single-element plants
for potable water from tap water or seawater. The simplest way of cleaning is a forward flush at low pressure by opening
the concentrate valve. Short cleaning intervals are more effective than long cleaning times (e.g., 30 seconds every 30
minutes).
Cleaning can also be carried out with cleaning chemicals as described in Section 6.1 In batch processes like wastewater
treatment, cleaning the membranes after every batch is common practice.
The cleaning procedure, cleaning chemicals, and frequency of cleaning need to be determined and optimized case by
case. Special care has to be taken not to allow a scaling layer to develop over time.
2.3.8 Adjustment of Operating Variables
When other scale-control methods do not work, the operating variables of the plant have to be adjusted in such a way
that scaling will not occur. The precipitation of dissolved salts can be avoided by keeping their concentration below the
solubility limit. This is accomplished by reducing the system recovery until the concentrate concentration is low enough.
Solubility depends also on temperature and pH. In the case of silica, increasing temperature and pH increases its
solubility (see Section 2.4.7). Silica is usually the only reason for considering adjustment of operating variables for scale
control because these adjustments have economic drawbacks (energy consumption) or other scaling risks (CaCO 3 at
high pH).
For small systems, a low recovery combined with a preventive cleaning program might be a convenient way to control
scaling.
2.4 Scaling Calculations
2.4.1 General
Scaling calculations must be carried out in order to determine whether a sparingly soluble salt presents a potential
scaling problem in an RO system. The calculation procedures described in this section are adapted from the
corresponding ASTM standards, cited in the references /6, 7 , 8/. To determine the scaling potential, you need to
compare the ion product IPc of the considered salt in the concentrate stream with the solubility product K sp of that salt
under conditions in the concentrate stream. Generally, scale-control measures are not needed if IPc < K sp.
The ion product IP of a salt AmBn is defined as
IP = [A]m[B]n Eq. 1
where:
[A], [B] = molal concentrations of the corresponding ions
For the concentration ranges present in RO applications, molal concentrations (mol/kg) can be considered equivalent
with molar concentrations (mol/L).

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The concentration of ion species in the concentrate stream is usually not known, but can easily be estimated from the
concentration in the feed stream by multiplication with the concentration factor CF. The concentration factor is derived
from the recovery Y (expressed as a decimal):
Eq. 2
where the rejection is assumed to be 100%.
The solubility product K sp is generally also expressed in molal concentrations and is dependent on ionic strength and
temperature as shown in the figures of this section.
The temperature in the concentrate stream is about the same as in the feed stream.
The ionic strength of the feedwater is:
Eq. 3
where:
mi = molal concentration of ion i (mol/kg)

zi = ionic charge of ion i
Where the water analysis is not given in molal (or molar) concentrations, the conversion is as follows:
Eq. 4
where:
ci = concentration of ion i in mg/L

MW i = molecular weight of ion i
Having calculated the ionic strength If of the feed stream with Eq. 3, the ionic strength Ic of the concentrate stream is
obtained from:
Eq. 5
With the ionic strength of the concentrate stream, the solubility product K sp of scaling salt can be obtained (see Sections
2.4.2.1, 2.4.3, 2.4.4, 2.4.5, 2.4.6, and 2.4.7) (see below).
l Calcium Carbonate Scale Prevention (Form No. 45-D01552-en)
l Calcium Sulfate Scale Prevention (Form No. 45-D01553-en)
l Barium Sulfate Scale Prevention (Form No. 45-D01554-en)
l Strontium Sulfate Scale Prevention (Form No. 45-D01555-en)
l Calcium Fluoride Scale Prevention (Form No. 45-D01556-en)
l Silica Scale Prevention (Form No. 45-D01557-en)

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Calculation example of the ionic strength of the concentrate (Ic):
Table 12. Feedwater Analysis

Ion mg/L mol/L mol/kg
Ca 2+ 200 5.0 × 10 -3
Mg2+ 61 2.51 × 10 -3
Na + 388 16.9 × 10 -3
HCO 3- 244 4.0 × 10 -3
SO 42- 480 5.0 × 10 -3
Cl- 635 17.9 × 10 -3
The ionic strength If of the feedwater is
With a recovery of, for example, 75% (Y = 0.75), the ionic strength of the concentrate becomes
2.4.2 Calcium Carbonate Scale Prevention
2.4.2.1 Brackish Water
For brackish waters with TDS < 10,000 mg/L in the concentrate stream, the Langelier Saturation Index (LSI) is used to
express the scaling potential for calcium carbonate /6/.
The following data are needed to calculate the LSI of the concentrate stream (LSIc ):
Caf = Calcium concentration in feed as CaCO 3, mg/L
TDSf = Concentration of total dissolved solids in the feed, mg/L
Alkf = Alkalinity in feed as CaCO 3, mg/L
pH f = pH of the feed solution
T = Temperature of the feed solution
Y = Recovery of the reverse osmosis system, expressed as a decimal
Calculations
1. Calculate the calcium concentration in the concentrate stream, Cac , as CaCO 3 in mg/L:
Eq. 6

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2. Calculate the total dissolved solids in the concentrate stream, TDSc in mg/L:
Eq. 7
3. Calculate the alkalinity in the concentrate stream, Alkc , as CaCO 3 in mg/L:

Eq. 8
4. Calculate the free carbon dioxide content (C) in the concentrate stream by assuming that the CO 2
concentration in the concentrate is equal to the CO 2 concentration in the feed: Cc = Cf. The concentration of
free carbon dioxide in the feed solution is obtained from Figure 19 as a function of the alkalinity and the pH of
the feed solution.
5. Calculate the pH of the concentrate stream (pH c ) using the ratio of alkalinity Alkc to free CO 2 in the
concentrate, Figure 19.
6. From Figure 19 obtain: pCa as a function of Cac , pAlk as a function of Alkc , “C” as a function of TDSc and
temperature (temperature of the concentrate is assumed equal to temperature of the feed solution).
7. Calculate pH at which the concentrate stream is saturated with CaCO 3 (pH s) as follows:
Eq. 9
8. Calculate the Langelier Saturation Index of the concentrate (LSIc ) as follows:
Eq. 10
Adjustments of LSIc
In most natural waters, LSIc would be positive without pretreatment. To control CaCO 3 scaling, LSIc has to be adjusted to
a negative value, except if adding a scale inhibitor (Section 2.3.3) or preventive cleaning (Section 2.3.7) is applied.
The conditions for CaCO 3 scale control are:
LSIc < 0when no antiscalant is added

LSIc ≤ 1when 20 mg/L sodium hexametaphosphate is in the concentrate stream
LSIc > 1possible with polymeric organic scale inhibitors. For the maximum LSIc and required dosages, please refer to
the scale inhibitor manufacturer’s literature.
If LSIc is not within the above conditions, adjustments can be made by one of the following means. A new LSIc can then
be calculated:
l The recovery, Y, can be lowered and LSIc can be calculated as above by substituting a new value for the
recovery.
l Decreasing the calcium concentration in the feed solution by means of sodium cycle ion exchange. This will
increase the pCa and will therefore decrease the LSIc . Softening will not change the alkalinity or pH of the feed
solution and the slight change in TDSf may be considered negligible. After softening, the LSIc can be calculated
as above using the lower value for calcium concentration.
l Adding acid (HCl, CO 2, H 2SO 4, etc.) to the feed solution changes the Alkf, Cf, and pH. The slight change in TDSf can
usually be neglected. Acid addition will decrease the LSIc ; however, since many variables change with
acidification, trial and error computations are required to determine the amount of acid needed to obtain the
desired LSIc . The number of trial and error computations required to determine the amount of acid needed can
be reduced greatly by using the pH s calculated in Eq. 9. Since pH c will usually be 0.5 units higher than the pH f,
the first computation can be made with an acidified feed solution that is 0.5 units lower than the pH s.

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For an assumed pH (pH acid), obtained from addition of acid to the feed solution, obtain the ratio of Alkacid/Cacid from
Figure 19. From this ratio, Alkf, and Cf, calculate the mg/L of acid used (x). For example, for H 2SO 4 addition (100%):
Eq. 11
Calculate the total alkalinity of the acidified feedwater (Alkacid) and the CO 2 content in the acidified feedwater (Cacid) as
follows:
Eq. 12
Eq. 13
Using Alkacid and Cacid for the new pH, calculate the LSIc .
If HCl (100%) is used for acidification, Eq. 11 is:
Eq. 14
where:
y = HCl (100%), mg/L
Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration in Operation

Once a reverse osmosis or nanofiltration system is operating, the Langelier Saturation Index can be directly calculated
from the analysis of Alkc , Cac , TDSc , and pH c of the concentrate stream and compared with the projected LSIc .
Use of Computers
The LSIc and the acid dosage required to adjust a certain LSIc can be determined using a personal computer and the
WAVE (Water Application Value Engine) computer program. The WAVE computer program can be downloaded here,
http://www.dupont.com/water/design-software.html.

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Figure 17. pH versus methyl orange alkalinity/free CO 2

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Figure 18. Langelier saturation index

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2.4.2.2 Seawater
For high-salinity brackish waters with TDS > 10,000 mg/L in the concentrate stream and for seawaters, the Stiff & Davis
Stability Index (S&DSI) is used to express the scaling potential for calcium carbonate. The data needed to calculate the
S&DSI of the concentrate stream are the same as the data needed to calculate the LSI (Section 2.4.2.1). Additionally, the
molal concentrations of all ions in the feed solution are required, at least of all major ions (i.e., Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K +, HCO 3–,
SO 42–, and Cl–).
Calculations /7/
1. Calculate the calcium concentration in the concentrate stream, Cac , as CaCO 3 in mg/L:
Eq. 15
2. Calculate the alkalinity in the concentrate stream, Alkc , as CaCO 3 in mg/L:
Eq. 16
3. Calculate the ionic strength of the feed stream (If):
Eq. 17
4. Calculate the ionic strength of the concentrate stream (Ic):
Eq. 18
5. From Figure 23, obtain pCa as a function of Cac and pAlk as a function of Alkc . From Figure 24, obtain “K” as a
function of concentrate ionic strength and feed temperature.
6. Calculate the pH at which the concentrate stream is saturated with CaCO 3 (pH s) as follows:
Eq. 19
7. Calculate the free carbon dioxide content (C) in the concentrate stream by assuming that the CO 2
concentration in the concentrate is equal to the CO 2 concentration in the feed: Cc = Cf. The concentration of
free carbon dioxide in the feed solution is obtained from Figure 19 as a function of the alkalinity and the pH of
the feed solution.
8. Calculate the pH of the concentrate stream (pH c ) using the ratio of alkalinity (from Eq. 16) to free CO 2 in the
concentrate (from Step 7), Figure 17.
9. Calculate the Stiff and Davis Stability Index of the concentrate (S&DSIc ) as follows:
Eq. 20

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Adjustments of S&DSIc
The S&DSIc in the concentrate stream will be positive with most natural high-salinity waters. In order to prevent CaCO 3
precipitation and scaling, the S&DSIc has to be adjusted to a negative value by acid dosing. The S&DSIc can remain
positive, however, if CaCO 3 precipitation is prevented by the dosage of a scale inhibitor (see Section 2.3.3). For the
maximum allowed S&DSIc and the required dosage, please refer to the scale inhibitor manufacturer’s literature.
If the S&DSIc is unacceptable based on the above recommendation, adjustments can be made by one of the following
means. A new S&DSIc can then be calculated.
l The recovery can be lowered and the S&DSIc can be calculated as above by substituting a new value for the
recovery.
l Decreasing the calcium and alkalinity concentrations in the feed solution by means of lime or lime-soda ash
softening will increase the pCa and pAlk and will therefore decrease the pH s.
l Addition of acid (HCl, CO 2, H 2SO 4, etc.) to the feed solution either with or without lime or lime-soda ash softening
changes the Alkf, Cf, and pH. The slight change in If can usually be ignored. Acid addition will decrease the
S&DSIc ; however, since many variables change with acidification, trial and error computations are required to
determine the amount of acid needed to obtain the desired S&DSIc .
These computations have been described already in the previous section (Section 2.4.2.1, Brackish Water). For seawater
systems, a dosage of typically 10 mg/L sulfuric acid is required to achieve a pH f of about 7 and a negative S&DSI in the
concentrate.
RO/NF in Operation
Once an RO or NF system is operating, the S&DSIc can be directly calculated from the analysis of Alkc , Cac , pH c , and Ic of
the concentrate stream and compared with the projected S&DSIc .

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Figure 19. Conversion of calcium and alkalinity to pCa and pAlk

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Figure 20. “K” versus ionic strength and temperature

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2.4.3 Calcium Sulfate Scale Prevention
For the determination of the calcium sulfate scaling potential, a complete feedwater analysis is required. Calculation /8/
Calculation /8/
1. Calculate the ionic strength of the concentrate stream (Ic) following the procedure described in Section 2.4.1:
Eq. 21
2. Calculate the ion product (IPc ) for CaSO 4 in the concentrate stream:
Eq. 22
where:
(mCa2+)f = M Ca2+ in feed, mol/L
(mSO 42–)f = M SO 42– in feed, mol/L
3. Compare IPc for CaSO 4 with the solubility product (K sp) of CaSO 4 at the ionic strength of the concentrate
stream, Figure 21. If IPc ≥ K sp, CaSO 4 scaling can occur, and adjustment is required. For a safe and conservative
pretreatment design, adjustment should be made if IPc > 0.8 K sp.
Calculation Example (continued from Section 2.4.1):
(from Figure 21)
IPc = 0.9 Ksp therefore adjustments are required.
Adjustments for CaSO4 Scale Control

l If the IPc for CaSO 4 is less than 0.8 K sp, a higher recovery can be used with respect to CaSO 4 scaling. Reiteration
of the calculations at higher recovery can be used to determine the maximum conversion with respect to CaSO 4
scaling.
l If the IPc for CaSO 4 is greater than 0.8 K sp, a lower recovery must be used to prevent scaling. Reiteration of the
calculations at lower recovery can be used to determine the allowable recovery with respect to CaSO 4 scaling.
l If the maximum allowable recovery is lower than desired, strong acid cation exchange resin softening
(Section 2.3.4) or weak acid cation exchange resin dealkalization (see Section ) can be used to remove all or part
of the Ca2+. This will permit higher recovery of the reverse osmosis system with respect to CaSO 4 scaling.
l Lime softening with lime or lime plus soda ash (see Section 2.3.6) will decrease the Ca2+ concentration and thus
permit higher recovery with respect to scaling by CaSO 4.
l Addition of a scale inhibitor to the feed stream permits operation of the RO system above the K sp value, when
adequate scale inhibitor is added according to the scale inhibitor manufacturer’s instructions.

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Figure 21. Ksp for CaSO 4 versus ionic strength /9/

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2.4.4 Barium Sulfate Scale Prevention /8/
Barium sulfate is the most insoluble of all alkaline-earth sulfates. When present in water, it may lead to massive
precipitation, possibly acting as a catalyst for calcium sulfate and strontium sulfate scaling.
In most natural waters, barium is present at a level that would cause barium sulfate precipitation in the concentrate
stream. The critical feed concentration of barium may be as low as < 15 µg/L in seawaters, < 5 µg/L in brackish waters or
even < 2 µg/L if sulfuric acid is dosed to brackish waters.
Calculation /8/
Prediction of BaSO 4 scaling potential is performed in the same way as the previously described procedure for CaSO 4.
Eq. 23
2. Calculate the ion product (IPc ) for BaSO 4 in the concentrate stream:
Eq. 24
where:
(mBa2+)f = M Ba2+ in feed, mol/L
3. Compare IPc for BaSO 4 with the solubility product (K sp) of BaSO 4 at the ionic strength of the concentrate
stream, Figure 22. If IPc ≥ K sp, BaSO 4 scaling can occur, and adjustment is required.
Adjustments for BaSO4 Scale Control

The adjustments discussed in Section 2.4.3 for CaSO 4 scale control apply as well for BaSO 4 scale control.
2.4.5 Strontium Sulfate Scale Prevention
Calculation /8/
Prediction of SrSO 4 scaling potential is performed in the same way as the previously described procedure for CaSO 4:
Eq. 25

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2. Calculate the ion product (IPc ) for SrSO 4 in the concentrate stream:
Eq. 26
where:
(mSr2+)f = M Sr2+ in feed, mol/L
3. Compare IPc for SrSO 4 with the solubility product (K sp) of SrSO 4 at the ionic strength of the concentrate stream,
Figure 23. If IPc ≥ 0.8 K sp, SrSO 4 scaling can occur, and adjustment is required.
Adjustments for SrSO4 Scale Control

The adjustments discussed in Section 2.4.3 for CaSO 4 scale control apply for SrSO 4 scale control as well.
2.4.6 Calcium Fluoride Scale Prevention
Fluoride levels in the feedwater of as low as 0.1 mg/L can create a scaling potential if the calcium concentration is high.
The calculation of the scaling potential is analogous to the procedure described in Section 2.4.3 for CaSO 4.
Calculation
Eq. 27
2. Calculate the ion product (IPc ) for CaF2 in the concentrate stream:
Eq. 28
where:
(mCa2+)f = M Ca2+ in feed, mol/L
(mF–)f = M F– in feed, mol/L
3. Compare IPc for CaF2 with the solubility product (K sp) of CaF2 at the ionic strength of the concentrate stream,
Figure 24 /11/. If IPc ≥ K sp, CaF2 scaling can occur, and adjustment is required.
Adjustments for CaF2 Scale Control

The adjustments discussed in Section 2.4.3 for CaSO 4 scale control apply as well for CaF2 scale control.

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Figure 22. Ksp for BaSO 4 versus ionic strength /10/

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Figure 23. Ksp for SrSO 4 versus ionic strength /10/

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Figure 24. Ksp for CaF2 versus ionic strength /11/
2.4.7 Silica Scale Prevention
Dissolved silica (SiO 2) is naturally present in most feedwaters in the range of 1 – 100 mg/L. The prevailing forms of silica
are meta silicic acids as (H 2SiO 3)n with low n numbers. Since silicic acid is a weak acid, it is mostly in the undissociated
form at or below a neutral pH. Supersaturated silicic acid can further polymerize to form insoluble colloidal silica or silica
gel, which can cause membrane scaling. The maximum allowable SiO 2 concentration in the concentrate stream is based
on the solubility of SiO 2.
The scaling potential for the concentrate stream will be quite different from that of the feed solution because of the
increase in the concentration of SiO 2 and the change in pH. It can be calculated from the feedwater analysis and the RO
operating parameters.
As the pH exceeds neutral, silicic acid dissociates into the silicate anion (SiO 32-)n. This can react with calcium, magnesium,
iron, manganese or aluminum to form insoluble silicates.
It was indicated that aluminum is the most powerful precipitant of silicic acid /12/, and the occurrence of silica scaling is
mostly correlated with the occurrence of aluminum or iron /13/. It has been reported that, when Al3+ and Fe 3+ coexist in
the pretreated feedwater, silica is precipitated even below its saturation /14, 15/. Both Al3+ and Fe 3+, therefore, must be
less than 0.05 mg/L in the feedwater, even if the silica level is below saturation. Since Al3+ and Fe 3+ salts are used for
coagulation in municipal and other industrial water processing, frequent and accurate measurements of these ions are
needed even though the feedwater itself does not contain high levels of aluminum and iron ions. Fouling with metal
silicates may occur from a chemical reaction and precipitation process (scaling), and also from colloidal fouling with
submicron particles entering the membrane system. Feedwater acidification and preventive acid cleanings are possible
measures in cases of a metal silica scaling potential. If colloidal silica and silicates are present in the feedwater, a
flocculation/filtration process and/or a fine grade pre-filter (1 µm or less) should be chosen.

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The scaling potential of soluble silica (silicic acid) in the absence of trivalent metal cations can be calculated as follows.
The calculation requires the following data for the feed solution (after acid addition, if acid is used for control of calcium
carbonate):
l SiO 2 concentration
l Temperature
l pH
l Total alkalinity
Calculation /16/
1. The SiO 2 concentration in the concentrate stream is calculated from the SiO 2 concentration in the feed solution and
the recovery of the reverse osmosis system:
Eq. 29
where:
SiO 2c = silica concentration in concentrate as SiO 2, mg/L

SiO 2f = silica concentration in feed as SiO 2, mg/L
Y = recovery of the reverse osmosis system, expressed as a decimal
2. Calculate the pH of the concentrate stream from the pH of the feed stream using the procedure given in
Section 2.4.2.1.
3. From Figure 25, obtain the solubility of SiO 2 as a function of temperature (SiO 2 temperature). The temperature of the
concentrate is assumed equal to the temperature of feed solution. If the temperature of the water is known to vary,
use the minimum temperature for calculations.
4. From Figure 26, obtain the pH correction factor for the concentrate pH calculated in Step 2.
5. Calculate the solubility of SiO 2 corrected for pH (SiO 2corr) by multiplying the solubility of SiO 2 obtained in Step 3 by
the pH correction factor obtained in Step 4.
6. Compare the silica concentration in the concentrate (SiO 2c ) obtained in Step 1 with the silica solubility (SiO 2corr)
obtained in Step 5. Once a reverse osmosis system is operating, the scaling potential of SiO 2 can be directly
calculated from the analysis of the concentrate stream and compared with the projected scaling potential calculated
above. If SiO 2c is greater than SiO 2corr, silica scaling can occur and adjustment is required.

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Adjustments for Scale Control
l If SiO 2c is less than SiO 2corr, a higher recovery can be used with respect to scaling by silica. Reiteration of the
calculations at higher recovery can be used to determine the maximum conversion with respect to scaling by silica.
l If SiO 2c is greater than SiO 2corr, a lower recovery must be used to prevent scaling. Reiteration of the calculations can
be used to determine the allowable recovery with respect to scaling by silica.
l If the maximum allowable recovery is lower than desired, lime plus soda ash softening employing either magnesium
oxide or sodium aluminate can be used in the pretreatment system to decrease the SiO 2 concentration in the feed
stream (see Section 2.3.6) and thus permit higher conversion with respect to scaling by silica. It is important that the
softening process be performed properly in order to prevent formation of insoluble metal silicates in the reverse
osmosis system.
l Since the solubility of silica increases below a pH of about 7.0 and above a pH of about 7.8, pH adjustment with either
acid or base can permit a higher recovery with respect to silica scaling. For the high pH, however, CaCO 3 scaling must
be prevented.
l The maximum allowable recovery with respect to silica scaling can be increased significantly by increasing the water
temperature using a heat exchanger. The maximum temperature permitted for continuous use is 45°C.
l Scale inhibitors such as high molecular weight polyacrylates can also be used to increase the solubility of silica.

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Figure 25. Solubility of SiO 2 versus temperature /16 /

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Figure 26. SiO2 pH correction factor /16, 17/

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2.4.8 Calcium Phosphate Scale Prevention
Calcium phosphate fouling was not common until reverse osmosis technology was widely applied to municipal
wastewater. Due to water shortages, municipal wastewater recycle or reuse has become one a major application area of
reverse osmosis. Along with this new application, preventive actions for calcium phosphate scaling are needed.
Phosphorus is a common element in nature and is widely distributed in many minerals. In natural water and wastewater
streams, phosphorus compounds exist in the following forms: /18/
l Particulate phosphate
l Orthophosphate (PO 43–): Orthophosphates may be present as H 3PO 4, H 2PO 4–, HPO 42–, and PO 43– depending on
pH. H 2PO 4– and HPO 42– are the prevailing species in neutral wastewater.
l Polyphosphates: Important components in textile washing powders and other detergents. Depending on the
product, they may contain 2 – 7 P atoms.
l Organic phosphorus: Phosphorus is an essential element for living organisms.
l The most common mineral form of phosphorus is apatite, which is a calcium phosphate with variable amounts
of OH –, Cl–, and F– (hydroxy-, chloro-, or fluoroapatite). Some other phosphate minerals contain aluminum and/or
iron. Because of their low solubility, the following phosphate compounds can be considered as causes of
phosphate scaling in an RO/NF operation (see Table 13).
Table 13. Low solubility phosphate compounds

Compound Formula pKsp
Brushite CaHPO 4⋅2H 2O 6.68
Calcium phosphate Ca 3(PO 4)2 28.9
Octacalcium phosphate Ca 4H(PO 4)3⋅3H 2O 46.9
Hydroxyapatite Ca 5(PO 4)3OH 57.74
Fluoroapatite Ca 5(PO 4)3F 60
Magnesium ammonium phosphate MgNH 4PO 4 12.6
Aluminum phosphate AlPO 4 20
Iron phosphate FePO 4 15

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Calcium phosphate and apatites are less soluble in neutral and alkaline conditions and dissolve in acid /18/. Aluminum
and iron phosphates, however, are less soluble at moderately acidic conditions. Thus it is important to remove aluminum
and iron in a pretreatment step as well. Because of the complexity of phosphate chemistry, it is not easy to predict a
threshold level of phosphate scaling. The calcium phosphate stability index (SI), however, was proposed by Kubo et al
/19/. The calcium phosphate stability index is determined by the levels of calcium and phosphate present, pH, and
temperature. A negative SI signifies a low potential for calcium phosphate scaling; a positive value indicates the
potential for calcium phosphate scaling. SI is determined by the following equation:
SI = pH a – pH c Eq. 30
where:
pH a = actual pH of a feedwater
pH c = critical pH calculated by the following experimental equation:
Eq. 31
where :
CaH = Calcium hardness as ppm CaCO 3

PO 4 = Phosphate concentration as ppm PO 4
t = Temperature as °C
Figure 27 shows the effect of critical phosphate concentrations of Ca3(PO 4)2 scaling on feed calcium hardness and pH
based on the equation.
Figure 27. Critical phosphate concentration under various pH at 25°C

Note: When feedwater contains high levels of fluoride, ammonia and aluminum, critical phosphate concentration might be lowered due to
formation of fluorapatite, aluminum phosphate, etc.
To minimize the risk of phosphate scaling, it is important to reduce not only orthophosphate, but also calcium, fluoride,
and aluminum concentration. A low feed pH helps to control phosphate scaling. Appropriate commercial antiscalants
good for phosphate scaling are also available.
Phosphate scaled membranes are best cleaned at low pH (see Chapter 6).
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2.5 Colloidal and Particulate Fouling Prevention
2.5.1 Assessment of the Colloidal Fouling Potential
Colloidal fouling of RO elements can seriously impair performance by lowering productivity and sometimes salt
rejection. An early sign of colloidal fouling is often an increased pressure differential across the system.
The source of silt or colloids in reverse osmosis feedwaters is varied and often includes bacteria, clay, colloidal silica, and
iron corrosion products. Pretreatment chemicals used in a clarifier such as aluminum sulfate, ferric chloride, or cationic
polyelectrolytes are materials that can be used to combine these fine particle size colloids resulting in an
agglomeration or large particles that then can be removed more easily by either media or cartridge filtration. Such
agglomeration, consequently, can reduce the performance criteria of media filtration or the pore size of cartridge
filtration where these colloids are present in the feedwater. It is important, however, that these pretreatment chemicals
become incorporated into the agglomerates themselves since they could also become a source of fouling if not
removed. In addition, cationic polymers may coprecipitate with negatively charged antiscalants and foul the membrane.
Several methods or indices have been proposed to predict a colloidal fouling potential of feedwaters, including
turbidity, Silt Density Index (SDI) and Modified Fouling Index (MFI). (see Table 14) The SDI is the most commonly used
fouling index.
Table 14. Various fouling indices

Index Definition or method
Turbidity Turbidity is an expression of the optical property of water that causes light to be scattered and absorbed rather than
transmitted in straight lines through the sample. Turbidity is caused by suspended and colloidal particulate matter such
as clay, silt, finely divided organic and inorganic matter, plankton and other microscopic organisms.
Test methods for turbidity of water are described in ASTM D1889 / 20 /, in ASTM D6698 / 21/ and Chapter 2130 of
Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater 20 th Editions / 1/.
Turbidity is often used for online control of particle filtration processes. The turbidity of feedwater to RO/NF should be
less than 1 NTU as one of the minimum requirements of feedwater.
SDI The Silt Density Index (SDI) can serve as a useful indication of the quantity of particulate matter in water and correlates
with the fouling tendency of RO/NF systems. The SDI is calculated from the rate of plugging of a 0.45 µm membrane
filter when water is passed through at a constant applied gauge pressure. The method is described below. For more
details refer to ASTM D4189 / 22/.
SDI is sometimes referred to as the Fouling Index (FI)
MFI The Modified Fouling Index (MFI) is proportional to the concentration of suspended matter and is a more accurate index
than the SDI for predicting the tendency of a water to foul RO/NF membranes. The method is the same as for the SDI
except that the volume is recorded every 30 seconds over a 15 minute filtration period. The MFI is obtained graphically
as the slope of the straight part of the curve when t/V is plotted against V (t is the time in seconds to collect a volume
of V in liters). For more details refer to Schippers et al. / 23/.
A MFI value of < 1 corresponds to a SDI value of about < 3 and can be considered as sufficiently low to control colloidal
and particulate fouling.
More recently, UF membranes have been used for MFI measurements. This index is called MFI-UF in contrast to the
MFI0.45 where a 0.45 µm membrane filter is used / 24/.
Measuring these indices is an important practice and should be carried out prior to designing an RO/NF pretreatment
system and on a regular basis during RO/NF operation (three times a day is a recommended frequency for surface
waters).

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Equipment:
Figure 28 shows the equipment needed to measure SDI, including
l 47 mm diameter membrane filter holder
l 47 mm diameter membrane filters (0.45 µm pore size)
l 10 – 70 psi (1 – 5 bar) pressure gauge
l needle valve for pressure adjustment
Figure 28. Apparatus for measuring the silt density index

Procedure
1. Assemble the apparatus as shown in Figure 28 and set the pressure regulator at 207 kPa (30 psi or 2.1 bar).
2. Place the membrane filter carefully on its support.
3. Make sure the O-ring is in good condition and properly placed. Replace the top half of the filter holder and
close loosely.
4. Bleed out trapped air, close the valve and tighten the filter holder.
5. Open the valve. Simultaneously, using a stopwatch, begin measuring the time required for the flow of 500 mL.
Record the time ti. Leave the valve open for continued flow.
6. Measure and record the times to collect additional 500 mL volumes of sample, starting the collection at 5, 10,
and 15 minutes of total elapsed flow time. Measure the water temperature and check the pressure as each
sample is collected.
7. After completion of the test, the membrane filter may be retained for future reference. Alternatively, the filter
may be left in operation after the test until clogged in order to collect suspended matter for analysis with
analytical methods.

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8. Calculation:
Eq. 32
where:
T = total elapsed flow time, min (usually 15 min, see Note)

ti = initial time required to collect 500 mL of sample, sec
tf = time required to collect 500 mL of sample after test time T, sec (usually 15 min)
Note: For this test method, 1-(ti/tf) should not exceed 0.75. If 1-(ti/tf) exceeds this value, use a shorter time for T; (i.e., 5 or
10 minute measurements in Step 6).
The guideline is to maintain SDI15 at ≤ 5. To minimize the fouling, however, SDI15 at < 3 is recommended. A number of
pretreatment technologies have proven effective in SDI reduction, including media filtration (such as sand/anthracite),
ultrafiltration and crossflow microfiltration. Polyelectrolyte addition ahead of filtration sometimes improves SDI
reduction.
Methods to prevent colloidal fouling are outlined in the following.
2.5.2 Media Filtration
The removal of suspended and colloidal particles by media filtration is based on their deposition on the surface of filter
grains while the water flows through a bed of these grains (filter media). The quality of the filtrate depends on the size,
surface charge, and geometry of both suspended solids and filter media, as well as on the water analysis and operational
parameters. With a well-designed and operated filter, a SDI15 < 5 can usually be achieved.
The most common filter media in water treatment are sand and anthracite. The effective grain size for fine sand filter is
in the range of 0.35 – 0.5 mm, and 0.7 – 0.8 mm for anthracite filter. In comparison to single sand filter media, dual filter
media with anthracite over sand permit more penetration of the suspended matter into the filter bed, thus resulting in
more efficient filtration and longer runs between cleaning. The design depth of the filter media is a minimum of 31
inches (0.8 m). In the dual filter media, the filters are usually filled with 20 inches (0.5 m) of sand covered with 12 inches
(0.3 m) of anthracite.
There are two types of filters employed, gravity and pressure filters. As the filter vessel for pressure filtration is designed
for pressurization, a higher pressure drop can be applied for higher filter beds and/or smaller filter grains and/or higher
filtration velocities. The design filtration flowrates are usually 4 – 8 gpm/ft2 (10 – 20 m/h), and the backwash rates are in
the range of 16 – 20 gpm/ft2 (40 – 50 m/h). The available pressure is usually about 16 ft (5 m) of head for gravity filters,
and 30 psi (2 bar) to more than 60 psi (4 bar) for pressure filters. For feedwaters with a high-fouling potential, flowrates of
less than 4 gpm/ft2 (10 m/h) and/or second pass media filtration are preferred. If the flowrate has to be increased to
compensate for one filter that goes out of service, the flowrate increase must be gradual and slow to prevent the
release of previously deposited particles.
During operation, influent water to be filtered enters at the top of the filter, percolates through the filter bed, and is
drawn off through the collector system at the bottom. Periodically, when the differential pressure increase between the
inlet and outlet of the pressure filter is 4 – 9 psi (0.3 – 0.6 bar), and about 4.6 ft (1.4 m) for the gravity filter, the filter is
backwashed and rinsed to carry away the deposited matter. Backwash time is normally about 10 minutes. Before a
backwashed filter is placed back into service, it must be rinsed to drain until the filtrate meets the specification.
Frequent shut-downs and start-ups should be avoided to minimize the release of previously deposited particulate
matter. Design and operational details of media filtration are available in water treatment textbooks /3, 4/.

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2.5.3 Oxidation–Filtration
Some well waters, usually brackish waters, are in a reduced state. Typically, such waters contain divalent iron and
manganese, sometimes hydrogen sulfide and ammonium, but no oxygen; therefore, they are also called anoxic. Often
the oxygen has been used up (e.g., by microbiological processes) because the water is contaminated with biodegradable
organic substances, or the water is from a very old aquifer.
One method of handling anoxic waters is to oxidize iron and manganese by air, sodium hypochlorite or potassium
permanganate (KMnO 4). The hydroxides formed can then be removed by media filtration. Hydrogen sulfide will be
oxidized to elemental sulfur that can be removed by media filtration as well.
Oxidation and filtration can be accomplished in one step by using a filter media with the ability to oxidize divalent iron
and manganese by electron transfer. Greensand is such a granular medium, which is a green (when dry) mineral
glauconite. It can be regenerated with KMnO 4 when its oxidizing capability is exhausted. After regeneration, the residual
KMnO 4 has to be thoroughly rinsed out to avoid oxidation damage of the membranes. This technique is used when < 2
mg/L Fe 2+ is present in the raw water. For higher Fe 2+ concentrations, KMnO 4 can be continuously dosed into the inlet
stream of the filter. In this case, however, measures have to be taken to ensure that no permanganate can reach the
membranes (e.g., by installation of a carbon filter) (see Section 2.6.3, Chlorination/Dechlorination).
Birm filtration has also been used effectively for Fe 2+ removal from RO feedwater. With birm filtration a pH increase and
consequently a shift in the LSI value might occur, so care should be taken to avoid CaCO 3 precipitation in the filter and in
the RO system.
Instead of media filtration, microfiltration or ultrafiltration (see Section 2.5.6) can be used to remove small iron and
manganese hydroxide particles formed from an oxidation process. This is a rather new technology for iron and
manganese removal.
The pretreatment of anoxic waters is described in more detail in Section 2.9 and Section 2.10.
2.5.4 In-Line Filtration
The efficiency of media filtration to reduce the SDI value can be markedly improved if the colloids in the raw water are
coagulated and/or flocculated prior to filtration. In-line filtration can be applied to raw waters with a SDI only slightly
above 5. The optimization of the method, also named in-line coagulation or in-line coagulation-flocculation, is described
in ASTM D 4188 /25/. A coagulant is injected into the raw water stream, effectively mixed, and the formed microflocs are
immediately removed by media filtration.
Ferric sulfate and ferric chloride are used to destabilize the negative surface charge of the colloids and to entrap them
into the freshly formed ferric hydroxide microflocs. Aluminum coagulants are also effective, but not recommended
because of possible fouling problems with residual aluminum. Rapid dispersion and mixing of the coagulant is
extremely important. An in-line static mixer or injection on the suction side of a booster pump is recommended. The
optimal dosage is usually in the range of 10–30 mg/L, but should be determined case by case.
To strengthen the hydroxide microflocs and thereby improving their filterability, and/or to bridge the colloidal particles
together, flocculants can be used in combination with coagulants or alone. Flocculants are soluble high molecular
weight organic compounds (e.g., linear polyacrylamides). Through different active groups, they may be positively
charged (cationic), negatively charged (anionic), or close to neutral (nonionic).
Coagulants and flocculants may interfere with an RO membrane indirectly or directly. Indirect interference occurs when
the compound forms a precipitate that is deposited on the membrane. For example, channeling of the media filter may
enable flocs to pass through and deposit on the membrane. A precipitate can also be formed when concentrating the
treated feedwater, such as when aluminum or ferric coagulants are added without subsequently lowering pH to avoid
supersaturation in the RO stage. Furthermore, reaction with a compound added after the media filter can cause a
precipitate to form. This is most noticeable with antiscalants. Nearly all antiscalants are negatively charged and will react
with cationic coagulants or flocculants present in the water. The membranes in several RO plants have been heavily
fouled by a gel formed by reaction between cationic polyelectrolytes and antiscalants.

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Direct interference occurs when the compound itself affects the membrane resulting in a flux loss. The ionic strength of
the water may have an effect on the interference of the coagulant or flocculant with the membrane. If so, the result at
brackish water conditions could be different from that at seawater conditions. To minimize the risk of direct or indirect
interference with the RO membrane, anionic or nonionic flocculants are preferred rather than cationic flocculants.
Overdosing must be avoided.
2.5.5 Coagulation-Flocculation
For raw waters containing high concentrations of suspended matter resulting in a high SDI, the classic coagulation-
flocculation process is preferred. The hydroxide flocs are allowed to grow and settle in specifically designed reaction
chambers. The hydroxide sludge is removed, and the supernatant water is further treated by media filtration.
For the coagulation-flocculation process, either a solids-contact type clarifier (see also Section 2.3.6 Lime Softening) or a
compact coagulation-flocculation reactor may be used. For details, please refer to the general water treatment
textbooks /3, 4/.
2.5.6 Microfiltration/Ultrafiltration
Microfiltration (MF) or ultrafiltration (UF) membrane substantially removes suspended matter and, in the case of
ultrafiltration, also dissolved organic compounds depending on their molecular mass and on the molecular mass cut-off
of the membrane. Hence, an SDI < 1 can be achieved with a well-designed and properly maintained MF or UF system.
There is both dead-end and crossflow filtration. Dead-end filtration has two streams, inlet and outlet. 100% of the feed
passes through the UF or MF filter medium (i.e.,100% recovery). In crossflow filtration, there are three streams: feed,
concentrate, and permeate. In UF and MF hollow-fiber membranes, there are two different types of configurations: flow
can be from outside-in or inside-out. For outside-in configuration, there is more flexibility in the amount of feed to flow
around the hollow fibers, whereas inside-out configuration has to consider the pressure drop through the inner volume
of the hollow fibers. Inside-out configuration, however, offers much more uniform flow distribution through the bore of
hollow fiber compared to the outside-in configuration. Crossflow UF/MF systems operate at high recovery and flux rate
and so backwashing and air-scouring techniques are frequently used to reduce fouling.
If a chlorine-resistant membrane material is used (e.g., polysulfone or a ceramic membrane), chlorine can be added to
the wash water in order to retard biological fouling. A review on microfiltration and ultrafiltration processes is given by
Porter /26/.
2.5.7 Cartridge Microfiltration
A cartridge filter with an absolute pore size of less than 10 µm is the suggested minimum pretreatment required for
every RO system. It is a safety device to protect the membranes and the high-pressure pump from suspended particles.
Usually it is the last step of a pretreatment sequence. A pore size of 5 µm absolute is recommended. The better the pre-
filtration the less RO membrane cleaning required. If there is a risk of fouling with colloidal silica or with metal silicates,
cartridge filtration with 1 – 3 µm absolute pore size is recommended. The filter should be sized on a flowrate according
to the manufacturer’s recommendation and replaced before the pressure drop has increased to the permitted limit, but
at least every 3 months.
Backflushable filters as final safety filters are generally not recommended because of their risk of breakthrough in case
of a malfunction of their backflush mechanism, their lower efficiency and the higher biofouling risk. Backflushable fine
filters may be used upstream of the cartridge filters to protect them. They are however, no substitute for disposable
cartridges.
The cartridge filter should be made of a synthetic non-degradable material (e.g., nylon or polypropylene) and equipped
with a pressure gauge to indicate the differential pressure, thereby indicating the extent of its fouling. Regular
inspections of used cartridges provide useful information regarding fouling risks and cleaning requirements.

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If the differential pressure across the filter increases rapidly, it is an indication of possible problems in the raw water
supply or in the pretreatment process. The filter provides some degree of short-term protection for the membranes
while corrective action is taking place.
Replacing cartridge filters more often than every 1 – 3 months usually indicates a problem with the pretreatment. The
cartridge filter, however, is not meant to be a major component for the removal of high amounts of filterable solids. This
would not only be an inefficient use of rather expensive filters, but would probably lead to premature failure of the
membrane system due to the high probability that some of the unwanted material will break through. An alternative
approach would be to use a second cartridge with larger pore size upstream.
2.5.8 Other Methods
Methods to prevent colloidal fouling other than those described in the previous sections also exist.
Lime softening has already been described as a method for silica removal (Section 2.3.6). Removal of iron and colloidal
matter are further benefits.
Strong acid cation exchange resin softening not only removes hardness, but it also removes low concentrations of iron
and aluminum that otherwise could foul the membrane. Softened water is also known to exhibit a lower fouling
tendency than unsoftened (hard) water because multivalent cations promote the adhesion of naturally occurring
colloids, which are usually negatively charged. The ability to minimize iron depends on the Fe species present. Fe 2+ and
Fe 3+ are substantially removed by the SAC resin and, if in excess of 0.05 ppm, have a tendency to foul the membrane
and catalyze its degradation. Colloidal or organo-Fe-complexes are usually not removed at all and will pass through into
the product water. Insoluble iron-oxides are, depending on their size, filtered out depending on the flowrate and bed-
depth used.
When dealing with higher concentration of ferrous iron, one needs special care to avoid ferric iron fouling. It was
reported that addition of SMBS was able to prevent membrane fouling
Antifoulants: certain scaling inhibitors, also called antifoulants, can handle iron. This pretreatment process can be used
for relatively low concentrations of iron.
2.5.9 Design and Operational Considerations
The prevention of colloidal fouling is not only a matter of the proper pretreatment selection, but also of the system
design and operation. As an extreme example, surface water could be pretreated by coagulation-flocculation and
ultrafiltration. The RO system could then operate with a high permeate flux, and almost no cleaning would be required.
If the same water, however, is just filtered with cartridge filtration, then the RO system would need much more
membrane area, and more frequent cleaning and maintenance would be required. A poor pretreatment process can be
partially compensated for by adding more membrane area and modifying the system (see Section 3.1, System Design),
and by more frequent and/or harsh cleaning. On the other hand, improving the pretreatment system means lower
membrane costs.
To minimize the pretreatment effort and/or improve the feedwater quality, the best available raw water quality should
be used. The location of the intake of surface water, including seawater, is of paramount importance. Contamination of
the raw water with wastewater effluent may cause serious problems in the RO plant. A deep well close to the shore or
the river is preferred. If an open intake is required, it should be located well away from the shore and some meters
below the water surface.
New wells often release suspended matter in the first days of operation. Care must be taken that wells are properly
rinsed out. Fouling by iron oxide is also a common problem. It can be avoided by selecting noncorrosive materials (see
Section 3.15, Materials of Construction, Corrosion Control).

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2.6 Biological Fouling Prevention
2.6.1 Introduction
All raw waters contain microorganisms such as bacteria, algae, fungi, viruses, and higher organisms. The typical size of
bacteria is about 1 µm. Microorganisms can be regarded as colloidal matter and removed during pretreatment as
discussed in Section 2.5.1. The difference between microorganisms and non-living particles, however, is the ability of
microorganisms to reproduce and form a biofilm under favorable conditions.
Microorganisms entering a RO/NF system find a large membrane surface where dissolved nutrients from the water are
enriched due to concentration polarization, thus creating an ideal environment for the formation of a biofilm. Biological
fouling of the membranes may seriously affect the performance of the RO system. The symptoms are an increase in the
differential pressure from feed to concentrate, finally leading to telescoping and mechanical damage of the membrane
elements (see Section 8.5.3, High Pressure Drop), and a decline in membrane flux. Sometimes, biofouling develops even
on the permeate side, thus contaminating the product water.
A biofilm is difficult to remove because it protects its microorganisms against the action of shear forces and biocidal
chemicals. In addition, if not completely removed, remaining parts of a biofilm lead to a rapid regrowth. Biological
fouling prevention is therefore a major objective of the pretreatment process. The control of microbiological activity is
also part of system design (see Section 3.16, System Design Considerations to Control Microbiological Activity, in the
system operation (see Chapter 5, System Operation), in the sanitization of systems (see Section 6.10.1, Sanitizing
Membrane Systems) and in the preservation of systems (see Section 7.4, Preservation of RO and NF Systems).
The various methods to prevent and control biological fouling are described in Sections 2.6.3 to 2.11. Each method has
specific advantages, but the optimal strategy is a combination of the different concepts.
The most successful approach is the limitation or removal of nutrients for microorganisms from the water in order to
limit biological growth. This can be achieved with biofiltration - see Section 2.6.8. The continuous addition of oxidation
chemicals such as chlorine may increase the nutrient level because organic substances may be broken down to smaller
biodegradable fragments. Dosing chemicals such as antiscalants or acids must be carefully selected because they may
also serve as nutrients.
Other methods are based on chemicals that have a biocidal effect on microorganisms. These sanitization chemicals are
applied during the normal operation of the plant either as a continuous dosage to the feedwater stream or preferably as
a discontinuous (intermittent) dosage in certain intervals. Preventive treatments are much more effective than
corrective treatments because single attached bacteria are easier to kill and remove than a thick, aged biofilm. Typical
treatment intervals are one to four per month, but they can be as short as one per day, depending on the feedwater
quality (e.g., wastewater) or the permeate quality required (e.g., pharmaceutical-grade water). A third application mode is
the offline application using separate cleaning equipment. This mode is dealt with in Section 6.10.1, Sanitizing RO & NF
Membrane Systems.
The attachment of bacteria to a membrane surface and their growth can be minimized by a surface modification of the
membrane. This concept is available with the FR (Fouling-Resistant) series of FilmTec™ Membrane Elements – see
Section 2.6.11.
Other physical methods are targeted to remove microorganisms in the feedwater with microfiltration or ultrafiltration
(see Section 2.6.9 ) or to kill them with UV radiation (see Section 2.6.10 ).
2.6.2 Assessment of the Biological Fouling Potential
The potential for biological fouling should be assessed during the project phase so that the system can be designed
accordingly. Warm surface waters generally have a higher biofouling potential than cold well waters. The regular
assessment of the microbiological activity of the feedwater should also be part of the operating discipline of an existing
plant so that any increase of the microbiological activity can be responded to at an early stage.

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Some techniques require water sampling, whereas others use online monitors. Sampling of microbiological activity can
be done using presterilized sampling containers. If the laboratory equipment needed for analysis of the microbiological
samples is not available at the RO plant site, an adequate laboratory should be found to perform the needed analysis not
later than 8 hours after sampling. Samples should be stored in a refrigerator.
The minimum number of sampling points required is listed below:
1. Intake (surface) or well, before addition of any chemicals.
2. After a clarifier, settling pond, sludge contact unit, or similar sedimentation process.
3. After filtration units (sand, multimedia, activated carbon, or other).
4. Just before the membranes, after addition of chemicals (normally after cartridge filtration).
5. Concentrate stream.
6. Permeate stream.
The frequency of sampling and analysis depends on the risk of biofouling. For surface water plants, a daily check of the
feedwater (point 4) and a weekly check of all points are recommended.
2.6.2.1 Culture Techniques
The concentration of bacteria in water is directly related to the biological fouling potential of the water. The number of
colony forming units (CFU) is a quantitative expression of the number of culturable microorganisms in a water sample. It
is determined according to Part 9000 of the Standard Methods /1/ by filtering a measured quantity of water through a
membrane filter. Subsequently, the organisms thus retained on the filter surface are cultured on the appropriate
nutrient medium to develop colonies, which are then observed and counted at low power magnification. Different
media are used for different microorganisms and different water types.
The main advantage of this method is that it can be performed easily without expensive equipment. The test results,
however, are only available after up to seven days, and the counted colonies may represent as little as 1 – 10% or less of
the total bacteria count (TBC). Nevertheless, culture techniques are still valuable as indicators of the level and the trend
of the biological fouling potential.
They can be applied to monitor the water quality from the intake through the subsequent treatment steps up to the
concentrate stream and the permeate. An increase of the CFU is an indication of an increased biofouling potential.
2.6.2.2 Total Bacteria Count
The total bacteria count (TBC) is determined with direct count techniques. These employ filtration of the water sample
and counting the retained microorganisms on the filter plate directly under a microscope. To make the microorganisms
visible, they are stained with acridine orange and viewed with an epi-illuminated fluorescent microscope /28/.
Thus, an accurate count of total microorganisms is obtained immediately. The types of microorganisms can be assessed
and differentiated from debris particles. Direct count methods are preferred, because they are much faster and more
accurate than culture techniques.
The concentrations of microorganisms in raw water, in the feed stream, and in the concentrate stream are helpful
numbers for assessing biological fouling potential. Other factors, however, like the concentration and the kind of
nutrients or growth promoting substances may be more important for the development of a biofilm.

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2.6.2.3 Assimilable Organic Carbon (AOC)
The AOC test addresses the growth potential of microorganisms in a given water sample with given nutrients. It is a
bioassay with two well-defined pure cultures. From the maximum growth level of the two individual strains the AOC
concentration is calculated and expressed as µg/L of acetate C equivalents. The procedure is described in Part 9217 of
the Standard Methods /1/. Vrouwenvelder et al. observed severe biofouling in cases where the feedwater had AOC
values exceeding 80 µg/L /29/. Nederlof et al. proposed a standard of 10 µg/L to prevent biological fouling /30/, but in
some cases biofouling may be possible with AOC values even below 10 µg/L /29/.
2.6.2.4 Biofilm Formation Rate (BFR)
The BFR value is determined with an online operated biofilm monitor at a continuous flowrate of 0.2 m/s. The
accumulation of active biomass measured as ATP (adenosinetriphosphate) on the surface of glass rings in this monitor is
determined as a function of time /32/. BFR values exceeding 100 pg/cm2 ATP were observed with severe biofouling, and
BFR values of less than 1 pg/cm2 ATP were measured in cases of stable operation without any cleaning needs /29/. The
BFR value is most closely correlated with the degree of biofouling in a membrane plant /31/.
2.6.3 Chlorination / Dechlorination
Chlorine (Cl2) has been used for many years to treat municipal and industrial water and wastewaters to control
microorganisms because of its capacity to inactivate most pathogenic microorganisms quickly. The effectiveness of
chlorine is dependent on the chlorine concentration, time of exposure, and the pH of the water. Chlorine is used for
treating potable water where a residual chlorine concentration near 0.5 mg/L is commonly used. In an industrial water
treatment scheme, fouling of water intake lines, heat exchangers, sand filters, etc., may be prevented by maintaining a
free residual chlorine concentration of 0.5 – 1.0 mg/L or higher, dependent on the organic content of the incoming
water.
Chlorination for RO/NF pretreatment has been applied usually where biological fouling prevention is required (i.e.,
typically for surface waters). Chlorine is added continuously at the intake, and a reaction time of 20 – 30 min should be
allowed. A free residual chlorine concentration of 0.5 – 1.0 mg/L should be maintained through the whole pretreatment
line. Dechlorination upstream of the membranes is required, however, to protect the membranes from oxidation.
FilmTec™ Membrane can withstand short-term exposure to free chlorine (hypochlorite); however, its resistance is
limited. The membrane can be used successfully in installations where system upsets result in temporary exposure to
free chlorine. Eventual degradation may occur after approximately 200 – 1,000 hours of exposure to 1 ppm
concentrations of free chlorine.
The rate of chlorine attack depends on various feedwater characteristics. Under neutral and acidic pH conditions,
chlorine attack is faster than at alkaline pH. Chlorine attack is also faster when iron or other transition metals are present
either in the water or on the membrane surface; these metals catalyze membrane degradation. Because of the risk of
membrane oxidation, chlorine is not recommended for intentionally sanitizing membrane systems.
Continuous chlorination and dechlorination of the feedwater has been standard for years. Biofouling problems
downstream of the point of dechlorination, however, are quite common. It is believed that chlorine reacts with the
organic matter in the water and breaks it down to more biodegradable fragments. Since there is no chlorine present on
the membranes, microorganisms can grow with an enhanced nutrient offering, unless the system is sanitized very
frequently. Therefore, the continuous chlorination/dechlorination method is becoming less popular.
Instead of continuous chlorination, chlorine is preferably applied offline to the pretreatment section periodically. During
offline chlorination, the feedwater has to be sent to drain prior to reaching the membranes. Before the system goes into
operation again, all chlorine containing feedwater has to be rinsed out carefully, and the absence of chlorine must be
verified (e.g., by monitoring of the oxidation-redox potential (ORP)).

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Chlorination Chemistry
Chlorine is most commonly available as chlorine gas and the hypochlorites of sodium and calcium. In water, they
hydrolyze instantaneously to hypochlorous acid:
Cl2 + H 2O → HOCl + HCl

NaOCl + H 2O → HOCl + NaOH
Ca(OCl)2 + 2 H 2O → 2 HOCl + Ca(OH)2
Hypochlorous acid dissociates in water to hydrogen ions and hypochlorite ions:
HOCl ↔ H + + OCl–
The sum of Cl2, NaOCl, Ca(OCl)2, HOCl, and OCl– is referred to as free available chlorine (FAC) or free residual chlorine
(FRC), expressed as mg/L Cl2. As discussed later, chloramines are formed from the reaction of chlorine with ammonia
compounds present in the water. These chlorine-ammonia compounds are referred to as combined available chlorine
(CAC) or combined residual chlorine (CRC). The sum of free and combined available/residual chlorine is called the total
residual chlorine (TRC).
TRC = FAC + CAC = FRC + CRC
The germicidal efficiency of free residual chlorine is directly related to the concentration of undissociated HOCl.
Hypochlorous acid is 100 times more effective than the hypochlorite ion OCl–. The fraction of undissociated HOCl
increases with decreasing pH.
At pH 7.5 (77°F (25°C), 40 mg/L TDS), only 50% of free residual chlorine is present as HOCl, but 90% is present at pH 6.5.
The fraction of HOCl also increases with decreasing temperature. At 41°F (5°C), the HOCl mole fraction is 62% (pH 7.5,
40 mg/L TDS). In high-salinity waters, less HOCl is present (30% at pH 7.5, 25°C, 40,000 mg/L TDS).
Chlorine Demand
A part of the chlorine dosage reacts with ammonia nitrogen to combined available chlorine in a series of stepwise
reactions:
HOCl + NH 3 ↔ NH 2Cl (monochloramine) + H 2O

HOCl + NH 2Cl ↔ NHCl2 (dichloramine) + H 2O
HOCl + NHCl2 ↔ NCl3 (trichloramine) + H 2O
These reactions are governed primarily by pH and chlorine-to-nitrogen weight ratio. Chloramine also has a germicidal
effect, albeit lower than that of chlorine.
Another part of the chlorine is converted to nonavailable chlorine. This chlorine demand is caused by the reaction with
reducing agents such as nitrite, cyanide, sulfide, ferrous iron, and manganese. Chlorine is also consumed by the
oxidation of organic compounds present in the water.
To determine the optimal chlorine dosage, best point of injection, pH, and contact time to prevent biofouling, ASTM D
1291 /33/ should be applied to a representative water sample. For further details, the Handbook of Chlorination /34/ is
recommended.
Seawater
The major difference between the chlorination chemistry of seawater and that of brackish water is the presence of
bromide in seawater in concentrations of typically 65 mg/L. Bromide reacts rapidly with hypochlorous acid to form
hypobromous acid:
Br– + HOCl → HOBr + Cl–
Thus, in chlorinated seawater the biocide is predominantly HOBr rather than HOCl.
Hypobromous acid then dissociates to hypobromite ion as follows:
HOBr ↔ OBr– + H +

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HOBr dissociation is less than HOCl dissociation. At pH 8, where 72% of HOCl is dissociated, about 17% of HOBr is
dissociated. In other words, effective treatment can be performed at a higher pH than in brackish water, where no
bromide is present.
Both hypobromous acid and hypobromite ions interfere with free residual chlorine measurements and are included in
the free residual chlorine value.
The reactions of HOBr with other compounds of the water are analogous to the reactions of HOCl. Bromamines and
brominated compounds are the reaction products.
Dechlorination
When RO or NF membrane is used in the RO/NF process, the feed must be dechlorinated to prevent oxidation of the
membrane. FilmTec™ Membranes have some chlorine tolerance before noticeable loss of salt rejection is observed.
The first sign of chlorine attack on RO/NF membrane is loss of membrane flux followed by an increase in membrane
flux and salt passage. Eventual degradation may occur after approximately 200 – 1,000 hours of exposure to 1 mg/L of
free chlorine (200 – 1,000 ppm-h tolerance). The rate of chlorine attack depends on various feedwater characteristics.
Under neutral and acidic pH conditions, chlorine attack is faster than at alkaline pH. An acidic pH is preferred for better
biocidal effect during chlorination. Chlorine attack is also faster at higher temperatures and higher concentrations of
heavy metals (e.g., iron), that can catalyze membrane degradation. Since oxidation damage is not covered under
warranty, FilmTec recommends removing residual free chlorine by pretreatment prior to exposure of the feedwater to
the membrane. Other oxidizing agents such as chlorine dioxide, hydrogen peroxide, ozone, and permanganate are
capable of damaging RO/NF membranes also if not used properly.
Residual free chlorine can be reduced to harmless chlorides by activated carbon or chemical reducing agents. An
activated carbon bed is very effective in the dechlorination of RO feedwater according to following reaction:
C + 2Cl2 + 2H 2O → 4HCl + CO 2
Sodium metabisulfite (SMBS) is commonly used for removal of free chlorine and as a biostatic. Other chemical reducing
agents exist (e.g., sulfur dioxide), but they are not as cost-effective as SMBS.
When dissolved in water, sodium bisulfite (SBS) is formed from SMBS:
Na2S2O 5 + H 2O → 2 NaHSO 3
SBS then reduces hypochlorous acid according to:
2NaHSO 3 + 2HOCl → H 2SO 4 + 2HCl + Na2SO 4
In theory, 1.34 mg of sodium metabisulfite will remove 1.0 mg of free chlorine. In practice, however, 3.0 mg of sodium
metabisulfite is normally used to remove 1.0 mg of chlorine.
The SMBS should be of food-grade quality and free of impurities. SMBS should not be cobalt-activated. Solid sodium
metabisulfite has a typical shelf life of 4 – 6 months under cool, dry storage conditions. In aqueous solutions, however,
sodium bisulfite can oxidize readily when exposed to air. A typical solution life can vary with concentration as follows:
Concentration (wt%) Solution life

10 1 week
20 1 month
30 6 months
Although the dechlorination itself is rapid, good mixing is required to ensure completion. Static mixers are
recommended. The recommended injection point is downstream of the cartridge filters in order to protect the filters by
chlorine. In this case, the SMBS solution should be filtered through a separate cartridge before being injected into the
RO feed. Dechlorinated water must not be stored in tanks.

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When RO/NF membranes are fouled with heavy metals such as Co and Cu, residual SBS (up to 30 ppm) partially converts
to oxidants under the presence of excessive oxygen. When there is a heavy potential for metal fouling, SBS dosing
amount control must be optimized and oxidation conditions of the concentrate must be monitored by an oxidation-
reduction potential (ORP) meter /35/.
The absence of chlorine should be monitored using an oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) electrode downstream of
the mixing line. 175 – 200 mV threshold readings of the ORP have been typically applied. The electrode signal shuts
down the high-pressure pump when chlorine is detected.
2.6.4 Sodium Bisulfite
Sodium bisulfite can be added into the feed stream (for a limited time period) during normal plant operation. This
intermittent application is often referred to as shock treatment. In a typical application, 500 – 1,000 mg/L NaHSO 3 is
dosed for 30 minutes.
Use only sodium metabisulfite (food-grade) that is free of impurities and not cobalt-activated. The treatment can be
carried out on every 24 hours or only when biogrowth is suspected. The efficiency of such treatment should be studied.
The permeate produced during dosage will contain some bisulfite, depending on the feed concentration, the
membrane type and the operating conditions. Depending on the permeate quality requirements, the permeate can be
used or discarded during shock treatment.
Bisulfite is effective against aerobic bacteria but not against anaerobic microorganisms. Therefore, the efficiency of the
shock treatment should be carefully assessed using the techniques described in Section 2.6.2.
2.6.5 DBNPA
DBNPA (2,2, dibromo-3-nitrilo-proprionamide) has the following characteristics:
l Compatible with the membrane
l Fast acting
l Cost effective
l Acceptable transportation, storage, stability and handling characteristics
l Broad spectrum control (e.g., planktonic and sessile organisms); algae control is seasonal and situational
l Biodegradable
There are several DBNPA-based products available. For more information about DBNPA or to find a supplier, refer to the
DuPont Biocides website at http://microbialcontrol.dupont.com/.
In RO systems operating with biologically active feedwater, a biofilm can appear within 3 – 5 days after inoculation with
viable organisms. Consequently, the most common frequency of sanitization is every 3 – 5 days during peak biological
activity (summer) and about every 7 days during low biological activity (winter). The optimal frequency for sanitization
will be site-specific and must be determined by the operating characteristics of the RO system.
The standard method to apply DBNPA is slug (intermittent) dosing. The amount of DBNPA used depends on the
severity of the biological fouling. With a water less prone to biological fouling, using 10 – 30 mg/L of the active
ingredient for 30 minutes to 3 hours every 5 days can be effective. Because DBNPA is deactivated by reducing agents
(such as sodium bisulfite used for chlorine removal), a higher concentration of DBNPA will be required if there is residual
reducing agent in the feedwater. The concentration of DBNPA should be increased by 1 ppm of active ingredient for
every ppm of residual reducing agent in the RO feedwater. To remove the dead biofilm, an alkaline cleaning is also
recommended (see Section 6.9.6, Biofouling). Biocides, their degradation products, and other ingredients in their
formulations are not always completely rejected by RO membranes. For this reason, during slug dosing, it may be
necessary to discharge the permeate during biocide injection because the permeate may contain slightly elevated
levels of organics.

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Note that although DBNPA is nonoxidizing, it does give an ORP response in approximately the 400 mV range at
concentrations between 0.5 and 3 mg/L. For comparison, chlorine and bromine give a response in the 700 mV range at
1 mg/L, which increases with increasing concentration. This increase in ORP is normal when adding DBNPA and it is
recommended the ORP set-point is by-passed during DBNPA addition.
2.6.6 Combined Chlorine
Sanitization with agents containing combined chlorine is generally not recommended. This includes such compounds as
chloramine, chloramine-T, and N-chloroisocyanurate. These compounds can also slowly damage the membrane
because they release small amounts of free chlorine.
l Chloramines are made from hypochlorite and ammonia. Because they are in equilibrium, there are almost
always small amounts of chlorine present.
l Chloramine-T, the sodium salt of N -chlorotosylamide, breaks down to hypochlorite in water
l Chlorine dioxide, generated on-site from chlorine and sodium chlorate, is always contaminated with free
chlorine
l N-dichloroisocyanurate acts by constant release of small amounts of chlorine
If these compounds are present in the water, we recommend dechlorination prior to RO.
2.6.7 Other Sanitization Agents
Copper sulfate can be used to control the growth of algae. Typically, copper sulfate is fed continuously at concentrations
of 0.1 – 0.5 ppm. pH of the water must be low (to prevent the precipitation of copper hydroxide). Generally the use of
copper sulfate, however, is not recommended due to the following:
l Commercial CuSO 4 may contain some impurities detrimental to the RO membranes.
l CuCO 3 and Cu(OH)2 tend to precipitate outside of a given pH range of operation, causing fouling to RO devices
and making CuSO 4 ineffective.
l Copper ions can have negative effects on the environment.
l CuSO 4 only works properly against a limited range of microorganisms (e.g., some algae) but has only a marginal
effect on most bacteria.
l Environmental protection standards of several countries limit the discharge amount of Cu salts, making it
difficult to change dosage of this chemical if the biolife situation of a given plant requires it.
l In some specific conditions, RO membrane is oxidized with persulfate generated from copper sulfate.
Ozone is an even stronger oxidizing agent than chlorine. However, it decomposes readily. A certain ozone level must be
maintained to kill all microorganisms. The resistance of the materials of construction against ozone has to be
considered. Usually, stainless steel is employed. Removal of ozone must be performed carefully to protect the
membranes. Ultraviolet irradiation has been used successfully for this purpose.
Iodine, quaternary germicides and phenolic compounds cause flux losses and are not recommended for use as
sanitization agents.

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2.6.8 Biofiltration
Biofiltration is the biological treatment of water to reduce the organic constituents that either contribute directly to
organic fouling or provide carbon sources for the development of biofilms on the membrane surfaces. Processes
include bank filtration for river sources, soil passage and slow sand filtration. Filter beds of biologically active granular
activated carbon (GAC) are widely used in public water works, where the biological activity of the carbon filter is further
enhanced by treatment of the feed with ozone /3/. When such filters are operated at sufficiently low filter velocities (1 –
4 gpm/ft2 or 2 – 10 m/h) and with sufficiently high beds (6.5 – 10 ft or 2 – 3 m), most of the biolife activity takes place in
the upper region of the filter bed, and the filtered water is almost free of bacteria and nutrients.
Using biofiltration to prevent biofouling of RO/NF membrane systems has been demonstrated and advocated as a
suitable pretreatment method by several authors /29, 30, 36, 37 /.
2.6.9 Microfiltration/Ultrafiltration
Microfiltration (MF) and ultrafiltration (UF) can remove microorganisms and especially algae that are sometimes very
difficult to remove by standard techniques. The MF/UF membranes should be made from a chlorine-resistant material
to withstand periodic treatment with biocides. MF/UF membranes, however, do not remove the low molecular weight
fractions of organic matter and other compounds that are nutrients for microorganisms. Pretreatment with MF/UF
membranes helps to retard and to control the onset of biofouling, but it is no safeguard by itself.
2.6.10 Ultraviolet Irradiation
Ultraviolet (UV) irradiation at 254 nm is known to have a germicidal effect. Its application has come into use especially for
small-scale plants. No chemicals are added, and the equipment needs little attention other than periodic cleanings or
replacement of the mercury vapor lamps. UV treatment is limited, however, to relatively clean waters because colloids
and organic matter reduce the penetration of the radiation.
2.6.11 Use of Fouling-Resistant Membranes
Use of FilmTec™ FR (Fouling-Resistant) membranes can minimize or retard biofouling significantly. The combination of
FR membranes and intermittent application of DBNPA has been particularly successful /38/. For more information about
FilmTec™ Fouling-Resistant (FR) Membrane Elements, please visit https://www.dupont.com/water.
2.7 Prevention of Fouling by Organics

Adsorption of organic substances on the membrane surface causes flux loss, which is irreversible in serious cases. The
adsorption process is favored with high molecular mass compounds when these compounds are hydrophobic or
positively charged. A high pH value helps to prevent fouling, because both the membrane and many organic substances
assume a negative charge at pH > 9. Organics present as an emulsion may form an organic film on the membrane
surface. These organics must, therefore, be removed in pretreatment.
Organics occurring in natural waters are usually humic substances in concentrations between 0.5 and 20 mg/L TOC.
Pretreatment should be considered when TOC exceeds 3 mg/L. Humic substances can be removed by a coagulation
process with hydroxide flocs (Section 2.5.5), by ultrafiltration (Section 2.5.6), or adsorption on activated carbon. Removal of
color from high molecular weight organics is also possible by FilmTec™ nanofiltration membranes.
Coagulation or activated carbon must also be applied when oils (hydrocarbons or silicone-based) and greases
contaminate the RO feedwater at levels above 0.1 mg/L. These substances are readily adsorbed onto the membrane
surface. They can be cleaned off, however, with alkaline cleaning agents if the flux has not declined by more than 15%.

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In wastewater applications, the rejection and concentration of organics is a major objective. Depending on the kind of
substances, organics even in the percent concentration range can be handled and must be evaluated in field tests on a
case-by-case basis.
2.8 Prevention of Membrane Degradation

Apart from the fouling potential of certain substances in the RO feedwater, the chemical resistance of the FilmTec™
Membrane Element against such substances has to be taken into account. Generally, all oxidizing agents can harm the
membrane and must be removed by methods described in Section 2.6.3. The membrane element is stable against most
other chemicals in a pH range of 2 – 11 as long as these chemicals are dissolved and not occurring as an organic phase.
2.9 Prevention of Iron and Manganese Fouling

Iron fouling is very common. Like any fouling, it causes a performance loss of the membrane system, specifically flux
loss. In addition, the presence of iron makes the membrane more susceptible to oxidation damage. Fortunately, iron
fouling can be cleaned fairly easily; see Section 6.9.4. Some operators deliberately accept iron fouling up to 10% flux loss
and then clean the membranes with a predetermined frequency.
Typical sources of iron fouling are
l Anoxic aquifers containing soluble divalent iron and/or manganese
l Hydroxide flocs of oxidized iron and/or manganese from raw water
l Natural organic matter (NOM) containing iron complexes
l Hydroxide flocs from coagulation process
l Corrosion products from piping materials used for the feedwater
l Silicates containing iron
The methods to prevent fouling with colloidal and particulate iron have been described in Section 2.5.1. Iron silicates
have been discussed in Section 2.4.7. The pretreatment of water containing ferrous (divalent) iron is described below.
Anoxic waters typically contain divalent iron, manganese, or both. If water containing iron or manganese has taken up
more than 5 mg/L of oxygen, or has been chlorinated, Fe 2+ (ferrous) is converted into Fe 3+ (ferric), which forms insoluble
colloidal hydroxide particles that may foul RO/NF membranes. The oxidation of iron and manganese is given by:
4Fe(HCO 3)2 + O 2 + 2H 2O → 4Fe(OH)3 + 8CO 2

4Mn(HCO 3)2 + O 2 + 2H 2O → 4Mn(OH)3 + 8CO 2
Iron fouling occurs more frequently than manganese fouling because the oxidation of iron occurs at a much lower pH.
Thus, a fouling problem can be created even if the SDI is below 5 and the level of iron in the RO feedwater is below
0.1 mg/L. Waters with low alkalinity usually have higher iron concentrations than waters with high alkalinity, because the
Fe 2+ concentration is usually limited by the solubility of FeCO 3.
One approach to avoid membrane fouling is to prevent oxidation and precipitation of iron and manganese by keeping
the water in the reduced state. The exposure of the water to air or to any oxidizing agent (e.g., chlorine) through the
whole RO process must be prevented. A low pH is favorable to retarding Fe 2+ oxidation. At pH < 6 and oxygen
< 0.5 mg/L, the maximum permissible Fe 2+ concentration is 4 mg/L.

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If the anoxic process is used, care must be taken to avoid:
l Oxygen leakage into the feedwater
l Reaction of iron with silica to form insoluble iron silicate
l Oxidation by iron reducing bacteria resulting in acceleration of biofilm growth and iron deposit
l Blending of ferrous iron containing water with water containing hydrogen sulfide (H 2S), since this could form an
insoluble black ferrous sulfide, FeS
Regular iron cleaning (see Section 6.9.4) will be necessary with the anoxic process.
The alternative method of handling anoxic waters is by oxidation-filtration as described in Section 2.5.3.
2.10 Prevention of Aluminum Fouling

Sources of aluminum fouling are:
l Flocs carry-over from a pretreatment process using aluminum based flocculants
l Post-precipitation of aluminum flocculants due to poor pH control
l Reaction of aluminum with silica, forming aluminum silicates
l Natural mineral silt and colloidal aluminum silicates
Aluminum silicate fouling can be found in the first and last stage of RO/NF plants. Even small aluminum concentrations
(like 50 ppb) may result in a performance decline due to several factors:
1. Aluminum reacts with silica. Low silica concentrations (10 mg/L) can result in aluminum silicate fouling. The
use of aluminum based products in the pretreatment increases the risk of aluminum fouling significantly.
Therefore, the use of aluminum based products is not recommended. Iron based products are recommended
instead.
2. The solubility of the aluminum is lowest at pH 6.5. This is the pH at which the flocculation should be run. The
RO/NF system should be operated preferably at pH 7 – 9 (dependent on the water analysis since calcium
carbonate scaling should be avoided) to keep aluminum in solution.
3. Antiscalants containing polymers (like acrylic acid based products) are sensitive to the presence of metals like
iron and aluminum. It is important to select the right antiscalant. Otherwise, the antiscalant is deactivated
(poisoned) and subsequently scaling and antiscalant fouling may occur in the membrane. In addition, the
antiscalant fouling can act as a nutrient for microorganisms and biofouling will occur.
4. Fine clay/sand particles. It is recommended to remove clay and sand particles in the pretreatment by either
multimedia filtration, ultrafiltration or microfiltration. It may be necessary to use coagulants in order to form
larger particles that can be removed by the subsequent filtration process.
To minimize aluminum fouling, it is recommended to keep aluminum in the feedwater below 0.05 mg/L.

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2.11 Treatment of Feedwater Containing Hydrogen Sulfide
Some well waters, usually brackish waters, are in a reduced state typically lack of oxygen (therefore referred to as anoxic
or anaerobic) and the presence of iron, manganese, ammonium and/or hydrogen sulfide (H 2S). H 2S in ground water
aquifers usually occurs at concentrations of 0.5 – 5 mg/L as the result of the dissolution of minerals in geologic deposits
or as anaerobic bacterial activity on organic sulfur, elemental sulfur, sulfates and sulfites. The amount of sulfide dissolved
in water is pH dependent as shown in the following equations:
H 2S + H 2O = H 3O + + HS− pK 1 = 7.0
– + 2−
HS + H 2O = H 3O + S pK 2 = 14.0
H 2S levels as low as 0.1 mg/L can adversely affect the performance of RO or NF systems.
Prevention of Potential Problems on Feed/Concentrate Side of Membrane

The presence of H 2S in feedwater exposed to oxidants (e.g., oxygen in air, chlorine) can result in the precipitation of
elemental sulfur or metallic sulfides. The deposits can have a black sooty appearance or be a gray pasty residue that
clogs filter cartridges and coats the feedwater piping. Not only will these precipitated solids cause a higher than normal
filter cartridge replacement rate but, because the particle size for metallic sulfides and colloidal sulfur is in the sub-
micron range, a significant quantity of precipitants will pass through the typical 5 micron (µm) rated filter cartridge.
These suspended solids will accumulate in the feed/concentrate channel spacer of the RO or NF membrane elements,
increasing the operating differential pressure. Further accumulation of sulfur and metallic sulfides on the membrane’s
surface will cause an increase in salt passage and a decrease in flux reducing the system efficiency.
Air can also be introduced into the feed/concentrate area in RO or NF elements as a result of siphoning in the
concentrate piping. This is particularly likely when a long run of pipe is used for the concentrate line. A siphon breaker
should be used to prevent creation of the partial vacuum that tends to draw water from the feed/concentrate side of
the membrane again producing voids that can introduce air. Drain lines discharging directly to floor drains or trenches
should be provided with a suitable air-gap to avoid contamination problems associated with “cross-connections”. The
use of spring-loaded check-valves in the concentrate line will also help prevent siphoning. The piping arrangement
should be designed to keep the RO or NF membrane skid assembly “flooded” and free from air during idle periods.
Colloidal sulfur may be difficult to remove. A solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) with a chelating agent such as EDTA
is an appropriate cleaner. If the foulant is not heavily composed of elemental sulfur, a phosphoric acidic solution may be
capable of dissolving out the sulfide components. High velocity permeate flushes may also be beneficial. See Section 6.1
for cleaning procedures.
Prevention of Potential Problems on Permeate Side of the Membrane

Since H 2S is a gas, it passes through the membrane barrier layer and, under certain conditions, will precipitate as
elemental sulfur in the membrane microporous polysulfone substrate, polyester supporting web and permeate channel
spacer. An ivory to yellowish precipitate is formed on the “backside” on the membrane composite when H 2S is exposed
to an oxidizing environment, such as on shut-down when air enters the permeate side of the system. There is a
tendency for a reverse flow of water from the permeate side of the membrane to the feed/concentrate side as the
result of natural osmosis. This is particularly significant in high salinity waters containing > 6000 mg/L of total dissolved
solids (TDS). This back-flow can introduce air into the permeate side of the membrane element. A freshwater flush is
recommended, especially for feeds containing H 2S, to displace the concentrated solution as part of any shut-down
sequence. This eliminates any osmotic driving force for back-flow. However, in locations that experience frequent
losses of electrical power that lead to unscheduled shut-downs where flushing is not possible, a “suck-back” or “draw-
back” reservoir located in the permeate piping elevated above the top pressure vessel is recommended. This draw-back
tank should be of sufficient volume to makeup any back flow due to osmosis that occurs during an unscheduled shut-
down (see Section 3.14.6, Tanks).

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Sometimes a technique is used to prevent a negative transmembrane pressure (higher pressure on the permeate side
than on the feed/concentrate side) greater than 5 psi (0.3 bar). This is commonly done using a dump valve to relieve
pressure on the permeate line upon system shut-down. For systems with feeds containing H 2S, it must be done in such a
manner so as not to allow air to be introduced into the system. Siphoning is another condition that should not be
overlooked in designing the permeate piping for systems without a draw-back tank but with feeds containing H 2S. Once
again, the piping arrangement should be designed to keep the RO or NF membrane skid assembly “flooded” and free
from air during idle periods.
The precipitation of elemental sulfur on the permeate side does not cause immediate degradation in performance, but
over time a gradual increase in feed pressure (net driving force) is observed that can eventually lead to severe loss of
efficiency (decrease in specific flux). It is virtually impossible to clean this precipitate from the “backside” of the
membrane and permeate channel spacer. Due to the typical aggressive nature of permeate (RO in particular), however,
after correcting the situation that caused the problem, just operating the system can restore the loss in specific flux over
time, provided there are no other serious fouling problems.
Pretreatment
The best pretreatment for H 2S is keeping the system under anaerobic conditions. The water must not be exposed to air
(i.e., oxygen), chlorine or any other oxidizing agents from the well until it exits from the membrane system. H 2S is
removed from the permeate (see ‘Posttreatment’ below). This rule applies to both brackish water and seawater and is of
specific importance when iron is present in the ground water. In fact, where it might normally be satisfactory to practice
oxidation/media filtration with greensand (glauconite), the presence of H 2S becomes the overriding factor that
eliminates this method of iron removal from consideration.
Wells require a check valve to prevent reverse flow back into the well (exception: artesian wells). Back-flow of water into
the well will tend to create a vacuum. This can produce voids that will likely cause air containing oxygen to enter the
system and oxidize the H 2S. The preferred technique to prevent this is to use submersible pumps with a check valve at
the pump discharge in the well. Check valves installed above ground may also work. These check valves must be
“bubble tight”. If it isn’t possible to prevent back-flow into the wells, then a special procedure should be employed upon
start-up to automatically purge the initial flow from the well to waste. This will help extend the life of the filter cartridges
as well as reduce fouling of the membrane.
Posttreatment
Since gases including H 2S typically pass through RO and NF membranes, it is necessary to remove this objectionable
contaminate from permeate as a posttreatment step. The method employed in most membrane systems is air (gas)
stripping that employs a forced draft degasifier. This device uses a packed tower with counter current airflow to strip the
H 2S out of the water. Note that this process will also remove any CO 2 present (increasing the pH) while saturating the
permeate with oxygen, thus exacerbating the inherent aggressive nature of this water. To effectively remove sulfide
with this method, it must exist as H 2S. Being pH dependent, this means that either acidification of the feed is done to
achieve a permeate pH ≤ 6.0 or the permeate is acidified to this point to allow for > 90% removal.

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2.12 Guidelines for Feedwater Quality
Table 15 summarizes the limits of quality parameters of the feedwater. It is recommended to respect these limits for
successful operation of the membrane system. Otherwise, more frequent cleaning and/or sanitization may become
necessary. The concentrations correspond to the entry to the membrane for a continuous feed stream, including any
influences to the feedwater from dosing chemicals or piping materials in the pretreatment line.
Table 15. Guidelines for feedwater quality

Component Unit Max. level Comments & conditions
SDI 1 5 See Section 3.1, System Design Guidelines
MFI0.45 1 4 Target: < 1
Oil and grease mg/L 0.1 See Section 2.7, Prevention of Fouling by Organics
TOC mg/L 3 Synthetic organic compounds (SOC) have generally more adverse
effects on RO/NF membranes compared with natural organic matters
(NOM).
- See Section 2.7, Prevention of Fouling by Organics
COD mg/L 10
AOC µg/l Ac-C 10 Target: < 5
BFR pg/cm 2 ATP 5 Target: < 1
Free chlorine mg/L 0.1 Under certain conditions, the presence of chlorine and other oxidizing
agents will cause premature membrane failure. Since oxidation is not
covered under warranty, FilmTec™ recommends removing residual
free chlorine by pretreatment prior to membrane exposure.
- See Section 2.6.3, Chlorination / Dechlorination
Ferrous iron mg/L 4 pH < 6, oxygen < 0.5 ppm
Ferric iron mg/L 0.05
Manganese mg/L 0.05
Aluminum mg/L 0.05

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2.13 Summary of Pretreatment Options
Table 16 summarizes the pretreatment options when specific risks for scaling and fouling are present. It is a quick
reference for “possible” and “very effective” methods. A combination of “possible” methods may also be “very effective”.
Table 16. Pretreatment options for scaling and fouling

Pretreatment CaCO 3 CaSO 4 BaSO 4 SrSO 4 CaF2 SiO 2 SDI Fe Al Bacteria Oxid. agents Org. matter
Acid addition ● ○
Scale inhibitor antifoulant ○ ● ● ● ● ○ ○
Softening with IX ● ● ● ● ●
Dealkalization with IX ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
Lime softening ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
Preventive cleaning ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
Adjustment of operation parameter ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ●
Media filtration ○ ○ ○ ○
Oxidation filtration ○ ●
In-line coagulation ○ ○ ○ ○
Coagulation-flocculation ○ ● ○ ○ ●
Microfiltration/Ultrafiltration ● ● ○ ○ ○ ●
Cartridge filtration ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
Chlorination ●
Dechlorination ●
Shock treatment ○
Preventive biocidal treatment ○
GAC filtration ○ ● ●
○ Possible ●Very effective
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37. C.F.Wend, P.S.Steward, W.Jones, A.K.Camper: Pretreatment for membrane water treatment systems: a laboratory
study. Water Research 37 (2003) 3367-3378
38. P. Sehn: Experiences with fouling-resistant membranes in combination with intermittent biocide dosage. 9th Aachen
Membrane Colloquium March 18-20, 2003, Verlag Mainz, Aachen, ISBN 3-86130-185-7

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3 System Design
3.1 Introduction
An entire reverse osmosis (RO)/nanofiltration (NF) water treatment system consists of pretreatment, the membrane
process, and posttreatment. Pretreatment processes are discussed in Section 2.1, Water Chemistry and Pretreatment.
Posttreatment is employed to achieve the required product quality. In seawater desalination, this is usually pH
adjustment, rehardening, and disinfection. In the production of water for the most stringent applications, such as boiler
feedwater for power plants or ultrapure water (UPW) for semiconductor manufacturing, the permeate is usually
posttreated by polishing ion exchange demineralization or electrodeionization (EDI) and a polishing filter.
In this section, the membrane system is addressed. The system includes a set of membrane elements, housed in
pressure vessels that are arranged in a certain manner. A pump is used to feed the pressure vessels. Instrumentation,
spare parts, and tools for servicing the system are added as required. A clean-in-place (CIP) system facilitates cleaning of
the membranes; this is described in Section 6.1, Cleaning and Sanitization.
The membrane system is a complete plant with an inlet for feedwater and outlets for permeate and concentrate. RO/NF
system performance is typically characterized by two parameters: permeate (or product) flow and permeate quality.
These parameters should always be referenced to a given feedwater analysis, temperature, feed pressure, and recovery
to normalize for fluctuations in the operating conditions. The typical goal of the designer of an RO/NF system for a
certain required permeate flow is to minimize feed pressure and membrane costs while maximizing permeate quality
and recovery. In some cases, optimizing for operational costs takes precedence over capital cost optimization.
The optimal design depends on the relative importance of these aspects. The recovery of brackish water systems is
limited by the solubility of sparingly soluble salts (see Section 2.4.1, Scaling Calculations)—90% is about the maximum. In
seawater desalination, the limit of about 50% recovery is dictated by the osmotic pressure of the concentrate stream,
which approaches the physical pressure limit of the FilmTec™ Seawater Element.
Membrane elements for a particular system are selected according to:
l Application (i.e., standard elements or fullfit)
l System capacity (i.e., element diameter)
l Feedwater TDS (i.e., NF, BW, or SW)
l Feedwater fouling potential (i.e., fouling-resistant elements and/or wider feed spacers)
l Required product water quality and energy requirements (i.e., low-energy or high-rejection element type)
Obtaining the required salt rejection is mainly a matter of membrane selection. Nanofiltration (NF), brackish water (BW),
and seawater (SW) membrane chemistries have increasing salt rejections in this order. Various grades of membranes
also exist within each of these three main categories, prioritizing energy requirements at one end of the spectrum and
salt rejection at the other. Therefore, the NF to low-energy BW membrane is typically applied to feedwaters up to 2,000
mg/L total dissolved solids (TDS), standard BW is typically used up to 10,000 mg/L, and SW membrane is applied to high-
salinity feedwaters up to 50,000 mg/L. For given operating conditions, the permeate quality can be calculated.
The feed pressure needed to produce the required permeate flow for a given membrane depends on the designed
permeate flux (permeate flowrate per unit membrane area). The higher the permeate flow per unit of active membrane
area, the higher the feed pressure. In seawater systems the permeate flux is relatively low even at maximum allowed
pressure. However, the permeate flux could be very high in brackish water systems without reaching the limit of 41 bar
(600 psi) for brackish water elements. Caution should be exercised to not increase the permeate flux with the goal of
decreasing the cost for membrane elements because the flux has to be limited to minimize fouling.

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From experience, the flux limit to be used in system design depends on the fouling tendency of the feedwater. A
system designed with high permeate flux rates is likely to experience higher fouling rates, requiring more frequent
chemical cleaning. Only experience can set the limits on permeate flux for different types of waters. When designing a
membrane system for a specific feedwater, it is advantageous to know the performance of other membrane systems
operating on the same water. However, quite often there are no other membrane systems for comparison. Then the
system design suggestions in Design Guidelines for 8-inch (Section 3.9.1) and Midsize FilmTec™ Elements (Section 3.9.2)
could be followed.
Further information required to design a system is best collected by using the forms of Table 17 and Table 18. The more
complete this information, the better the system design can be optimized towards the customer’s needs.

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Table 17. System design information
Quotation Number:.............. Date Requested: ........................

Date Submitted:.................... Requested By:.............................
Customer/OEM:................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Address:....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Proposed Location:.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Brief Description:.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Required Product Flowrate (gpd or m3/h):....................................................................................................................................................................................
Expected Recovery:..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Annual Water Temperature Range High °C:....................................................................................................................
Low °C:.....................................................................................................................
Design °C:...............................................................................................................
NF/RO Plant: □ Indoors □ Outdoors
Designed for Continuous Use: □ Yes □ No
If not, state needed peak hourly capacity:.................................
Plant Will Be Operated By: End-user □ Yes □ No
Trained Personnel □ Yes □ No
Equipment Manufacturer □ Yes □ No
Others □ Yes □ No
Water Source: □ Well Water □ Softened Water
□ Surface Water □ Filtered Effluent Water
□ Seawater □ Other
Existing Pretreatment □ Yes □ No SDI....................................................................................
List of Pretreatment Steps:.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Planned Pretreatment:.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Bacterial Control: □ Yes □ No Dechlorination: □ Carbon Filter
Chlorine Used: □ Yes □ No □ Na-Bisulfite
Chloramines Used: □ Yes □ No □ Other
Antiscalant Used: □ Yes □ No Which One? ..............................................................
Desired Acidification: □ HCl □ H2SO4 □ None
Brief Description of Other Pretreatment Steps:..................................................................................................................................................................................
(e.g., clarification, flocculation, multimedia/sand filtration,
etc.)............................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Application: □ Potable Water
□ Industrial Supply for: □ Boiler Feed □ Pharma □ UPW □ Other
Specify Water Quality Needed after RO Treatment:.........................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
State Other Desired Design Criteria:................................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

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Table 18. Water analysis for reverse osmosis/nanofiltration
Sample Identification:...................................................................................................................................................................
Feed Source:...........................................................................................................................................................................
Conductivity (µS/cm):........................... pH:........................ Temperature (°C):..................
Feedwater Analysis: NH4+ .......................................... CO2 ..........................................

+ 2–
Please indicate units (mg/L as ion K .......................................... CO3 ..........................................
+ –
or ppm as CaCO3 or meq/L) Na .......................................... HCO3 ..........................................
–
Mg2+ .......................................... NO3 ..........................................
Ca2+ .......................................... Cl– ..........................................
2+ –
Ba .......................................... F ..........................................
2+ 2–
Sr .......................................... SO4 ..........................................
2+ 2–
Fe .......................................... PO4 ..........................................
2–
Fe (total) .......................................... S ..........................................
2+
Mn .......................................... SiO2 (colloidal) ..........................................
Boron .......................................... SiO2 (soluble) ..........................................
Al3+ ..........................................
Other Ions:..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
TDS (by method):.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

TOC:...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
BOD:..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
COD:..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
AOC:...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
BDOC:.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Total Alkalinity (m-value): ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Carbonate Alkalinity (p-value): ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Total Hardness: .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Turbidity (NTU): ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Silt Density Index (SDI):
........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Bacteria (count/mL): ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Free Chlorine: .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Remarks: ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(odor, color, biological activity, etc.)..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Analysis By: .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Date: ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

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3.2 Batch vs. Continuous Process
An RO/NF system is usually designed for continuous operation in which the operating conditions of every membrane
element in the plant are constant with time (neglecting minor fluctuations in feed composition, temperature, pressure,
etc.). Figure 29 illustrates the continuous process mode.
Figure 29. Continuous RO process

In certain applications, when relatively small volumes (batches) of special feedwaters occur discontinuously (e.g.,
wastewater or industrial process solutions), the batch operation mode is preferred. The feedwater is collected in a tank
and subsequently treated. The permeate is removed and the concentrate is recycled back to the tank. At the end of the
batch process, a small volume of concentrate remains in the feed tank. In this mode, the operating conditions of every
membrane element are changing throughout the cycle. After the resulting concentrate has been drained, the
membranes are typically cleaned before the tank is filled again with a new batch. Figure 30 shows the batch operation
mode.
Figure 30. Batch RO process

The semi-batch mode is a modification of the batch mode. In semi-batch mode of operation, the feed tank is refilled
with feedwater during operation. The batch is terminated with the feed tank full of concentrate. This allows a smaller
tank to be used.
Batch systems are usually designed with constant feed pressure and declining permeate flow as the feed becomes
more concentrated. The guidelines given in Design Guidelines for 8-inch (Section 3.9.1) and Midsize FilmTec™ Elements
(Section 3.9.2) should be applied to batch systems as well. However, the permeate flow limits provided in the guidelines
may be considered conservative and may be exceeded, but only if justified by preceding test runs, and if an appropriate
cleaning frequency is taken into account. Be advised that operating outside of the design guidelines may impact the
element warranty coverage.

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The batch process has the following advantages versus the continuous process:
l Flexibility when the feedwater quality changes
l System recovery can be maximized batch by batch
l Cleaning is easily implemented
l Simple automatic controls
l Permeate quality can be controlled by termination of the process
l Permeate quality can be improved by total or partial second-pass treatment
l Favorable operating conditions for single (or low number) element systems, because the membranes are only in
contact with the final concentrate for a short time
l Expansion is rather easy
l Lower investment costs
The disadvantages are:
l No continuous permeate flow
l No constant permeate quality
l Large feed tank required
l Larger pump required
l Higher power consumption
l Longer residence time for feed/concentrate
l Higher total running costs
The majority of RO systems are designed for continuous operation with constant permeate flow and constant system
recovery. Variations in feedwater temperature and fouling effects are compensated for by adjusting the feed pressure.
The focus of this manual is, therefore, on the continuous process.
3.3 Single-Module System

A module consists of a pressure vessel with up to eight membrane elements connected in series. The concentrate of
the first element becomes the feed to the second, and so on. The product tubes of all elements are coupled and
connected to the vessel permeate port. The permeate port may be located on the feed end or on the concentrate end
of the vessel.
Single-module systems are chosen when only one or a few membrane elements are needed for the specified
permeate flow. Figure 31 shows a module containing two FilmTec™ Elements. Feedwater enters the system through the
feed valve and flows through the cartridge filter to the feed pump. Alternate means of controlling pump discharge
pressure are described in Section 3.14.1, High-Pressure Pump.
From the feed pump, the feedwater flows to the feed inlet connection of the module. The product stream should exit
the module at no more than 0.3 bar (5 psi) over atmospheric pressure to avoid membrane delamination. However,
higher permeate pressure is sometimes required, e.g., to feed the posttreatment section or to distribute the product
without further pumping. Then the feed pressure must be increased by the required value of the permeate pressure,
but the specified maximum feed pressure must be observed. In this case, extreme care must be exercised so that at any
time, especially at emergency shut-downs, the permeate pressure does not exceed the feed pressure by more than
0.3 bar (5 psi). The maximum permissible permeate pressure is a feature of the pressure vessel.

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Pressure drop across the module will usually amount to 0.3 – 2 bar (5 – 30 psi) from feed inlet to concentrate outlet,
depending on the number of membrane elements, the feed flow velocity, and the temperature. The concentrate
flowrate is controlled by the concentrate flow control valve. The system recovery is controlled by this valve and must
never exceed the design set value.
In single-module systems, concentrate recycling is usually required to comply with the guidelines for element recovery.
To achieve system recovery of more than 50%, a part of the concentrate exiting the module goes to drain, while the
other part is recycled and added to the suction side of the feed pump, thus increasing the feed flow to the module. A
high fraction of the concentrate being recycled helps reduce element recovery and thus the risk of fouling. On the
other hand, it has the following drawbacks:
l Larger (more expensive) feed pump
l Higher energy consumption
l Permeate quality decreases with more concentrate being recycled and added to the feedwater
l The rinse-out time at start-up after preservation or cleaning can be long (preferably, no concentrate should be
recycled during the rinse-out period)
Figure 31. Single-module system
3.4 Single-Stage System

In a single-stage system, two or more modules are arranged in parallel. Modules are added to the system design as
needed to achieve the design operating flux. Feed, product, and concentrate lines are connected to manifolds. Other
aspects of the system are the same as in a single-module system. Single-stage systems are typically used when the
system recovery is less than 50%, e.g., in seawater desalination.
An example of a single-stage system is outlined in Figure 32. Each of the three pressure vessels houses six elements.
Figure 32. Single-stage system

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3.5 Multi-Stage System
Systems with more than one stage are used to achieve higher system recoveries without exceeding the single-element
recovery limits. Usually two stages will suffice for recovery up to 75% (or slightly above), and three must be used for
higher recovery. These numbers are based on the assumption that standard pressure vessels with six elements are used.
For shorter vessels housing only three elements, for example, the number of stages has to be doubled for the same
system recovery. Generally speaking, the higher the system recovery, the higher the number of membrane elements
that have to be connected in series. To compensate for the permeate that is removed and to maintain an adequate
concentrate flow to each stage, the number of pressure vessels per stage decreases in the direction of feed flow.
Typical staging ratios for 6-element pressure vessels in brackish water applications are 2:1 in the 1st pass and 3:1 in the 2nd
pass, see Section 3.7, Permeate-Staged (or Double-Pass) System. For seawater, a 3:2 ratio is common. The staging ratio is
defined as the ratio of pressure vessels in two adjacent stages, upstream vessels:downstream vessels. A typical two-
stage system using a staging ratio of 2:1 is shown in Figure 33.
Figure 33. Two-stage system

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3.6 Plug Flow vs. Concentrate Recirculation
The standard RO system design for water desalination applications is the plug flow concept. In a plug flow system, the
feed volume is passed once through the system. A certain fraction Y of the feed passes through the membrane to
produce permeate. The feed is gradually concentrated and exits the system at a higher concentration. Examples of
plug-flow systems are shown in Figure 29, Figure 32 and Figure 33.
Concentrate recirculation is employed when the number of elements is too small to achieve a sufficiently high system
recovery with plug flow. Concentrate recirculation systems can also be found in special applications like process liquids
and wastewaters. In systems with internal concentrate recirculation, a fraction of the concentrate stream out of the
module (or stage) is directed back to the feed side of the module (or stage) and mixed with the feed stream. Figure 31
shows a system with internal concentrate recirculation.
Multi-stage systems can also be designed with internal concentrate recirculation for each stage, using a separate
recirculation pump. For example, the system shown in Figure 33 can be designed with concentrate recirculation instead
of plug flow, see Figure 34 and Figure 36.
Figure 34. Two-stage system with internal concentrate recirculation

The main advantage of the recirculation concept is the defined feed flowrate to the modules regardless of the degree
of fouling of preceding modules and the changes in feedwater composition. Further aspects of the recirculation
concept are mentioned in Section 3.2, Batch vs. Continuous Process and Section 3.3, Single-Module System. A
comparative summary is given in Table 19.
Table 19. Comparison of plug flow and recirculation systems

Parameter Plug Flow Recirculation
Feed composition Must be constant Can vary
System recovery Must be constant Can vary
Cleaning circuit More complicated Simple
Compensating for fouling More difficult Easy
Membrane pressure from feed inlet to concentrate end Decreasing Uniform
Power consumption Lower Higher (15 – 20%)
Number of pumps (investment, maintenance) Lower Higher
Extension, varying the membrane area More difficult Easy
Taking individual stages of multi-stage systems in/out of service Not possible Possible
System salt passage Lower Higher

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The apparent salt passage of the system, SPs, also called system salt passage, is defined as the concentration of a
compound (may be a certain ion, an organic compound, or TDS) in the permeate (Cp) related to its concentration in the
feedwater (Cf):
Eq. 33
In plug flow systems, SPs is a function of the system recovery Y and the membrane salt passage SPM:
Eq. 34
where the membrane salt passage is defined as the concentration of a compound in the permeate (Cp) related to its
average concentration on the feed-concentrate side (Cfc):
Eq. 35
In systems with internal concentrate recirculation, however, there is an additional dependence on the Beta number β,
which is defined as
Eq. 36
For systems with the concentrate being partly recycled to the feed stream, the system salt passage is
Eq. 37
For high system recoveries, the system salt passage of a recirculation system is much higher than that of a plug flow
system. This is demonstrated by a sample calculation, see Figure 35. The difference is less, however, for multi-stage
systems with recirculation loops for each stage. The system salt passage of such a system (for an example, see Figure 34)
has to be calculated by application of Eq. 37 to each stage.

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Figure 35. System salt passage for a plug flow and a concentrate recirculation system
When the recirculated concentrate stream approaches zero, the β number approaches 1/[(1/Y) – 1], and the recirculation
system becomes a plug flow system. A compromise between plug flow and recirculation systems is the tapered
recirculation system with a declining number of parallel modules per stage when viewed in feed flow direction (see
Figure 36).
The recirculation pumps can be tailored in such a way that only a minor part of the concentrate exiting the stage is
recycled while the major part is flowing to the next stage (or to the concentrate outlet, for the last stage). Then, the
conditions are nearly plug flow, but the advantages of the recirculation still exist.
Figure 36. Tapered recirculation system

4

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3.7 Permeate-Staged (or Double-Pass) System
A permeate-staged system, also known as a double-pass or 2-pass system, is the combination of two conventional
RO/NF systems in which the permeate of the first system (first pass) becomes the feed for the second system (second
pass). Both RO/NF systems may be of the single-stage or multi-stage type, either with plug flow or with concentrate
recirculation. The production of water for pharmaceutical or medical use is a typical application of a permeate-staged
system.
A permeate-staged system may be considered for the following reasons:
l Standard permeate quality is not sufficient
l Posttreatment with ion exchange technology is not allowed (for example, due to the use of regeneration
chemicals)
l Highest possible rejection of bacteria, pathogens, and organic matter is most important
l Consistent permeate quality
Figure 37 shows a schematic flow diagram of a permeate-staged RO system. The concentrate of RO II is recycled back to
the feed of RO I because its quality is usually better than the system feedwater. Because the feedwater to RO II is of high
quality (RO permeate), RO II can be designed for a higher flux and recovery than RO I; therefore, fewer membrane
elements are required (see Section 3.9, Membrane System Design Guidelines).
Figure 37. Permeate-staged system

Instead of having a separate feed pump for the second pass, the whole system can also be operated with one feed
pump, provided the maximum permissible feed pressure of the membrane element is not exceeded [(41 bar (600 psi)
for BW elements]. The second pass is then operated with the permeate backpressure from RO I. For the maximum
permeate backpressure allowed, please refer to Section 3.14.2, Pressure Vessels. Care must be exercised that the
permeate backpressure at no time exceeds the feed pressure by more than 0.3 bar (5 psi).
A surge tank can also be used to collect the permeate from the first pass. This tank must be carefully protected against
dust and microbiological contamination.
The conductivity is often the most important quality parameter of the product water. Since carbon dioxide is not
rejected by the membrane, it is present in the product water, where it reacts to form carbonic acid and causes the
conductivity to increase. The passage of carbon dioxide can be minimized by adjustment of the feedwater pH to RO I to
a value of about 8.2. At this pH, most of the dissolved carbon dioxide is converted into hydrogen carbonate
(bicarbonate), which is rejected well by the membrane. Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda, NaOH) can be injected either
into the permeate of RO I or into the feed of RO I. The best product water conductivity can be achieved by converting
the CO 2 (or carbonic acid, H 2CO 3) to bicarbonate, which Figure 38 illustrates is at the highest concentration in a range of
pH 8.2 – 8.5, but it is also required to keep the calcium carbonate scaling potential under control. With this concept, a
product conductivity of typically < 1 µS/cm can be achieved.

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Figure 38. Bicarbonate Equilibrium
The recovery of RO I is normally limited by the scaling potential of the feedwater, but the recovery of RO II can be as
high as 90 – 95% in order to reduce system costs. On the other hand, a more moderate recovery for RO II helps to
maximize the product water quality at the expense of a larger first pass (which then has to treat the increased RO II
concentrate flowrate).

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3.8 Special Design Possibilities
There are a number of special design possibilities for specific requirements. Table 20 lists some of them, along with
their benefits.
Table 20. Special Design Possibilities

Benefit
Flow
Diagram
Special Design Description Reference
Feedwater Bypass In a single-pass RO system with relatively low feed TDS, bypass some of
A ●
the feed and combine it with permeate.
Permeate Blend In a double-pass RO system, taking some of highest-quality permeate
from the 1st stage of the 1st pass and blend it with the permeate of the B ● ●
2nd pass, thereby reducing the flowrate to be treated by the 2nd pass.
Permeate Split In a double-pass RO system, withdraw permeate from ports on both ends
of the pressure vessel in the 1st stage of the 1st pass (instead of
withdrawing composite 1st -stage permeate from either the feed end or
the concentrate end). The less-pure permeate taken from the
concentrate end is further treated in the 2nd pass of a permeate-staged C ● ●
system, while the more-pure permeate taken from the feed end
bypasses the 2nd pass and is combined with the 2nd pass permeate. The
split ratio can be controlled either by permeate backpressure valves or
by a physical plug in the product water tube of one of the elements.
Hybrid Use tighter membranes in the first stage than in the second stage. ● ●
Internally-Staged Use membranes of decreasing tightness in series within the same
Design (ISD) pressure vessel, thereby helping to hydraulically balance the system by
●
throttling the permeate production where the feed pressure is the
highest and the osmotic pressure gradient is the lowest.
Concentrate Recovery Also called Brine Recovery – Feed the concentrate to a second system,
●
after proper pretreatment.
Inter-Stage Booster Use booster pumps between stages to compensate for the osmotic
D ● ●
Pumps 1 pressure increase of the feed.
Stage Permeate Use declining permeate backpressure from the first to last stage, thereby
Backpressure 1 throttling the lead stage where the feed pressure is the highest and the E ● ●
osmotic pressure gradient is the lowest.
Separate Permeate Separate the permeate from the different stages: the permeate from
Streams the first stage has the best quality, especially when the first stage is ●
equipped with higher rejection membranes.
Element Spacer Install pressure vessels that are longer than initially required, filling the
free space with an element spacer that can be replaced by an element in ●
the future.
Higher-Duty Support Design module support racks to accommodate additional pressure
●
Racks vessels.
Minimum Liquid Apply a core set of proven technologies, including Specialty Membranes
Discharge (MLD) UHP RO and FilmTec™ Fortilife™ Reverse Osmosis Elements
(Form No. 45-D01729-en) (Form No. 45-D01074-en), to achieve high water recovery wastewater ●
with high total dissolved solids (TDS), leaving a high-quality permeate for
reuse.
1. It is also common practice to use a combination of permeate backpressure between the earlier stages, and a booster pump between later stages to achieve better
energy efficiency than backpressure alone.

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Table 21. Special Design Flow Diagrams
Flow Diagram Reference Special Design Flow Diagram
A Feedwater Bypass
B Permeate Blend
C Permeate Split

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Flow Diagram Reference Special Design Flow Diagram
D Inter-Stage Booster Pumps
E Stage Permeate Backpressure
3.9 Membrane System Design Guidelines

The factor which has the greatest influence on the membrane system design is the fouling tendency of the feedwater.
Membrane fouling is caused by particles and colloidal material which are present in the feedwater and are concentrated
at the membrane surface. The Silt Density Index (SDI) value of the pretreated feedwater correlates fairly well with the
amount of fouling material present. The concentration of the fouling materials at the membrane surface increases with
increasing permeate flux (the permeate flowrate per unit membrane area) and increasing element recovery (the ratio of
permeate flowrate to feed flowrate for a single element). A system with high permeate flux rates is, therefore, likely to
experience higher fouling rates, requiring more frequent chemical cleaning.
A membrane system should be designed such that each element of the system operates within a range of
recommended operating conditions to minimize the fouling rate and to help avoid mechanical damage. These element
operating conditions are limited by the:
l maximum recovery
l maximum permeate flowrate
l minimum concentrate flowrate
l maximum feed flowrate
The higher the fouling tendency of the feedwater, the stricter are the limits of these parameters. The proposed limits
are recommended guidelines based on many years of experience with FilmTec™ Elements.
The average flux of the entire system, i.e., the system permeate flowrate related to the total active membrane area of
the system, is a characteristic number of a design. The system flux is a useful number to quickly estimate the required
number of elements for a new project. Systems operating on high-quality feedwaters are typically designed at higher
flux values, whereas systems operating on poor-quality feedwaters are designed at lower flux values. However, even
within the same feedwater category, systems are designed with higher or lower flux values, depending on the focus
being either on minimizing the capital expenses or minimizing the long-term operational expenses. The ranges of flux
values given in the tables below are typical numbers for the majority of systems.

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A continuous RO/NF process designed according to the system design guidelines and with a well-designed and
operated pretreatment system will show stable performance with no more than about four cleanings per year in
standard applications. Exceeding the recommended limits may result in:
l more frequent cleanings
l reduced capacity
l increased feed pressure
l reduced membrane life
A moderate violation of the limits for a short time may be acceptable as long as the physical limits – the maximum
pressure drop and the maximum feed pressure (refer to the element product data sheet) – are not exceeded. On the
other hand, a conservative approach is to anticipate a higher fouling tendency and to design the system according to
the stricter limits in order to benefit from a trouble-free system operation and an increased membrane life.

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3.9.1 Membrane System Design Guidelines for 8-inch FilmTec™ Elements
The following tables show the recommended guidelines for designing RO systems with 8-inch FilmTec™ Elements
according to feedwater type.
Table 22. Design guidelines for 8-inch FilmTec™ Elements in water treatment applications
Feed Source RO Well Surface Water Wastewater Seawater
Permeate Water (Filtered Municipal Effluent or
Industrial Effluent)
Surface Generic Generic Ultrafiltration Generic Conventional Well or Open Open Intake Open Intake
Water with membrane conventional membrane pretreatment Intake with with generic with generic
Ultrafiltration filtration or pretreatment filtration Ultrafiltration membrane conventional
advanced (MBR/MF/UF) filtration or pretreatment
conventional advanced
pretreatment conventional
pretreatment
Feed Silt Density Index
SDI < 1 SDI < 3 SDI < 2.5 SDI < 3 SDI < 5 SDI < 2.5 SDI < 3 SDI < 5 SDI < 2.5 SDI < 3 SDI < 5
(%/min)
Maximum Element Recovery
30 19 19 17 15 14 13 12 15 14 13
(%)
Active Membrane Area Maximum Permeate Flow, gpd
365-ft2 elements 10,200 8,500 8,500 7,200 6,600 6,300 5,900 5,200 — Not Recommended —
370-ft2 elements 10,200 8,500 8,500 7,200 6,600 6,300 5,900 5,200 7,800 7,400 7,000
380-ft2 elements 10,700 8,900 8,900 7,500 6,900 6,500 6,000 5,300 7,900 7,600 7,200
390-ft2 elements 10,920 9,200 — Not Recommended — — Not Recommended — — Not Recommended —
400-ft2 elements 11,200 9,300 9,300 7,900 7,300 6,800 6,400 5,700 8,400 8,000 7,600
440-ft2 elements 12,300 10,300 10,300 8,700 8,000 7,600 7,100 6,300 9,200 8,800 8,360
21 – 25 16 – 20 16 – 20 13 – 17 12 – 16 11 – 15 10 – 14 8 – 12 9 – 11 8 – 10 7 – 10
Design Flux Range, gfd (lmh)
(36 – 43) (27 – 34) (27 – 34) (22 – 29) (20– 27) (19 – 26) (17 – 24) (14 – 20) (15 – 19) (14 – 17) (12 – 17)
Max. Element Flux, gfd (lmh) 28 (48) 22.7 (39) 22.7 (39) 20 (34) 18 (31) 17 (29) 16 (27) 14 (24) 21 (36) 20 (34) 19 (32)
3
Element Type Minimum Concentrate Flowrate , gpm (m /h)
BW elements (365 ft2) 10 (2.3) 13 (3.0) 13 (3.0) 13 (3.0) 15 (3.4) 16 (3.6) 16 (3.6) 18 (4.1) — Not Recommended —
BW elements
10 (2.3) 13 (3.0) 13 (3.0) 13 (3.0) 15 (3.4) 18 (4.1) 18 (4.1) 20 (4.6) — Not Recommended —
(400 ft2 and 440 ft2)
NF elements 10 (2.3) 13 (3.0) 13 (3.0) 13 (3.0) 15 (3.4) 18 (4.1) 18 (4.1) 18 (4.1) — Not Recommended —
Fullfit elements 25 (5.7) 25 (5.7) — Not Recommended — — Not Recommended — — Not Recommended —
SW elements 10 (2.3) – NR– — Not Recommended — — Not Recommended — 13 (3.0) 14 (3.2) 15 (3.4)
Active Area 3
Element Type 2 2 Maximum Feed Flowrate , gpm (m /h)
ft (m )
BW elements 365 (33.9) 65 (15) 65 (15) 65 (15) 63 (14) 58 (13) 52 (12) 52 (12) 52 (12) — Not Recommended —
BW/NF
400 (37.2) 75 (17) 75 (17) 75 (17) 73 (17) 67 (15) 61 (14) 61 (14) 61 (14) — Not Recommended —
elements
Fullfit elements 390 (36.2) 85 (19) 75 (17) — Not Recommended — — Not Recommended — — Not Recommended —
SW elements 370 (34.4) 65 (15) – NR– — Not Recommended — — Not Recommended — 63 (14) 60 (13.5) 56 (13)
SW elements 380 (35.3) 72 (16) – NR– — Not Recommended — — Not Recommended — 70 (16) 66 (15) 62 (14)

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3.9.2 Membrane System Design Guidelines for Midsize FilmTec™ Elements
The following tables show the recommended guidelines for designing RO systems with 2.5- and 4-inch FilmTec™
Elements in light industrial, small commercial, and institutional applications, or for piloting large systems.
Light industrial systems in Table 23 have the same requirements as for large systems, requiring stable performance over
several years. They are sometimes used for piloting large systems with continuous operation, CIP facilities, and no (or
minimal) concentrate recirculation. The expected membrane lifetime is more than 3 years.
Table 23. Design guidelines for FilmTec™ Elements in light industrial and small seawater
applications
Wastewater
RO Well Softened (filtered tertiary
Feed Source Permeate Water Municipal Surface effluent) Seawater
Well or Open
MF 1 Conventional MF 1 Intake
Feed Silt Density Index (%/min) SDI < 1 SDI < 3 SDI < 3 SDI < 5 SDI < 3 SDI < 5 SDI < 3 SDI < 5
Typical Target Flux, gfd (lmh) 22 (37) 18 (30) 16 (27) 14 (24) 13 (22) 11 (19) 13 (22) 11 (19)
Maximum Element Recovery (%) 30 19 17 15 14 12 15 13
Element Diameter Maximum Permeate Flowrate, gpd (m 3/d)

2.5-inch 800 (3.0) 700 (2.6) 600 (2.3) 500 500 (1.9) 400 (1.5) 700 (2.6) 600 (2.3)
(1.9)
4.0-inch (except fullfits and LC 2,200 (8.4) 1,800 1,600 (6.0) 1,400 1,300 1,100 (4.1) 1,600 1,500 (5.7)
products) (6.8) (5.4) (4.8) (6.0)
4.0-inch diameter (LC products) 2,600 (10.1) 2,100 1,900 (7.2) 1,700 1,500 1,300 (5.0) - -
(8.2) (6.5) (5.7)
Fullfit 4040 2,500 (9.7) 2,000 1,800 (6.9) 1,600 1,400 1,300 (5.0) - -
(7.8) (6.2) (5.5)
Element Type Minimum Concentrate Flowrate, gpm (m 3/h)

2.5-inch diameter 0.7 (0.16) 1 (0.2) 1 (0.2) 1 (0.2) 1 (0.2) 1 (0.2) 1 (0.2) 1 (0.2)
4.0-inch diameter (except fullfits) 2 (0.5) 3 (0.7) 3 (0.7) 3 (0.7) 4 (0.9) 5 (1.1) 3 (0.7) 4 (0.9)
Fullfit 4040 6 (1.4) 6 (1.4) 6 (1.4) 6 (1.4) 6 (1.4) 6 (1.4) - -
Maximum Pressure Drop

Maximum Feed Flowrate per Element Maximum Feed Pressure
Element Type gpm (m 3/h) psig (bar) psig (bar)
Tape-wrapped 2540 6 (1.4) 13 (0.9) 600 (41)
Fiberglassed 2540 6 (1.4) 15 (1.0) 600 (41)
Seawater 2540 6 (1.4) 13 (0.9) 1,000 (69)
Tape-wrapped 4040 14 (3.2) 13 (0.9) 600 (41)
Fiberglassed 4040 16 (3.6) 15 (1.0) 600 (41)
Seawater 4040 16 (3.6) 15 (1.0) 1,000 (69)
Fullfit 4040 18 (4.1) 15 (1.0) 600 (41)
1
MF: Microfiltration – continuous filtration process using a membrane with pore size of < 0.5 micron.
2
We recommend that the pressure drop for new/clean elements be at least 20% below the maximum.
Note: The limiting values listed above have been incorporated into the WAVE software. Designs of systems in excess of the guidelines results in a warning on the WAVE report.

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In Table 24, the small commercial systems typically contain 1 – 6 elements that are either regularly replaced or cleaned
(every half year or year) or performance loss is acceptable. The expected element lifetime is not more than 3 years. This
is a low-cost, compact solution for intermittently operated systems.
Table 24. Design guidelines for FilmTec™ Elements in small commercial applications
Feed Source RO Permeate Softened Municipal Well Water Surface or Municipal Water
Feed Silt Density Index (%/min) SDI < 1 SDI < 3 SDI < 3 SDI < 5
Typical Target Flux, gfd (lmh) 30 (51) 30 (51) 25 (42) 20 (34)
Maximum Element Recovery (%) 30 30 25 20
Maximum Permeate Flowrate, gpd (m 3/d)

2.5-inch diameter 1,100 (4.2) 1,100 (4.2) 900 (3.4) 700 (2.7)
4.0-inch diameter 3,100 (11.7) 3,100 (11.7) 2,600 (9.8) 2,100 (7.9)
Minimum Concentrate Flowrate, gpm (m 3/h)

2.5-inch diameter 0.5 (0.11) 0.5 (0.11) 0.7 (0.16) 0.7 (0.16)
4.0-inch diameter 2 (0.5) 2 (0.5) 3 (0.7) 3 (0.7)
Maximum Pressure Drop

Maximum Feed Flowrate per Element Maximum Feed Pressure
Element Type U.S. gpm (m 3/h) psig (bar) psig (bar)
Tape-wrapped 2540 6 (1.4) 13 (0.9) 600 (41)
Fiberglased 2540 6 (1.4) 15 (1.0) 600 (41)
Seawater 2540 6 (1.4) 13 (0.9) 1,000 (69)
Tape-wrapped 4040 14 (3.2) 13 (0.9) 600 (41)
Fiberglassed 4040 16 (3.6) 15 (1.0) 600 (41)
Seawater 4040 16 (3.6) 15 (1.0) 1,000 (69)
1
We recommend that the pressure drop for new/clean elements be at least 20% below the maximum.
Note: The limiting values listed above have been incorporated into the WAVE software. Designs of systems in excess of the guidelines results in a warning on the WAVE report.
3.10 Temperature and Pressure Limits for 8-inch FilmTec™ Seawater RO

Elements
Exposure of spiral-wound membrane elements to extreme conditions during RO operation can lead to reduced
permeate flow, increased salt passage, and deformation or failure of element components. Consequently,
FilmTec™ Elements are subject to certain operating limits, including limits on feed pressure and temperature. This
document provides general temperature and pressure limits for 8-inch FilmTec™ Seawater Elements.
Important Note Regarding Your Warranty: Failure to meet the requirements set forth in this document will void your
element warranty. Refer to your governing document – either product data sheet, element warranty, or system warranty
– for the operating limits that apply to your elements.
3.10.1 Elements with Standard Endcaps
Most FilmTec™ Seawater RO Elements are approved for operation up to 45°C and 83 bar (1200 psi). If your planned
operating conditions fall inside the shaded region in Figure 39, contact your DuPont representative for further
information. If conditions include feed pressure above 42 bar (600 psi) and feed temperature above 40°C, special
attention to vessel shimming is required. Refer to Section 4.3 Shimming Elements.

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Figure 39. Temperature and Pressure Limits for Elements with Standard Endcaps
3.10.2 Elements with iLEC™ Interlocking Endcaps
Most FilmTec™ Seawater RO Elements with iLEC™ Interlocking Endcaps are approved for operation up to 45°C and
83 bar (1200 psi). If your planned operating conditions fall inside the shaded regions in Figure 40, contact your DuPont
representative for further information. If conditions include feed pressure above 42 bar (600 psi) and feed temperature
above 35°C, the installation of internal interconnectors (DuPont Part No. 313198) is required. The elements should be left
unlocked to allow for thermal expansion and contraction. If conditions include feed pressure above 42 bar (600 psi) and
feed temperature above 40°C, special attention to vessel shimming is required. Refer to Section 4.3 Shimming Elements.
Figure 40. Temperature and Pressure Limits for Elements with iLEC™ Interlocking Endcaps

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3.11 The Steps to Design a Membrane System
The following steps are taken to design a membrane system:
Step 1: Consider feed source, feed quality, feed/product flow, and required product quality
The membrane system design depends on the available feedwater and the application. Therefore, the system design
information according to Table 17 and the feedwater analysis according to Table 18 should be collected first.
Step 2: Select the flow configuration and number of passes

The standard flow configuration for water desalination is plug flow, where the feed volume is passed once through the
system. Concentrate recirculation is common to smaller systems used in commercial applications, as well as in larger
systems when the number of elements is too small to achieve a sufficiently high system recovery with plug flow.
Concentrate recirculation systems can also be found in special applications like process liquids and wastewaters.
An RO system is usually designed for continuous operation and the operating conditions of every membrane element
in the plant are relatively constant with time. In certain applications, however, a batch operation mode is used, e.g., in
treating wastewater or industrial process solutions, when relatively small volumes (batches) of feedwater are discharged
non-continuously. The feedwater is collected in a tank and then periodically treated. A modification of the batch mode
is the semi-batch mode, where the feed tank is refilled with feedwater during operation. See also Section 3.2, Batch vs.
Continuous Process.
A permeate-staged (double-pass) system is the combination of two conventional RO systems where permeate of the
first system (first pass) becomes the feed for the second system (second pass). Both RO systems may be of the single-
stage or multi-stage type, either with plug flow or with concentrate recirculation. The production of water for
pharmaceutical and medical use are typical applications of permeate-staged systems. As an alternative to a second pass,
ion exchange mixed bed polishing may also be considered.
Step 3: Select membrane element type

Elements are selected according to application, system capacity, feedwater salinity, feedwater fouling tendency,
required rejection, and energy requirements. The standard element size for systems producing permeate greater than
2.3 m3/h (10 gpm) is 8 inches in diameter and 40 inches long. Smaller elements are available for smaller systems.
The characteristics of FilmTec™ Elements and their use in specific applications are described in Section 1.8, Element
Characteristics.
For high-quality water applications where a very low concentration of dissolved solids is required, ion exchange resins or
electrodeionization (EDI) are frequently used to polish RO permeate.
Step 4: Select average membrane flux

Select the design flux, f, (gfd or L/m2-h) based on pilot data, customer experience, or the typical design fluxes according
to the feed source found in Section 3.9, Membrane System Design Guidelines.
Step 5: Calculate the number of elements needed

Divide the design permeate flowrate Q P by the design flux f and by the membrane surface area of the selected element
SE (in m2 or ft2) to obtain the number of elements N E (usually rounding up to the nearest integer).
Eq. 38
Step 6: Calculate number of pressure vessels needed

Divide the number of elements N E by the number of elements per pressure vessel N EpV to obtain the number of
pressure vessels N V; round up to the nearest integer. For large systems, 6-element vessels are standard, but vessels with
up to 8 elements are available. For smaller and/or compact systems, shorter vessels may be selected.
Eq. 39

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Although the approach described in the following sections apply for all systems, it is especially applicable for 8-inch
systems with a larger number of elements and pressure vessels, which then can be arranged in a certain way. Small
systems with only one or a few elements are mostly designed with the elements in series and a concentrate
recirculation for maintaining the appropriate flowrate through the feed/brine channels.
Step 7: Select number of stages

The number of stages defines how many pressure vessels in series the feed will pass through until it exits the system
and is discharged as concentrate. Every stage consists of a certain number of pressure vessels in parallel. The number of
stages is a function of the planned system recovery, the number of elements per vessel, and the feedwater quality. The
higher the system recovery and the lower the feedwater quality, the longer the system will be with more elements in
series. For example, a system with four 6-element vessels in the first stage and two 6-element vessels in the second
stage has 12 elements in series. A system with three stages and 4-element vessels, in a 4:3:2 arrangement, also has
12 elements in series. Typically, the number of elements in series is linked with the system recovery and the number of
stages as illustrated in Table 25 for brackish water systems and Table 26 for seawater systems.
Table 25. Number of stages of a brackish water system

System recovery (%) Number of elements in series Number of stages (6-element vessels)
40 – 60 6 1
70 – 80 12 2
85 – 90 18 3
One-stage systems can also be designed for high recoveries if concentrate recycling is used.
In seawater systems the recoveries are lower than in brackish water systems. The number of stages depends on
recovery as shown in Table 26.
Table 26. Number of stages of a seawater system

Number of stages Number of stages Number of stages
System recovery (%) Number of elements in series (6-element vessels) (7-element vessels) (8-element vessels)
35 – 40 6 1 1 −
45 7 – 12 2 1 1
50 8 – 12 2 2 1
55 – 60 12 – 14 2 2 −
Step 8: Select the staging ratio

The relation of the number of pressure vessels in subsequent stages is called the staging ratio R.
Eq. 40
For a system with four vessels in the first stage and two vessels in the second stage, the staging ratio is 2:1. A three-stage
system with four, three, and two vessels in the first, second, and third stage, respectively, has a staging ratio of 4:3:2. In
brackish water systems, staging ratios between two subsequent stages are usually close to 2:1 for 6-element vessels and
less than that for shorter vessels. In two-stage seawater systems with 6-element vessels, the typical staging ratio is 3:2.
The ideal staging of a system is such that each stage operates at the same fraction of the system recovery, provided that
all pressure vessels contain the same number of elements. The staging ratio R of a system with n stages and a system
recovery Y (as fraction) can then be calculated:
Eq. 41

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The number of pressure vessels in the first stage N v(1) can be calculated with the staging ratio R from the total number
of vessels N v.
For a two-stage system (n = 2) and a three-stage system (n = 3), the number of pressure vessels in the first stage is
for n = 2 Eq. 42
for n = 3, etc. Eq. 43
The number of vessels in the second stage is then
Eq. 44
and so on.
Another aspect for selecting a certain arrangement of vessels is the feed flowrate per vessel of the first stage and the
concentrate flowrate per vessel of the last stage. Both feed and concentrate flowrates for the system are given (from
permeate flowrate and recovery). The number of pressure vessels in the first stage and the number of pressure vessels
in the last stage should be selected to provide a feed flowrate into the first stage and a concentrate flowrate from the
last stage that follows the design guidelines for the appropriate element type, active area, and water type given in
Section 3.9, Membrane System Design Guidelines.
Step 9: Balance the permeate flowrate

The permeate flowrate of the tail elements of a system (the elements located at the concentrate end) is normally lower
than the flowrate of the lead elements. This is a result of the pressure drop in the feed/brine channel and the increase
of the osmotic pressure from the feed to the concentrate. Under certain conditions, the ratio of the permeate flowrate
of the lead element and the tail element can become very high:
l High system recovery
l High feed salinity
l Low-pressure membranes
l High water temperature
l New membranes
The goal of a good design is to balance the flux of elements in the different positions. This can be achieved by the
following means:
l Boosting the feed pressure between stages: preferred for efficient energy use
l Applying a permeate backpressure only to the first stage of a two-stage system: low system cost alternative
l Designing a hybrid system: use membranes with lower water permeability in the first positions and membranes
with higher water permeabilities in the last positions: e.g., high-rejection seawater membranes in the first stage
and high-productivity seawater membranes in the second stage of a seawater RO system
The need for flow balancing and the method can be determined after the system design has been analyzed with the
Water Application Value Engine (WAVE).
Above and beyond the requisite of balancing flux between stages, Internally-Staged Design (iSD) may be used to
hydraulically balance the flux of elements within the same pressure vessel. This is accomplished by applying
membranes of decreasing tightness in series, which has the effect of throttling the permeate production where the
feed pressure is the highest and the osmotic pressure gradient is the lowest.

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Step 10: Analyze and optimize the membrane system
The chosen system should then be analyzed and refined using the Water Application Value Engine (WAVE) design
program.
Example
l Feed source: brackish surface supply water, SDI < 5
l Required permeate flow = 720 m3/d (132 gpm)
l Six-element pressure vessels to be used
1. Brackish surface supply water with SDI < 5; total permeate flow = 720 m3/d (132 gpm)
2. Select plug flow
3. BW element with active membrane area of 37.2 m2 (400 ft2)
4. Recommended average flux for surface supply water feed with SDI < 5 = 23.8 L/m2-h (14.0 gfd)
5. Total number of elements =
or
6. Total number of pressure vessels = 34/6 = 5.67 ~ 6
7. Number of stages for 6-element vessels and 75% recovery = 2 (see Table 25)
8. Staging ratio selected: 2:1. Appropriate stage ratio = 4:2
9. The chosen system must then be analyzed using the Water Application Value Engine (WAVE) design software,
which calculates the feed pressure and permeate quality of the system as well as the operating data of all
individual elements. Design warnings are reported by WAVE according to the design guidelines, which are
incorporated into the program. It is then easy to optimize the system design by changing the number and type
of elements and their arrangement.
3.12 System Performance Projection
3.12.1 System Operating Characteristics
Before a system performance projection is run, one should be familiar with the operating characteristics of a system.
These will be explained using a typical example. Figure 41 shows a two-stage system with three six-element pressure
vessels using a staging ratio of 2:1. (In the diagram, elements labeled with I or II differentiate elements in the first or
second stages, respectively; elements labeled with A or B represent elements in the two parallel vessels of the first
stage, respectively; elements labeled with 1, 2, ..., 6 distinguish each element's sequential position in the vessel.)

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Figure 41. Typical two-stage configuration for spiral-wound RO/NF elements
Two-stage systems are generally capable of operating at an overall recovery rate of 55 – 75%. For such systems the
average individual recovery rate per element will vary from 7 – 12%. To operate a two-stage system at an overall
recovery much higher than 75% will cause an individual element to exceed the maximum recovery limits shown in
Section 3.9, Membrane System Design Guidelines. When this happens, a third stage will have to be employed; this
places 18 elements in series, shifting the average element recovery rate to lower values.
Since the capacity of a water treatment plant is usually defined by the required permeate flowrate, a consequence of
choosing to operate at a lower recovery is that the feedwater supply will need to be increased in order to meet the
specification for permeate flowrate. If two-stage systems are operated at too low a recovery (e.g., < 55%), the feed
flowrates to the first-stage vessels can be too high, causing excessive feed/concentrate-side pressure drops that could
potentially damage the elements. More information is available in Section 3.9, Membrane System Design Guidelines. As
a result, systems with lower than 50% recovery will typically use single-stage configurations. Maximum flow
considerations can also limit the staging ratio. It is unlikely to find systems with staging ratios greater than 3:1.
When a single RO element is run, the operating variables are readily measured, and performance can be easily
correlated. When a large number of elements are combined in a system with a multiple staging configuration (i.e.,
combination of elements in parallel and in series) and only the inlet operating variables are known, system performance
prediction becomes considerably more complex. Feed pressures and salt concentrations for each element in series are
changing. The rate and extent of these changes are dependent not only on the inlet conditions and overall recovery,
but also on the stage configuration, i.e., staging ratio(s).
Figure 42 illustrates the dynamic nature of predicting system performance based on the sum of individual element
performances within the system. It shows how five different element performance parameters vary throughout the
twelve elements in series in a 2:1 array of six-element pressure vessels. The system is operating at 75% recovery and
25°C with a feed osmotic pressure of 1.4 bar (20 psi), which roughly corresponds to a 2,000 mg/L feed TDS. The inlet feed
pressure has been adjusted so that the lead BW element is producing 28.4 m3/d (7,500 gpd).
The top third of Figure 42 shows individual element permeate flows decreasing uniformly throughout the series
configuration from 28.4 m3/d (7,500 gpd) in the lead element of the first stage to approximately 12.5 m3/d (3,300 gpd) in
the last element of the second stage. The average element permeate flowrate is 22 m3/d (5,800 gpd).

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Figure 42. Individual element performance in a system with a 2:1 array of 8-inch BW30
elements (example)
Permeate flow decreases because the net driving pressure, ∆P – ∆π, is uniformly declining. (∆P is the pressure difference
between the feed side and the permeate side of the membrane; ∆π is the osmotic pressure difference between both
sides.) This is evident by looking at the two curves in the bottom third of the figure. In this section, the upper curve
shows how the inlet feed pressure to each element (Pfi) decreases due to the upstream concentrate-side pressure
losses within each element; the bottom curve shows how the inlet feed osmotic pressure to each element (π fi) is
increasing as (mostly) salt-free permeate is progressively removed by each upstream element, leaving behind a steadily
increasing concentrate (i.e., retentate) salt concentration. The difference between these two pressure curves is roughly
equivalent to the net permeation driving force.
The middle portion of Figure 42 exhibits two subtle, but important, effects. In this section, the left-hand scale shows how
individual element recovery varies within the twelve element (series) sequence. The break occurs between the first and
second stages. In general, the individual recovery profile will increase in both stages but typically more strongly in the
first. The system designer, utilizing RO system design software, must verify that the last element in the first stage does
not exceed the appropriate recovery limit. As element recovery increases, the effective osmotic pressure at the
membrane surface will be higher due to concentration polarization. This inefficiency reduces permeate flows and can
lead to membrane scaling or fouling.
The other curve in the middle portion of Figure 42 (right-hand scale) illustrates an interesting phenomenon exhibited by
the membrane—the relative permeate flow is an inverse function of salt concentration, decreasing at higher salinity as
the net driving pressure declines (partly due to the decrease in feed-side applied pressure and also partly due to the
increase in feed-side osmotic pressure). In this example, the water permeability declines by almost 15% through the
series of twelve elements, and this must be taken into consideration if an accurate design for system permeate flowrate
is to be obtained.

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3.12.2 Design Equations and Parameters
The performance of a specified RO system is defined by its feed pressure (or permeate flow, if the feed pressure is not
specified) and its salt passage. In its simplest terms, the permeate flow Q through an RO membrane is directly
proportional to the wetted surface area S multiplied by the net driving pressure (∆P – ∆π). The proportionality constant is
the membrane permeability coefficient, known as the A-value. The familiar water permeation equation has the form:
Eq. 45
The salt passage is by diffusion, hence the salt flux N A is proportional to the salt concentration difference between both
sides of the membrane. The proportionality constant is the salt diffusion coefficient, known as the B-value.
Eq. 46
where:
Cfc = feed-concentrate average concentration

Cp = permeate concentration
There are basically two ways to calculate the performance of a specified design: “Element-to-Element” and “Entire
System”.
Element-to-Element
This is the most rigorous calculation method. It is too tedious for hand calculation, but it is suitable for computer
calculations. All the operating conditions of the first element must be known, including the feed pressure. Then the
flow, pressure, etc., of the concentrate, which is the feed to the second element, can be calculated. After calculating the
results for all the elements, the original feed pressure may be too high or low, so the trial and error process starts with a
new pressure.
With the help of DuPont’s Water Application Value Engine (WAVE) design software, accurate results can be obtained
very quickly, making it an indispensable tool for modifying and optimizing the design of an RO or an NF system.
Accordingly, the entire system calculation method will not be described here. It is also not intended to outline the
process of the element-to-element computer calculation. However, the governing equations and parameters are given
in Table 27.
In order to enable the determination of values for the terms A, ∆P, and ∆π in Eq. 45, the water permeation equation is
expanded to Eq. 47. The permeate concentration can be derived from Eq. 46 after conversion into Eq. 57. The design
equations are listed in Table 27, the symbol definitions in Table 29.
The subscript i in the equations of Table 27 indicates that they apply to the i th element in a sequence of n elements in a
series flow configuration. To accurately determine system performance, Eq. 47 is successively solved for each of the n
elements starting with an inlet set of conditions. The solutions depend on mass balances around each element for salt
(Eq. 51) and water (Eq. 57), as well as correlations for individual element parameters such as concentrate-side flow
resistance, Δ Pfc (Eq. 67); temperature correction factor for water permeability, TCF (Eq. 53 and Eq. 54); polarization factor,
pfi (Eq. 55); and the membrane permeability coefficient for water, Ai (π i) (Eq. 68, Eq. 69, and Eq. 70), which in the case of
reverse osmosis membranes depends on the average concentrate concentration or, alternatively, osmotic pressure.
These solutions usually involve a suitable average for the feed and permeate side hydraulic and osmotic pressures. For
low recovery values typical of single-element operation, an accurate solution can be obtained using a simple arithmetic
average of the inlet and outlet conditions. Even so, since the outlet conditions are not known, iterative trial and error
solutions are involved.

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Table 27. Design equations for projecting RO system performance: individual element
performance
Equation
Item Equation Number
Permeate flow 47
Average concentrate-side osmotic pressure 48
Average permeate-side osmotic pressure 49
Ratio: arithmetic average concentrate-side to feed 50

concentration for Element i
Ratio: concentrate to feed concentration for Element 51

i
Feedwater osmotic pressure 52
Temperature correction factor for RO and NF 53

membrane
54
Concentration polarization factor for 8-inch elements 55
System recovery 56
Permeate concentration 57

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Entire System
Average values are used to calculate feed pressure and permeate quality if the feed quality, temperature, permeate
flowrate, and number of elements are known. If the feed pressure is specified instead of the number of elements, the
number of elements can be calculated with a few iterations. Sample design equations for 8-inch reverse osmosis
elements are listed in Table 28 and the symbols are defined in Table 29. It is recommended to use the WAVE design
software for actual calculations.
Table 28. Design equations for projecting RO system performance: system average performance
Equation
Item Equation Number
Total permeate flow 58
Ratio: average concentrate-side to feed 59

concentration for system
Limiting system recovery 60
Approximate log-mean concentrate-side to 61

feed concentration ratio for system
Average element recovery 62
Average polarization factor 63
Average concentrate-side osmotic pressure 64

for system
Average concentrate-side system pressure 65

drop for 8-inch elements; 2 stages
66
Individual 8-inch element, or single-stage 67

concentrate-side pressure drop
Membrane permeability as a function of 68
average concentrate-side osmotic pressure
69
70
Permeate concentration 71

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Table 29. Symbol definitions
permeate flow of Element i (gpd) summation of all ionic species
membrane permeability at 25°C for Element i, a function system recovery (expressed as a fraction) = permeate
of the average concentrate-side osmotic pressure (gfd/psi) flow/feed flow
membrane surface area per element (ft 2) multiplication of n terms in a series
temperature correction factor for membrane permeability number of elements in series
membrane fouling factor system permeate flow (gpd)
feed pressure of Element i (psi) number of elements in system
concentrate-side pressure drop for Element i (psi) average element permeate flow (gpd) = Q/N E
permeate pressure of Element i (psi) average membrane permeability at 25°C: a function

of the average concentrate-side osmotic pressure
(gfd/psi)
average concentrate-side osmotic pressure (psi) average concentrate-side concentration for system
(ppm)
feed osmotic pressure of Element i average fractional salt rejection for system
permeate-side osmotic pressure of Element i (psi) average concentrate-side osmotic pressure for system
(psi)
concentration polarization factor for Element i average concentrate-side system pressure drop (psi)
salt rejection fraction for Element i limiting (maximum) system recovery (expressed as a
fraction)
average concentrate-side concentration for Element i average element recovery (expressed as a fraction)
(ppm)
feed concentration for Element i (ppm) average concentration polarization factor
concentrate concentration for Element i (ppm) arithmetic average concentrate-side flowrate (gpm) [=
(1/2)(feed flow + concentrate flow)]
recovery fraction for Element i number of six-element pressure vessels in system (≈
N E/6)
treated feedwater osmotic pressure (psi) number of pressure vessels in first stage of 2-stage
system (≈ 1/3 N V )
feedwater temperature (°C) number of pressure vessels in second stage of 2-stage
system (≈ N V /3)
molal concentration of jth ion species stage ratio (=N VI/N V2)

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3.13 Testing
For the desalination of standard waters with a defined origin and composition, system performance can be projected
with sufficient accuracy by using design software such as the Water Application Value Engine (WAVE). However, in some
cases, testing is recommended to support the proper system design. These include:
l Unknown feedwater quality
l Unknown variation of feedwater quality
l Special or new applications, e.g., process or wastewater effluents
l Special permeate quality requirements
l Extremely high system recoveries (> 80%)
l Large plants > 13,250 m3/d (3.5 mgd)
Testing is typically carried out at different levels:
3.13.1 Screening Test
The goal of a screening test is to select the appropriate membrane for the desired separation and to obtain a rough idea
about the flux (lmh or gfd) and rejection properties of the membrane. A small piece of flatsheet membrane is mounted
in a “cell” and exposed to the test solution using the crossflow mechanism. The method is fast, inexpensive, and requires
only small quantities of test solution. However, a screening test cannot provide engineering scale-up data and long-term
effects of the test solution on the membrane, nor does it provide data on fouling effects of the test solution.
3.13.2 Application Test
The application test provides scale-up data such as permeate flux and permeate quality as a function of feed pressure
and system recovery. The test typically involves the evaluation of a 50 – 200 L (15 – 60 gal) sample solution, using a 2540
(2.5-inch x 40-inch) or 4040 (4.0-inch x 40-inch) sized element. The element is mounted in a test system with
engineering features that allow adjustments to the feed flow, feed pressure, and feed temperature in the ranges of the
element operating limits.
Determining Operating Pressure

The optimal operating pressure is determined by adjusting the feed pressure until the desired permeate quality and
permeate flux rate are obtained [typically between 10 – 34 lmh (6 – 20 gfd)]. Sufficient feed flow should be maintained to
ensure a low recovery rate (< 5%) as the membrane flux rate is increased. Permeate and concentrate streams are
recycled back to the feed tank during this first test. The feed pressure at which the optimal permeate flux and permeate
quality is obtained is the feed pressure used for the second test, determining the recovery rate.
Determining Concentration Factor/Recovery Rate

To aid in the determination of the maximum single-element recovery rate (permeate flow/feed flow), the second test is
run in batch mode. This is done by directing the permeate stream into a second container while returning the
concentrate stream to the feed tank. Both the permeate flow and permeate quality are monitored during the test. The
test is stopped when the permeate flowrate has declined to an uneconomically low value or permeate quality has
declined below acceptable limits. The concentration factor (CF) is then calculated by dividing the original feed volume
by the remaining feed volume. The recovery rate is calculated by subtracting the remaining feed volume from the
original feed volume and then dividing by the original feed volume.
Repeating the batch test will give an indication of membrane stability and fouling effects. However, long-term
performance, including the assessment of cleaning procedures, can only be obtained by pilot tests.

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3.13.3 Pilot Tests
A pilot test is typically run in the field on the intended feed stream in a continuous operation mode. The pilot plant
should have at least one element (40-inch length is recommended). Preferably the arrangement of elements will be
similar to that of the large-scale system. The permeate flow of the pilot plant should be at least 1% of the large-scale
plant and should be run for a minimum of 30 days. The objective is to confirm the system design and to fine-tune
operating parameters as well as to minimize the risk in large projects.
3.14 System Components
3.14.1 High-Pressure Pump
The pump discharge pressure has to be controlled to maintain the designed permeate flow and not exceed the
maximum allowed feed pressure, which is:
41 bar (600 psi) for brackish water and nanofiltration elements

69 bar (1,000 psi) for standard seawater elements
82 bar (1,200 psi) for high-rejection seawater elements
See the latest product data sheet for the candidate element to verify the correct limit.
A positive displacement pump cannot be throttled, so feed pressure is controlled by a backpressure valve in a bypass
line from the pump discharge to the pump suction. A pulsation damper (accumulator) on the pump discharge line is
used to minimize pressure surges. A relief valve is intended to ensure that the maximum allowed pressure will not be
exceeded.
A centrifugal pump is controlled with a throttling valve on the discharge line. Fixed speed motors are used with
centrifugal pumps for most membrane systems. Using a variable speed motor is an energy-saving alternative, although
the cost is higher. Variable speed motors should be considered when there is greater than 5°C difference between the
low and high feedwater temperatures.
In seawater systems, typically 55 – 60% of the pressurized feedwater exits the system with about 60 bar (870 psi)
pressure in the concentrate stream. This energy can be recovered to decrease the specific energy demand of the
system. Energy recovery methods are:
l Pelton wheel
l Reverse turning turbine
l Piston-type work exchanger
The high-pressure concentrate is fed into the energy recovery device where it produces a rotating power output. This is
used to assist the main electric motor in driving the high-pressure pump. Compared to traditional pump drives, the
energy recovery system represents energy savings up to 40%.

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3.14.2 Pressure Vessels
Pressure vessels are available with different diameters, lengths, and pressure ratings. When selecting a pressure vessel,
the chosen pressure rating must be high enough to allow for a pressure increase to compensate for irreversible fouling
(typically 10% more than needed in a 3-year design).
When dynamic permeate backpressure is employed during plant operation, the limiting component for some pressure
vessels is the permeate port. Materials such as polyvinylchloride (PVC) are used for the permeate port on many pressure
vessels. The permeate pressure rating is a strong function of temperature, as shown in Table 30. Please consult with the
manufacturer of the pressure vessel for details on the specific vessel. Note that at static conditions, i.e., with the high-
pressure pump shut down, permeate backpressure must never exceed 0.3 bar (5 psi).
Table 30. Maximum dynamic permeate backpressure for pressure vessels with FilmTec™
Elements
Maximum dynamic permeate backpressure
Temperature (°F) Temperature (°C) psi bar
113 45 145 10.0
104 40 180 12.4
95 35 219 15.1
86 30 257 17.7
77 25 299 20.6
68 20 338 23.3
3.14.3 Shut-down Switches
The membrane elements must be protected against extreme operating conditions. If there is a possibility that such
conditions can occur, for example, by a pretreatment upset, provisions must be made so that the membrane system is
shut down to prevent damage.
Some extreme operating conditions and the provisions to prevent these are listed in Table 31.
Table 31. Provisions against undue operating conditions

Extreme operating condition Provision
Too high feed pressure High-pressure shut-down switch in the feed line
Insufficient feed pressure Low-pressure shut-down switch in the pump suction line
Too high feed temperature High-temperature switch in the feed line
Permeate pressure exceeding feed by more than 0.3 bar (5 psi) Pressure relief mechanism in the permeate line
Too high concentration of colloidal matter in the feed Turbidity control in the feed line
Too high concentration of sparingly soluble salts in the feed Dosing pumps for acid and antiscalant should be electrically
interlocked with the feed pump drive
High-pH shut-down switch
Oxidizing agents in the feed ORP (Oxidation Reduction Potential) control in feed line or
chlorine detection monitor with automatic shut-down
Oil in the feed Oil detector in feed line

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3.14.4 Valves
The following valves are typically included in a membrane system:
l Feed inlet valve to shut down the plant for maintenance and preservation.
l Valve on the pump discharge line or bypass line to control feed pressure during operation and feed pressure
increase rate during start-up.
l Check valve on pump discharge line.
l Check valve and atmospheric drain valve on permeate line to prevent permeate pressure from exceeding the
feed pressure.
l Flow control valve on the concentrate line to set the recovery.
l Valve in the permeate line to provide permeate drain during cleaning and start-up.
l Valves in the feed and concentrate lines (and between stages) to connect a clean-in-place system.
3.14.5 Control Instruments
To ensure proper operation of the RO or NF system, a number of control instruments are necessary. The accuracy of all
instruments is critical. They must be installed and calibrated according to manufacturer’s instructions.
l Pressure gauges to measure the pressure drop across the cartridge filter, the pressure on the pump inlet line
and discharge line, the feed pressure to the membrane element(s), the pressure drop between feed and
concentrate of each stage, and eventually the pressure in the permeate line. Liquid-filled gauges should contain
membrane-compatible fluids such as water in place of oils or other water-immiscible liquids.
l Flow meters to measure concentrate and total permeate flowrate, as well as permeate flowrate of each stage.
l Water meters in the permeate and feed line to log the total water volume treated and produced.
l Hour meter to log the total operating time.
l pH meter in the feed line after acidification to measure carbonate scaling potential.
l Conductivity meters in the feed line, concentrate line, and permeate line to determine permeate quality and
salt rejection.
l Sample ports on the feed, concentrate, and permeate (total permeate and permeate of each stage) to enable
evaluation of system performance. A sample port on each pressure vessel permeate outlet is recommended to
facilitate troubleshooting.
3.14.6 Tanks
Storing water in tanks should generally be kept at a minimum. When tanks are used, the inlet and outlet should be
placed such that no stagnant zones are permitted. The tanks should be protected from dust and microbiological
contamination. In critical applications tanks are closed and vented through a HEPA filter.
A feed tank is needed to provide the reaction time (20 – 30 min) when chlorine is used. The free volume of media filters
can be used for this purpose as well. Feed tanks are also frequently used as a buffer to allow continuous operation of the
RO or NF system (e.g., during backwash of filters). Systems that are operated in the batch or semi-batch mode require a
feed tank.
A permeate tank is typically employed when the permeate is the product. Plant start-ups and shut-downs are initiated
by low-level and high-level signals from the permeate tank. The system capacity and the tank size should be designed
so that the RO or NF plant is allowed to run for several hours continuously. The less frequently the plant is shut down,
the better the system performance. For high-purity water systems, a nitrogen blanket can be employed to prevent
atmospheric CO 2 from dissolving into the water.

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A draw-back tank is a small tank in the permeate line that provides enough volume for natural osmosis backflow when
the system shuts down. It is typically employed in seawater systems, but not in brackish water systems. An empty draw-
back tank can cause air to be sucked back into the elements. This may create the following problems:
l Contamination of the permeate side of the membrane by airborne microbes and fungi.
l Hydraulic shocks and slugs of air that upset meters and setpoint controllers when the air is expelled from the
system on the next start-up.
l Drying of the membrane (flux loss).
l If the feedwater is in a reduced status and contains H 2S, Fe 2+, Mn2+, etc., the air intrusion may cause fouling of the
membrane by oxidized and precipitated colloidal matter (see Section 2.11 Treatment of Feedwater Containing
Hydrogen Sulfide ).
If the product water from an RO system is chlorinated, care must be exercised to ensure that the chlorine does not
migrate back to the membrane. Air breaks should be employed appropriately.
If a draw-back tank is used, its water level should be higher than the highest pressure vessel, but not exceeding 3 m
(9.8 ft) from the lowest vessel. To prevent contamination, the flow is in at the bottom and out at the top, and the tank
must be covered. Post-chlorination, if performed, must be done downstream of this tank.
The volume of a draw-back tank can be sized as follows:
VDBT = (25T E) – VPP
where:
VDBT = Volume of draw-back tank (in liters)

T E = Number of installed elements
VPP = Volume of permeate piping between pressure vessels and draw-back tank (in liters)
Dosing tanks are required when chemicals are added to the feedwater. They should be sized typically for a daily refill.
A cleaning tank is part of the equipment described in Section 6.1, Cleaning and Sanitization.
Optional Equipment
Various optional equipment and features are useful in operating and monitoring the system:
l A shut-down flush system flushes the feed-concentrate line with pretreated feedwater or with permeate after
shut-down. When antiscalants are used, a flush system is mandatory.
l Alarms for
– High permeate conductivity
– High concentrate conductivity
– Low feed pH
– High feed pH
– High feed hardness
– High feed temperature
– Low level in dosing tank

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l Continuous recorder for
– Feed temperature
– Feed pH
– Feed and permeate conductivity
– Feed SDI
– Feed ORP
– Feed, permeate, and concentrate pressure
– Permeate and concentrate flow
Ideally, a monitoring system is installed that allows online recording and processing of the important operating data of
the system. More information is available in Section 5.6.1, Record Keeping.
Additional considerations include:
l Automation for soft-start motor control
l Automation for filter backwash, membrane cleanings, and plant flush-outs
l Clean, dry air system including compressor, air dryer, air control stations, and complete pipe systems
l Spare parts for 1 or 2 years of normal operation
l Tools for general and special services
l Options such as training, supervision, and maintenance
3.15 Materials of Construction, Corrosion Control

From a corrosion point of view, a very harsh environment exists in an RO water desalination plant. Hence, the materials
of construction must possess a certain degree of corrosion resistance. This is true for both the exterior parts exposed to
spillage and a humid and saline atmosphere as well as for the interior of the system exposed to the wide variety of
waters treated.
Although not to be underestimated, the control of exterior corrosion can usually be overcome by using a surface
coating (painting, galvanizing, etc.) on materials likely to corrode (mild steel, cast iron, etc.) and by establishing a
maintenance program involving periodical flush-down and cleaning, repair of leaks, etc.
Selecting materials of construction for the interior wetted system is a far more complicated task. Apart from being
compatible with the pressures, vibrations, temperatures, etc., existing in an RO system, the materials must also be able to
withstand potential corrosion attacks caused by the high chloride content of the feedwater and concentrate stream, the
aggressive product water, and the chemicals used for applications such as membrane cleaning.
Application of nonmetallic materials such as plastics, fiberglass, etc., are widely used for preventing corrosion and
chemical attacks in the low-pressure (< 10 bar or 145 psi) part of the RO system, as in the RO elements and pressure
vessels. However, it is usually necessary to use metals for the high-pressure (10 – 83 bar or 145 – 1,200 psi) parts such as
pumps, piping, and valves. Carbon and low-alloy steels do not have sufficient corrosion resistance, and their corrosion
products can foul the membranes.
Lined piping is usually not a realistic alternative because of the often compact piping design and relatively great
amount of connections and fittings needed. Al-bronze can be an alternative for pumps, etc., but the risk of erosion
corrosion and chemical attacks must be taken into account. The most relevant material to be used for the high-pressure
parts is stainless steel.

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The basic advantage with stainless steel is that it is very resistant to general corrosion and erosion corrosion. Stainless
steel is rarely attacked by galvanic corrosion, but it will influence the attack on the other metal in a two-metal couple
(e.g., copper, brass, etc.). Stress corrosion cracking of stainless steels in media containing chloride rarely occurs below
70°C (158°F) so it does not need to be considered in an RO desalination plant.
Unfortunately, some stainless steels are prone to pitting and crevice corrosion in the waters occurring in an RO plant.
Pitting means localized attacks that result in holes in the metal. Pitting occurs where the passive film formed by
chromium oxides breaks and chlorides can attack the bare metal. Crevice corrosion is pitting associated with small
volumes of stagnant water caused by holes, gasket surfaces, deposits, and crevices under bolts, etc. In order to avoid
pitting and crevice corrosion in the RO water desalination plant, the following recommendations can be given:
RO Plants with Concentrate Stream TDS below 7,000 ppm

Stainless steel type AISI 316 L with < 0.03% C is the minimum demand for the pipe system because lower-grade stainless
steels with higher carbon content will suffer from pitting in the welding zones (intergranular corrosion). For non-welded
parts, stainless steel type AISI 316 is usually acceptable.
RO Plants with Concentrate Stream TDS higher than 7,000 ppm

Stainless steel type 904 L is recommended for pipes and bends for welding and for similar parts without crevices.
Where crevices occur, such as at flange connections, in valves, in pumps, etc., stainless steel type 254 SMO or similar
with ≥ 6% Mo is recommended. These two higher-alloy stainless steels can be welded together without risking galvanic
corrosion. Sensor elements of instruments may be coated or lined. The composition of the named stainless steels is
given in Table 32.
Table 32. Composition of stainless steels

Usual designation UNS No. C% Cr% Ni% Mo% Cu% N%
AISI 316 S 31600 < 0.08 16.0 – 18.0 10 – 14 2.0 – 3.0 − −
AISI 316L S 31603 < 0.03 16.0 – 18.0 10 – 14 2.0 – 3.0 − −
904 L N 08904 < 0.02 19.0 – 23.0 23.0 – 28.0 4.0 – 5.0 1.0 – 2.0 −
254 SMO S 31254 < 0.02 19.5 – 20.5 17.5 – 18.5 6.0 – 6.5 0.5 – 1.0 0.18 – 0.22
Besides the above recommendations, general precautions must be taken during design and construction, such as:
l Design with a minimum of crevices and dead ends.
l Design the piping so that the flow velocity is above 1.5 m/s (5 ft/s). This promotes the forming and maintenance
of the passive film.
l Use backing gas when welding in order to avoid the weld oxide film forming a base for crevice corrosion.
l Pickle and passivate the pipe system as this gives the optimal safety against chloride attack.
l Flush the plant with low-TDS water before a shut-down period.
3.16 System Design Considerations to Control Microbiological Activity

Biofouling is one of the most common and most severe problems in the operation of RO systems. It is particularly
important to control microbiological activity in plants using surface water or bacteria-contaminated water as a feed
source. A properly designed system is a prerequisite for success:
l If intermediate open basins or tanks are used, provisions should be made to allow for proper sanitization at that
open source and the part of the system downstream from it.
l If intermediate sealed tanks are used, their air-breathing or ventilation systems should be equipped with
bacteria-retaining devices (e.g., HEPA filters).
l Dead legs in the piping should be avoided by design, and when unavoidable, should be periodically sanitized.

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l The components of the pretreatment system such as pipes, manifolds, filters, and retention tanks should be
opaque to sunlight to avoid enhancing the biological growth.
l Standby devices with large surfaces, such as sand or cartridge filters, should be avoided. If they are not avoidable,
drains should be installed to allow discharge of the sanitization chemicals after the devices have been sanitized,
and before connecting them to the active system.
l It should be made possible to physically isolate the RO/NF section from the pretreatment by using a flange. This
allows the use of chlorine for sanitizing the pretreatment section while the membranes are protected from
chlorine contact. A drain valve should be installed at the lowest point and close to the flange to allow complete
drainage of the chlorine solution.
l Element selection: Elements are available with features that include a special surface combined with a feed
spacer thickness and/or geometry that makes them more resistant against biofouling. These fouling-resistant
elements are typically selected for surface waters and tertiary effluent treatment. Other special element types
are made with a fullfit configuration for applications requiring sanitary-grade membrane elements. The fullfit
configuration minimizes stagnant areas and complies with FDA standards. See also Section 1, Basics of Reverse
Osmosis and Nanofiltration, and the relevant product data sheets.
3.17 System Design Suggestions for Troubleshooting Success

When considering the design and purchase of large membrane systems, there are a number of possible equipment
designs and additions that can be added to help with future troubleshooting. Depending on the size and complexity of
the system, some or all of these suggestions could be discussed with your system supplier. None are required for
successful operation, but all make day-to-day operation and troubleshooting easier, quicker, and more effective.
Access to Load and Troubleshoot the System

Even though membrane systems are quite compact, there is often a temptation to save even more floor space by
crowding equipment, pipelines, and supports so close together that access to the membrane system is limited. Ideally,
one should have unrestricted access to both the feed and brine end of each and every vessel for loading, unloading, and
troubleshooting of the membrane elements. When loading, at least the length of one element is necessary between
the feed end of the vessels and the nearest equipment or support. When unloading, often more room could be used so
that a large wooden board or some other device can be used to push the element stack toward the brine end.
Connections Allowing Probing, Profiling, and Sampling

When troubleshooting potential element problems, one of the first operations is always to attempt to localize any
problem, either to a stage, a vessel, or even to an element. Having sample points on all the vessel permeate lines greatly
facilitates these operations. Ideally, the permeate sample points can allow a probe tube to be passed through. Having
additional sample points on the feed, the concentrate, and any inter-stage headers, can help localize problems to a
stage and even allow for mass balance measurements to corroborate flow measurements and ultimately setting of the
system recovery.
To control the microbiological activity, adequate sampling points should be provided to make a microbiological balance
and control in the plant possible. The minimum number of sampling points required are listed below:
1. Intake (surface or well), before chlorination, if any
2. After a clarifier, settling pond, sludge contact unit, or similar sedimentation process
3. After filtration units (sand, multimedia, activated carbon, or other)
4. After dechlorination (normally after cartridge filtration)
5. Concentrate stream
6. Permeate stream

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Instrumentation to Allow Performance Monitoring by Stage
Beyond simple sample points, the next step in system sophistication is to instrument the stages so that performance
data can be gathered and normalized, showing day-to-day variation in the system performance against a reference
condition such as start-up. Adequate instrumentation means having conductivity or TDS measurements, pressure
measurements, temperature measurements, and flow measurements on the feed, concentrate, and permeate of each
stage. Given this data, performance of the stage can be monitored and early signs of trouble can be easily detected
from the normalized data. Even though a mass balance around the system can be used to eliminate some of the
instrumentation, having all the instrumentation means that the mass balance can be used to test the internal
consistency of the data and, thus, monitor the performance of the instruments.
Real-Time Online Normalization

In terms of system monitoring, online instruments feeding an ongoing and continuous normalization program is the
ultimate. For very large systems, or for systems with highly variable feed conditions, real-time control may be warranted.
Provisions to Clean Each Stage Individually

Many large systems are provided with clean-in-place (CIP) systems. By providing sufficient piping and valving to clean
each stage of a system individually, the cleanings will be more effective. Cleaning multiple stages together means that
dirt, debris, biomass, and scale must be pushed from the first stage and through subsequent stages before exiting the
system. CIP systems should also provide adequate flowrates for effective cleanings. CIP systems should also be capable
to heat the cleaning solutions.
Permeate Flushing Capability

A potential system feature that can lower the frequency of cleanings is to provide for periodic permeate flushing of the
system. Permeate flushing is accomplished by recycling permeate or product water through the system at a high rate to
loosen and push out foulant layers before they adhere to the membrane surface. This capability is especially useful in
systems handling treated wastewater.
SDI Measurement Device and Connection Points in the System

An SDI instrument is a great diagnostic tool, especially for the pretreatment end of a system. Like profiling and probing
the elements can localize a potential membrane problem, an SDI instrument with connections throughout the
pretreatment system can help quickly localize pretreatment problems.
Wet Lab at the Plant Site

Having the capability to do laboratory work at the plant site means that water analyses can be more easily monitored,
especially for setting up and maintaining pretreatment chemical additions.
Single-Element Test Unit

Having a single-element test unit at the plant can be a real advantage. Suspect membrane elements can be quickly
tested and judged as good or bad. In addition, cleaning strategies can be tested and proven on fouled elements before
applying them on whole stages of the plant.

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4 Loading of Pressure Vessels
This section provides guidelines for loading and unloading FilmTec™ Reverse Osmosis (RO) and Nanofiltration (NF)
Elements. For additional loading instructions, contact the individual pressure vessel manufacturer.
4.1 Preparation
A schematic diagram of the RO system should be prepared for recording pressure vessel and element locations. It
should show the entire piping system for the skid as well. To identify individual element locations, use the FilmTec™
serial numbers written on each label. This diagram will help you keep track of each individual element in the system.
The following equipment is recommended:
l Safety shoes
l Safety glasses
l Rubber gloves
l Silicone lubricant (Molykote® 111 Compound recommended)
l Allen wrench
l Clean rags
l Glycerin
l Hose and water to flush vessel
l Sponge/swab, long stick and rope to clean vessel
1. Load FilmTec™ Elements into the pressure vessels just prior to start-up.
2. Before assembling all components, check the parts list and make sure all items are present and in the right
quantities.
3. Carefully remove all dust, dirt, and foreign matter from the pressure vessels before opening.
4. Remove all endcap assemblies and thrust rings (if provided) from all pressure vessels in the train or system.
Note: There are several manufacturers of pressure vessels used for spiral-wound nanofiltration and reverse osmosis
elements. Refer to the manufacturer’s drawing for your pressure vessel during removal and installation of
endcap assembly.
5. Spray clean water through the open pressure vessels to remove any dust or debris present in the vessels.
Note: If additional cleaning is required, create a swab large enough to fill the inside diameter of the pressure vessel.
Soak the swab in a glycerin/water solution (50 vol%) and move it back and forth through the pressure vessel
until the vessel is clean and lubricated.
4.2 Element Loading

1. Install the thrust ring in the concentrate discharge end of the vessel. Consult the manufacturer’s drawing for specific
information on the thrust ring positioning. This has to be done before the loading of any elements, there is a risk of
not installing it properly.
2. You need to verify whether you are installing FilmTec™ Elements with iLEC™ (Interlocking Endcap) or standard
elements which require the use of a supplied interconnect.

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3. It’s recommended to stage the elements prior to loading and record each serial number by position so that in the
future you will know where each element is located inside the pressure vessel.
4. Place the leading end of the first RO or NF element into the feedwater end of the first pressure vessel and slide it in
approximately one-half of the element length. Note: Always load NF or RO elements into the feedwater end of the
pressure vessel. Verify that the U-cup brine seal is properly seated in the endcap groove of the element such that
the brine seal opens in the upstream direction.
5. To load standard elements: Lubricate the O-ring seals on the interconnector and the inside of the product water
tube with a very thin layer of silicone lubricant. Install the interconnector into the permeate tube of the element.
Glycerin may be used but is not recommended. Although glycerin lubricates during the initial installation, it quickly
washes out during normal operation. Experience has shown that using a silicone lubricant applied sparingly to the
bore of 8-inch elements or the permeate water tube outer sealing surface for 4-inch and 2.5-inch elements
maintains the desired lubricity long after the initial start-up. For potable water and food processing applications, the
silicone lubricant DuPont Corning® 111 valve lubricant and sealant, which carries both FDA and NSF approval, works
quite well.
a. Apply a thin layer of silicone lubricant to each brine seal. When silicone is applied, as each element is
installed and pushed into position this will act as a lubricant on the inside of the pressure vessel which will
remain during the operation of the system making removal much easier.
b. Lift the next element into position and install the trailing end on the interconnector. Be very careful to hold
the next element so that the weight is not supported by the interconnector, and push the element into the
pressure vessel until about one-half of the element extends outside the vessel.
To load elements with iLEC™ Interlocking Endcaps: A special tool is recommended which is called a ratcheting band
clamp which can be ordered directly from FilmTec. The band clamp has a heavy-duty strap that grips the element
securely but will not damage the element outer shell. The band clamp is lightweight, durable, and safe. It will
successfully hold the element in place no matter what substance may be on the outer fiberglass shell. Note: iLEC
elements can be connected to the end plug, one of two ways, one being a special iLEC adapter, the other is with a
standard PV adapter. It is pressure vessel manufacturer dependant, there are slight differences in each manufacturers
endplug so it’s essential to make sure when the parts are ordered and prior to installation.
a. Insert the first element, downstream end first, and push it into the vessel in the same direction as the
feedwater flow. Leave enough of the element protruding from the vessel to allow attachment of the
ratcheting band clamp. This is a good time to check the condition of the O-ring.
b. iLEC elements with iLEC adapters – Attach the downstream iLEC adapter to the male side of the first installed
(last position) element and apply a very thin layer of silicone lubricant. Begin inserting the element into the
vessel leaving enough of the element protruding out for the attachment of the ratcheting band clamp.
c. Attach the second element, taking care to hold the element horizontal when applying clockwise torque.
Rather than gripping the outer shell, apply torque by gripping the spokes on the upstream endcap with one
hand, while supporting the element with the other hand. The ratcheting band clamp should be secured to
prevent rotation.
d. After the elements are snapped together, verify that the markings are properly aligned.
e. By the time the third or fourth element has been installed, the ratcheting band clamp may be unnecessary.
The band clamp is only required until friction generated by the installed elements is greater than the force
required to snap the elements together.
f. Push the elements deeper into the vessel. Repeat this process until all of the elements have been installed
in the vessel. Note: On iLEC’s after connecting the last element, install the other iLEC adapter to the female
end of the element.
Repeat these steps until all elements are loaded into the pressure vessels. The number of elements loaded
into an individual vessel will depend on the length of the elements and the vessel itself. Note: Do not push the
elements in too far, if you do, then the end plate may not fit properly and the elements may have to be
reinstalled.

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6. Install the downstream endcap assembly on each end of the pressure vessel:
a. Carefully position the downstream endcap assembly in the vessel and push the endcap assembly as a unit
squarely into the end of the element. Use care when seating the O-ring seal on the adapter into the
element and avoid pinching or rolling O-rings. Note: Make sure that the O-rings and product water tube are
lubricated.
b. Rotate the endcap assembly to ensure proper alignment with the connecting piping.
c. Replace the hardware, sealing the endcap assembly in place. Refer to the pressure vessel manufacturer’s
drawing.
7. Push the element stack from the feed end (upstream) towards the downstream end.
8. After the elements have been installed, it may be necessary to add shims to reduce the amount of space between
the face of the lead element and the face of the adapter hub. The vessel adapter internally connects the element
product water tube with the permeate port on the pressure vessel. This procedure helps prevent movement and
hammering of elements when the system starts and shuts down. Please refer to Section 4.3 for additional detail.
Continue these steps for each pressure vessel in the train or system.
9. Install the feed endcap assembly on each of the pressure vessels like the downstream endcap assembly. Close each
pressure vessel with the parts from the same vessel. Re-install any piping that was previously removed for element
loading.
4.3 Shimming Elements

Pressure vessels for membrane elements are all built with a tolerance to allow for slight variations in the length of the
elements. This is referred to as freeboard. In operation, the elements can slip back and forth during start-up and shut-
down, causing wear to the internal seals. Additionally, the pressure vessel elongates when pressurized, which in the most
extreme case could push the whole stack of elements off of the lead end adapter, resulting in a severe feed-to-
permeate leak. Shimming the elements in a pressure vessel at the time they are loaded will minimize the shifting that
occurs during start-ups and shut-downs and ensures that the adapters are properly seated in the permeate tubes of the
lead and tail elements.
Shims themselves are plastic spacer rings (like washers), usually about 0.20 inches (5 mm) thick with an inside diameter
slightly larger than the pressure vessel head end of the adapter. Figure 43 shows a drawing of a typical shim and the
placement of multiple shims on the adapter between the adapter hub and the pressure vessel head. Shims are always
placed on the feed end adapter, keeping the stack of elements tight against the thrust ring and end plug on the brine
end of the pressure vessel.

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Figure 43. Shim and placement on vessel adapter at feed end of pressure vessel.
Shims can be purchased from your pressure vessel manufacturer. An alternative is to cut shims from an appropriately
sized piece of polyvinylchloride (PVC) pipe. If cut from pipe, the shims must be free of burrs and must be cut parallel and
flat to work correctly.
Shimming at Elevated Temperatures

Even if the elements are operated within the recommended pressure and temperature limits, a slight shortening of the
elements may occur over time. For this reason, when operating at pressures above 600 psi (42 bar) together with
temperatures above 40°C (104°F), regardless of the maximum pressure and temperature limits recommended, it is
necessary to monitor the gap available for shims inside representative pressure vessels.
When operating at temperatures above 40°C (104°F), a disciplined monitoring program is required. This is done by
opening representative pressure vessels and inspecting the length available for shims on the feed-end vessel adapter.
The maximum length available for shims must not exceed 2 cm (0.8 inches). It is recommended to check 3 to 5 vessels
in each stage of each train, or all of the vessels when 3 or fewer vessels are present. Checking once per week upon initial
exposure to temperatures above 40°C (104°F) is recommended, with frequency decreasing rapidly once the data
demonstrate little or no change.
During extended operation at temperatures above about 42°C (108°F), proper shimming may require more space for
shims than is available on the end of the feed-end vessel adapter. When planning for these conditions, ask your vessel
supplier about the availability of longer adapters for your vessel.
Important Note Regarding Your Warranty: Failure to maintain proper shimming will void your element warranty. Refer to
your governing document – either product data sheet, element warranty, or system warranty – for the operating limits
and additional voiding conditions that apply to your elements.

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How to Shim
The process of shimming is performed after the membrane elements have been loaded. The element stack should be
pushed completely into the vessel such that the downstream element is firmly seated against the thrust ring at the
brine end of the vessel. Refer to the pressure vessel manufacturer’s instructions on loading elements. From this point
the procedure is as follows:
1. Remove the adapter O-ring and head seal from the feed end of these vessel components. This will assure that
there is no interference from any of the sealing components and minimize the force required to “seat the
head.”
2. Remove the end plate and slide spacers over the head end of the adapter that fits into the permeate port. Add
enough spacers so it is not possible to install the retaining rings after seating the head.
3. Remove one spacer at a time until you can just install the retaining rings. The slight remaining movement is
acceptable.
4. Remove the head and reinstall the adapter O-ring and head seal.
5. Close the vessel according to the manufacturer’s instructions.
4.4 Element Removal

Standard elements: Two operators are recommended when removing NF or RO elements from a train or system.
Remove the element from each pressure vessel as follows:
1. Disconnect the hard plumbing at each end of the pressure vessel. Refer to the vessel manufacturer’s drawing
as required. Mark or tag all removed items for return to the same location. Note: Numbering of the endplates
and reinstalling in the same vessel is very important, this makes reinstallation much easier and all the
connections will line up properly.
2. Remove the heads assemblies from each end of the pressure vessel.
3. Push the NF or RO elements from the pressure vessel in the same direction as feedwater flows. Push the
elements out one at a time. Support each element as it is being pushed out of the vessel until the element is
free of the pressure vessel.
Elements with iLEC™ Interlocking Endcaps: With the vessel endplug removed, the downstream vessel adapter can be
disconnected. This is done by reaching into the vessel and applying counter-clockwise torque to the downstream
adapter.
1. Attach the optional pulling tool with a clockwise twisting motion
2. Pull the stack of elements far enough out of the vessel so that the first element can be safely removed.
Remember, elements may become disconnected inside the vessel during unloading, so use caution when
pushing or pulling elements from the vessel.
3. With the element supported, de-couple the element with a counter-clockwise twist. Sometimes, it works best
to face away from the vessel when unlocking.
4. Repeat this operation until the vessel is emptied. As an alternative to pulling the elements from the vessel,
the entire stack can be pushed from the opposite end of the vessel with a push rod, or with replacement
elements.

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4.5 Interconnector Technology for 8-inch Diameter FilmTec™ Elements
The interconnector between two membrane elements is a critical item in the overall performance of a reverse osmosis
or nanofiltration system. The interconnector conducts the low-pressure product water from element to element and
ultimately out of a pressure vessel while keeping it separate from the high pressure feed and brine solutions. The
interconnector must therefore be strong enough to withstand the pressure of the feed as well as provide a perfect seal
between the feed and product water.
4.5.1 New Interconnector Advantages
The “dog bone” interconnector offers three advantages over previous generations of interconnectors. The first
advantage is that total seal area of the dog bone interconnector is the same as the old 4 O-ring interconnector. It is the
same because the O-rings used are twice the cross-sectional diameter and the groove proportions are the same.
Additionally, because the seal footprint is larger with one large O-ring, the seal is more likely to bridge defects in the
sealing surface. Having one large footprint seal is an advantage over two small footprint seals. Figure 44 is a scaled
drawing of two smaller O-rings and one larger O-ring having twice the cross-sectional diameter.
Figure 44. O-ring cross-section of 2 O-ring and “dog-boned” interconnector ends

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The second advantage of the “dog boned” interconnector is that it allows for misalignment of the product water tubes
of elements. The product water tube ends do not naturally line up because one end of the element has a brine seal
while the other does not. The brine seal naturally centers one end of the element in the pressure vessel while the end
without the brine seal sags in relation. Figure 45 illustrates the potential misalignment of two elements and shows the
enlargement of the interconnector alone. Because the interconnector has only one O-ring on each end and is narrow in
the middle, it is free to pivot and correct for misalignment of product water tubes.
Figure 45. Product water tube misalignment

A third advantage of the “dog boned” interconnector is that the larger cross-section O-ring has less of a chance of
“rolling out” of the O-ring groove. When O-ring sealed parts slide back and forth, the O-ring has a tendency to extrude
into the gap between the two parts. In both the interconnector designs, the gap between the parts is the same. But
since the ratio of the O-ring diameter to the gap width is much larger for the dog-boned interconnector, there is much
less chance of the O-ring coming out of the groove and the seal being damaged or lost.
4.5.2 Summary of Large Element Interconnectors
Table 33 summarizes the range of interconnectors used by FilmTec™ for 8-inch-diameter elements. It shows both the
part number of the interconnector and the part number and equivalence for the O-rings should they need replacement
during system maintenance.
Table 33. FilmTec™ interconnector (coupler) summary

Interconnector Interconnector part number Replacement O-rings
Interconnector FilmTec™ 313198 l Each interconnector includes two 3-912
EPR O-rings (FilmTec™ part number
l Used in BW30-365, BW30-400, LE-400, 151705)
BW30-365-FR, BW30-400-FR, SG30-
400, SW30HRLE-400, SW30HR-380,
SW30HR-320, NF-400 and Maple Sap
Mark I elements
Low energy interconnector FilmTec™ 259171 l Each interconnector includes two 2-218
l Used in BW30LE-440, XLE-440, SG30- 216370)
430, NF90-400, NF270-400, and
NF200-400 elements
l Injection molded high impact ABS
Fullfit interconnector FilmTec™ 255289 l Each interconnector includes two 3-912
l Used in RO-390-FF, HSRO-390-FF, and 151705)
NF-390-FF elements
l Polysulfone

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4.6 Installing an Element Spacer
In some instances it is desirable to reduce the amount of water that a membrane system produces. In large systems, this
is often done by turning off banks of elements. In other systems the feed pressure is reduced, but reducing the feed
pressure will lower the overall water quality. Therefore, it may be necessary to remove the lead elements from a system
and install element spacers instead.
An element spacer, also called a “dead man,” is simply a standard product water tube without permeate holes. Proper
installation is critical to both performance and safety. Only one element spacer can be installed per pressure vessel, and
it must always be installed in the first or lead element position. If placed in any other position it may crack or break due
to the force being put on the product water tube.
To install the spacer:
1. Remove the first or lead position element.
2. Remove and inspect the adapter and first interconnector, making certain that the O-rings are not rolled,
compression set (flat on one side), or otherwise damaged. Replace the O-rings if necessary.
3. Insert the interconnector in the spacer and push the spacer/interconnector into the second position element.
4. Insert the adapter and then replace the pressure vessel head. It may be helpful to only partially insert the
interconnector and adapter to leave room to line up the parts. Alternately, a guide stick can be inserted
through the permeate port on the vessel head to hold the spacer in line while the parts are pushed together.
Figure 46 shows an element spacer properly installed in a pressure vessel.
Figure 46. Element spacer properly installed in a pressure vessel

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5 System Operation
5.1 Introduction
Successful long-term performance of the membrane system (NF and RO) depends on proper operation and
maintenance of the system. This includes the initial plant start-up and operational start-ups and shut-downs. Preventing
fouling, scaling, plugging and degradation, e.g., by oxidation, of the membranes is not only a matter of system design,
but also a matter of proper commissioning and operation. Record keeping and data normalization is required in order to
know the actual plant performance and to enable corrective measures when necessary. Complete and accurate records
are also required in case of a system performance warranty claim
5.2 Initial Start-Up

Before initiating system start-up procedures, pretreatment checks, loading of the membrane elements, instrument
calibration and other system checks should be completed.
5.2.1 Equipment
The initial system start-up is typically performed just after the element loading. The material needed for element
loading is listed in Section 4.1, Preparation. For start-up, the following additional equipment is recommended – this
should also be part of the equipment at the site:
l Safety glasses when working with chemicals
l Thermometer
l pH meter
l Conductivity meter (range: from permeate to concentrate conductivity)
l SDI measuring equipment
l Adequate chemicals for cleaning, sanitization and preservation
l Scale to weigh one element
l Spare elements
l Single-element test stand (for large systems > 500 elements)
l Bottles for water samples:
– Volume: at least 125 mL
– Material: HDPE (high density polyethylene)
– Number: sufficient to sample raw water, system feed, system permeate and system concentrate. In case
of a system with more than one train, each train is to be sampled separately. In case of systems with
more than one stage, permeate samples of the individual stages and feed/concentrate samples from
in-between the stages have to be added. The operating conditions of the membrane system during
sampling have to be provided.

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l Analysis equipment for:
– Total hardness
– Calcium
– Alkalinity
– Chloride
– Sulfate
– Iron
– Silica
– Free chlorine
– Redox potential
– TOC
– Color (a large white container may suffice to detect color in the permeate)
5.2.2 Pre-Start-Up Check and Commissioning Audit
After having loaded the elements into the pressure vessels and before starting up the membrane unit, make sure that
the whole pretreatment section is working in accordance with the specifications. If the pretreatment involved changing
of the chemical characteristics of the raw water, then a full analysis of the water entering the membrane unit must be
made. Furthermore, absence of chlorine, turbidity and SDI must be determined.
The raw water intake must be stable with respect to:
l Flow
l SDI
l Turbidity
l Temperature
l pH
l Conductivity
l Bacteria (standard plate count)
The following checks of the pretreatment system and the membrane unit are recommended for the initial start-up
(results to be included in the start-up report):

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Pre-Start-Up Checklist
□ Corrosion resistant materials of construction are used for all equipment from the supply source to the
membrane including piping, vessels, instruments and wetted parts of pumps
□ All piping and equipment is compatible with designed pressure
□ All piping and equipment is compatible with designed pH range (cleaning)
□ All piping and equipment is protected against galvanic corrosion
□ Media filters are backwashed and rinsed
□ New/clean cartridge filter is installed directly upstream of the high-pressure pump
□ Feed line, including RO feed manifold, is purged and flushed, before pressure vessels are connected
□ Chemical addition points are properly located
□ Check/anti-siphon valves are properly installed in chemical addition lines
□ Provisions exist for proper mixing of chemicals in the feed stream
□ Dosage chemical tanks are filled with the right chemicals
□ Provisions exist for preventing the RO system from operating when the dosage pumps are shut down
□ Provisions exist for preventing the dosage pumps from operating when the RO system is shut down
□ If chlorine is used, provisions exist to ensure complete chlorine removal prior to the membranes
□ Planned instrumentation allows proper operation and monitoring of the pretreatment and RO system (see
Control Instruments (Form No. 45-D01597-en) )
□ Planned instrumentation is installed and operative
□ Instrument calibration is verified
□ Pressure relief protection is installed and correctly set
□ Provisions exist for preventing the permeate pressure from exceeding the feed/concentrate pressure more
than 5 psi (0.3 bar) at any time
□ Interlocks, time delay relays and alarms are properly set
□ Provisions exist for sampling permeate from individual modules
□ Provisions exist for sampling raw water, feed, permeate and concentrate streams from each stage and the total
plant permeate stream
□ Pressure vessels are properly piped both for operation and cleaning mode
□ Pressure vessels are secured to the rack or frame per manufacturer’s instructions
□ Precautions as given in Section 4, Loading of Pressure Vessels, are taken
□ Membranes are protected from temperature extremes (freezing, direct sunlight, heater exhaust, etc.)
□ Pumps are ready for operation: aligned, lubricated, proper otation
□ Fittings are tight
□ Cleaning system is installed and operative
□ Permeate line is open
□ Permeate flow is directed to drain (In double-pass systems, provisions exist to flush first pass without permeate
going through the second pass)
□ Reject flow control valve is in open position
□ Feed flow valve is throttled and/or pump bypass valve is partly open to limit feed flow to less than 50% of
operating feed flow
5.2.3 Start-Up Sequence
Proper start-up of reverse osmosis (RO) and nanofiltration (NF) water treatment systems is essential to prepare the
membranes for operating service and to prevent membrane damage due to excessive pressure/flow or hydraulic shock.
Following the proper start-up sequence also helps ensure that system operating parameters conform to design
conditions so that water quality and productivity goals can be achieved. Measurement of initial system performance is
an important part of the start-up process. Documented results of this evaluation serve as benchmarks against which
ongoing system operating performance can be measured.
Typical Start-Up Sequence

Following is the recommended RO system start-up sequence:
1. Before initiating the start-up sequence, thoroughly rinse the pretreatment section to flush out debris and
other contaminants without letting the feed enter the elements. Follow the Pre-Start-up check described in
Section 5.2.2, Pre-Start-up Check and Commissioning Audit.

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2. Check all valves to ensure that settings are correct. The feed pressure control and concentrate control valves
should be fully open.
3. Use low-pressure water at a low flowrate to flush the air out of the elements and pressure vessels. Flush at a
gauge pressure of 30 – 60 psi (0.2 – 0.4 MPa). All permeate and concentrate flows should be directed to an
appropriate waste collection drain during flushing.
Air remaining in the elements and/or in the pressure vessels may lead to excessive forces on the element in
flow direction or in radial direction and causing fiberglass shell cracking, if the feed pressure is ramped up too
quickly (see also Section 8.1, Troubleshooting).
4. During the flushing operation, check all pipe connections and valves for leaks. Tighten connections where
necessary.
5. After the system has been flushed for a minimum of 30 minutes, close the feed pressure control valve.
6. Ensure that the concentrate control valve is open.
Starting against a closed or almost closed concentrate valve could cause the recovery to be exceeded which
may lead to scaling.
7. Slowly crack open the feed pressure control valve (feed pressure should be less than 60 psi (0.4 MPa).
8. Start the high-pressure pump.
9. Slowly open the feed pressure control valve, increasing the feed pressure and feed flowrate to the membrane
elements until the design concentrate flow is reached. The feed pressure increase to the elements should be
less than 10 psi (0.07 MPa) per second to achieve a soft start. Continue to send all permeate and concentrate
flows to an appropriate waste collection drain.
If the feed pressure and/or the feed flowrate are ramped up too quickly, the housing of the elements may be
damaged by excessive forces in flow direction and/or in radial direction - especially if air is in the system -
leading to telescoping and/or fiberglass shell cracking (see also Section 8.1, Troubleshooting).
10. Slowly close the concentrate control valve until the ratio of permeate flow to concentrate flow approaches,
but does not exceed, the design ratio (recovery). Continue to check the system pressure to ensure that it does
not exceed the upper design limit.
11. Repeat steps "9" and "10" until the design permeate and concentrate flows are obtained.
12. Calculate the system recovery and compare it to the system's design value.
13. Check the addition of pretreatment chemicals (acid, scale inhibitor and sodium metabisulfite if used). Measure
feedwater pH.
14. Check the Langelier Saturation Index (LSI) or the Stiff & Davis Stability Index (S&DSI) of the concentrate by
measuring pH, conductivity, calcium hardness, and alkalinity levels and then making the necessary
calculations.
15. Allow the system to run for one hour.
Note: Permeate obtained from first hour of operation should be discarded.
16. Take the first reading of all operating parameters.
17. Check the permeate conductivity from each pressure vessel to verify that all vessels conform to performance
expectations (e.g., vessels with leaking O-rings or other evidence of malfunction to be identified for corrective
action).
18. After 24 – 48 hours of operation, review all recorded plant operating data such as feed pressure, differential
pressure, temperature, flows, recovery and conductivity readings (please refer to Section 5.6.1). At the same
time draw samples of feedwater, concentrate and permeate for analysis of constituents.
19. Compare system performance to design values.
20. Confirm proper operation of mechanical and instrumental safety devices.

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21. Switch the permeate flow from drain to the normal service position.
22. Lock the system into automatic operation.
23. Use the initial system performance information obtained in steps "16" through "18" as a reference for
evaluating future system performance. Measure system performance regularly during the first week of
operation to check for proper performance during this critical initial stage.
Figure 47. Typical RO/NF system
5.2.4 Membrane Start-Up Performance and Stabilization
The start-up performance of an RO/NF membrane system and the time required to reach the stabilized performance
depends on the prior storage conditions of the membrane. Dry membranes and wet preserved membranes, if properly
stored, reach the same stabilized performance after some hours or a few days of operation. The flow performance of
wet membranes is typically stable right from the start, while dry membranes tend to start at a slightly higher flow. The
salt rejection of FilmTec™ Membranes in general improves during the first few hours or days of operation and remains
stable then. Wet membranes stabilize faster than dry membranes.
5.2.5 Special Systems: Double-Pass RO
When a double-pass system is started up, the first pass system must have been in operation for at least 24 hours before
the permeate of the first pass is fed to the membranes of the second pass. Otherwise a permanent flux loss of the
second pass may result. The pH of the feedwater to both passes have to be adjusted for optimal results in rejection. A
final product water conductivity of < 1 µS/cm is being obtained routinely from brackish water sources with double-pass
BWRO membrane systems.
5.2.6 Special Systems: Heat-Sanitizable RO
New HSRO heat-sanitizable spiral elements must be pre-conditioned prior to initial use by exposure to hot water. Please
refer to Section 6.10.4, Heat Sanitization. Please refer to Heat Sanitization (Form No. 45-D01632-en).

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5.3 Operation Start-Up
Once a membrane system has been started up, ideally it should be kept running at constant conditions. In reality,
membrane plants have to be shut down and restarted frequently. Start/stop cycles result in pressure and flow changes,
causing mechanical stress to the membrane elements. Therefore, the start/stop frequency should be minimized, and
the regular operation start-up sequence should be as smooth as possible. In principle, the same sequence is
recommended as for the initial start-up. Most important is a slow feed pressure increase, especially for seawater plants.
The normal start-up sequence is typically automated through the use of programmable controllers and remotely
operated valves. The calibration of instruments, the function of alarms and safety devices, corrosion prevention and
leak-free operation have to be checked and maintained on a regular basis.
5.4 RO and NF Systems Shut-down

An RO/NF system is designed to be operated continuously. However, in reality membrane systems will start up and shut
down on some frequency. When the membrane system is shut down, the system must be flushed preferentially with
permeate water or alternatively with high quality feedwater, to remove the high salt concentration from the pressure
vessels until concentrate conductivity matches feedwater conductivity. Flushing is done at low pressure (about 40 psi
(3 bar)). A high feed flowrate is sometimes beneficial for a cleaning effect; however, the maximum pressure drop per
element and per multi-element vessel – as stated on the FilmTec™ Membranes product information sheet - must not
be exceeded. During low-pressure flushing, the vessels of the last stage of a concentrate staged system are normally
exposed to the highest feed flowrates and therefore they show the highest pressure drop.
The water used for flushing shall contain no chemicals used for the pretreatment, especially no scale inhibitors.
Therefore, any chemical injection (if used) is stopped before flushing. After flushing the system, the feed valves are
closed completely. If the concentrate line ends into a drain below the level of the pressure vessels, then an air break
should be employed in the concentrate line at a position higher than the highest pressure vessel. Otherwise, the vessels
might be emptied by a siphoning effect.
When the high-pressure pump is switched off, and the feed/concentrate side had not been flushed out with permeate
water, a temporary permeate reverse flow will occur by natural osmosis. This reverse flow is sometimes referred to as
permeate draw-back or suck-back. Permeate suck-back alone or in combination with a feed-side flush may provide a
beneficial cleaning effect. To accommodate permeate suck-back, enough water volume should be available to prevent
a vacuum from being drawn or air being sucked back into the membrane element. For dimensioning a draw-back tank,
see Section 3.14.6.
If the permeate line is pressurized during operation and the system shuts down, the membrane might become exposed
to a static permeate backpressure. To avoid membrane damage from backpressure, the static permeate backpressure
must not exceed 5 psi (0.3 bar) at any time. Check valves or atmospheric drain valves in the permeate line can be used to
safeguard the membrane. These safeguard valves need to work also and especially in case of non-scheduled shut-
downs, e.g., because of a power failure, or emergency shut-downs.
When the system must be shut down for longer than 48 hours, take care that:
l The elements do not dry out. Dry elements will irreversibly lose flux.
l The system is adequately protected against microbiological growth, or regular flushing is carried out every 24
hours.
l When applicable, the system is protected against temperature extremes.
The membrane plant can be stopped for 24 hours without preservation and precautions for microbiological fouling. If
feedwater for flushing every 24 hours is not available, preservation with chemicals is necessary for longer stops than
48 hours. Please refer to Section 7.4 for further lay-up considerations.

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5.5 Adjustment of Operation Parameters
5.5.1 Introduction
A membrane system is designed on the basis of a defined set of data such as the permeate flow, feedwater
composition and temperature. In reality, the plant operation has to be flexible to respond to changing needs or
changing conditions.
5.5.2 Brackish Water
The normal way of operating brackish water RO and NF membrane plants is to keep the flows and thus the recovery
constant at the design values. Any change in the membrane flux, e.g., by temperature or fouling, are compensated by
adjusting the feed pressure. However, the maximum specified feed pressure must not be exceeded, nor should too
much fouling be tolerated (for cleaning, please refer to Cleaning and Sanitization).
If the feedwater analysis changes such that the scaling potential increases, the system recovery has to be decreased, or
other measures have to be taken to cope with the new situation. Please refer to Water Chemistry and Pretreatment.
The most common situation is that the permeate capacity of the plant has to be adjusted to the needs. Normally, the
capacity is designed to meet the peak needs. Operating with overcapacity is generally not recommended. Thus,
adjustment means lowering the design permeate output. The easiest way is to shut the plant down when no permeate
is needed. A high start/stop frequency, however, can lower the performance and the lifetime of the membranes. A
permeate buffer tank may be used to allow a more constant operation.
Reducing the feed pressure is another way to reduce the permeate flow. Preferably, this is done by using a speed
controlled pump in order to save energy. Normally, the system recovery is kept constant when the permeate flow is
reduced. It has to be ensured by a system analysis using the computer program, that single-element recoveries do not
exceed their limits (see Section 3, System Design). During low flow operation, the system salt rejection is lower than
during design flow operation. Also, you must be certain that minimum concentrate flows are maintained during low flow
operation.
5.5.3 Seawater
In principle, the operation parameters of seawater plants are adjusted the same way as in brackish water applications.
However, the maximum allowed feed pressure as specified on the product information sheet, and the permeate TDS
are often the limiting factors.
Decreasing feedwater temperature can be compensated by increasing the feed pressure up to the maximum. Once the
maximum pressure is reached, a further decreasing temperature causes the permeate flow to decrease.
Increasing temperature is compensated by lowering the feed pressure. This is only possible, however, as far as the
tolerated permeate TDS is not exceeded. Alternatively, increasing temperature can be compensated by taking a
number of pressure vessels out of service. By reducing the active membrane area, the feed pressure and the permeate
TDS are kept about constant. A system analysis has to be run to make sure that maximum element permeate flows are
not exceeded. When some vessels are taken out of service, they have to be properly isolated and preserved.
An increase in the feedwater salinity can be compensated by increasing the feed pressure up to the maximum. If
further pressure increase is not possible, than a lowered permeate flow and system recovery has to be accepted. A
lower feedwater salinity allows to decrease the feed pressure and/or to increase the system recovery and/or to increase
the permeate flow.
The adjustment of the permeate capacity to reduced needs is normally accomplished by sufficiently dimensioned
permeate tanks.
Big plants are split up into a number of identical trains. Then the number of trains in service can be adjusted to the
needs.

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5.6 Record Keeping
5.6.1 Introduction
In order to be able to follow the performance of the RO unit, it is necessary that all relevant data are collected, recorded
and kept on file. Apart from keeping track of the performance, the logsheets are also valuable tools for troubleshooting,
and are needed in the cases of warranty claims.
This chapter is for general guidance only and must not be used in place of the operating manual for a particular plant.
Site-dependent factors prevent specific recommendations for all record keeping. Thus, only the more general record
keeping is covered here.
5.6.2 Start-Up Report
l Provide a complete description of the RO plant. This can be done using a flow diagram and equipment,
instrumentation, and material list to show water source, pretreatment system, RO configuration and posttreatment
system.
l Give results of checking according to check list (Section 5.2.2, Pre-Start-up Check and Commissioning Audit).
l Provide calibration curves of all gauges and meters based on manufacturers' recommendations.
l Record initial performance of RO and pretreatment system as provided below.
5.6.3 RO Operating Data
The following data must be recorded and logged into an appropriate logsheet at least once per shift, unless otherwise
stated (see Table 34 for an example).
l Date, time and hours of operation.
l Pressure drop per filter cartridge and per stage.
l Feed, permeate and concentrate pressure of each stage.
l Permeate and concentrate flows of each stage.
l Conductivity of the feed, permeate and concentrate streams for each stage. Permeate conductivity of each
pressure vessel weekly.
l TDS of feed, permeate and concentrate streams for each stage. The TDS is calculated from the water analysis. It
can also be calculated from the conductivity (at 25°C) EC25 and an appropriate K factor:
TDS = K EC25
The K factor has to be determined for each specific stream. Typical K factors are shown in Table 35.
l pH of the feed, permeate and concentrate streams.
l Silt Density Index (SDI) or turbidity of the RO feed stream, or both.
l Water temperature of the feed stream.
l Langelier Saturation Index (LSI) of the concentrate stream from the last stage (for concentrate streams < 10,000
mg/L TDS).
l Stiff and Davis Stability Index (S&DSI) of the concentrate stream from the last stage
(for concentrate streams > 10,000 mg/L).

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l Calibration of all gauges and meters based on manufacturer’s recommendations as to method and frequency
but no less frequent than once every three months.
l Any unusual incidents, for example, upsets in SDI, pH, and pressure and shut-downs.
l Complete water analysis of the feed, permeate and concentrate streams and the raw water at start-up and every
week thereafter.
The water analysis shall include:
– Calcium
– Magnesium
– Sodium
– Potassium
– Strontium
– Barium
– Iron (total, dissolved and ferrous)
– Aluminium (total and dissolved)
– Bicarbonate
– Sulfate
– Chloride
– Nitrate
– Fluoride
– Phosphate (total)
– Silica (dissolved)
– Total dissolved solids
– Conductivity
– pH
– TOC

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Table 34. Reverse osmosis operating log (example)

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Table 35. Factors for estimating TDS from conductivity
Water EC25 (mS/m) K
Permeate 0.1 – 1 0.50
30 – 80 0.55
Seawater 4,500 – 6,000 0.70
Concentrate 6,500 – 8,500 0.75
5.6.4 Pretreatment Operating Data
Since the RO system performance depends largely on the proper operation of the pretreatment, the operating
characteristics of the pretreatment equipment should be recorded. Specific recommendations for all record keeping
cannot be given, because pretreatment is site-dependent. Typically, the following items must be recorded:
l Total residual chlorine concentration in the RO feed (daily – unless known to be completely absent).
l Discharge pressure of any well or booster pumps (twice a day).
l Pressure drop of all filters (twice a day).
l Consumption of acid and any other chemicals (daily – if used).
l Calibration of all gauges and meters based on manufacturers' recommendations as to method and frequency
but no less frequent than once every 3 months.
l Any unusual incidents, for example, upsets and shut-downs as they occur.
5.6.5 Maintenance Log
l Record routine maintenance.
l Record mechanical failures and replacements.
l Record any change of membrane element locations with element serial numbers.
l Record replacements or additions of RO devices.
l Record calibration of all gauges and meters.
l Record replacement or additions of pretreatment equipment, for example cartridge filters and include date, brand
name and nominal rating.
l Record all cleanings of RO membranes. Include date, duration of cleaning, cleaning agent(s) and concentration,
solution pH, temperature during cleaning, flowrate and pressure (for cleaning procedures see Section 6.1).
5.6.6 Plant Performance Normalization
The performance of an RO/NF system is influenced by the feedwater composition, feed pressure, temperature and
recovery. For example, a feed temperature drop of 4°C (7°F) will cause a permeate flow decrease of about 10%. This,
however, is a normal phenomenon.
In order to distinguish between such normal phenomena and performance changes due to fouling or problems, the
measured permeate flow and salt passage have to be normalized. Normalization is a comparison of the actual
performance to a given reference performance while the influences of operating parameters are taken into account.
The reference performance may be the designed performance or the measured initial performance.
Normalization with reference to the designed (or warranted) system performance is useful to verify that the plant gives
the specified (or warranted) performance. Normalization with reference to the initial system performance is useful to
show up any performance changes between day one and the actual date.

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Plant performance normalization is strongly recommended, because it allows an early identification of potential
problems (e.g., scaling or fouling) when the normalized data are recorded daily. Corrective measures are much more
effective when taken early.
A computer program called FTNORM is available for normalizing operating data and graphing normalized permeate
flow and salt passage as well as pressure drop. This program is available from our web site
https://www.dupont.com/water and requires Excel software. Alternatively, the measured plant performance at operating
conditions can be transferred to standard (reference) conditions by the following calculations:
A. Normalized Permeate Flow
Eq. 72
with Pf = feed pressure

ΔP
^2 = one half device pressure drop
Pp = product pressure
πfc = osmotic pressure of the feed-concentrate mixture
TCF = temperature correction factor
Q = product flow
subscript s = standard condition
subscript o = operating condition
The temperature correction factor follows the formula:
TCF = EXP [2640 x {1 / 298 – 1 / (273 + T)}]; T ≥ 25°C Eq. 73

TCF = EXP [3020 x {1 / 298 – 1 / (273 + T)}]; T ≤ 25°C Eq. 74
where T = temperature as °C.
As standard conditions, we take either the design values or the conditions at initial performance as given in the start-up
report, so that a fixed reference point is available.
For the osmotic pressure, different formulas are available in the literature. A valid and practical short approximation is:
for Cfc < 20000 mg/L Eq. 75
and
for Cfc > 20000 mg/L Eq. 76
with Cfc = concentration of the feed-concentrate

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Cfc can be calculated from following approximation:
Eq. 77
product flow
where Y = recovery ratio =
feed flow
Cf = TDS feed mg/Ls
B. The Normalized Permeate TDS is calculated from
Eq. 78
Terms not yet defined under A are:
Cp = product concentration as ion in mg/L

πp = osmotic pressure of the permeate in bar
Example
Values of Start-Up:
Feedwater analysis in mg/L:
Ca: 200 HCO3: 152

Mg: 61 SO4: 552
Na: 388 Cl: 633
Temp.: 59°F (15°C) Pressure drop: 44 psi (3 bar)

Pressure: 363 psi (25 bar) Permeate pressure: 14.5 psi (1 bar)
Flow: 660 gpm (150 m3/h) Permeate TDS: 83 mg/L
Recovery: 75%

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Values after 3 months:
Feedwater analysis in mg/L:
Ca: 200 HCO3: 152

Mg: 80 SO4: 530
Na: 480 Cl: 850
Temp.: 50°F (10°C) Pressure drop: 58 psi (4 bar)

Pressure: 406 psi (28 bar) Permeate pressure: 29 psi (2 bar)
Flow: 559 gpm (127 m3/h) Permeate TDS: 80 mg/L
Recovery: 72%
For the standard conditions we have:
Pfs = 363 psi (25 bar)
ΔPs
—— = 22 psi (1.5 bar)
2
Cfs = 1986 mg/L
πfcs = 36.3 psi (2.5 bar)
TCFs = EXP [3020 x {1 / 298 – 1 / (273 + 15)}] = 0.70
For the operating conditions we have:
Pfo = 406 psi (28 bar)
Δ Po
—— = 29 psi (2 bar)
2
Cfo = 2292 mg/L
ln ———
1 - 0.72
Cfco = 2292 x ————— = 4052 mg/L
0.72
πfco = 39.4 psi (2.72 bar)
TCFo= EXP [3020 x {1 / 298 – 1 / (273 + 10)}] = 0.58

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Substituting these values in equations (1) gives:
Compared to the start-up conditions, the plant has lost 4% capacity. This is a normal value after a period of 3
months. Cleaning is not yet necessary.
The normalized permeate TDS is derived from equation (2):
Compared to the initial 83 mg/L, the salt rejection has slightly improved. Such behavior is typical for the initial
phase.
References
1. Youngberg, D.A.: Start-up of an RO/DI Pure Water System. Ultrapure Water, March/April 1986, 46-50.
2. ASTM D4472-89 (Reapproved 2003): Standard Guide for Record Keeping for Reverse Osmosis Systems.
3. ASTM D4516-00: Standard Practice for Standardizing Reverse Osmosis Performance Data.
4. ASTM D4195-88 (Reapproved 2003): Standard Guide for Water Analysis for Reverse Osmosis Application.
5. Walton, V.R.G.: Electrical Conductivity and Total Dissolved Solids – What is Their Precise Relationship? Desalination, 72
(1989) 275-292.

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6 Cleaning and Sanitization
6.1 Introduction
The surface of a reverse osmosis (RO) membrane is subject to fouling by foreign materials that may be present in the
feedwater, such as hydrates of metal oxides, calcium precipitates, organics and biological matter. The term “fouling”
includes the build-up of all kinds of layers on the membrane surface, including scaling.
Pretreatment of the feedwater prior to the RO process is basically designed to reduce contamination of the membrane
surfaces as much as possible. This is accomplished by installing an adequate pretreatment system and selecting optimal
operating conditions, such as permeate flowrate, pressure and permeate water recovery ratio.
Occasionally, fouling of the membrane surfaces is caused by:
l Inadequate pretreatment system
l Pretreatment upset conditions
l Improper materials selection (pumps, piping, etc.)
l Failure of chemical dosing systems
l Inadequate flushing following shut-down
l Improper operational control
l Slow build-up of precipitates over extended periods (barium, silica)
l Change in feedwater composition
l Biological contamination of feedwater
The fouling of membrane surfaces manifests itself in performance decline, lower permeate flowrate and/or higher
solute passage. Increased pressure drop between the feed and concentrate side can be a side effect of fouling.
Cleaning can be accomplished very effectively because of the combination of pH stability and temperature resistance
of the membrane and the element components. However, if cleaning is delayed too long, it could be difficult to
remove the foulants completely from the membrane surface. Cleaning will be more effective the better it is tailored to
the specific fouling problem. Sometimes a wrong choice of cleaning chemicals can make a situation worse. Therefore,
the type of foulants on the membrane surface should be determined prior to cleaning. There are different ways to
accomplish this:
l Analyze plant performance data. Details are given in Section 8.2, Evaluation of System Performance and
Operation.
l Analyze feedwater. A potential fouling problem may already be visible there.
l Check results of previous cleanings.
l Analyze foulants collected with a membrane filter pad used for SDI value determination (see Section 2.5.1 ).
l Analyze the deposits on the cartridge filter.
l Inspect the inner surface of the feed line tubing and the feed end scroll of the FilmTec™ Element. If it is
reddish-brown, fouling by iron materials may be present. Biological fouling or organic material is often slimy or
gelatinous.

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6.2 Safety Precautions
1. When using any chemical indicated here or in subsequent sections, follow accepted safety practices. Consult the
chemical manufacturer for detailed information about safety, handling and disposal.
2. When preparing cleaning solutions, ensure that all chemicals are dissolved and well mixed before circulating the
solutions through the elements.
3. It is recommended the elements be flushed with good-quality chlorine-free water (20°C minimum temperature)
after cleaning. Permeate water or deionized water is recommended. Care should be taken to operate initially at
reduced flow and pressure to flush the bulk of the cleaning solution from the elements before resuming normal
operating pressures and flows. Despite this precaution, cleaning chemicals will be present on the permeate side
following cleaning. Therefore, the permeate must be diverted to drain for at least 30 minutes or until the water is
clear when starting up after cleaning.
4. During recirculation of cleaning solutions, there are temperature and pH limits. Please refer to Table 36.
5. For elements greater than 6 inches in diameter, the flow direction during cleaning must be the same as during
normal operation to prevent element telescoping because the vessel thrust ring is installed only on the reject end
of the vessel. This is also recommended for smaller elements. Equipment for cleaning is illustrated below.
Table 36. pH range and temperature limits during cleaning

Max Temp 50°C (122°F) Max Temp 45°C (113°F) Max Temp 35°C( 95 °F) Max Temp 25°C (77°F)
Element type pH range pH range pH range pH range
BW30, BW30LE, LE, XLE, Please contact DuPont 1 – 10.5 1 – 12 1 – 13
TW30, TW30HP, NF90 for assistance
SW30HR, SW30HR LE, Please contact DuPont 1 – 10.5 1 – 12 1 – 13
SW30XLE, SW30 for assistance
NF200, NF270 Not allowed 3 – 10 1 – 11 1 – 12
6.3 Cleaning Requirements

In normal operation, the membrane in reverse osmosis elements can become fouled by mineral scale, biological matter,
colloidal particles and insoluble organic constituents. Deposits build up on the membrane surfaces during operation
until they cause loss in normalized permeate flow, loss of normalized salt rejection, or both.
Elements should be cleaned when one or more of the below mentioned parameters are applicable:
l The normalized permeate flow drops 10%
l The normalized salt passage increases 5 – 10%
l The normalized pressure drop (feed pressure minus concentrate pressure) increases 10 – 15%
If you wait too long, cleaning may not restore the membrane element performance successfully. In addition, the time
between cleanings becomes shorter as the membrane elements will foul or scale more rapidly.
Differential Pressure (∆P) should be measured and recorded across each stage of the array of pressure vessels. If the
feed channels within the element become plugged, the ∆P will increase. It should be noted that the permeate flux will
drop if feedwater temperature decreases. This is normal and does not indicate membrane fouling.
A malfunction in the pretreatment, pressure control, or increase in recovery can result in reduced product water output
or an increase in salt passage. If a problem is observed, these causes should be considered first. The element(s) may not
require cleaning. A computer program called FTNORM is available from DuPont for normalizing performance data of
FilmTec™ RO Membranes. This program can be used to assist in determining when to clean and can be downloaded
from our web site (Download FTNORM).

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6.4 Cleaning Equipment
The equipment for cleaning is shown in the cleaning system flow diagram (Figure 48). The pH of cleaning solutions
used with FilmTec™ Elements can be in the range of 1 – 13 (see Table 38), and therefore, non-corroding materials of
construction should be used in the cleaning system.
Figure 48. Cleaning system flow diagram

TANK Chemical Mixing Tank, polypropylene or FRP DP Differential Pressure Gauge
IH Immersion Heater (may be replaced by cooling coil for some site FI Flow Indicator
locations)
TI Temperature Indicator FT Flow Transmitter (optional)
TC Temperature Control PI Pressure Indicator
LLS Lower Level Switch to shut off pump V1 Pump Recirculation Valve, CPVC
SS Security Screen-100 mesh V2 Flow Control Valve, CPVC
PUMP Low-Pressure Pump, 316 SS or non-metallic composite V3 Concentrate Valve, CPVC 3-way valve
CF Cartridge Filter, 5-10 micron polypropylene with PVC, FRP, or SS housing V4 Permeate Valve, CPVC 3-way valve
V5 Permeate Inlet Valve, CPVC
V6 Tank Drain Valve, PVC, or CPVC
V7 Purge Valve, SS, PVC, or CPVC
1. The mixing tank should be constructed of polypropylene or fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP). The tank
should be provided with a removable cover and a temperature gauge. The cleaning procedure is more
effective when performed at a warm temperature, and it is recommended that the solution be maintained
according to the pH and temperature guidelines listed in Table 36. It is not recommended to use a cleaning
temperature below 20°C because of the very slow chemical kinetics at low temperatures. In addition,
chemicals such as sodium lauryl sulfate might precipitate at low temperatures. Cooling may also be
required in certain geographic regions, so both heating/cooling requirements must be considered during
the design. A rough rule of thumb in sizing a cleaning tank is to use approximately the empty pressure
vessels volume and then add the volume of the feed and return hoses or pipes. For example, to clean ten
8-inch-diameter pressure vessels with six elements per vessel, the following calculations would apply:
A. Volume in Vessels
Vvessel = 52 gal/vessel
V10 vessels = 52 x 10 = 520 gal (1.97 m3)

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B. Volume in Pipes, assume 50 ft length total; 4-in SCH 80 pipe
Vpipe = 30 gal (0.11 m3)
V10 vessels + pipe = 520 + 30 = 550 gal (2.1 m3)
Therefore, the cleaning tank should be about 550 gal (2.1 m3).
2. The cleaning pump should be sized for the flows and pressures given in Table 37, making allowances for
pressure loss in the piping and across the cartridge filter. The pump should be constructed of 316 SS or
nonmetallic composite polyesters.
Table 37. Recommended feed flowrate per pressure vessel during high flowrate recycle
Feed pressure1 Element diameter Feed flowrate per pressure vessel
psig bar inches gpm m 3/h
20 – 60 1.5 – 4.0 2.5 3–5 0.7 – 1.2
20 – 60 1.5 – 4.0 42 8 – 10 1.8 – 2.3
20 – 60 1.5 – 4.0 6 16 – 20 3.6 – 4.5
20 – 60 1.5 – 4.0 8 30 – 45 6.0 – 10.2
20 – 60 1.5 – 4.0 83 35 – 45 8.0 – 10.2
1. Dependent on number of elements in pressure vessel.

3
2. 4-inch fullfit elements should be cleaned at 12 – 14 gpm (2.7 – 3.2 m /h).
2
3. For fullfit and 440 ft area elements.
3. Appropriate valves, flow meters and pressure gauges should be installed to adequately control the flow.
Service lines may be either hard-piped or hoses. In either case, the flowrate should be a moderate 10 ft/s (3
m/s) or less.
6.5 Cleaning Steps

There are six steps in the cleaning of elements:
1. Make up cleaning solution.
2. Low-flow pumping. Pump mixed, preheated cleaning solution to the vessel at conditions of low flowrate
(about half of that shown in Table 37) and low pressure to displace the process water. Use only enough
pressure to compensate for the pressure drop from feed to concentrate. The pressure should be low enough
that essentially no or little permeate is produced. A low pressure minimizes redeposition of dirt on the
membrane. Dump the concentrate, as necessary, to prevent dilution of the cleaning solution.
3. Recycle. After the process water is displaced, cleaning solution will be present in the concentrate stream. Then
recycle the concentrate and permeate to the cleaning solution tank and allow the temperature to stabilize.
Measure the pH of the solution and adjust the pH if needed.
4. Soak. Turn the pump off and allow the elements to soak. Sometimes a soak period of about 1 hour is sufficient.
For difficult fouling an extended soak period is beneficial; soak the elements overnight for 10 – 15 hours. To
maintain a high temperature during an extended soak period, use a slow recirculation rate (about 10% of that
shown in Table 37 ).

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5. High-flow pumping. Feed the cleaning solution at the rates shown in Table 37 for 30 – 60 minutes. The high
flowrate flushes out the foulants removed from the membrane surface by the cleaning. If the elements are
heavily fouled, a flowrate which is 50% higher than shown in Table 37 may aid cleaning. At higher flowrates,
excessive pressure drop may be a problem. The maximum recommended pressure drops are 15 psi per
element or 50 psi per multi-element vessel, whichever value is more limiting. Please note that the 15 psi per
element or the 50 psi per multi-element vessel should NOT be used as a cleaning criteria. Cleaning is
recommended when the pressure drop increases 15%. Pressure drop above 50 psi in a single stage may cause
significant membrane damage.
6. Flush-out. RO permeate or deionized water is recommended for flushing out the cleaning solution. Pre-
filtered raw water or feedwater should be avoided as its components may react with the cleaning solution:
precipitation of foulants may occur in the membrane elements. The minimum flush-out temperature is 20°C.
6.6 Cleaning Tips

1. It is strongly recommended to clean the stages of the RO or NF system separately. This is to avoid having the
removed foulant from stage 1 pushed into the 2nd stage resulting in minimal performance improvement from the
cleaning. If the system consists of 3 stages, stage 2 and stage 3 should also be cleaned separately. For multi-stage
systems, while each stage should be cleaned separately, the flushing and soaking operations may be done
simultaneously in all stages. Fresh cleaning solution needs to be prepared when the cleaning solution becomes
turbid and/or discolored. High-flow recirculation, however, should be carried out separately for each stage, so the
flowrate is not too low in the first stage or too high in the last. This can be accomplished either by using one
cleaning pump and operating one stage at a time, or by using a separate cleaning pump for each stage.
2. The fouling or scaling of elements typically consists of a combination of foulants and scalants, for instance a mixture
of organic fouling, colloidal fouling and biofouling. Therefore, it is very critical that the first cleaning step is wisely
chosen. FilmTec™ strongly recommends alkaline cleaning as the first cleaning step. Acid cleaning should only be
applied as the first cleaning step if it is known that only calcium carbonate or iron oxide/hydroxide is present on the
membrane elements.
Acid cleaners typically react with silica, organics (for instance humic acids) and biofilm present on the membrane
surface which may cause a further decline of the membrane performance. Sometimes, an alkaline cleaning may
restore this decline that was caused by the acid cleaner, but often an extreme cleaning will be necessary. An
extreme cleaning is carried out at pH and temperature conditions that are outside the membrane manufacturer’s
guidelines or by using cleaning chemicals that are not compatible with the membrane elements. An extreme
cleaning should only be carried out as a last resort as it can result in membrane damage.
If the RO system suffers from colloidal, organic fouling or biofouling in combination with calcium carbonate, then a
two-step cleaning program will be needed: alkaline cleaning followed by an acid cleaning. The acid cleaning may be
performed when the alkaline cleaning has effectively removed the organic fouling, colloidal fouling and biofouling.
3. Always measure the pH during cleaning. If the pH increases more than 0.5 pH units during acid cleaning, more acid
needs to be added. If the pH decreases more than 0.5 pH units during alkaline cleaning, more caustic needs to be
added.
4. Long soak times. It is possible for the solution to be fully saturated and the foulants can precipitate back onto the
membrane surface. In addition, the temperature will drop during this period, therefore the soaking becomes less
effective. It is recommended to circulate the solution regularly in order to maintain the temperature (temperature
should not drop more than 5°C) and add chemicals if the pH needs to be adjusted.
5. Turbid or strong colored cleaning solutions should be replaced. The cleaning is repeated with a fresh cleaning
solution.
6. If the system has to be shut down for more than 24 hours, the elements should be stored in 1% w/w sodium
metabisulfite solution.

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6.7 Effect of pH on Foulant Removal
In addition to applying the correct cleaning sequence (alkaline cleaning step first), selecting the correct pH is very
critical for optimal foulant removal. If foulant is not successfully removed, the membrane system performance will
decline faster as it is easier for the foulant to deposit on the membrane surface area. The time between cleanings will
become shorter, resulting in shorter membrane element life and higher operating and maintenance costs.
Most effective cleaning allows longer system operating time between cleanings and results in the lowest operating
costs.
Figure 49 and Figure 50 below show the importance of the selecting the right pH for successful cleaning.
Figure 49. Effect of pH on the removal of calcium carbonate

Calcium carbonate is best removed by cleaning with hydrochloric acid at pH 1 – 2.
Figure 50. Effect of pH on the removal of biofouling

Biofouling is best removed by cleaning at pH 12.

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6.8 Cleaning Chemicals
Table 38 lists suitable cleaning chemicals. Acid cleaners and alkaline cleaners are the standard cleaning chemicals. Acid
cleaners and alkaline cleaners are the standard cleaning chemicals. The acid cleaners are used to remove inorganic
precipitates including iron, while the alkaline cleaners are used to remove organic fouling including biological matter.
Sulfuric acid should not be used for cleaning because of the risk of calcium sulfate precipitation. Reverse osmosis
permeate or deionized water should be used for the preparation of cleaning solutions.
Table 38. Simple cleaning solutions

Cleaner 0.1% (W) NaOH 0.1% (W) 0.2% (W) 1.0% (W) 0.5% (W) 1.0% (W)
and 1.0% (W) NaOH and HCI, 25°C and Na 2S2O 4, 25°C H 3PO 4 , 25 °C NH 2SO 3H , 25°C
Na 4EDTA, pH 0.025% (W) pH 1 – 2 and pH 5 and and pH 3 – 4
Foulant 12, 35°C max. Na-DSS, pH 12, pH 1 – 2
35°C max.
Inorganic Salts (for example, Preferred Alternative Alternative
CaCO 3)
Sulfate Scales (CaSO 4, BaSO 4) OK
Metal Oxides (for example, Preferred Alternative Alternative
iron)
Inorganic Colloids (silt) Preferred Preferred Alternative Alternative
Silica Alternative Preferred
Biofilms Alternative Preferred
Organic Alternative Preferred
The temperatures and pH listed in Table 38 are applicable for BW30, BW30LE, LE, XLE, TW30, TW30HP, SW30HR,
SW30HR LE, SW30XLE, SW30, and NF90 membrane elements. For more information regarding the allowed
temperatures and pH for cleaning, please refer to Table 36.
Notes:
1. (W) denotes weight percent of active ingredient.
2. Foulant chemical symbols in order used: CaCO 3 is calcium carbonate; CaSO 4 is calcium sulfate; BaSO 4 is barium sulfate.
3. Cleaning chemical symbols in order used: NaOH is sodium hydroxide; Na4EDTA is the tetra-sodium salt of ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid; Na-DSS is sodium salt of
dodecylsulfate; Sodium Laurel Sulfate; HCI is hydrochloric acid (Muratic Acid); H 3PO 4 is phosphoric acid; NH 2SO 3H is sulfamic acid; Na2S2O 4 is sodium hydrosulfite.
4. For effective sulfate scale cleaning, the condition must be caught and treated early. Adding NaCl to the cleaning solution of NaOH and Na4EDTA may help as sulfate
solubility increases with increasing salinity. Successful cleaning of sulfate scales older than 1 week is doubtful.
5. Citric Acid is another cleaning alternative for metal oxides and calcium carbonate scale. It is less effective. It may contribute to biofouling especially when it is not
properly rinsed out.
6.9 Cleaning Procedure for Specific Situations
6.9.1 General Considerations
Each cleaning situation is different; therefore, specific cleaning recommendations are dependent on the type of foulant.
Consult the general cleaning instructions for information that is common to all types of cleaning such as suggested
equipment, pH and temperature limits and recommended flowrates; then apply the specific recommendation as
needed.
6.9.2 Sulfate Scale
The following cleaning procedure is designed specifically for a system that has had sulfate scale precipitated in the
elements. Sulfate scales are very difficult to clean, and if their presence is not detected early, the likelihood of cleaning
success is very low. More than likely, a flow loss will occur that cannot be recovered. To regain performance of the
membrane system, it may take several cleaning and soak cycles.

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Cleaning Procedure
There are seven steps in cleaning elements with sulfate scale.
1. Make up the cleaning solution listed from Table 39.
2. Introduction of the cleaning solution.
3. Recycle the cleaning solution for 30 minutes.
4. Soak the elements in the cleaning solution for 1 – 15 hours.
5. High-flow pumping.
6. Flush out.
7. Restart.
Table 39. Sulfate scale cleaning solutions

Cleaning solutions Solution
Preferred 0.1 wt% NaOH
1.0 wt% Na 4EDTA
pH 12, 30°C maximum
Cleaning chemical formula in order used: NaOH is sodium hydroxide; Na4EDTA is the tetrasodium salt of
ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid.
For effective sulfate scale cleaning, the condition must be caught and treated early. Adding 1% NaCl to the
cleaning solution of NaOH and Na4EDTA may help because sulfate solubility increases with increasing salinity.
6.9.3 Carbonate Scale
The following cleaning procedure is designed specifically for a system that has had carbonate scale precipitated in the
elements. In severe calcium carbonate scaling, the cleaning solution may have to be heated to above 35°C. Typical
calcium carbonate cleaning is conducted at 20 – 25°C. The cleaning procedure is considered complete when the pH of
the cleaning solution does not change during recycle and/or high flow pumping.
It may be possible to recover severely scaled elements by acid cleaning. Calcium carbonate scales dissolve easily in
acids by releasing carbon dioxide. This can be observed as a foaming/bubbling reaction.
Cleaning Procedure
There are seven steps in cleaning elements with carbonate scale:
3. Recycle. Recycle the cleaning solution for 10 minutes or until there is no visible color change. If at any time
during the circulation process there is a color change, dispose of the solution and prepare a new solution as
described in step 2. Maintain the pH for effective cleaning. Add additional cleaning chemical as needed to
maintain pH.
4. Soak. For lightly scaled systems, a soak time of 1 – 2 hours is sufficient. Severely scaled systems can also be
recovered with extended soak times. Severely scaled elements should be soaked individually outside of the
pressure vessel in a vertical position. Check pH and adjust as required, or replace cleaning solution.
6. Flush out.
7. Restart.

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Table 40. Carbonate scale cleaning solutions
Preferred 0.2 wt% HCl (pH 1 – 2, 35°C)
Alternative 2.0 wt% citric acid
Alternative 0.5% H 3PO 4
Optional 1.0% Na 2S2O 4
Cleaning chemical formula in order used: HCl is hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid); H 3PO 4 is phosphoric acid,
Na2S2O 4 is sodium hydrosulfite.
6.9.4 Iron Fouling
The following cleaning procedure is designed specifically for a system that is fouled with iron.
Cleaning Procedure
There are seven steps in cleaning elements with iron fouling.
3. Recycle.
4. Soak. Soak times are essential for sodium hydrosulfite to be effective. Soak time will vary depending on the
severity of the fouling. A typical soak time is 2 – 4 hours.
6. Flush out.
7. Restart.
Table 41. Iron fouling cleaning solutions

Preferred 1.0 wt% Na 2S2O 4 (pH 5, 30°C)
Alternative 2.0 wt% citric acid
Alternative 0.5% H 3PO 4
Alternative 1.0% NH 2SO 3H
Cleaning chemical formula in order used: Na2S2O 4 is sodium hydrosulfite; H 3PO 4 is phosphoric acid;
NH 2SO 3H is sulfamic acid.
Additional Information
The sodium hydrosulfite has a very pungent odor, so the room must be well ventilated. Follow all safety regulations and
procedures. Contact time is key to successful cleaning. The solution will sometimes change many different colors.
Black, brown, yellow are all very normal for this type of cleaning. Anytime the solution changes color, it should be
disposed of and a new solution prepared. The length of time and the number of soaking periods will depend on the
severity of the fouling.

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6.9.5 Organic Fouling
The following cleaning procedure is designed specifically for a system that has been fouled with organic species such as
humic and fulvic acids, antiscalants, or oils.
Cleaning Procedure
There are eight steps in cleaning elements fouled with organics, but the six steps are conducted first with a high pH
cleaning solution and then repeated with a low pH cleaning solution:
1. Make up the desired high pH cleaning solution selected Table 42.
3. Recycle the cleaning solution for 30 minutes. If a color change occurs, dispose of the cleaning solution and
prepare a fresh solution.
4. Soak.
6. Flush out.
7. Repeat steps 2 through 6 with cleaning solution of HCl at pH 2.
8. Restart.
For maximum effectiveness, the temperature of the cleaning solutions must be above 25°C. Elevating the temperature
of the cleaning solution will assist in organic removal from the membrane surface. Some organics such as oils are very
difficult to remove. To remove them, experiment with different soak times for optimal effectiveness. In addition, the
most effective cleaning solution usually contains a surfactant such as Na-DDS or perhaps some commercially available
membrane cleaners containing surfactants or detergents that can help remove the oils. Consult your chemical supplier
for their recommendation.
If the organic fouling is the result of overfeeding of a coagulant used for feedwater pretreatment, reversing the order of
the cleaners can be more effective. To determine the proper order of the cleaning solutions (high pH followed by low
pH or vice versa), try to gather a sample of the organic foulant from your system. With the sample, try treating it with
caustic and then acid and vice versa to determine qualitatively which order of cleaning solution treatment dissolves the
foulant better. If both treatments appear to work equally, it is usually better to clean with the high pH solution first.
Table 42. Organic fouling cleaning solutions

pH 12, 30°C maximum, followed by:
0.2% HCl
pH 2, 45°C maximum
0.025 wt% Na-DDS
0.2% HCl
pH 2, 45°C maximum
Alternate 0.1 wt% NaOH
1.0 wt% Na 4EDTA
0.2% HCl
pH 2, 45°C maximum
Cleaning chemical formula in order used: NaOH is sodium hydroxide; HCl is hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid);
Na-DDS is sodium salt of dodecylsulfate; sodium laurel sulfate; Na4EDTA is the tetrasodium salt of ethylene
diamine tetraacetic acid.

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6.9.6 Biofouling
The following cleaning procedure is designed specifically for a system that has been fouled with biological matter.
Cleaning Procedure
There are seven steps in cleaning elements with biofouling:
3. Recycle.
4. Soak.
6. Flush out.
7. Restart.
Table 43. Biofouling cleaning solutions

0.025 wt% Na-DDS
Alternate 0.1 wt% NaOH
1.0 wt% Na 4EDTA
Cleaning chemical formula in order used: NaOH is sodium hydroxide; Na-DDS is sodium salt of
dodecylsulfate (sodium lauryl sulfate); Na4EDTA is the tetrasodium salt of ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid.
By experience, the cleaning solution of Na4EDTA with caustic has been found to be slightly less effective than a
standard caustic solution or a solution of caustic and Na-DDS.
For any solution, contact time is critical. Several overnight soaks may be necessary to restore the system performance.
After the elements are clean it is very beneficial to clean one additional time to clean off the last remaining biofilm
layer on the surface of the membrane. Any remaining biofilm will tend to attract and trap dirt, so an extra cleaning will
increase the time between cleanings. In the event of severe biofouling, slug dosing of a biocide may be required to
enhance the results of the cleaning procedure. Please refer to Section 2.6.5 for details regarding biocide usage.
When biofouling is an operational problem, regular sanitization procedures as described in Section 6.10.1 are
recommended after cleaning.
6.9.7 Emergency Cleaning
When cleaning has not been carried out in time, e.g., the differential pressure (ΔP) has already doubled, or the
normalized product flow has dropped by 50%, the success of the previously described cleaning processes may be
limited. If those standard cleaning techniques fail to remove the foulants, more harsh cleaning methods can be tried.
Please contact your DuPont representative for recommendations. It has to be stressed, however, that no warranty can be
given on the efficiency of any cleaning, nor on the membrane performance after such cleaning attempts.

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6.10 Sanitizing RO/NF Membrane Systems
6.10.1 Introduction
The sanitization of RO/NF membrane systems as described in this chapter is the application of biocidally effective
solutions or hot water to the membranes while the system is offline, i.e., not in production mode. The online dosage of
biocidal chemicals while the system is in production mode is dealt with in Section 2.6.1, Biological Fouling Prevention.
Membrane systems are sanitized in order to keep the number of living microorganisms at an acceptably low level.
There are two main reasons why sanitization is required:
1. Smooth operation. Microorganisms may grow into a biofilm at the membrane and feed spacer surface and
cause biofouling. Biofouling is a major threat to system operation, and regular sanitization is part of a strategy
to control biofouling. Regular sanitization helps to keep the level of biological growth low enough to avoid
operational problems. In RO systems operating with biologically active feedwater, a biofilm can appear within
3 – 5 days after inoculation with viable organisms. Consequently, the most common frequency of sanitization
is every 3 – 5 days during peak biological activity (summer) and about every 7 days during low biological
activity (winter). The optimal frequency for sanitization will be site-specific and must be determined by the
operating characteristics of the RO system.
2. Permeate water quality. Some applications, for example in food and pharmaceutical industries, require a high
product water quality with respect to microbiological parameters. Although RO and NF membranes are
theoretically rejecting 100% of microorganisms, any minute leakage in the membrane system may allow the
permeate water to get contaminated. The risk of contamination is much higher with a biofilm present on the
feed side; therefore the membrane has to be kept in a sanitary state. Regular sanitizations in these
applications are required to improve the microbiological quality of the permeate water, even if no operational
problems are encountered.
6.10.2 Hydrogen Peroxide and Peracetic Acid
Hydrogen peroxide or a mixture of hydrogen peroxide and peracetic acid has been used successfully for treating
biologically contaminated reverse osmosis and nanofiltration systems that use FilmTec™ membranes. Commercially
available hydrogen peroxide/peracetic acid solutions come in a concentrated form and are diluted with RO/NF
permeate to obtain a 0.1% (by weight) peroxide solution.
There are two factors that greatly influence the rate of hydrogen peroxide attack on the membrane: temperature and
iron. The disinfecting solution should not exceed 77°F (25°C). FT30 membrane samples tested with 0.5% hydrogen
peroxide at 34°C showed a very high salt passage after several hours. At 24°C, however, membrane samples
demonstrated compatibility with 0.5% hydrogen peroxide after 96 hours.
The presence of iron or other transition metals in conjunction with hydrogen peroxide solutions can also cause
membrane degradation. FT30 membrane samples were tested using a 0.15% solution of hydrogen peroxide and tap
water containing iron. After 150 hours, the salt passage of the membrane began to increase dramatically. Continuous
exposure at this concentration may eventually damage the membrane. Instead, periodic use is recommended.
For biologically contaminated RO systems using the FilmTec™ Membrane, the following procedure for applying
hydrogen peroxide solutions is recommended:
1. Any type of deposit on the membrane or other parts of the system should be removed with an alkaline
cleaner before sanitizing. Removal of these deposits, which harbor microorganisms, will maximize the degree
of sanitization. After alkaline cleaning, flush the system with RO permeate.
2. Clean the RO system with acid as described in Section 6.9.4 to remove any iron from the membrane surface.
Flush the system with RO permeate.
3. Circulate a solution of 0.1% (by weight) hydrogen peroxide diluted with RO permeate at a temperature below
77°F (25°C) for 20 minutes. A pH of 3 – 4 gives optimal biocidal results and longer membrane lifetime.
4. It is recommended to sanitize the membranes a maximum of 1-2 times per week.

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6.10.3 Chlorinated and Other Biocidal Products
Applying free chlorine, chlorine dioxide or biocidal agents containing combined chlorine is generally not
recommended, see Section 2.6.3 and Section 2.6.6.
Iodine, quaternary biocides and phenolic compounds cause flux losses and are not recommended for use as biocidal
agents.
6.10.4 Heat Sanitization
The HSRO series of FilmTec™ Elements can be sanitized with hot water. It is an excellent choice for food and
pharmaceutical applications. The advantages of hot water as a sanitization agent are:
l May reach areas chemicals do not (dead legs, etc.)
l Easy to validate
– Simpler to monitor heat than chemical concentrations
– Easier to demonstrate complete distribution of heat
l No need to rinse out chemicals
l No need to store chemicals
l Minimizes waste disposal issues
l No need to approve chemicals
New HSRO heat-sanitizable spiral elements must be pre-conditioned prior to initial use by exposure to hot water.
Suitable quality water must be used during all pre-conditioning steps. This water is chlorine-free, non-scaling/fouling
water. RO permeate is preferred, but pre-filtered feedwater may be used. An appropriate conditioning procedure
consists of the following:
l Flush to drain with suitable quality water at low pressure and low permeate flowrate.
l Recycle warm water (45°C or less) at very low pressure (< 25 psig transmembrane pressure with a maximum feed
pressure of 45 psig (3 bar)).
l Introduce hot water to the system to increase temperature to 80°C (176°F).
l Keep transmembrane pressure below 25 psig (1.7 bar) when warm or hot water (45°C or higher) is being fed to
the membranes.
l Maintain temperature for 60 – 90 minutes.
l Allow system to cool to 45°C or below.
l Flush to drain with suitable water quality at very low pressure (< 25 psig transmembrane pressure with maximum
feed pressure of 45 psig (3 bar)).
HSRO membranes have high water permeability before they have been pre-conditioned. After pre-conditioning, they
attain their specified flow and salt rejection performance during operation at normal temperature. The performance
will remain stable irrespective of subsequent additional sanitization cycles. The procedure for regular sanitization may
be the same as described above, but ultimately is the responsibility of the end-user. Certain industries have required
sanitizing procedures that may be different from our procedures.

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7 Handling, Preservation and Storage
7.1 General
FilmTec™ Membrane Elements should be handled in such a way that biogrowth and change in membrane performance
during long-term storage, shipping or system shut-downs are prevented. The elements should preferably be stored and
shipped outside the pressure vessels and loaded into the pressure vessels just prior to start-up.
Follow accepted safety practices when using biocide solutions as membrane preservations. Always wear eye protection.
Consult the relevant Material Safety Data Sheets as supplied by the manufacturer of the chemicals.
7.2 Storage and Shipping of New FilmTec™ Elements

New FilmTec™ Elements are tested and shipped either in dry condition or as wet and preserved elements. Wet
elements are preserved in a standard storage solution containing a buffered 1 wt% food-grade sodium metabisulfite
(SMBS). The storage solution prevents biological growth during storage and shipping of elements. For preservative
Material Safety Data Sheets please visit the Answer Center at www.dupontwatersolutions.com.
Wet elements are bagged in a durable, oxygen-barrier composite plastic bag and preservative solution is delivered prior
to vacuum sealing. Precise preservative volume and high bag integrity help ensure a stable preservative environment
during transportation and storage.
Dry elements are bagged and sealed in a robust plastic bag. They do not require any preservation solution, but they
should be kept in their sealed bag until they are used.
Please follow these guidelines for storage of FilmTec™ Elements:
l Store inside a cool building or warehouse and not in direct sunlight.
l Temperature limits: 25°F to 95°F (−4°C to +35°C).
– New dry elements will not be affected by temperatures below 25°F (−4°C).
– Elements stored in 1% SMBS will freeze below −4°C, but the membrane will not be damaged, provided
the elements are thawed before loading and use.
l Keep new elements in their original packaging.
l Preserved elements should be visually inspected for biological growth 12 months after shipment and thereafter
every three months. If the preservation solution appears to be not clear the element should be removed from
the bag, soaked in a fresh preservation solution and repacked. Refer to Section 7.3.1 for guidelines. In case no
equipment for re-preservation (fresh solution, clean environment, bag sealing device) is available, the elements
can be left in their original packaging for up to 18 months. When the elements are then loaded into the pressure
vessels, they should be cleaned with an alkaline cleaner before the plant is started up.

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7.3 Used FilmTec™ Elements
7.3.1 Preservation and Storage
Any FilmTec™ Element that has been used and removed from the pressure vessel for storage or shipping must be
preserved in a preservation solution as follows:
l Use the standard storage solution of 1% food-grade SMBS (not cobalt-activated) in good-quality water (preferably
reverse osmosis (RO) or nanofiltration (NF) permeate).
l Soak the element for 1 h in the solution; keep it in a vertical position so that the entrapped air can escape. Allow
it to drip out, and seal it into an oxygen barrier plastic bag. We recommend reusing the original bag or original
spare bags available from DuPont. Do not fill the plastic bag with the preservation solution—the moisture in the
element is sufficient, and leaking bags might create a problem during transport.
l Identify the element and the preservation solution on the outside of the bag.
l The storage conditions are the same as for new elements – see Section 7.2.
l Re-preserved elements should be visually inspected for biological growth every three months. If the
preservation solution appears to be not clear the element should be re-preserved and repacked as above.
l The pH of the preservation solution must never drop below pH 3. In the absence of a buffer such as is used in
the original preservative for wet FilmTec™ Elements, a pH decrease can occur when bisulfite is oxidized to
sulfuric acid. Therefore, the pH of the bisulfite preservation solution should be spot checked at least every 3
months. Re-preservation is mandatory when the pH is 3 or lower.
l Wear protective gloves and sleeves to avoid prolonged contact with skin and sleeves when working with
preservative.
7.3.2 Re-wetting of Dried Out Elements
Elements that have dried out after use may irreversibly lose water permeability. Re-wetting might be successful with
one of the following methods:
l Soak in 50/50% ethanol/water or propanol/water for 15 minutes.
l Pressurize the element at 150 psi (10 bar) and close the permeate port for 30 minutes. Take care that the
permeate port is reopened before the feed pressure is released. This procedure can be carried out while the
elements are installed in a system. In this case, the pressure drop from the feed side to the concentrate side
must not exceed 10 psi (0.7 bar) during high pressure operation with closed permeate port – otherwise the
permeate backpressure near the concentrate end will become too high. Preferably, the permeate port is not
completely closed but throttled to a value equal the concentrate pressure. Then there is no need for a special
pressure drop limit.
l Soak the element in 1% HCl or 4% HNO 3 for 1 – 100 h. Immerse the element in a vertical position to allow the
entrapped air to escape.

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7.3.3 Shipping
Unless otherwise specified, when FilmTec™ Elements have to be shipped, they must be preserved with a preservation
solution according to Section 7.3.1.
Make sure that:
l The plastic bag does not leak.
l The element is properly identified.
l The preservation solution is correctly labelled.
We recommend using the original packaging with the original polystyrene foam cushions to protect the element from
mechanical damage. Elements with non flush-cut product water tubes should be protected against damage to the
product water tube ends.
The membrane elements will not be damaged by freezing temperatures during shipping provided the elements are
thawed before loading and use.
7.3.4 Disposal
Used FilmTec™ Elements can be disposed of as municipal waste, provided:
l No preservation solution or other hazardous liquid is contained in the element.
l No depositions of hazardous substances are on the membranes (e.g., elements used in wastewater treatment).
7.4 Preservation of RO and NF Systems

The procedure of shutting down an RO/NF system has been described in Section 5.4. FilmTec™ Elements must be
preserved any time the plant is shut down for more than a maximum of 48 h to prevent biological growth. Depending
on the previous operational history of the plant, it will be necessary in almost all cases to clean the membranes prior to
shut-down and preservation. This applies to cases when the membranes are known or assumed to be fouled.
After cleaning, the preservation should follow within the next 10 h as follows:
1. Totally immerse the elements in the pressure vessels in a solution of 1 – 1.5% SMBS, venting the air outside of
the pressure vessels. Use the overflow technique: circulate the SMBS solution in such a way that the remaining
air in the system is minimized after the recirculation is completed. After the pressure vessel is filled, the SMBS
solution should be allowed to overflow through an opening located higher than the upper end of the highest
pressure vessel being filled.
2. Separate the preservation solution from the air outside by closing all valves. Any contact with oxygen will
oxidize the SMBS.
3. Check the pH once a week. When the pH becomes 3 or lower, change the preservation solution.
4. Change the preservation solution at least once a month.
During the shut-down period, the plant must be kept frost-free, and the temperature must not exceed 113°F (45°C). A low
temperature is desirable.

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8 Troubleshooting
8.1 Introduction
Loss of salt rejection and loss of permeate flow are the most common problems encountered in reverse osmosis (RO)
and nanofiltration (NF). Plugging of the feed channels associated with pressure drop increase is another typical problem.
If the rejection and/or the permeate flow decreases moderately and slowly, this may indicate a normal fouling which
can be handled by proper and regular cleaning (see Section 6.1, Cleaning and Sanitation). An immediate decline in
performance indicates a defect or misoperation of the plant. In any case, it is essential that the proper corrective
measure is taken as early as possible because any delay decreases the chance of restoring the plant performance –
apart from other problems that might be created by an excessively low permeate flow and/or too high permeate TDS.
A prerequisite for early detection of potential problems is proper record keeping (see Section 5.6.1) and plant
performance normalization (see Section 5.6.6). This includes proper calibration of all instruments. Without accurate
readings it might be too late before a problem is detected and corrected.
Once a performance decline has been identified, the first step in solving the problem is to localize the problem and to
identify the cause(s) of the problem. The first step is to evaluate the performance and the operation of the system. This
can be done using the data of the record keeping logsheet or of some additional online measurements. Then some
checks and system tests should be made. Troubleshooting is much more effective if certain system features and
equipment are provided, see Section 3.17, System Design for Troubleshooting Success. If the system data is not sufficient
in determining the cause(s) and to recommend corrective action, one or more membrane elements must be taken from
the plant and analyzed. Element performance analysis includes non-destructive and destructive analysis. Finally,
corrective measures are taken to restore the plant performance and to avoid future problems.
Further reading: W.Byrne (Ed.): Reverse Osmosis, Chapter 7 /1/.

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8.2 Evaluation of System Performance and Operation
If the performance of the membrane system is not satisfactory, the first step is to evaluate the performance and the
operation of the entire system. This is done on the basis of normalized plant data, seeSection 5.6.6, Plant Performance
Normalization. When the actual normalized plant performance is compared against the performance at start-up, any
significant performance deterioration can be identified.
In case that the initial system performance at start-up is not satisfactory, a comparison of the actual system performance
with the WAVE projected system performance under actual conditions is helpful.
WAVE is a tool used to estimate the stabilized performance of a new RO or NF system under design conditions, but it
can also be used to estimate the performance of an existing RO/NF system under prevailing actual conditions. This
projected performance is based on the nominal performance specification for the FilmTec™ Element(s) used in that
system. A fouling factor of 1.00 in the projection is used to calculate the performance of new elements with exact
nominal flowrate. A fouling factor of < 1 should be applied when making a design for long-term operation. In a real
system, the elements may have a flow performance variation of ± 15% of the nominal value, or whatever variation is
specified for this element type. Also the salt rejection of an individual element may be higher or lower than the nominal
salt rejection (but not lower than the minimum salt rejection). Therefore, the measured stabilized performance is
unlikely to exactly hit the projected performance, but for systems with more than 36 new elements it should come
close.
The actual fouling factor of a stabilized new RO system with at least 36 elements should range between 0.95 and 1.05.
The actual measured TDS of the permeate should be no higher than about 1.5 times the calculated TDS.
For systems with only one or a few elements, the deviation of the measured actual performance from the projected
performance may become as large as the specified element performance variation.
If the normalized actual performance has deteriorated too much compared to the initial performance, or the measured
actual performance does not match close enough with the projected performance, check the following:
l Are all meters, sensors and pressure gauges calibrated?
Troubleshooting Tip:
Use simple mass balance equations to confirm accuracy of flow and conductivity instruments. RO/NF systems
should be operated at design flow and recovery rates in order to help ensure trouble-free operation. Damage to
membrane elements can result from operation at elevated flowrates, and fouling can result from flowrates
which are too low to prevent deposition of particulate matter. Scaling or fouling can occur in RO systems when
operated at above design recovery rates.
Eq. 79 and Eq. 80 provide a simple method to check the accuracy of flow and conductivity meters. These
equations should be used as an indicator and are not intended to replace periodic calibration of instruments. If
deviation from unity is observed in Eq. 80, the accuracy of one of the meters is compromised, and calibration
should be performed.
1. Feed flow = Permeate flow + Brine flow Eq. 79
2. (Feed flow) (Feed Conductivity) = 1 ± 0.05 Eq. 80

(Permeate flow) (Permeate Conductivity) + (Brine flow) (Brine Conductivity)
In order for Eq. 80 to be valid, conductivity measurements should be taken after all chemical additions
and accurately reflect the feedwater.
l Has the system stabilized? It should have been in continuous operation for 24 – 72 hours when the readings are
taken. Systems that have been in operation for extended time should be investigated by the evolution of the
normalized system performance data. This can be done with the FTNORM program as described in Section 5.6.6,
Plant Performance Normalization.
l Has permeate pressure been taken into account? Neglected permeate pressure results in a higher than
projected feed pressure.

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l Is there any significant pressure losses from the feed to the concentrate? Historically, a pressure loss was
estimatated in the piping of 5 psi (0.35 bar) per stage in addition to the pressure loss in the FilmTec™ Elements.
Restrictions in feed or concentrate headers would result in higher pressure losses than projected. Check the
distance of the pressure sensors from the feed and concentrate end of the pressure vessels. The locations of the
pressure sensors should be as close as possible to the pressure vessel and in sufficient distance from valves or
other places of high turbulence.
l Check the Process and Instrumentation Diagram of the system:
– Are provisions made to avoid undue operating conditions? See Section 3.14.3 Shutdown Switches.
– Are the necessary valves installed? See Section 3.14.4 Valves.
– Are provisions made for efficient troubleshooting? See Section 3.17, System Design Suggestions for
Troubleshooting Success.
– Are provisions made to avoid siphoning of the pressure vessels during shut-down periods? See
Section 5.4 RO and NF System Shutdown.
l Check the start-up and shut-down procedure: is it safe with respect to hydraulic shocks, permeate backpressure
and back-flow of permeate? See Sections 5.2 to 5.4 for start-up and shut-down procedures.
l Check the cleaning procedure and chemicals used: is the procedure efficient and the chemicals safe with
respect to membrane damage? See Section 6.1, Cleaning and Sanitization.
l How frequently is the system being cleaned? A high cleaning frequency (more than once per 4 – 6 weeks) may
indicate a poor performance of the pretreatment or a RO/NF system operating outside of the design guidelines.
As a guideline, anything from one to three chemical cleanings per year is considered good, while four and up to
to six annual cleanings are typically still considered acceptable. A higher cleaning frequency is normally not
justifiable and it is usually more economical to improve the pretreatment system.
l Have water analyses been performed? The conductivity is not sufficient for the calculation of TDS rejection.
Particularly, carbon dioxide (CO 2) in the feedwater will pass into the permeate, create carbonic acid and increase
the permeate conductivity.
l Check the application of chlorine and other oxidizing chemicals – this can indicate a potential oxidation
problem.
l Check the replacement rate of pre-filters – a high replacement rate can indicate a potential fouling problem. A
too low replacement rate e.g., of cartridge filters may also post a risk (sudden collapse, etc.).
l Check the SDI log sheets: the feed SDI should be consistently < 5 or < 3, depending on the system design.
l Check the scaling calculations and confirm the dosage rates of chemicals, e.g., scaling inhibitor.
If all this has been considered and the observed system performance is still outside of expectations, perform the system
tests as described next.

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8.3 System Tests
After the available data of the system operation and performance have been checked and investigated, the system will
be inspected and tested in more detail.
8.3.1 Visual Inspection
l How clean is the plant? Mold and biogrowth in tanks and pipes are indicators of a biofouling problem. Leaking
vessels may suck air when the system shuts down and lead to hydraulic shock at start-up and premature fouling,
especially in SW conditions.
l Open a pressure vessel at the feed side: is there any fouling present on the face of the lead element? A biofilm on a
wet surface feels slippery. Any smell? Are the elements properly shimmed (see Section 4.3, Shimming Elements)?
l Open a pressure vessel at the concentrate side: scaling feels like sanding paper to the touch.
l Remove the elements from one or from several vessels and check the couplers for torn, damaged or misplaced O-
rings. Replace O-rings. See Section 4.5 for interconnector technology.
l Inspect the elements for fouling, scaling and mechanical damage – check at least one lead element and one tail
element.
8.3.2 Type of Foulant and Most Effective Cleaning
l How does the system respond to different cleanings? The efficiency of a specific cleaning is an indication for a
specific fouling problem. See Section 6.9, Cleaning Procedure for Specific Situations.
l How does the cleaning solution coming out of the system look? The initial cleaning solution exiting from the
membrane system may contain high amounts of removed foulants. Analyze the spent cleaning chemical for metals
and TOC and compare with a fresh solution. The type of foulant can be estimated from the comparison of the
analyses of the used and the unused cleaning solution.
8.3.3 Localization of High Solute Passage
8.3.3.1 Profiling
If a system exhibits high solute passage, one of the first steps in troubleshooting is to localize the source. A loss in solute
rejection may be uniform throughout the system, or it could be limited to the front or to the tail end of the system. It
could be a general plant failure, or it could be limited to one or few individual vessels. To localize high solute passage in
a system, it is first recommended to profile the system. To profile a system, all individual vessel TDS or conductivity or
other relevant quality values are checked. A well-designed system contains a sample port located in the permeate
stream from each vessel. Care must be taken during sampling to avoid mixing of the permeate sample with permeate
from other vessels. All permeate samples are then tested for their concentration of dissolved solids with a TDS or
conductivity meter. In nanofiltration applications, specific analytical methods for sulfate or other relevant compounds
have to be used. The permeate samples of all pressure vessels in the same stage should give readings in the same
range. Notice that from one stage to the next the average permeate TDS or conductivity usually increases, because for
example the second stage is fed with the concentrate from the first stage. To determine the solute passage of all
pressure vessels from their permeate concentration, the concentration of the feed stream to each stage must also be
measured. The solute passage is the ratio of the permeate concentration to the feed concentration. Then the high
solute passage of the system can be assigned to the first or the last stage, or to individual vessels.

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8.3.3.2 Probing
If one pressure vessel shows a significantly higher permeate concentration than the other vessels of the same stage,
then this vessel should be probed. The procedure allows locating a problem within a pressure vessel while online
without unloading elements. Probing involves the insertion of a plastic tube (approx. ¼ inch (6 mm) in diameter) into the
full length of the permeate tube (see Figure 51) in order to measure the permeate conductivity at different locations
inside the pressure vessel. This can be accomplished by isolating the vessel from its permeate manifolds and use the
open permeate port, or by removing the opposite endcap’s permeate plug. When the permeate manifolds remain in
place, it must be ensured that no permeate from other vessels can influence the probing. If the system operates with a
permeate backpressure, the probed vessel must be disconnected from the system permeate; otherwise permeate from
the other vessels will enter into the probed vessel.
The use of a modified tube fitting according to Figure 52 eliminates water leakage at the point of entry. This device can
be used at the opposite end of the pressure vessel from the product header piping, with the permeate manifold
remaining in place even under a moderate permeate backpressure. A ½-inch ball valve is connected to the permeate
port. It is fitted with a ¼-inch plastic Parker tube fitting which has been modified by drilling the body to allow a ¼-inch
plastic probe tubing to pass completely through the fitting. In addition a short piece (2 inches (5 cm)) of very supple thin
wall gum rubber tubing which fits snugly over the end of the nylon probe tubing and protrudes approximately 1/2 inch
will prevent hang-ups at the product tube adapters and the product tube interconnectors.
While the membrane system is operating at normal operating conditions, water is diverted from the permeate stream
of the vessel in question. A few minutes should be allowed to rinse out the tubing and allow the membrane system to
equilibrate. For an RO system, the TDS or the conductivity of the permeate sample from the tubing can then be
measured with a hand-held meter and the data recorded. It is desirable to set up the conductivity meter for continuous
indication utilizing a flow through cell or the arrangement shown in Figure 52. This measurement should reflect the TDS
of the permeate being produced by the FilmTec™ Element at that position. For a NF system, the permeate conductivity
might not be sensitive enough to localize a leakage. Instead, the sulfate concentration in the sample should be
determined.
The tubing is then pulled out 6 inches (15 cm) from the end and a sample is taken to measure the conductivity at the
adapter/element interface. Then the tubing is extracted eight inches (20 cm) and another sample is taken. The tubing is
then withdrawn in further increments to obtain a conductivity profile (see Figure 51). The sampling locations should be
every 8 inches (20 cm) so that every fifth sample marks the coupler connection for two elements. This allows for
multiple measurements per element plus checking of all coupler/adapter O-rings. The tube can be marked so that the
desired sampling locations can easily be accessed.
Taking a conductivity reading at 8-inch intervals for each element, allows closer scrutiny for determining exactly which
O-ring seal of a coupler (interconnector) has a leak. Similarly the probe should be positioned some distance away, as
well as at the end of the adapter, to check the integrity of the O-ring seal at the pressure vessel head assembly (end
plug). Figure 52 illustrates this by showing how to position the probe to check for leaks at the O-ring seal for the product
tube adapters in the permeate hub of the end plug. The sketch illustrates the probe at the “start” position typical for 8”
elements where the normally plugged permeate port is used to connect the probing apparatus and insert the probe
tubing. The dimensions will vary depending on manufacturer and model of the actual pressure vessels. It is usually
recommended to open up one of the pressure vessels to determine exactly the correct dimensions for positioning the
probe tube. After this is done a table should be made listing dimensionally all the locations where pauses are required
during withdrawal of the probe tubing for recording conductivity measurements.
Accurately positioning the probe for these data points can be accomplished by using an additional O-ring (size 108 for
¼” O.D. tubing) as an indicator just outside the tube fitting. With the probe completely inserted to the start position, and
the indicator O-ring at the outside face of the tube fitting, the measurement for the next predetermined position can be
made accurately with a tape measure since the O-ring will move along with the tubing as the probe is withdrawn. Then
keeping the probe stationary slip the indicator O-ring back to the tube fitting in preparation for the next withdrawal
measurement. This simple trick has proved very effective in accurately positioning the probe with as many as seven
elements in series.

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A normal conductivity profile shows a steady increase of the permeate produced at the feed side of the pressure vessel
towards the concentrate end of the vessel. An unusually large deviation from this profile locates the source of the high
salt passage problem. O-ring problems are generally indicated by a step change in the conductivity profile at
coupler/adapter locations, while a marked increase outside this region points to a leakage from an element, e.g., due to
a backpressure damage.
The normal (reference) conductivity profile depends also on the location of the probing tube entry and on the flow
direction of the permeate out of the probed vessel. Figure 51 shows an arrangement with probing from the concentrate
end of the vessel with the permeate flowing to the concentrate side as well. The first sample from the feed side end of
the vessel represents the permeate produced at exactly that location. As the tube is gradually pulled out from the
vessel, the sample represents the combined permeate which is produced upstream of the sample location. The last
sample represents the permeate of the entire vessel.
If the vessel is connected to the permeate manifolds and/or the probing tube is inserted from the feed side of the
vessel, the reference conductivity profile changes accordingly. The accuracy of the method is best where the sample is
least influenced by permeate from upstream membranes. This has to be born in mind when the results are evaluated.
Figure 51. Conductivity profile
Figure 52. Permeate probing apparatus for spiral-wound membrane

Note: Tube fitting modified by extending the ¼ inch bore through the body and discarding the gripper ring.

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8.4 Membrane Element Evaluation
8.4.1 Sample Selection
When the causes of a plant performance loss are not known, or when they have to be confirmed, one or more elements
of the system have to be analyzed individually. The element(s) which should be analyzed are those with a step increase
in the conductivity profile.
When there is a general plant failure, a front-end element or a tail-end element should be selected, depending on
where the problem is located. Typical front-end problems are fouling problems; typical tail-end problems are scaling
problems. When the problem cannot be localized, an element from both ends of the system should be taken.
Sampling a second element from a neighboring position is advisable when cleaning tests are planned. Then one of the
elements can be used to analyze the fouling layer and to perform lab scale cleaning tests, the results of which can then
be applied to the other element.
8.4.2 System Optimization Services℠ (SOS)
FilmTec offers an element analysis service called System Optimization Services℠ (SOS), including a variety of inspection,
diagnostic and testing procedures. In warranty cases, the DuPont Quality Department must be involved.
The examination, testing and analysis of membrane elements can also be carried out by an external laboratory. Larger
installations often have the capabilities for evaluating membrane elements at the site. A visual inspection and some
simple checks at the site can provide some quick and valuable information.
The procedures which are described in the following are based on ASTM Standard Methods and Practices whenever
possible. These methods are recommended for membrane element evaluation, but not all of these methods are
offered by System Optimization Services. On the other hand, System Optimization Services offers some specific
evaluations which are not described here. The details, the conditions and element return procedures are available from
our web pages (https://www.dupont.com/water/resources/system-optimization-services.html).
8.4.3 Visual Inspection and Weighing
The visual inspection of membrane elements provides information about a potential fouling or scaling problem. The
element is inspected for discolorations of the outer wrapping and the fiberglass or tape wrap. The element is also
inspected for any deposits or foreign matter. Telescoping and fiberglass damage would indicate excessive hydraulic
loads or improper pressure vessel loading. The permeate water tube is inspected for mechanical damage which could
cause salt passage. The brine seal is inspected for condition and proper installation.
8.4.4 Vacuum Decay Test
A FilmTec™ Element with a high salt passage should first be checked if leaks are present with feed/concentrate water
leaking into the permeate side of the element. Leaks may occur through damage of the membrane surface itself by
punctures or scratches or by delamination and physical damage of the membrane by e.g., permeate backpressure or
water hammer. The vacuum decay test as described in the following may be used to detect leaks or to confirm the
mechanical integrity of a FilmTec™ Element. The method is based on ASTM Standards D3923 /2/ and D6908 /3/.

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The vacuum decay test is a tool to detect leaks or to confirm the integrity of FilmTec™ RO and NF Elements after they
have been in operation. It can be applied to a single element or to a complete pressure vessel containing several
elements. Before testing, the element has to be drained from water present in the feed channels and in the permeate
leaves. The pressure vessel to be tested must not contain any water. The permeate tube of the element is evacuated
and isolated. The rate of the vacuum decay indicates mechanical integrity or a leak of the membrane element. A
mechanically intact element and also a chemically damaged membrane would still hold the vacuum, but a mechanically
damaged membrane would not.
This test is useful as a screening procedure and is not intended as a mean of absolute verification of a leak. However,
the test allows identifying leaking elements or O-rings within a short time. It also helps to distinguish between chemical
membrane damage (which would not show up as a leak) and mechanical membrane damage. The test can be applied in
the field to test a large number of elements when a single element test unit is not available, or if not enough time is
available for performance testing.
The procedure is as follows (see Figure 53):
1. Drain the element.
2. Seal one end of the permeate tube with a suitable leak-tight cap.
3. Connect the other end of the permeate tube to a vacuum gauge and a valved vacuum source.
4. Evacuate the element to 100 – 300 mbar absolute pressure.
5. Close the isolation valve and observe the reading on the vacuum gauge. Note the rate at which the vacuum
decays. A rapid decay (greater than 100 mbar pressure increase per minute) will indicate the presence of a
leak.
6. Slowly release the vacuum and allow the element to reach atmospheric pressure before disconnecting.
7. The test should be repeated several times to confirm its reproducibility.
Testing a complete pressure vessel allows including the couplers and adapters into the leak test. The procedure is the
same as described with the difference that the permeate port at one side of the vessel is closed, and the vacuum is
pulled from the permeate port of the other side. Feed and concentrate ports may be open.
Figure 53. Vacuum decay test
8.4.5 Performance Test
The standard element performance test is used to determine the solute rejection and the permeate flowrate of a
FilmTec™ Element under FilmTec's Standard Test Conditions. The test results can then be compared with the
specification of the element in question. The element performance is determined before and after any cleaning trial in
order to assess the efficacy of the treatment.

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The apparatus for the standard test consists of a feed holding tank equipped with a thermostated heat exchanger
system to maintain the feed solution at 25 ± 1°C, a pump to provide the required pressure and feed flowrate, and a
reverse osmosis device. A detailed description is given in ASTM D4194-03 /4/. A synthetic test solution is used as
feedwater. Permeate and concentrate are recycled back to the feed tank.
Sodium chloride is used as a test solute for reverse osmosis. For nanofiltration, magnesium sulfate and calcium chloride
are used as well. The salt concentration and the feed pressure are given in the Standard Test Conditions in the product
information sheet of the relevant FilmTec™ Element. The feed flowrate should be adjusted to obtain the element
recovery as indicated in the mentioned Standard Test Conditions. The feedwater pH should be adjusted to a pH of 8 by
adding HCl or NaOH. For a summary of the standard test conditions, see Section 1.8, Table 4.
The following data are recorded one hour after start-up, and repeated 2 – 3 hours after start-up, and hourly thereafter ,
until three successive permeate flowrates (corrected to 25°C) and salt passages agree within 5% (relative):
l Feed, concentrate, and permeate pressures
l Permeate and concentrate flows (use calibrated flow meters or a calibrated volume container and stopwatch)
l Permeate temperature
l Conductivity of feed, permeate and concentrate, or chloride content of the three streams.
The permeate flowrate should be corrected to 25°C using the formulas given in Section 6.7, Plant Performance
Normalization. The salt rejection is calculated from the permeate conductivity Kp and the feed conductivity Kf:
Kp
Rejection, % = (1 - — x 100
Kf
8.4.6 Cleaning Evaluation
When the permeate flowrate of the tested element is too low compared with the specified value, a cleaning can be
tried. Cleaning cannot be successful however, when the membrane itself is damaged, or when the membrane is heavily
fouled/scaled (typically when the permeate flow is < 50% of specification).
The cleaning evaluation includes the establishment of cleaning procedures, their realization on membrane samples and
subsequent performance testing. The cleaning evaluation may be performed on membrane elements after
performance testing or on membrane flatsheet coupons after the destructive autopsy. Cleaning is carried out according
to the cleaning procedure described in Section 6.1, Cleaning and Sanitation.
When the cleaning test has proven effective, the treatment can be applied to the whole RO system.
8.4.7 Autopsy
After the previously described tests have been done, the ultimate method to determine the cause(s) of a performance
loss is the destructive analysis (autopsy) of the FilmTec™ Element. The DuPont Quality Department must be involved if
destructive analysis is required in warranty cases.
The element is cut lengthwise to allow the membrane to be unrolled. Two to four cuts must be made, on opposite
sides, just deep enough to penetrate the element casing. The element should be unrolled carefully so as to not damage
the membrane surface. The structural integrity of the leaves is inspected. The membrane is fully examined and samples
of the membrane and/or of the foulant are taken for analysis or plate-and-frame tests.
Pressure Dye Test: To determine the cause(s) and the location of a salt passage, the element is operated with a
pressurized dye solution prior to the autopsy. Rhodamine B can be used as a dye. A pink permeate would indicate a
damaged membrane. The dyed element is autopsied and examined for the location of dye passage. Damaged areas of
the membrane will attain a pink color. This evaluation allows to distinguish between chemical (e.g., oxidative) membrane
damages and mechanical damages, e.g., from permeate backpressure.

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8.4.8 Membrane Analysis
The morphology of deposits is determined with a stereo and standard light microscope or a scanning electron
microscope (SEM).
Information about the chemical elements contained in the membrane or its fouling/scaling layer is obtained from
Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence (EDXRF) Spectroscopy. Samples of the membrane “as is” and of the cleaned and
rinsed membrane, and of the isolated and dried foulant/scalant can be analyzed by EDXRF. The result gives a semi-
quantitative composition of chemical elements of the membrane and the foulants. This method can also furnish
evidence of halogen damage to the membrane. Typical elements found are Ca, Ba, Sr, S (scaling), Fe, Si, Pb, Zn (colloidal
fouling) and Cl, Br, I (oxidation damage). However, purely organic fouling and biofouling cannot be detected by this
method.
ICP (Inductively Coupled Plasma Emission Spectroscopy) is being used to quantitatively determine metals and silica on
the membrane surface.
Impurities which have been organically bound to the membrane surface can be identified with ESCA testing (Electron
Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis). This test is predominantly used to identify the source of oxidation.
Plate-and-Frame Testing is performed after the destructive autopsy. Round coupons are cut from the membrane of the
autopsied element and placed in a plate-and-frame apparatus. The coupons can be cleaned or treated with different
chemicals. The performance of the different plates with the differently treated membrane samples can be compared
against control coupons.
Slimy deposits or foulants from the membrane surface may be scraped off and then microbiological test be done on
these samples. The microbiological test would reveal the presence of bacteria and the kind of bacteria present which
may in turn allow to devise an anti-biofouling strategy.
8.5 Symptoms of Trouble, Causes, and Corrective Measures

Trouble with the performance of an RO/NF system normally means at least one of the following:
l Loss of normalized permeate flowrate; in practice this is normally seen as a feed pressure increase in order to
maintain the permeate output.
l Increase in normalized solute passage; in RO this is typically associated with an increase in permeate
conductivity.
l Increase in pressure drop: the difference between feed pressure and concentrate pressure at constant flowrate
becomes larger.
From such symptoms, their location and kind of occurrence, the causes of the trouble can often be determined. In the
following sections, the mentioned three main troubles are discussed systematically.
8.5.1 Low Flow
If the system suffers from loss of normalized permeate flow performance and the problem can be localized, the general
rule is:
l First stage problem: deposition of particulate matter; initial biofouling
l Last stage problem: scaling
l Problem in all stages: advanced fouling
A low flow performance may be combined with a normal, a high or a low solute passage. Depending on this
combination, conclusions as to the causes may be drawn.

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8.5.1.1 Low Flow and Normal Solute Passage
Low permeate flow associated with normal solute passage can have the following causes:
a. Biofouling and Natural Organic Matter (NOM):

Biofouling of the membranes is indicated by the following changes in the operating parameters, predominantly at the
front end of the system:
l Permeate flow decreases when operated at constant feed pressure and recovery.
l Recovery decreases when operated at constant feed pressure, in cases where biofouling is advanced to large
biomasses.
l Feed pressure has to be increased if the permeate flow is to be maintained at constant recovery. Increasing the
feed pressure is however self-defeating when done for a long time, since it increases the fouling, making it
more difficult to clean later.
l Differential pressure increases sharply when the bacterial fouling is massive or when it is combined with silt
fouling. Since pressure drop across the pressure vessels can be such a sensitive indicator of fouling, it is strongly
recommended that provisions for installing differential pressure monitoring devices be included for each stage
in a system.
l Solute passage remains normal or even low at the beginning, increasing when fouling becomes massive.
l High counts of microorganisms in water samples taken from the feed, concentrate, or permeate stream indicate
the beginning or the presence of biofouling. For proper microbiological monitoring see Section 2.6.2,
Assessment of the Biological Fouling Potential. When biofouling is suspected, the system should be checked
according to the items described in Section 3.16, System Design Considerations to Control Microbiological
Activity.
l Biofilms feel slippery to the touch, often have a bad smell
l A quick test for biofouling is the burn test: a sample of biofilm is collected with a spatulum or the point of a knife
and incinerated over the flame of a lighter. The smell of a burnt biofilm is like the smell of burnt hair. (This is
really just a quick test for an indication but not for a proof.)
Figure 54 and Figure 55 are photos of a biofouled membrane and feed spacer, taken after element autopsy.
Figure 54. Picture of biofilm on membrane surface

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Figure 55. Picture of feed spacer with biofilm
Causes for biofouling are mostly the combination of a biologically active feedwater and improper pretreatment.
The corrective measures are:
l Clean and sanitize the entire system, including the pretreatment section and the elements. See cleaning
instructions,Section 6.1 for details. An incomplete cleaning and disinfection will result in rapid re-contamination.
l High pH soak and rinse – see cleaning instructions,Section 6.1.
l The installation or optimization of the pretreatment system to cope with the fouling potential of the raw water
(see Section 2.6.1, Biological Fouling Prevention).
l Installation of Fouling-Resistant (FR) elements.
b. Aged Preservation Solution

Elements or RO systems preserved in a bisulfite solution can also become biologically fouled, if the preservation
solution is too old, too warm, or oxidized by oxygen. An alkaline cleaning usually helps to restore the permeate flow.
Renew preservative solution if storing elements. Store in cool, dry, dark environment.
c. Incomplete Wetting
FilmTec™ Elements that have been allowed to dry out, may have a reduced permeate flow, because the fine pores of
the polysulfone layer are not wetted. The techniques to re-wet dry membranes are described in Section 7.3.2, Re-
wetting of Dried Out Elements.
8.5.1.2 Low Flow and High Solute Passage
Low flow associated with high solute passage is the most commonly occurring condition for plant failure. Possible
causes are:
a. Colloidal Fouling
To identify colloidal fouling:
l Review recorded feedwater SDIs. The problem is sometimes due to infrequent excursions or pretreatment
upsets.
l Analyze residue from SDI filter pads.
l Analyze accumulations on pre-filter cartridges.
l Inspect and analyze deposits on feed scroll end of 1st stage lead elements.

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b. Metal Oxide Fouling
Metal oxide fouling occurs predominantly in the first stage. The problem can more easily be localized when permeate
flow meters have been installed in each array separately. Common sources are:
l Iron or aluminium in feedwater (see Section 2.9, Prevention of Iron and Manganese Fouling and Section 2.10,
Prevention of Aluminum Fouling.).
l Hydrogen sulfide with air in feedwater results in metal sulfides and/or elemental sulfur (see Section 2.11,
Treatment of Feedwater Containing Hydrogen Sulfide ).
l Corrosion of piping, vessels or components upstream of membrane elements.
To identify metal oxide fouling:
l Analyze feedwater for iron and aluminium.
l Check system components for evidence of corrosion.
Iron fouling can easily be identified from the look of the element – see Figure 56 for example.
Figure 56. Picture of iron fouled feed side of an element with telescoping damage and signs of
mechanical force
The corrective measures are
l Clean the membrane elements as appropriate (see cleaning instructions, Section 6.1).
l Adjust, correct and/or modify the pretreatment
l Retrofit piping or system components with appropriate materials.

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c. Scaling
Scaling is a water chemistry problem originating from the precipitation and deposition of sparingly soluble salts. The
typical scenario is a brackish water system operated at high recovery without proper pretreatment. Scaling usually starts
in the last stage and then moves gradually to the upstream stages. Waters containing high concentrations of calcium,
bicarbonate and/or sulfate can scale a membrane system within hours. Scaling with barium or with fluoride is typically
very slow because of the low concentrations involved.
To identify scaling:
l Check feedwater analysis for the scaling potential at prevailing system recovery.
l Analyze the concentrate for levels of calcium, barium, strontium, sulfate, fluoride, silicate, pH and Langelier
Saturation Index (Stiff & Davis Saturation Index for seawater). Try to calculate the mass balance for those salts,
analyzing also feedwater and permeate.
l Inspect concentrate side of system for scaling.
l Weigh a tail element: scaled elements are heavy.
l Autopsy tail element and analyze the membrane for scaling: the crystalline structure of the deposits can be
observed under the microscope. A foaming reaction with acid indicates carbonate scaling. The type of scaling is
identified by a chemical analysis, EDXRF or ICP analysis.
l Scaling is hard and rough to the touch, like sand paper, and cannot be wiped off.
A photograph of a scaled membrane is shown in Figure 57.
Figure 57. Picture of scaled membrane surface with imprints from the feed spacer
l Cleaning with acid and/or an alkaline EDTA solution (see cleaning instructions, Section 6.1). An analysis of the
spent solution may help to verify the cleaning effect.
l Optimize cleaning depending on scaling salts present.
l Carbonate scaling: lower pH, adjust antiscalant dosage.
l Sulfate scaling: lower recovery, adjust antiscalant dosage and type.
l Fluoride scaling: lower recovery, adjust antiscalant dosage or type.

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8.5.1.3 Low Flow and Low Solute Passage
a. Compaction and Intrusion

Membrane compaction and intrusion is typically associated with low permeate flow and improved salt rejection.
Compaction is the result of applied pressure and temperature compressing the membrane which may result in a
decline in flux and salt passage. Intrusion is the plastic deformation of the membrane when pressed against the
permeate channel spacer under excessive forces and/or temperatures. The pattern of the permeate spacer is visibly
imprinted on the membrane. Intrusion is typically associated with low flow. In practice, compaction and intrusion may
occur simultaneously and are difficult to distinguish from each other. Although the FilmTec™ membrane shows little
compaction and intrusion when operated properly, significant compaction and intrusion might occur under the
following conditions:
l high feed pressure
l high temperature
l water hammer
Water hammer can occur when the high-pressure pump is started with air in the system.
Damaged elements must be replaced, or new elements must be added to the system to compensate for the flux loss. If
new elements are installed together with used elements, the new elements should be loaded into the tail positions of a
system to protect them from too high flux operation. New elements should be distributed evenly into parallel positions.
It should be avoided to have vessels loaded exclusively with new elements installed in parallel with other vessels
containing exclusively used elements. This would cause an uneven flow distribution and recovery of the individual
vessels.
For example, if six elements of a 4(6):2(6) system are to be replaced, the new elements should go into position 4, 5 and
6 of each of the two vessels of the 2nd stage. Likewise, if six elements are to be added, they should go into positions 5
and 6 of the 3 vessels of the 2nd stage of an enlarged 4(6):3(6) system. If for some reason this is not possible, at least
positions 1 and 2 of the first stage should not be loaded with brand new elements.
b. Organic Fouling
The adsorption of organic matter present in the feedwater on the membrane surface causes flux loss, especially in the
first stage. In many cases, the adsorption layer acts as an additional barrier for dissolved salts, or plugs pinholes of the
membrane, resulting in a lower salt passage. Organics with a high molecular mass and with hydrophobic or cationic
groups can produce such an effect. Examples are oil traces or cationic polyelectrolytes, which are sometimes used in
the pretreatment. Organics are very difficult to remove from the membrane surface.
To identify organic fouling:
l Analyze deposits from filter cartridges and SDI filter pads.
l Analyse the incoming water for oil and grease, as well as for organic contaminants in general.
l Check pretreatment coagulants and filter aids, especially cationic polyelectrolytes.
l Check cleaning detergents and surfactants.
l Clean for organics (see cleaning instructions, Section 6.1). Some organics can be cleaned successfully, some
cannot (e.g., heating oil).
l Correct pretreatment: use minimal coagulant dosages; monitor feedwater changes to avoid overdosing.
l Modify pretreatment, i.e., oil/water separators.

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8.5.2 High Solute Passage
8.5.2.1 High Solute Passage and Normal Permeate Flow
High solute passage at normal permeate flow may have different causes.
a. Leaking O-Ring
Leaking O-rings can be detected by the probing technique (see Probing - Section 8.3.3.2). Inspect O-rings of couplers,
adapters and end plugs for correct installation and as-new condition. Replace old and damaged O-rings. Also see
Interconnector Technology - Section 4.5.
O-rings may leak after exposure to certain chemicals, or to mechanical stress, e.g., element movement caused by water
hammer. Proper shimming of the elements in a pressure vessel is essential to minimize the wear to the seals (see
Shimming Elements – Section 4.3). Sometimes, O-rings have simply not been installed, or they have been improperly
installed or moved out of their proper location during element loading. For replacement O-rings, see Table 33: FilmTec™
interconnector summary in Interconnector Technology - Section 4.5.
b. Telescoping
FilmTec™ Elements can be mechanically damaged by an effect called telescoping, where the outer membrane layers of
the element unravel and extend downstream past the remaining layers. A modest telescoping does not necessarily
damage the membrane, but in more severe cases the glue line and/or the membrane can be ruptured.
Telescoping is caused by excessive pressure drop from feed to concentrate. Make sure that a thrust ring is used with
eight inch elements to support the elements’ outer diameters.
The operating conditions that lead to excessive pressure drop are detailed in High Differential Pressure - Section 8.5.3. .
Telescoping damage can be identified by probing and by a leak test (see Vacuum Decay Test – Section 8.4.4). Replace
the damaged element(s) and correct the causes.
c. Membrane Surface Abrasion

Crystalline or sharp-edged metallic particles in the feedwater may enter into the feed channels and scratch the
membrane surface. This would cause salt passage increase from the lead elements. Check the incoming water for such
particles. Microscopic inspection of the membrane surface will also reveal the damage. Damaged membranes must be
replaced. The pre-filtration must be verified to cope with this problem. Ensure that no particles are released from the
pump and the high pressure piping, and the piping has been rinsed out before the start-up.
d. Permeate Backpressure
When the permeate pressure exceeds the concentrate pressure by more than 5 psi (0.3 bar) at any time, the membrane
may tear. The damage can be identified by probing and by the leak test (see Vacuum Decay Test – Section 8.4.4) and
confirmed by a visual inspection during autopsy.
When a leaf of a backpressure damaged element is unrolled, the outer membrane typically shows creases parallel to
the permeate tube, usually close to the outer glue line. The membrane delaminates and forms blisters against the feed
spacer (see Figure 58). The rupture of the membrane occurs mostly in the edges between the feed-side glue line, the
outer glue line, and the concentrate-side glue line.

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Figure 58. Picture of membrane with permeate backpressure damage
8.5.2.2 High Solute Passage and High Permeate Flow
a. Membrane Oxidation
A high salt passage in combination with a higher than normal permeate flow is mostly due to oxidation damage. When
free chlorine, bromine, ozone or other oxidizing chemicals are present in the incoming water, the front end elements
are typically more affected than the others. A neutral to alkaline pH favors the attack to the membrane.
Oxidation damage may also occur by disinfecting with oxidizing agents, when pH and temperature limits are not
observed, or when the oxidation is catalyzed by the presence of iron or other metals (see Sanitizing RO and NF
membrane systems - Section 6.10.1). In this case, a uniform damage is likely.
A FilmTec™ Element with just oxidation damaged membrane is still mechanically intact when tested with the vacuum
decay test - Section 8.4.4. The chemical membrane damage can be made visible by a dye test on the element or on
membrane coupons (see Autopsy – Section 8.4.7). Autopsy of one element and analysis of the membrane can be used
to confirm oxidation damage. No corrective action is possible. All damaged elements must be replaced.
b. Leak
Severe mechanical damage of the element or of the permeate tubing can allow feed or concentrate to penetrate into
the permeate, especially when working at high pressures. The vacuum test will show a distinct positive response.
Possible causes are discussed in the next section.
8.5.3 High Pressure Drop
High differential pressure, also called pressure drop or ΔP from feed to concentrate, is a problem in system operation
because the flux profile of the system is disturbed in such a way that the lead elements have to operate at excessively
high flux while the tail elements operate at a very low flux. The feed pressure goes up which means increased energy
consumption. A high differential pressure causes a high force in flow direction on the feed side of the element. This
force has to be taken by the permeate tubes and, in the case of 8" elements, by the membrane scrolls and the fiberglass
shells of adjacent elements in the same vessel. The stress on the last element in the vessel is the highest: it has to bear
the sum of the forces created by the pressure drops of upstream elements.
The upper limit of the differential pressure per multi-element vessel is 50 psi (3.5 bar), per single fiberglassed element 15
psi (1 bar). When these limits are exceeded, even for a very short time, the FilmTec™ Elements might become
telescoped and mechanically damaged.

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Eight-inch elements will break circumferentially at any location of the fiberglass shell, or the endcap will be pushed out,
or the spokes of the endcap will break, or the feedspacer will be pushed out from the concentrate channels. Although
such damage is easily visible, it does not normally affect the membrane performance directly. However, they indicate
that the differential pressure has been too high. Cracks around the endcap cause bypass of feedwater and may lead to
fouling and scaling.
Photos of elements with telescoping damage are shown below.
Figure 59. The endcap has been pushed off
Figure 61. Picture of damaged fiberglass

shell
Figure 60. High pressure drop due to biofouling

has pushed out the feed spacer
An increase in differential pressure at constant flowrates is usually due to the presence of debris, foulants or scale within
the element flow channels (feed spacer). It usually occurs together with a decreasing permeate flow, and the causes for
that have been discussed in Section 8.5.1.
An excessive pressure drop occurs when the recommended maximum feed flowrates (Section 3.9.1, Table 22, Table 23,
and Table 24) are exceeded. It can also occur when the feed pressure builds up too fast during start-up (water hammer).
The effect is dramatically increased with a foulant being present, especially biofilm causes a high pressure drop.

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Water hammer, a hydraulic shock to the membrane element, can also happen when the system is started up before all
air has been flushed out. This could be the case at initial start-up or at operational start-ups, when the system has been
allowed to drain. Ensure that the pressure vessels are not under vacuum when the plant is shut down (e.g., by installation
of a vacuum breaker); otherwise air might enter into the system. In starting up a partially drained RO system, the pump
may behave as if it had little or no backpressure. It will suck water at great velocities, thus hammering the elements. Also
the high-pressure pump can be damaged by cavitation.
The feed-to-concentrate differential pressure is a measure of the resistance to the hydraulic flow of water through the
system. It is very dependent on the flowrates through the element flow channels and on the water temperature. It is
therefore suggested that the permeate and concentrate flowrates be maintained as constant as possible in order to
notice and monitor any element plugging that is causing an increase in differential pressure.
The knowledge of the extent and the location of the differential pressure increase provide a valuable tool to identify
the cause(s) of a problem. Therefore it is useful to monitor the differential pressure across each array as well as the
overall feed-to-concentrate differential pressure.
Some of the common causes and prevention of high differential pressure are discussed below.
a. Bypass in Cartridge Filters

Cartridge filters have to protect the RO system from large debris that can physically block the flow channels in the lead-
end elements. Such blocking can happen when cartridge filters are loosely installed in their housing, connected without
using interconnectors, or completely forgotten.
Sometimes cartridge filters will deteriorate while in operation due to hydraulic shock or the presence of incompatible
materials. Cellulose-based filters should be avoided because they may deteriorate and plug the FilmTec™ Elements.
b. Pretreatment Media Filter Breakthrough

Occasionally, some of the finer media from sand, multimedia, carbon, weak acid cation exchange resin, or diatomaceous
earth pretreatment filters may break through into the RO feedwater.
c. Pump Impeller Deterioration

Most of the multistage centrifugal pumps employ at least one plastic impeller. When a pump problem such as
misalignment of the pump shaft develops, the impellers have been known to deteriorate and throw off small plastic
shavings. The shavings can enter and physically plug the lead-end RO elements. It is suggested that the discharge
pressure of RO pumps be monitored before any control valves as part of a routine maintenance schedule to see if the
pump is maintaining its output pressure. If not, it may be deteriorating.
d. Scaling
Scaling can cause the tail-end differential pressure to increase. Make sure that scale control is properly taken into
account (see Section 2.3.1), and clean the membranes with the appropriate chemicals (see Section 6.8). Ensure that the
designed system recovery will not be exceeded.
e. Brine Seal Issues

Brine seal damage can cause a random increase in differential pressure. Brine seals can be damaged or “turned over”
during installation or due to hydraulic surges. This results in a certain amount of feedwater bypass around the element
and less flow and velocity through the element, thus exceeding the limit for maximum element recovery. When this
occurs, the element is more prone to fouling and scaling. As a fouled element in one of several multi-element pressure
vessels becomes more plugged, there is a greater tendency for the downstream elements to become fouled due to
insufficient concentrate flowrates within that vessel.
In case of fullfit or heat-sanitizable elements there are no brine seals installed. This is to deliberately encourage a flow
around the sides of the elements to keep them free from bacterial growth. Brine seals should not be installed in plants
that use fullfit elements as there is no groove in the element to keep the brine seal in place, it would eventually
become dislodged and cause unpredictable problems in the system.

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f. Biological Fouling
Biological fouling is typically associated with a marked increase of the differential pressure at the lead end of the RO
system. Biofilms are gelatinous and quite thick, thus creating a high flow resistance. Corrective measures have been
described in Section 8.5.1.1.
g. Precipitated Antiscalants
When polymeric organic antiscalants come into contact with multivalent cations like aluminium, or with residual
cationic polymeric flocculants, they will form gum-like precipitants which can heavily foul the lead elements. Cleaning
will be difficult; repeated application of an alkaline EDTA solution may help.
8.5.4 Troubleshooting Grid
Changes of the permeate flow, the salt passage and the differential pressure are symptoms which can be attached to
specific causes in many cases. Although, the symptoms of different causes may over-lap in reality, and the symptoms
are more or less pronounced in specific cases. An overview of symptoms, their possible causes and corrective measures
are given in the troubleshooting grid of Table 44.
Table 44. Symptoms, causes and corrective measures

Permeate Salt Differential
flow passage pressure Direct cause Indirect cause Corrective measure
⇑ → Oxidation Free chlorine, ozone, KMnO 4 Replace element
damage
⇑ → Membrane Permeate backpressure; abrasion Replace element, improve
leak cartridge filtration
⇑ → O-ring leak Improper installation Replace O-ring
⇑ → Leaking Damaged during element loading Replace element
product tube
⇓ Scaling Insufficient scale control Cleaning, scale control
⇓ Colloidal Insufficient pretreatment Cleaning, improve pretreatment
fouling
↓ → ⇑ Biofouling Contaminated raw water, Cleaning, disinfection, improve
insufficient pretreatment pretreatment
⇓ → → Organic Oil; cationic polyelectrolytes water Cleaning, improve pretreatment
fouling hammer
⇓ ↓ → Compaction Water hammer Replace element or add
elements
Increasing ↓ Decreasing → Not changing ⇑ Main symptom
References
1. Wes Byrne (Ed.): Reverse Osmosis – A Practical Guide for Industrial Users. 2nd Ed. Tall Oaks Publishing Inc., 2002.
Chapter 7: Troubleshooting RO Systems, pp. 437-494
2. ASTM D3923-94(2003)e1 Standard Practices for Detecting Leaks in Reverse Osmosis Devices
3. ASTM D6908-03 Standard Practice for Integrity Testing of Water Filtration Membrane Systems
4. ASTM D4194-03 Standard Test Methods for Operating Characteristics of Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration Devices

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9 Addendum
9.1 Terminology
AAS Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy.
AOC Assimilable Organic Carbon.
Anionic Usually acrylamide and acrylamide and acrylic copolymers, negatively charged, used for
polyelectrolyte coagulation/flocculation, see Polyelectrolytes.
Anthracite A granular hard coal used as a filtration media, commonly used as the coarser layer in dual and
multimedia filters.
Antifoulant See antiscalant.
Antiscalant A compound added to a water which inhibits the precipitation of sparingly soluble inorganic
salts.
Anti-telescoping A plastic or metal device attached to the ends of a spiral-wound cartridge to prevent movement
device of the cartridge leaves in the feed flow direction, due to high feed flows.
Array An arrangement of devices connected to common feed, product and reject headers; that is, a
2:1 array.
ATD See anti-telescoping device.
ATP Adenosine triphosphate.
Autopsy The dissection of a membrane module or element to investigate causes of unsatisfactory

performance.
Availability The on-stream time or rated operating capacity of a water treatment system.
A-value Membrane water permeability coefficient. The coefficient is defined as the amount of water
produced per unit area of membrane when net driving pressure (NDP) is unity, a unit of
measurement is m3/h/m2/kPa.
Backwash Reverse the flow of water with/without air either across or through a medium designed to
remove the collected foreign material from the bed.
Bacteria Any of a class of microscopic single-celled organisms reproducing by fission or by spores.

Characterized by round, rod-like spiral or filamentous bodies, often aggregated into colonies or
mobile by means of flagella. Widely dispersed in soil, water, organic matter, and the bodies of
plants and animals. Either autotrophic (self-sustaining, self-generative), saprophytic (derives
nutrition from non-living organic material already present in the environment), or parasitic
(deriving nutrition from another living organism). Often symbiotic (advantageous) in man, but
sometimes pathogenic.
Bactericide Agent capable of killing bacteria.
Bacteriostat Substance that prevents bacterial growth and metabolism but does not necessarily kill them.
Bank A grouping of devices. See array, block, train, RO train.
Bar Unit of pressure; 14.50 lbs/in2, 1.020 kg/cm2, 0.987 atm, 0.1 MPa.
BDOC Biodegradable Dissolved Organic Carbon.

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Bed depth The depth of the filter medium or ion exchange resin in a vessel.
Biocide A substance that kills all living organisms.
Biological deposits The debris left by organisms as a result of their life processes.
Biomass Any material which is or was a living organism or excreted from a micro-organism.
Biostat A substance that inhibits biological growth.
Block A grouping of devices in a single unit having common control. See Array, Bank, train.
BOD Biological Oxygen Demand. The amount of dissolved oxygen utilized by natural agencies in
water in stabilizing organic matter at specified test conditions.
Boundary layer A thin layer at the membrane surface where water velocities deviate significantly less than
those in the bulk flow.
Brackish water Water with an approximate concentration of total dissolved solids ranging from 1,000 –
10,000 mg/L. See high brackish water, seawater.
Breakpoint The point at which the water chlorine demand is satisfied and any further chlorine is the
chlorination chlorine residual, the "free" chlorine species.
Break tank A storage device used for hydraulic isolation and surge protection.
Brine The concentrate (reject) stream from a crossflow membrane device performing desalination.
Portion of the feed stream which does not pass through the membrane. See Concentrate.
Brine (concentrate) A rubber lip seal on the outside of a spiral-wound cartridge which prevents feed by-pass
seal between the cartridge and the inside pressure vessel wall.
Brine system A process in which the concentrate, under pressure, of a group of membrane devices is fed
staging directly to another set of membrane devices to improve the efficiency of the water separation.
B-value. Salt The coefficient is defined as the amount of salt transferred per unit area of membrane when
diffusion coefficient the difference in salt concentration across the membrane is unity. A unit of measurement is
m/h.
BWRO Brackish Water Reverse Osmosis.
CAC Combined Available Chlorine.
Calcium carbonate A method for expressing mg/L as ion in terms of calcium carbonate. Concentration in calcium
equivalents (mg/L carbonate equivalents is calculated by multiplying concentration in mg/L of the ion by the
as CaCO 3) equivalent weight of calcium carbonate (50) and dividing by the equivalent weight of the ion.
Carbonate hardness The hardness in a water caused by carbonates and bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium.
The amount of hardness equivalent to the alkalinity formed and deposited when water is
boiled. In boilers, carbonate hardness is readily removed by blowdown.
Cationic A polymer containing positively charged groups used for coagulation/flocculation, usually
polyelectrolyte dimethyl-aminoethyl methacrylate or dimethyl-aminoethyl acrylate. See polyelectrolyte.
CFU Colony forming unit; unit used in the measure of total bacteria count (TBC).
Channeling Unequal flow distribution in the desalination bundle or filter bed.
Chelating agents A sequestering or complexing agent that, in aqueous solution, renders a metallic ion inactive
through the formation of an inner ring structure with the ion.
Chemical feed A pump used to meter chemicals, such as chlorine of polyphosphate, into a feedwater supply.
pump

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Chloramine A combination of chlorine and ammonia in water which has bactericidal qualities for a longer
time than does free chlorine.
Chlorine Chemical used for its qualities as a bleaching or oxidizing agent and disinfectant in water
purification.
Chlorine demand The amount of chlorine used up by reacting with oxidizable substances in water before chlorine
residual can be measured.
Chlorine, residual The amount of available chlorine present in water at any specified time.
Chlorine, free The chlorine (Cl2), hypochlorite ions (OCl), hypochlorous acid (OHCl) or the combination thereof
available present in water.
Chlorine, total The sum of free available chlorine plus chloramines present in water.
available
CIP Cleaning-in-place.
Citric acid C3H 4(OH)(CO 2H)3, membrane cleaning chemical.
Clarifier A tank in which precipitate settles and supernatant overflows, a liquid-solids separation unit
using gravity to remove solids by sedimentation.
Coagulant Chemical added in water and wastewater applications to cause destalization of suspended
particles and subsequent formation of flocs that adsorb, entrap, or otherwise bring together
suspended matter that is so fine, it is defined as colloidal. Compounds of iron and aluminum are
generally used to form flocs to allow removal of turbidity, bacteria, color, and other finely
divided matter from water and wastewater.
COD-chemical The amount of oxygen required under specified test conditions for the oxidation of water
oxygen demand borne organic and inorganic matter.
Colloid A substance of very fine particle size, typically between 0.1 and 0.001 pin in diameter suspended
in liquid or dispersed in gas. A system of at least two phases, including a continuous liquid plus
solid, liquid or gaseous particles so small that they remain in dispersion for a practicable time.
Colony forming unit Unit used in the measure of total bacterial count (TBC).
(CFU)
Compaction In crossflow filtration, the result of applied pressure and temperature compressing a polymeric
membrane which may result in a decline in flux.
Composite A membrane having two or more layers with different physical or chemical properties.
membrane Membrane manufactured by forming a thin desalinating barrier layer on a porous carrier
membrane.
Concentrate The stream exiting a crossflow membrane device which has increased concentration of solutes
and particles over the feed stream. Portion of the feed stream which does not pass through the
membrane. The stream in which dissolved solids or particulates, or both, are concentrated in a
membrane separation process.
Concentration The ratio of the feed quantity (or feed stream) over the concentrate quantity (or concentrate
Factor, CF stream)
Eq. 81

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Concentration The increase of the solute concentration over the bulk feed solution which occurs in a thin
polarization boundary layer at the feed side of the membrane surface, resulting from the removal of the
solvent.
Concentrate recycle A technique for improving recovery in which a fraction of the concentrate is recycled through
the membrane system.
Conductivity The property of a substance's (in this case, water and dissolved ions) ability to transmit
electricity. The inverse of resistivity. Measured by a conductivity meter, and described in
microsiemens/cm or micromhos/cm, µS/cm.
Contaminant Any foreign substance present which will adversely affect performance or quality.
Corrosion products Products that result from chemical or electrochemical reaction between a metal and its
environment.
CPU Chloroplatinate unit (color indicator).
CRC Combined Residual Chlorine.
Crossflow A separation of the components of a fluid by semipermeable membranes through the

membrane filtration application of pressure and flow parallel to the membrane surface. Includes the processes of
reverse osmosis, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, and microfiltration .
Dalton An arbitrary unit of molecular weight, 1/12 the mass of the nuclide of carbon 12. Unit of measure
for the smallest, size of the molecular retained by an ultrafilter.
Dead end filtration A process in which water is forced through a media which captures the retained particles on
and within it, where the process involves one influent and one effluent stream.
Deionization (Dl) The removal of ions from a solution by ion exchange.
Demineralization The process of removing minerals from water.
Desalination See demineralization.
Detergent A cleansing agent; any of numerous synthetic water soluble or liquid-organic preparations that
are chemically different from soaps but resemble them in the ability to emulsify oils and hold
dirt in suspension.
Disinfection The process of killing organisms in a water supply or distribution system by means of heat,
chemicals, or UV light.
Dissolved solids The residual material remaining after filtering the suspended material from a solution and
evaporating the solution to a dry state at a specified temperature. That matter, exclusive of
gases, which is dissolved in water to give a single homogeneous liquid phase.
Double-pass RO RO system in which the permeate is further desalinated by a subsequent RO system.

system
Element The component containing the membrane, generally replaceable, such as a spiral-wound
cartridge.
ERD Energy recovery device.
ERT Energy recovery turbine.
FAC Free Available Chlorine.
FDA Food and Drug Administration (USA).
Feed The input solution to a treatment/purification system or device, including the raw water supply
prior to any treatment. The liquid entering the module.

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Feed channel A plastic netting between membrane leaves which provides the flow channel for the fluid
spacer passing over the surface of the membrane and increases the turbulence of the feed-brine
stream.
Feedwater That water entering a device or process.
Ferric chloride A coagulant, solid as FeCl3 or liquid as FeCl3 · 6H 2O.
Ferric sulfate Fe 2(SO 4)3 · 9H 2O, a coagulant.
Ferrous sulfate FeSO 4 · 7H 2O, a coagulant.
FI Fouling Index.
Filtrate The portion of the feed stream which has passed through a filter.
Floc A loose, open-structured mass produced by the aggregation of minute particles.
Flocculent Chemical(s) which, when added to water, form bridges between suspended particles causing
them to agglomerate into larger groupings (flocs) which then settle or float by specific gravity
differences.
Flocculation The process of agglomerating fine particles into larger groupings called flocs.
Flux The membrane throughput, usually expressed in volume of permeate per unit time per unit
area, such as gallons per day per ft2 or liters per hour per m2.
Fouling The reduction of flux due to a build-up of solids on the surface or within the pores of the
membrane, resulting in changed element performance.
Fouling index (FI) See SDI.
FRC Free Residual Chlorine.
Freeboard The space above a filter bed in a filtration vessel to allow for expansion of the bed during back
washing.
Free (available) Chlorine existing as hypochlorous acid or its dissociated ions. Chlorine remaining after the
chlorine demand has been satisfied.
FRP Fiberglass reinforced plastic.
Fungus Primitive plants distinguished from algae by the absence of chlorophyll.
GAC Granular Activated Carbon.
GD Gallons per day. See gpd.
gfd (GPDSF) Unit of permeate rate or flux; gallons per day per square foot of effective membrane area.
gpd Unit of flowrate; gallons per day. See GD.
Gravity filter A filter through which water flows through it by gravity.
Greensand A mineral (glauconite), used as a filtration medium. See manganese greensand.
Groundwater-water Confined in permeable sand layers between rock or clay; that part of the subsurface water that
is in the saturated zone.
Halogen Any element of the family of the elements fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine (definition for
purpose of this standard).
Hardness The polyvalent-cation concentration of water (generally calcium and magnesium). Usually
expressed as mg/L as CaCO 3.

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Header See manifold.
Head loss The reduction in liquid pressure usually associated with the passage of a solution through a
filter media bed.
Heavy metals Elements having a high density or specific gravity of approximately 5.0 or higher. A generic
term used to describe contaminants such as cadmium, lead, mercury, etc. Most are toxic to
humans in low concentration.
High brackish water Water with an approximate concentration of total dissolved solids ranging from 10,000 to 30,000
mg/L. See brackish water and seawater.
High-purity water Highly treated water with attention to microbiological, particle, organics and mineral reduction
or elimination.
HPC Heterotrophic plate count. Formerly called SPC.
HPW High Purity Water.
Humic acid A variety of water-soluble organic compounds, formed by the decayed vegetable matter, which
is leached into a water source by runoff or percolation. Present in most surface and some
ground waters. Higher concentrations cause a brownish tint. Difficult to remove except by
adsorption, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration or reverse osmosis.
In-line coagulation A filtration process performed by continually adding a coagulant to the raw feedwater and then
passing the water through a filter to remove the microfloc which has been formed.
Interconnector A device to connect adjacent membrane elements in series and to seal the product channel
from the feed brine channel.
Ion exchange A reversible process by which ions are interchanged between a solid and a liquid with no
substantial structural changes in the solid; ions removed from a liquid by chemical bonding to
the media.
Ionic strength Measure of the overall electrolytic potential of a solution, the strength of a solution based on
both the concentrations and valencies of the ions present.
Ionization The disassociation of molecules into charged particles (ions).
Langelier Saturation An index calculated from total dissolved solids, calcium concentration, total alkalinity, pH, and
Index, LSI solution temperature that shows the tendency of a water solution to precipitate or dissolve
calcium carbonate.
Leaf The sandwich layer of flatsheet membrane/product channel spacer/flatsheet membrane, glued
together on the sides and across the outer end in a spiral-wound element.
Lime soda Use of lime and Na2CO 3 for softening water.

softening
LSI Langelier Saturation Index, measure of CaCO 3 solubility in brackish waters. See S&DSI.
Manganese A manganese dioxide coated greensand used as a filter medium for removal of manganese and
greensand iron. See greensand.
Manifold An enlarged pipe with connections available to the individual feed, brine and product ports of a
desalination device.
Mass Transfer Mass (or volume) transfer through a membrane based on driving force.
Coefficient (MTC)

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Membrane Engineered thin semipermeable film which serves as a barrier permitting the passage of
materials only up to a certain size, shape, or electro-chemical character. Membranes are used as
the separation agent in reverse osmosis, electrodialysis, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, and
microfiltration, as disc filters in laboratories, and as pleated filter cartridges, particularly for
microfiltration.
Membrane area The active area available for micro, nano and ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis.
Membrane See compaction.

compaction
Membrane The design and shape of a given membrane element (cartridge) such as tubular, spiral-wound or
configuration hollow-fiber.
Membrane A bundle of spiral membrane envelopes bound together as a discrete entity.

element
Membrane filter Geometrically regular porous matrix; removes particles above pore size rating by physical size
exclusion.
Membrane salt SPm is the concentration of a compound in the permeate related to its average concentration
passage on the feed/concentrate side.
Membrane Use of crossflow membrane to substantially reduce hardness ions in water. See nanofiltration.
softening
MF Microfiltration.
MFI Modified Fouling Index.
mgd (MGPD) Millions of gallons per day.
Microfiltration (MF) Filtration designed to remove particles in the approximate range of 0.05 – 2 µm.
Microbe Bacteria and other organisms that require the aid of a microscope to be seen.
Microorganism See microbe.
Microsiemens Unit of measurement of water purity by electrical conductivity; one micromho; reciprocal of
resistivity. See megohm, ohm.
Milliequivalent per A weight-volume measurement obtained by dividing the concentration expressed in milligrams
liter (meq/L) per liter by the equivalent weight of the substance or ion. If specific gravity is unity meq/L is the
same as epm.
Milligram per liter A weight-volume measurement which expresses the concentration of a solute in milligrams per
(mg/L) liter of solution. When specific gravity is unity mg/L = ppm. When specific gravity is not unity,
mg/L divided by specific gravity of solution equals ppm.
Mixed-bed A physical mixture of anion-exchange and cation-exchange materials.
Module A membrane element combined with the element's housing. Pressure vessel containing
membrane element(s).
Molality (m1) Moles (gram molecular weight) of solute per 1,000 g of solvent.
Molarity (m1) Moles (gram molecular weight) of solute per liter of total solution.
Molecular Weight The rating of a membrane for the size of uncharged solutes it will reject. Also referred to as
Cut Off (MWCO) nominal molecular weight cut off (NMWCO).
Multimedia filter Filter with a bed consisting of three or more separate filter media. The coarsest, lowest density
at the top and the finest, highest density at the bottom.

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NaHMP Sodium hexametaphosphate, an antiscalant.
Nanofiltration (NF) A crossflow process with pore sizes designed to remove selected salts and most organics above
about 300 molecular weight range, sometimes referred to as loose RO.
Nephelometer A device used to measure mainly the turbidity of water with results expressed in nephelometric
turbidity units (NTU). Measures light at 90°.
Nonionic Neutral charged polymers, usually polyacrylamides, used for coagulation / flocculation. See
polyelectrolyte polyelectrolytes.
Normalization Converting actual data to a set of reference conditions in order to "standardize" operation to
common base.
NF Nanofiltration.
NOM Natural Organic Matter.
NTU See nephelometer.
OEM Original equipment manufacturer.
O&M Operation and maintenance.
Operating pressure The gauge hydraulic pressure at which feedwater enters a device.
ORP Oxidation Reduction Potential.
Osmosis The spontaneous flow of water from a less concentrated solution to a more concentrated
solution through a semipermeable membrane until chemical potential equilibrium is achieved.
Osmotic pressure A measurement of the potential energy difference between solutions on either side of a
semipermeable membrane. A factor in designing the operating pressure of reverse osmosis
equipment. The applied pressure must first overcome the osmotic pressure inherent in the
chemical solution in order to produce any flux.
Oxidation-reduction The electromotive force developed by a noble metal electrode immersed in the water, referred
potential to the standard hydrogen electrode.
Oxygen demand The amount of oxygen required for the oxidation of waterborne organic and inorganic matter
under the specified test conditions.
Parts Per Billion A measure of proportion by weight, equivalent to a unit weight of solute per billion unit weights
(ppb) of solution (approximate pg/L or mg/m3 in dilute solutions).
Parts Per Million A measure of proportion by weight, equivalent to a unit weight of solute per million unit
(ppm) weightsof solution (approximate mg/L or g/m3 in dilute solutions).
Pass A treatment step or one of multiple treatment steps producing in a membrane system a
product stream.
Permeable Allowing material to pass through.
Permeate The portion of the feed which passes through the membrane, also called product.
Permeate channel Fabric that mechanically supports the membrane and drains the permeate to the permeate
spacer tube, see product (permeate) channel spacer.
Permeate collector See Permeate channel spacer.

fabric
Permeate flux Permeate flowrate per unit membrane area, expressed commonly as L/m2-h (or gfd).
Plant capacity Manufacture of product per unit time, expressed as m3/day, m3/h, gpd, mgd.

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Plugging factor See fouling factor and SDI.
Polarization See concentration polarization.
Polyelectrolyte Synthetic (or natural) molecules, containing multiple ionic groups, used as coagulants and
flocculants; available as anionic, cationic and nonionic.
Polymers A substance consisting of molecules characterized by the repetition of one or more types of
monomeric units.
Porosity That portion of a membrane filter volume which is open to fluid flow, also known as void
volume.
Posttreatment Utilization of equipment such as degasifiers or the addition of chemicals to the product or
concentrate stream to make either or both streams suitable for the desired end-use application.
Pressure filtration Filtration performed in an enclosed pressurized filter vessel.
Pressure vessel The vessel containing one or more individual membrane elements and designed to withstand
safely the hydraulic pressure driving the separation mechanism.
Pretreatment Processes such as chlorination, filtration, coagulation, clarification, acidification which may be
used on feedwater ahead at membrane devices to improve quality, minimize scaling and
corrosion potential, control biological activity.
Product channel The fabric or other material through which permeate water flows after it passes through the
spacer (permeate flatsheet membrane.
carrier)
Product staging A process in which the permeate from one membrane plant is used as the feed to another
membrane plant in order to further improve product quality.
Product tube The tube at the center of the spiral-wound cartridge which collects permeate water
Productivity Flowrate of product water.
Product water Purified water produced by a process. See Permeate.
Projection A calculation usually performed by a software package, which predicts the performance of parts
or all of a water plant.
Pyrogens Any substance capable of producing a fever in mammals. Often a bacterial endotoxin such as
lipo polysaccaride generated by gram negative bacteria at destruction. Chemically and
physically stable, pyrogens are not necessarily destroyed by conditions that kill bacteria.
Raw water Water which has not been treated. Untreated water from wells, surface sources, the sea or
public water supplies.
Recovery – Y The ratio of product quantity (permeate stream flowrate) over the feed quantity (feed stream
(conversion) flowrate), given as fraction or in percent.
Reject Brine, (concentrate) stream from a desalination device. Portion of the feed stream which does
not pass through the membrane.
Rejection The ability of the membrane to hinder certain elements from passing through. Expressed as 1
minus the ratio between the concentration in the product and the feed.
Retentate See concentrate.

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Reverse Osmosis The separation process where one component of a solution is removed from another
(RO) component by flowing the feed stream under pressure across a semipermeable membrane. RO
removes ions based on electro chemical forces, colloids, and organics down to 150 molecular
weight. May also be called hyperfiltration.
RO Reverse Osmosis.
RO train One of two or more complete RO installations, including membranes and high-pressure pump
operating in parallel.
S&DSI Stiff & Davis Stability Index.
Salinity The concentration of inorganic salts in water.
Salt flux Amount of dissolved salt passing through the membrane, moles per day per square unit of
membrane area. salt passage, SP
Eq. 82
Sanitization Reduction in the number of bacterial contaminants to safe levels. See disinfection.
Saturation The point at which a solution contains enough of a dissolved solid, liquid, or gas so that no more
will dissolve into the solution at a given temperature and pressure.
SBS Sodium bisulfite, NaHSO 3.
Scale inhibitor A chemical which inhibits the growth of micro-crystals (inhibits precipitation of sparingly soluble
salts). See antiscalant.
Scaling The build-up of precipitated salts on a surface, such as membranes, pipes, tanks, or boiler
condensate tubes
SDI - Salt Density An index calculated from the rate of plugging of 0.45 µm membrane filter. It is an indication of
Index the amount of particulate matter in water, sometimes called fouling index.
S&DSI Stiff and Davis saturation index, measure of CaCO 3 solubility in seawater or highly saline water.
See LSI.
Seawater Water with an approximate concentration of total dissolved solids ranging from 30,000 – 60,000
mg/L. See brackish water, high brackish water.
Sedimentation The precipitation or settling of insoluble materials from a suspension, either by gravity or
artificially. For example, centrifuge, pressure.
Semipermeable A membrane which preferentially allows the passage of specific compounds while rejecting
membrane others.
SHMP Sodium HexaMetaPhosphate. (NaHMP).
Siemens A measure of electrical conductance in water, equivalent to a mho. See Mho, Ohm.
Slime Biological deposits of gelatinous or filamentous matter.
SMBS Sodium MetaBiSulfite, Na2S2O 5.
Softening See membrane softening.
Softener Water treatment equipment that uses a sodium based ion-exchange resin principally to remove
cations as calcium and magnesium.
Solids contact Water treating device used in lime softening, wastewater treatment and coagulation processes.
clarifier

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Solubility product [M+]a [X]b/[MX] where the brackets indicate the concentrations of the components of the
ionization equilibrium M aXb à aM+ + bX. For sparingly soluble salts [MX] is essentially unity.
Solutes Matter dissolved in a solvent.
Solvent Here defined as water.
SPC Standard (heterotrophic) plate count. Measurement method for enumerating bacteria.
Specific flux Flux divided by net pressure driving force.
Spiral-wound A crossflow membrane element design consisting of a product tube, flat membrane leaves,
cartridge feed channel spacers, anti-telescoping devices, and brine (concentrate) seal.
Spiral-wound A flatsheet membrane with one or more feed channel spacers and barrier layers, all of which
membrane are rolled into a spiral configuration.
Stage A sequential arrangement of pressure vessels, usually reject staged such as 2:1 array, sometimes
permeate-staged as in double-pass RO.
Staging See brine staging and product staging.
Standard test The parameters under which a membrane manufacturer tests devices for flow and salt
conditions rejection.
Sterilization Destruction or removal of all viable organisms.
Stiff & Davis Stability An index calculated from total dissolved solids, calcium concentration, total alkalinity, pH and
Index, S&DSI solution temperature that shows the tendency of a water solution to precipitate or dissolve
calcium carbonate. S&DSI is used primarily for seawater RO applications.
STP Sodium triphosphate - Na5P3O 10, a cleaning agent.
STPP Sodium tripolyphosphate. See STP.
Supersaturation A state in which the inorganic salt(s) are in solution at a level higher than the respective
solubility product.
Suspended solids Solid organic and inorganic particles that are held in suspension in a liquid.
(SS)
SWRO Seawater reverse osmosis.
System salt passage SPS is the concentration of a compound in the permeate related to its concentration in the
feedwater, also called apparent salt passage.
TBC Total Bacteria Count, the total number of viable microorganisms present in the sample,
excluding anaerobic organisms.
TDS Total Dissolved Solids, usually expressed as mg/L or ppm (parts per million).
Telescoping The movement of the outer layers of a spiral-wound cartridge in the direction of the feed flow
caused by excessive pressure drop through the feed channel spacer.
Temperature Defines the effect of temperature on permeate flow relative to a base temperature (25°C), is
correction factor mainly a function of fluid characteristics but also membrane polymer.
(TCF)
Thin-film See composite membrane.

composite (TFC)
Threshold The process of stopping precipitation at the start of occurrence; usually does not stop the
treatment formation of nuclei but does inhibit growth. See antiscalant.

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THM Trihalomethanes; a group of low molecular weight molecules which can result from
chlorination of organics typically found in surface water.
THMP Trihalomethane precursors; organic molecules found in water which have the potential of
reacting with chlorine to form THMs.
Thrust collar A plastic cylinder placed between the last spiral-wound cartridge and vessel end plate to
support the last cartridge in a pressure vessel against telescoping.
TOC Total Organic Carbon, a measure of the level of organic constituents in water.
TOCI Total organic chlorine.
TOX Total organic halides.
TOXFP Total organic halide formation potential.
Train A grouping of devices. See array, bank, block.
Transmembrane The net driving force across the membrane. The hydraulic pressure differential from the feed
pressure side to permeate side less the osmotic pressure differential on each side.
TRC Total Residual Chlorine.
Trisodium Na3PO 4 · 12H 2O, a cleaning agent.

phosphate (TSP)
TSS Total suspended solids. Concentration of undissolved solids in a liquid, usually expressed in
mg/L or ppm.
Turbidity A suspension of fine particles that scatters or absorbs light rays.
Turbidity, An empirical measure of turbidity based on a measurement of the light-scattering

nephelometric characteristics (tyndall effect) of the particulate matter in the sample.
(NTU)
Ultrafiltration UF A process employing semipermeable membrane under a hydraulic pressure gradient for the
separation of components in a solution. The pores of the membrane are of a size which allow
passage of the solvent(s) but will retain non-ionic solutes based primarily on physical size, not
chemical potential.
UPW - ultra pure Water generally used in semiconductor industry having specifications (chemical, physical and
water biological) for extremely low contaminant levels.
Ultraviolet (UV) Wavelengths between 200 – 300 nm. These wavelengths have a strong germicidal effect. The
radiation maximum effect is at 260 nm.
Viable Ability to live or grow. For example, bacteria, plants.
VOC (Viable A measure of biological activity (living or growing) in water.

Organism Count)
VOC (Volatile An organic compound with a vapor pressure higher than water.
Organic Compound)
Water softener A vessel having a cation resin in the sodium form that removes cations such as calcium and
magnesium from water and releases another ion such as sodium. The resin is usually
regenerated. See softener.
Y Conversion, recovery.
Zero discharge A condition whereby a facility discharges no process effluent.

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μmhos/ μmhos/ μmhos/ μmhos/ μmhos/ μmhos/ μmhos/
cm ppm cm ppm cm ppm cm ppm cm ppm cm ppm cm ppm
10 5 640 317 1,525 766 3,650 1,899 9,300 5,047 22,500 13,013 62,000 38,561
20 9 650 323 1,550 770 3,700 1,917 9,400 5,103 22,750 13,167 63,000 39,239
30 14 660 328 1,575 792 3,750 1,945 9,500 5,159 23,000 13,321 64,000 39,917
40 19 670 333 1,600 805 3,800 1,972 9,600 5,215 23,250 13,474 65,000 40,595
60 28 680 338 1,625 817 3,850 1,999 9,700 5,271 23,500 13,628 66,000 41,273
70 33 690 343 1,650 830 3,900 2,027 9,800 5,327 23,750 13,782 67,000 41,961
80 38 700 348 1,675 843 3,950 2,054 9,900 5,383 24,000 13,936 68,000 42,629
90 42 710 353 1,700 856 4,000 2,081 10,000 5,439 24,250 14,089 69,000 43,307
100 47 720 358 1,725 868 4,100 2,136 10,200 5,551 24,500 14,243 70,000 43,985
110 52 730 363 1,750 881 4,200 2,191 10,400 5,664 24,750 14,397 71,000 44,663
120 57 740 368 1,775 894 4,300 2,245 10,600 5,776 25,000 14,550 72,000 45,341
130 61 750 373 1,800 907 4,400 2,300 10,800 5,888 25,500 14,858 73,000 46,091
140 66 760 378 1,825 920 4,500 2,356 11,000 6,000 26,000 15,165 74,000 46,697
150 71 770 383 1,850 932 4,600 2,412 11,200 6,122 26,500 15,473 76,000 48,053
160 75 780 388 1,875 945 4,700 2,468 11,400 6,243 27,000 15,780 77,000 48,731
170 80 790 393 1,900 958 4,800 2,524 11,600 6,364 27,500 16,087 78,000 49,409
180 85 800 399 1,925 971 4,900 2,580 11,800 6,485 28,000 16,395 79,000 50,087
190 90 810 404 1,950 983 5,000 2,636 12,000 6,607 28,500 16,702 80,000 50,765
200 95 820 409 1,975 996 5,100 2,692 12,200 6,728 29,000 17,010 81,000 51,443
210 100 830 414 2,000 1,000 5,200 2,748 12,400 6,843 29,500 17,317 82,000 52,121
220 105 840 419 2,025 1,022 5,300 2,805 12,600 6,970 30,000 17,624 83,000 52,799
230 110 850 424 2,050 1,034 5,400 2,861 12,800 7,091 30,500 17,932 84,000 53,477
240 115 860 429 2,075 1,047 5,500 2,917 13,000 7,213 31,000 18,239 85,000 54,155
250 120 870 434 2,125 1,073 5,600 2,973 13,200 7,334 31,500 18,547 86,000 54,833
260 125 880 439 2,150 1,085 5,700 3,029 13,400 7,455 32,000 18,854 87,000 55,511
270 130 890 444 2,175 1,098 5,800 3,085 13,600 7,576 32,500 19,161 88,000 56,130
280 135 900 449 2,200 1,111 5,900 3,141 13,800 7,698 33,000 19,469 89,000 56,867
290 140 910 454 2,225 1,124 6,000 3,197 14,000 7,819 34,000 20,084 90,000 57,545
300 145 920 459 2,250 1,137 6,100 3,253 14,200 7,940 34,500 20,391 91,000 58,223
310 150 930 464 2,275 1,140 6,200 3,309 14,400 8,061 35,000 20,698 92,000 58,901
320 155 940 469 2,300 1,162 6,300 3,365 14,600 8,182 35,500 21,006 93,000 59,579
330 160 950 474 2,325 1,175 6,400 3,421 14,800 8,304 36,000 21,313 94,000 60,257
340 165 960 480 2,350 1,188 6,500 3,477 15,000 8,425 36,500 21,621 95,000 60,935
350 171 970 485 2,375 1,200 6,600 3,533 15,250 8,576 37,000 21,928 96,000 61,613
360 176 980 490 2,400 1,213 6,700 3,589 15,500 8,728 37,500 22,235 97,000 62,291
370 181 990 495 2,425 1,226 6,800 3,645 15,750 8,879 38,000 22,543 98,000 62,969
380 186 1,000 500 2,450 1,239 6,900 3,701 16,000 9,031 38,500 22,850 99,000 63,647
390 191 1,020 510 2,475 1,251 7,000 3,758 16,250 9,182 39,000 23,158 100,000 64,325
400 196 1,040 520 2,500 1,264 7,100 3,814 16,500 9,334 39,500 23,465
410 201 1,080 540 2,550 1,290 7,200 3,870 16,750 9,486 40,000 23,773
420 206 1,100 550 2,600 1,315 7,300 3,926 17,000 9,637 41,000 24,387
430 211 1,120 561 2,650 1,344 7,400 3,982 17,500 9,940 42,000 25,002
440 216 1,140 571 2,700 1,371 7,500 4,038 17,750 10,092 43,000 25,679
450 221 1,160 581 2,750 1,398 7,600 4,094 18,000 10,247 44,000 26,357
460 226 1,180 591 2,800 1,426 7,700 4,150 18,250 10,400 45,000 27,035
470 231 1,200 601 2,850 1,453 7,800 4,206 18,500 10,554 46,000 27,713
480 236 1,220 611 2,900 1,480 7,900 4,262 18,750 10,708 47,000 28,391
490 241 1,240 621 2,950 1,508 8,000 4,318 19,000 10,852 48,000 29,069

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μmhos/ μmhos/ μmhos/ μmhos/ μmhos/ μmhos/ μmhos/
cm ppm cm ppm cm ppm cm ppm cm ppm cm ppm cm ppm
500 247 1,260 632 3,000 1,535 8,100 4,374 19,250 11,015 49,000 29,747
510 252 1,280 642 3,050 1,562 8,200 4,430 19,500 11,169 50,000 30,425
520 257 1,300 652 3,100 1,589 8,300 4,486 19,750 11,323 51,000 31,103
530 262 1,320 662 3,150 1,617 8,400 4,542 20,000 11,476 52,000 31,781
550 272 1,340 672 3,200 1,644 8,500 4,598 20,250 11,630 53,000 32,459
560 277 1,360 682 3,250 1,671 8,600 4,654 20,500 11,784 54,000 33,137
570 282 1,380 692 3,300 1,699 8,700 4,710 20,750 11,937 55,000 33,815
580 287 1,400 702 3,350 1,726 8,800 4,767 21,000 12,091 56,000 34,493
590 292 1,420 713 3,400 1,753 8,900 4,823 21,250 12,245 57,000 35,171
600 297 1,440 723 3,450 1,781 9,000 4,879 21,500 12,399 58,000 35,849
610 302 1,460 733 3,500 1,808 9,100 4,935 21,750 12,552 59,000 36,527
620 307 1,480 743 3,550 1,835 9,200 4,991 22,000 12,705 60,000 37,205
630 312 1,500 754 3,600 1,863 9,216 5,000 22,250 12,860 61,000 37,883
9.2 Conductivity of Ions

Table 45. Conductivity of ions expressed as μS/cm per meq/L, infinitely diluted
Ion 68°F (20°C) 77°F (25°C) 212°F (100°C)
H+ 328 350 646
Na + 45 50.1 155
K+ 67 73.5 200
NH 4+ 67 73.5 200
Mg2+ 47 53.1 170
Ca 2+ 53.7 59.5 191
OH − 179 197 446
Cl− 69.0 76.3 207
HCO 3 36.5 44.5 
NO 3− 65.2 71.4 178
H 2PO 4− 30.1 36.0 
CO 3 2− 63.0 72.0 
HPO 42−  53.4 
SO 42− 71.8 79.8 234
PO 43−  69.0 
Source: Landolf-Börnstein 6° edition Band II/7

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9.3 Conductivity of Solutions
Table 46. Conductivity of solutions, acids, alkalies and salts 77°F (25°C) expressed as μS/cm per
meq/L
Concentration in meq/L
Component Infin. diluted 0.1 0.5 1.0 5.0 10.0 50.0 100.0
HCl 426 425 423 421 415 412 399 392
HNO 3 421 420 417 416 410 407 394 386
H 2SO 4 430 424 412 407 390 380 346 317
H 3PO 4 419 394 359 336 264 223 133 104
NaOH 248 247 246 245 241 238 227 221
KOH 271 270 269 268 264 261 251 246
NH 4OH 271 109 49 36 17 12 5.6 3.9
NaCl 126 126 124 124 121 118 111 107
Na 2SO 4 130 128 126 124 117 113 97.7 90.0
Na 2CO 3 124 122 120 119 112 108 93.2 86.3
NaHCO 3 96.0 95.2 94.2 93.5 90.5 88.4 80.6 76.0
KCl 150 149 148 141 144 141 133 129
The graphs on the following page relate the conductivity of a solution containing one given chemical to the
concentration of this chemical.
The conductivity of solutions at other temperatures can be calculated by multiplying conductivities at 77°F (25°C) with
the correction factors in the following table. These factors are only valid for diluted solutions as they presuppose total
ionic dissociation of the chemical.
Table 47. Conductivity correction factors

32°F (0°C) 64°F (18°C) 77°F (25°C) 122°F (50°C)
HCl 0.66 0.89 1.00 1.37
H 2SO 4 0.66 0.87 1.00 1.38
NaCl 0.53 0.86 1.00 1.57
NaOH 0.54 0.89 1.00 1.51
KOH 0.55 0.89 1.00 1.50
Figure 62. Conductivity of ionic solutions at 77°F (25°C)

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Figure 63. Conductivity of ionic solutions at 77°F (25°C)

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9.4 Conversion of Concentration Units of Ionic Species
The following table gives conversion factors for the conversion of concentration units of ionic species given as gram of
the ion per liter (g/L) into equivalent per liter (eq/L) or of gram of CaCO 3 equivalents per liter (g CaCO 3/L).
Table 48. Conversion factors for the conversion of concentration units of ionic species
Compound Formula Ionic weight Equivalent weight Conversion to g CaCO 3/L eq/L
Positive ions
Aluminium Al3+ 27.0 9.0 5.56 0.111
Ammonium NH 4+ 18.0 18.0 2.78 0.0556
Barium Ba 2+ 137.4 68.7 0.73 0.0146
Calcium Ca 2+ 40.1 20.0 2.50 0.0500
Copper Cu2+ 63.6 31.8 1.57 0.0314
Hydrogen H+ 1.0 1.0 50.0 1.000
Ferrous iron Fe2+ 55.8 27.9 1.79 0.0358
Ferric iron Fe3+ 55.8 18.6 2.69 0.0538
Magnesium Mg2+ 24.3 12.2 4.10 0.0820
Manganese Mn2+ 54.9 27.5 1.82 0.0364
Potassium K+ 39.1 39.1 1.28 0.0256
Sodium Na + 23.0 23.0 2.18 0.0435
Negative ions
Bicarbonate HCO 3− 61.0 61.0 0.82 0.0164
Carbonate CO 32− 60.0 30.0 1.67 0.0333
Chloride Cl− 35.5 35.5 1.41 0.0282
Fluoride F− 19.0 19.0 2.63 0.0526
Iodide I− 126.9 126.9 0.39 0.0079
Hydroxide OH − 17.0 17.0 2.94 0.0588
Nitrate NO 3− 62.0 62.0 0.81 0.0161
Phosphate (tri-basic) PO 43− 95.0 31.7 1.58 0.0315
Phosphate (di-basic) HPO 42− 96.0 48.0 1.04 0.0208
Phosphate (mono-basic) H 2PO 4− 97.0 97.0 0.52 0.0103
Sulfate SO 42− 96.1 48.0 1.04 0.0208
Bisulfate HSO 4− 97.1 97.1 0.52 0.0103
Sulfite SO 32− 80.1 40.0 1.25 0.0250
Bisulfite HSO 3 − 81.1 81.1 0.62 0.0123
Sulfide S2− 32.1 16.0 3.13 0.0625
Neutral1
Carbon dioxide CO 2 44.0 44.0 1.14 0.0227
Silica SiO 2 60.0 60.0 0.83 0.0167
Ammonia NH 3 17.0 17.0 2.94 0.0588
1
Calculations based on conversion to monovalent species

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Temperature Temperature Temperature Temperature Temperature
Temperature Correction Temperature Correction Temperature Correction Temperature Correction Temperature Correction
°C Factor °C Factor °C Factor °C Factor °C Factor
10.0 1.711 14.0 1.475 18.0 1.276 22.0 1.109 26.0 0.971
10.1 1.705 14.1 1.469 18.1 1.272 22.1 1.105 26.1 0.968
10.2 1.698 14.2 1.464 18.2 1.267 22.2 1.101 26.2 0.965
10.3 1.692 14.3 1.459 18.3 1.262 22.3 1.097 26.3 0.962
10.4 1.686 14.4 1.453 18.4 1.258 22.4 1.093 26.4 0.959
10.5 1.679 14.5 1.448 18.5 1.254 22.5 1.090 26.5 0.957
10.6 1.673 14.6 1.443 18.6 1.249 22.6 1.086 26.6 0.954
10.7 1.667 14.7 1.437 18.7 1.245 22.7 1.082 26.7 0.951
10.8 1.660 14.8 1.432 18.8 1.240 22.8 1.078 26.8 0.948
10.9 1.654 14.9 1.427 18.9 1.236 22.9 1.075 26.9 0.945
11.0 1.648 15.0 1.422 19.0 1.232 23.0 1.071 27.0 0.943
11.1 1.642 15.1 1.417 19.1 1.227 23.1 1.067 27.1 0.940
11.2 1.636 15.2 1.411 19.2 1.223 23.2 1.064 27.2 0.937
11.3 1.630 15.3 1.406 19.3 1.219 23.3 1.060 27.3 0.934
11.4 1.624 15.4 1.401 19.4 1.214 23.4 1.056 27.4 0.932
11.5 1.618 15.5 1.396 19.5 1.210 23.5 1.053 27.5 0.929
11.6 1.611 15.6 1.391 19.6 1.206 23.6 1.049 27.6 0.926
11.7 1.605 15.7 1.386 19.7 1.201 23.7 1.045 27.7 0.924
11.8 1.600 15.8 1.381 19.8 1.197 23.8 1.042 27.8 0.921
11.9 1.594 15.9 1.376 19.9 1.193 23.9 1.038 27.9 0.918
12.0 1.588 16.0 1.371 20.0 1.189 24.0 1.035 28.0 0.915
12.1 1.582 16.1 1.366 20.1 1.185 24.1 1.031 28.1 0.913
12.2 1.576 16.2 1.361 20.2 1.180 24.2 1.028 28.2 0.910
12.3 1.570 16.3 1.356 20.3 1.176 24.3 1.024 28.3 0.908
12.4 1.564 16.4 1.351 20.4 1.172 24.4 1.021 28.4 0.905
12.5 1.558 16.5 1.347 20.5 1.168 24.5 1.017 28.5 0.902
12.6 1.553 16.6 1.342 20.6 1.164 24.6 1.014 28.6 0.900
12.7 1.547 16.7 1.337 20.7 1.160 24.7 1.010 28.7 0.897
12.8 1.541 16.8 1.332 20.8 1.156 24.8 1.007 28.8 0.894
12.9 1.536 16.9 1.327 20.9 1.152 24.9 1.003 28.9 0.892
13.0 1.530 17.0 1.323 21.0 1.148 25.0 1.000 29.0 0.889
13.1 1.524 17.1 1.318 21.1 1.144 25.1 0.997 29.1 0.887
13.2 1.519 17.2 1.313 21.2 1.140 25.2 0.994 29.2 0.884
13.3 1.513 17.3 1.308 21.3 1.136 25.3 0.991 29.3 0.882
13.4 1.508 17.4 1.304 21.4 1.132 25.4 0.988 29.4 0.879
13.5 1.502 17.5 1.299 21.5 1.128 25.5 0.985 29.5 0.877
13.6 1.496 17.6 1.294 21.6 1.124 25.6 0.982 29.6 0.874
13.7 1.491 17.7 1.290 21.7 1.120 25.7 0.979 29.7 0.871
13.8 1.486 17.8 1.285 21.8 1.116 25.8 0.977 29.8 0.869
13.9 1.480 17.9 1.281 21.9 1.112 25.9 0.974 29.9 0.866
Corrected Flowrate = (Measured Flowrate)*(TCF @ Feedwater Temp.)

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9.5 Conversion of U.S. Units into Metric Units
1 inch (in) = 2.54 cm = 0.0254 m
1 foot (ft) = 0.3048 m
1 square foot (sq. ft) = 0.0929 m2
1 gallon (US) = 3.785 L
1 pound per square inch (psi) = 0.069 bar
1 gallon per minute (gpm) = 0.227 m3/h

= 0.063 L/s
1 gallon per day (gpd) = 0.003785 m3/d

= 0.158 L/h
1 million gallons per day (mgd) = 157.73 m3/h

= 3,785 m3/d
1 gallon per sq. ft and day (gfd) = 1.70 L/m2-h
9.6 Ionization of Carbon Dioxide Solutions
Figure 64. Ionization of carbon dioxide solutions as functions of the pH at 77°F (25°C)

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9.7 Osmotic Pressure of Sodium Chloride
Figure 65. Osmotic pressure of sodium chloride
9.8 Osmotic Pressure of Solutions
Figure 66. Osmotic pressure of solutions

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9.9 Testing Chemical Compatibilities with FilmTec™ Membranes†
9.9.1 Summary
Chemicals are usually added to membrane systems to prevent and remove biogrowth and to prevent membrane
fouling and scaling. These chemicals must not, by themselves, negatively affect the membrane performance. The
following describes some of the testing procedures that may be used to identify whether or not these chemicals are
compatible with thin-film composite membranes. These test procedures, specifically, are designed to indicate whether
or not the chemical either dissolves or alters the polyamide surface of the membrane or whether the flow of product
water through the membrane is affected.
Test procedures involve both: 1) the testing of membrane coupons or elements after soaking in the examined solution
and 2) the continuous addition of the chemical to the membrane element during operation. Soak tests are useful in
determining whether a chemical compound degrades the membrane. Meanwhile, the continuous addition of a
chemical to the membrane element during operation is a means to simulate actual operating conditions using the test
chemical. For example, in antiscalant compatibility determinations, a 1000-hour continuous operation test is
recommended.
It is important to note that the following procedures examine only if the chemical appears to be compatible and
whether detrimental effects are observed. These procedures do not determine efficacy or whether chemical has been
proven useful. Also, even though the following tests are indication of compatibility, field observations and experience
are, by far, the most reliable indication of compatibility and success.
It is important to note, that other test methods on compatibility determinations have been successful. Some of these
methods developed by suppliers of membrane chemicals include such techniques as exposing the membrane to
elevated levels of a particular chemical for a shorter period of time rather than at a normal use level for a longer period
of time. Hence, the exposure in, for example, ppm-hours is the same. Other methods include examination of the
membrane surface by microscopy and/or other analytical techniques that ascertain changes in or damage to the
membrane. Such methods are often reliable when practiced by experienced personnel with a firm grasp of membrane
technology and the chemistry of their products.
Even though a chemical may appear to be compatible, it is no indication that problems will not occur. For example,
gross overfeeding of a particular chemical can foul all types of membranes through the convective deposition of a large
amount of chemical onto the membrane surface. This idea can be extended to the compatibility of a particular product
at a low level which may cause catastrophic effects at higher levels through its inadvertent high level addition by such
practices as its continuous addition independent of whether the membrane system is in operation or not. Also, a
compatible chemical may be incompatible with other chemicals used in the system. For example, cationic flocculants
often can foul a membrane by their reaction with negatively charged antiscalants. Hence, it is imperative that one
consider the total membrane chemical addition system and the proper integration of the various chemical products in
the membrane system. Also it is important to determine whether the chemical is compatible with the materials of
construction used in storage and handling equipment.
The following discussions address testing procedures for chemical compatibility in each of the following five categories:
l coagulants and flocculants
l antiscalants
l cleaning chemicals
l biocides
l membrane preservatives

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9.9.2 Test Equipment
Two types of test loops have been used for laboratory chemical compatibility testing: a flat cell test unit and an element
test unit.
9.9.2.1 Flat Cell Unit
The flow schematic is shown in Figure 67a. A test cell could be shut off by closing a ball valve on the permeate side.
Testing could also be done on a stacked membrane plate-an-frame apparatus with a system design similar to the
schematic in Figure 67a.
Standard test conditions for FilmTec™ FT30 membranes are taken from Section 1.8, Table 4. Measurements are taken
about two hours after start. The brine flowrate is will depend upon the specific test cells used and should conform to
recommendations of the test cell supplier.
As shown in Figure 67a, the concentrate is returned to the feed tank. The permeate is directed to a drain except for the
10 – 30 minutes, when it is collected in a beaker for measuring permeate flowrate.

Page 200 of 207
October 2020
Figure 67. Flow schematic
CV Check Valve PI Pressure Indicator
FI Flow Indicator PSH High Pressure Switch
FV Flow Control Valve PV Pressure Control Valve
LE Level Element TE Temperature Element
PCV Backpressure Regulator TI Temperature Indicator
PX Pulsation Dampener

Page 201 of 207
October 2020
9.9.2.2 Element Test Units
Figure 67b shows the flow schematic of the second test loop. It contains two parallel lines, each consisting of two
pressure vessels in series. Small elements, such as 2.5-inch diameter by 14 inches long are often used for these tests. A
metering pump adds the chemical which is tested for membrane compatibility to one of two parallel lines. The
concentrates and permeates from both lines go to drain. There are two elements per line. If something in the feedwater
is affecting the membrane performance, this should be noticeable for the elements in both lines. With this type of
apparatus, one is better able to establish an effect level due to the presence of a “standard” line and a “test” line. This
type of laboratory device can be expanded to, for example, a system using 8" FilmTec™ Membrane Elements operated
off a side stream in a full scale membrane water treatment unit. The same schematic as shown in Figure 67b could be
used.
In laboratory tests, a common feed is softened tap water with typical anion concentrations of 300 mg/L bicarbonate,
15 mg/L chloride and 11 mg/L sulfate and conductivity 550 µS/cm. It may also contain free chlorine, which must be
removed by a carbon filter. Feed and permeate conductivities are measured and it is assumed that the conductivities
are made up from sodium bicarbonate alone. Gauge pressure is in the range of 50 – 80 psi (350 – 400 kPa), resulting in a
fairly low permeate flux making it possible to operate with a fairly low water and chemical consumption. Typical feed
flowrate per line has been about 0.2 – 0.4 L/minute. The feedwater temperature should be fairly constant, so there is no
need for temperature control.
If the line gauge pressure is above 50 psi (350 kPa) most of the time, there is no need for the feed tank or pump.
9.9.3 Antiscalants
A suitable antiscalant must pass two tests, a microbiological growth test and a membrane compatibility test.
9.9.3.1 Microbiological Growth Test.
An antiscalant is typically transported in concentrated form. It is diluted in a tank from where it is added to the feedwater
to the membrane unit. It is important that there is no microbiological growth in the antiscalant solution entering the
membrane unit. Typically there is no growth in the concentrated antiscalant solution, but there can be growth when it is
diluted below a certain concentration. To determine minimum concentration of antiscalant in the dilution tank, a
microbiological growth test is carried out. This is normally performed by the antiscalant manufacturer.
The antiscalant is diluted with chlorine-free water to different concentrations in beakers, which are stored for one
month. Typical concentrations are 1, 6, 10 and 25% as supplied. A beaker with chlorine-free water is used as control.
Either the solutions are inoculated with microorganisms or the beakers are open to the air for “natural” inoculations.
Microbial plate counts are taken once weekly during the one-month storage time. The lowest concentration of
antiscalant for which there is a decline in plate counts with time will be the lowest concentration in the dilution tank for
which the antiscalant is approved.
Preferably, the microbiological test is carried out before the 1,000-hour membrane compatibility test which is described
below. The reason for this is that if there is a change in the biocide composition in the antiscalant, the membrane
compatibility test has to be repeated.

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October 2020
9.9.3.2 Membrane Compatibility Test.
For an antiscalant to be considered compatible for use, the antiscalant must be fed to spiral-wound elements containing
the membrane for 1,000 hours without loss of performance. A setup as shown in Figure 67b, or similar system, would be
satisfactory for such a determination. Initially one must establish a baseline. This is achieved by operating the system for
at least 12 hours without chemical addition. The test cannot be considered valid if the permeate flowrate is more than
15% below the expected value for a clean membrane. The baseline for a membrane is established without antiscalant
with a test using a solution and a pressure as shown in Section 1.8, Table 4.
After the baseline is established, the antiscalant is then added continuously for at least 1,000 hours. The normalized
permeate flow and salt passage or rejection should remain relatively constant during this time for the chemical to be
deemed compatible. The upper concentration limit for compatibility will be the maximum concentration of the
chemical in the concentration stream.
9.9.4 Coagulants and Flocculants
Coagulants and flocculants have been tested in the setup shown in Figure 67b. The elements are first operated with
softened tap water for at least a day to ascertain that they are stabilized. Then the chemical to be compatibility tested is
added to the feedwater to one of the two parallel lines to make up about a 5 ppm solution. If chemical addition for one
week does not significantly affect the element normalized permeate rate or salt passage, the chemical is considered
satisfactory.
In general, coagulants and flocculants may interfere with membranes either directly or indirectly. Indirect interference
occurs when the compound forms a precipitate which is deposited on the membrane. For example, channeling of the
media filter may enable flocs to pass through and become deposited on the membrane. A precipitate can also be
formed when concentrating the treated feedwater, such as when aluminum or ferric coagulants are added without
subsequently lowering pH to avoid supersaturation in the system itself. Furthermore, a reaction with a compound added
after the media filter can cause a precipitate to form. This is most noticeable with antiscalants. Nearly all antiscalants are
negatively charged and will react with cationic coagulants or flocculants present in the water. Several systems have
been heavily fouled by gel formed by the reaction between cationic polyelectrolytes and antiscalants. Therefore, it is
important to test all coagulants and flocculants based on the possibility that some of these products will come into
contact with the antiscalant.
Direct interference occurs when the compound itself affects the membrane resulting in a flux loss. The ionic strength of
the water may have an effect on the interference of the coagulant or flocculant with the membrane. To minimize the
risk of direct or indirect interference with the membrane, anionic or nonionic flocculants are preferred rather than
cationic ones. Overdosing must be avoided.
9.9.5 Cleaning Chemicals
As one would expect, cleaning chemicals can be used at a wide range of conditions such as cleaning frequency,
cleaning time and temperature. Due to this ambiguity, the discussions on cleaning chemicals will be based on a
cleaning frequency in the order of once a month or less.
The flat cell test loop, as shown in Figure 67a, with membrane coupons has been used for cleaning chemical
compatibility tests.
A cleaning chemical that provides excellent cleaning performance may also degrade a membrane resulting in a
decrease in the salt rejection of the membrane with time. This degradation might not be visible after only one cleaning.
For determining cleaning chemical compatibility, membrane coupons (at least three) are soaked in the normal strength
cleaning solution for two weeks and then tested at standard test conditions. Ideally, the temperature of the soak solution
should be the maximum allowed cleaning temperature.

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October 2020
A cleaning chemical is considered compatible if a two-hour cleaning does not lower the membrane flux or salt rejection
and a two-week soak test does not lower the salt rejection.
The steps for the Two-Hour Cleaning Test and the Two-Week Soak Test in Cleaning Solution are listed as follows:
9.9.5.1 Two-Hour Cleaning Test
1. Test the membrane at standard test conditions (Section 1.8, Table 4).
2. Clean with double the normal strength of the cleaning solution by circulating the solution over the membrane at
recommended cleaning temperatures and 50 psig for two hours.
3. Rinse out the cleaning solution. Use low conductivity water for this to be able to check that both permeate side and
brine side of the membranes have been rinsed out effectively.
4. Retest at the standard test conditions. Flux loss shall be less than 5% and there should be no increase in salt passage
compared to the initial test in item 1 above.
9.9.5.2 Two-Week Soak in Cleaning Solution
1. Test the membrane at standard test conditions (Section 1.8, Table 4).
2. Soak the membrane in normal strength cleaning solution at normal cleaning temperature for two weeks.
3. Rinse out the cleaning solution. Use low conductivity water for this to be able to check that both permeate side and
brine side of the membranes have been rinsed out effectively.
4. Repeat at test conditions according to item 1 above. There shall be no increase in salt passage compared to the
initial test in item 1 above.
9.9.6 Biocides
Like cleaning chemicals, biocides can cause the membrane to lose salt rejection and/or water permeability. Biocides
possibly could be in contact with the membrane continuously for a long period, e.g., biocides used for membrane
storage or continuous addition to feedwater, or added intermittently, e.g., biocides used for periodical disinfection or
“shock” treatments. A satisfactory biocide must not negatively affect the membrane performance during one-year
contact. Like other compatibility tests, both “soak tests” and “continuous tests” are often completed to determine
chemical compatibility and satisfactory performance.
An initial one-week test observing the effect of the continuous addition of a biocide on the water permeability of the
membrane is often recommended. If the result is that the biocide has no negative effect on the water permeability of
the membrane, a one-year soak test is then carried out.
An alternative, used more extensively in recent years, is a 1,000-hour continuous compatibility test similar to that of
antiscalant testing.
All biocide tests are generally carried out at 20 – 25°C. The solution pH might have an influence on how the biocide
affects the membrane, especially when the molecular structure of the biocide changes with pH or when an oxidation
reaction might take place.

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October 2020
9.9.6.1 Option 1 – One-Week Continuous Operation Test
The continuous operation test is required when the water permeability of the membrane decreases during the soak
test, which has been the case for almost all tested biocides. The test unit in Figure 67b is used for the continuous
operation test. The elements are operated for at least one day before the biocide is added to make certain that the
elements are stabilized.
After the elements are stabilized, the biocide is added to the feedwater to make up the maximum concentration for
which the biocide will be approved. If there is no significant decrease in water permeability or salt rejection during one
week of continuous biocide addition, the biocide is assumed be a good candidate in not affecting the water
permeability of the membrane and the longer term “soak test” can then be pursued.
Soak Test. The biocide solutions to be tested are placed into glass jars with lids. The concentration of the biocide is the
maximum approval concentration. As controls, a jar with standard storage solution (1% sodium bisulfite solution) and an
empty jar are used. About 20 coupons of each membrane type, to be tested, are placed in each jar. Two coupons of
each type membrane from each jar are tested after a soak time of:
1. 1 week
2. 2 weeks
3. 4 weeks
4. 2 months
5. 4 months
6. 6 months
7. 1 year
The coupons are used only once and are discarded after the test. Some biocide solutions have a shorter lifetime than
one year and these must be replaced with fresh biocide solution at suitable interim intervals.
If the salt passage of the membrane soaked in the biocide solution for one year has not increased significantly, the
biocide is assumed not to degrade the membrane.
The combined data from the one-year soak test and one week continuous operation test often is enough for a decision
whether to determine if a biocide is compatible. However, if one or the other test indicates questionable results, a long
term continuous operation test is required, either in the laboratory or in the field.
In cases where the biocide will only be used intermittently, for example, once a week for a few hours such as in a “shock
treatment”, it may not be necessary to do the one-year soak test. The continuous test hours of exposure for the
expected life of the membrane at the biocide dosage level may be sufficient. For example, if a biocide is used for 30
minutes per week at 400 ppm, a continuous test at 400 ppm for 130 hours (30 min/week x 52 weeks /yr. x 5 years) may
be sufficient.
9.9.6.2 Option 2 – 1,000-Hour Continuous Operation Test
Similar to the test for antiscalants, for a biocide can to be considered compatible, the biocide must be fed to spiral-
wound elements containing the membrane for 1,000 hours without loss of performance. Based upon recent experience,
this test appears to be preferred despite its greater time requirement. A setup as shown in Figure 67b is satisfactory for
such a determination. Initially one must establish a baseline. This is achieved by operating the system for at least 12
hours without chemical addition. Normally, the test cannot be considered valid if the permeate flowrate is more than
15% below the expected value for a clean membrane. The expected flow value of FilmTec™ Flatsheet RO Membranes
can be derived from the published flow specification of the respective membrane element and the published value of
the active membrane area of that element.
After the baseline is established, the biocide is then added continuously for at least 1000 hours. The normalized
permeate flow and salt passage should remain relatively constant during this time for the chemical to be deemed
compatible. The upper concentration limit for compatibility will be the maximum concentration of the chemical in the
concentration stream.

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October 2020
9.9.7 Membrane Preservatives
Membrane preservatives are biocide solutions used to prevent biogrowth and change in membrane performance
during extended storage times. Thus, the biocide used must have a long lifetime. Surfactants and/or humectants are
often present in the solution to keep the membrane wet. Consequently, any of those compounds could affect the
membrane negatively either in directly or indirectly by interacting with other parts of the element and the formation of
compounds harmful to the membrane.
A compatible membrane preservative should not exhibit any significant decrease in water permeability or salt rejection
properties of the membrane element during one year storage. A means to perform the test is to store five tested
elements fully immersed in the storage solution and test one of them after 2, 4, 6 and 12 months storage. A new
element is tested each time and is returned to the storage solution following the test. The fifth element is included in
the test as a spare to use if the test data of any of the other elements is in doubt. Two elements stored in the present
storage solution, 1% sodium bisulfite, should be used as controls. These are tested at the same time as any one of the
other five elements. If the membrane performance in the preservative solution is maintained, the same test should
continue for years with element test once or twice yearly to learn about the lifetime of the storage solution.
Before wet elements are stored, the elements are initially soaked in the storage solution for about one hour and then
drained and bagged. There should not be any biological growth in the bag or deterioration of the bagged elements
performance during the shelf life of the storage solution. To examine whether another membrane preservative solution
can be used for bagged element storage, elements are tested and then soaked for 1, 2 or 20 hours in the membrane
preservative solution. Then the elements are drained and bagged. After 2, 6, 12, 18, 24, 36 and 48 months storage, two
elements from each soak time are taken out from their bags. Microbial plate counts are taken of the storage solution in
the bag, and the elements are tested. The element performance is measured both before and after permeate pressure
is applied to determine whether the membrane dries when stored. Permeate pressure is most easily applied by shutting
the permeate port at a feed pressure of at least 150 psi (1,000 kPa) pressure above the osmotic pressure of the feed
solution. Three soak times, seven test times, and duplicate elements, result in 42 elements per storage solution to test.
To save storage space, small elements are often used. Again, the 1% sodium bisulfite solution is used as a control. Since
one-hour soak time is sufficient for the control, only 14 control elements are required.
9.10 Accelerated Start-Up Technique for Dry Membranes
9.10.1 Summary
The majority of FilmTec™ Elements are available shipped either wet or dry. Dry elements have lower shipping weight,
longer shelf life, and easier inventory procedures with no preservative solution to monitor. Wet elements typically
achieve stabilized performance up to 48 hours after start-up where dry elements may take up to 72 hours to fully
stabilize. In all cases the time for the membranes to stabilize is a function of the operating conditions.
In cases where rapid start-up of dry elements is required, a three-step pretreatment technique can be used to ensure
stabilized performance is achieved quickly. This technique is not a requirement but can accelerate start-up performance
when time and circumstances permit.
9.10.2 Step 1: Pre-Flushing
Flush the membranes with feedwater at 22 – 40 gpm (5 – 9 m3/h) per pressure vessel for 10 – 15 minutes. Typical flushing
pressure is < 90 psi (6.2 bar). Typically, flushing is performed with the booster pump. The flush water should be RO feed
quality water.
If the membranes have not been operated before, pre-flushing is critical to avoid permanent flux loss.

Page 206 of 207
October 2020
9.10.3 Step 2: Soaking
Soak in 1.2% sodium metabisulfite solution (min. 1.0%) for 10 – 14 days. The solution should be prepared from appropriate
quality* water.
Membranes must be completely immersed in the solution, which should be introduced to the pressure vessels using
the overflow technique, allowing excess solution to overflow from an opening in the system higher than the pressure
vessels. The sodium metabisulfite solution must be maintained at a pH greater than 3, with temperature between 32°F
(0°C) to 90°F (32°C).
9.10.4 Step 3: Post-Flushing
A) Start-up within 2 days after the soaking

Flush membranes with RO feed quality water, at a flow rate 22 – 40 gpm (5 – 9 m3/h) per pressure vessel for 60 minutes.
B) Start-up more than 2 days after soaking

If the plant will be delayed in its start-up for longer than 48 hours, the elements should be flushed for 60 minutes and
preserved according to the guidelines in procedure given in Preservation of RO and NF Systems
(Form No. 45-D01638-en).
When handling sodium metabisulfite or other chemicals, care should be taken to use the appropriate personal
protective equipment.
* appropriate quality water: Conductivity < 5,000 µS/cm, zero free chlorine, Total Bacterial Count (TBC) < 50 cfu/mL (totally free of bacteria is ideal), Silt Density Index < 5.
All information set forth herein is for informational purposes only. This information is general information and may differ from that based on actual conditions. Customer is responsible for determining whether products and
the information in this document are appropriate for Customer's use and for ensuring that Customer's workplace and disposal practices are in compliance with applicable laws and other government enactments. The
product shown in this literature may not be available for sale and/or available in all geographies where DuPont is represented. The claims made may not have been approved for use in all countries. Please note that
physical properties may vary depending on certain conditions and while operating conditions stated in this document are intended to lengthen product lifespan and/or improve product performance, it will ultimately
depend on actual circumstances and is in no event a guarantee of achieving any specific results. DuPont assumes no obligation or liability for the information in this document. References to “DuPont” or the “Company”
mean the DuPont legal entity selling the products to Customer unless otherwise expressly noted. NO WARRANTIES ARE GIVEN; ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR
PURPOSE ARE EXPRESSLY EXCLUDED. No freedom from infringement of any patent or trademark owned by DuPont or others is to be inferred.
© 2020 DuPont. DuPont™, the DuPont Oval Logo, and all trademarks and service marks denoted with ™, ℠ or ® are owned by affiliates of DuPont de Nemours Inc., unless otherwise noted.
The Dow Diamond Logo is a trademark of The Dow Chemical Company used under license by DuPont.

Page 207 of 207
October 2020
Tech Fact
DuPont Ultrafiltration Modules - General Design Guidelines[5]
The purpose of this document is to serve as General Design Guidelines for the design and operation of DuPont Ultrafiltration products. Project-
specific conditions of water quality, system design, operation and project drivers (CAPEX vs. OPEX vs. Total Water Cost) should be discussed and
reviewed with a DuPont Water Solutions Technical Service Representative.
Max. Recommended Flux[2] (LMH)

SFD/P-2860XP BW [3] NaOCl in
Source Turbidity TSS SFD/P-2860 & 2880 &2880XP IP/D-51XP & Frequency BW Flux BW CEB1 CEB1 CIP
Water (NTU)[1] (mg/L)[1] IP/D-51 & IP/D-77 IP/D-77XP (min) (LMH) (mg/L) NaOH [6]
NaOCl [6] CEB2 Acid [6] (days)
Well Water <2 <5 90 110 90 80-100 -- -- Recipe A Recipe B 60-90
Softened / <2 <5 90 110 90 80-100 -- -- Recipe A Recipe B 60-90
Municipal
Water
Surface <2 <5 80 95 90 100-120 -- -- Recipe A Recipe B 60-90
Waters <5 < 10 75 90 90 100-120 -- -- Recipe A Recipe B 60-90
5–15 < 20 70 85 50 100-120 -- -- Recipe A Recipe B 60-90
15–50 < 30 65 80 40 100-120 -- -- Recipe C Recipe D 30-60
50–75 < 50 60 70 25 100-120 -- -- Recipe C Recipe D 30
Seawater <5 <5 80 95 90 100-120 -- -- Recipe C Recipe D 60-90
< 10 < 20 75 90 45 100-120 -- -- Recipe C Recipe D 45-90
< 20 < 40 60 70 30 100-120 -- -- Recipe C Recipe D 30-60
Waste <3 <5 55 65 90 100-120 0-15 Recipe E Recipe F Recipe G 30-60
Waters <5 < 10 50 60 60 100-120 0-15 Recipe E Recipe F Recipe G 30
(Industrial,
5–10 < 20 50 60 30 100-120 0-15 Recipe E Recipe F Recipe G 30
Secondary,
Tertiary 10–20 < 30 45 55 25 100-120 0-15 Recipe E Recipe F Recipe G 30
Effluent) < 30 < 40 40 50 20 100-120 0-15 Recipe E Recipe F Recipe G 30
Recipes: Notes:
[1]
Recipe A: Once per week, 250 mg/L NaOCl 95% of the time.
[2]
Recipe B: Once every two weeks, to pH 2 (400 Gross Flux considered as instantaneous flux with standby skids offline and/or in backwash. Based on Normalized Flux at 25ºC.
mg/L HCl or 550 mg/L H 2SO 4) [3] 3
Air Scour is recommended during the regular backwash and CEB cycles at a flow rate between 10 to 15 Nm /hour/module, at a pressure of 0.35 to 2.5 barg (typical 1 barg) at the UF
Recipe C: Every 24 hours, 350 mg/L NaOCl module inlet.
Recipe D [4]: Once per week, to pH2, (550 mg/L [4]
Estimated dosage at 100% strength solution to achieve target pH. Actual required dosage will vary due to project-specidifc water chemistry, e.g. alkalinity, ionic strength and
HCl or 750 mg/L H 2SO 4) temperature.
Recipe E [4]: Every 12 hours, to pH 12 (650 mg/L [5]
These guidelines are based on the quality parameters indicated as design basis in the DuPont Ultrafiltration Product Manual, which includes reference values for Turbidity, TSS, TOC,
NaOH) particle size, Oil/Grease, COD, pH, temperature or Cl2. If the design basis is exceded or Iron, Manganese or Silica are present in the feed water, consult with your local DWS representative.
Recipe F: Every 12 hours, at 750 mg/L NaOCl [6]
In order to extend the time between full CIP’s, an approach based on short CIP’s can be done instead of the standard CEB. A heated chemical solution (typically NaOCl up to 2,000 ppm)
Recipe G [4]: Every 36 hours, to pH 2 (400 mg/L
is recirculated 1-3 times per week through the feed side of the membranes and then drained,and the system is rinsed. Total duration of the short CIP is around 30 minutes. Please consult
HCl or 550 mg/L H 2SO 4)
with your local DWS representative for further information.
Page 1 of 2 Form No. 45-D02012-en, Rev. 1

January 2020
Have a question? Contact us at: All information set forth herein is for informational purposes only. This information is general information and may differ from that
based on actual conditions. Customer is responsible for determining whether products and the information in this document are
appropriate for Customer's use and for ensuring that Customer's workplace and disposal practices are in compliance with
applicable laws and other government enactments. The product shown in this literature may not be available for sale and/or
available in all geographies where DuPont is represented. The claims made may not have been approved for use in all countries.
Please note that physical properties may vary depending on certain conditions and while operating conditions stated in this
document are intended to lengthen product lifespan and/or improve product performance, it will ultimately depend on actual
circumstances and is in no event a guarantee of achieving any specific results. DuPont assumes no obligation or liability for the
information in this document. References to “DuPont” or the “Company” mean the DuPont legal entity selling the products to
Customer unless otherwise expressly noted. NO WARRANTIES ARE GIVEN; ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY
OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE EXPRESSLY EXCLUDED. No freedom from infringement of any patent or
trademark owned by DuPont or others is to be inferred.
DuPont™, the DuPont Oval Logo, and all trademarks and service marks denoted with ™, ℠ or ® are owned by affiliates of
DuPont de Nemours Inc. unless otherwise noted. © 2020 DuPont.

January 2020
Tech Manual Excerpt
System Design
Membrane System Design Guidelines for 8" FilmTec™ Elements
Membrane System The factor which has the greatest influence on the membrane system design is the
Design Guidelines fouling tendency of the feedwater. Membrane fouling is caused by particles and
colloidal material which are present in the feedwater and are concentrated at the
membrane surface. The Silt Density Index (SDI) value of the pretreated feedwater
correlates fairly well with the amount of fouling material present. The concentration
of the fouling materials at the membrane surface increases with increasing
permeate flux (the permeate flowrate per unit membrane area) and increasing
element recovery (the ratio of permeate flowrate to feed flowrate for a single
element). A system with high permeate flux rates is, therefore, likely to experience
higher fouling rates, requiring more frequent chemical cleaning.
A membrane system should be designed such that each element of the system
operates within a range of recommended operating conditions to minimize the
fouling rate and to help avoid mechanical damage. These element operating
conditions are limited by the:
l maximum recovery
l maximum permeate flowrate
l minimum concentrate flowrate
l maximum feed flowrate
The higher the fouling tendency of the feedwater, the stricter are the limits of these
parameters. The proposed limits are recommended guidelines based on many years
of experience with FilmTec™ Elements.
The average flux of the entire system, i.e., the system permeate flowrate related to
the total active membrane area of the system, is a characteristic number of a design.
The system flux is a useful number to quickly estimate the required number of
elements for a new project. Systems operating on high-quality feedwaters are
typically designed at higher flux values, whereas systems operating on poor-quality
feedwaters are designed at lower flux values. However, even within the same
feedwater category, systems are designed with higher or lower flux values,
depending on the focus being either on minimizing the capital expenses or
minimizing the long-term operational expenses. The ranges of flux values given in
the tables below are typical numbers for the majority of systems.

April 2020
Membrane System A continuous RO/NF process designed according to the system design guidelines
Design Guidelines and with a well-designed and operated pretreatment system will show stable
(Cont.) performance with no more than about four cleanings per year in standard
applications. Exceeding the recommended limits may result in:
l more frequent cleanings
l reduced capacity
l increased feed pressure
l reduced membrane life
A moderate violation of the limits for a short time may be acceptable as long as the
physical limits – the maximum pressure drop and the maximum feed pressure (refer
to the element product data sheet) – are not exceeded. On the other hand, a
conservative approach is to anticipate a higher fouling tendency and to design the
system according to the stricter limits in order to benefit from a trouble-free system
operation and an increased membrane life.

April 2020
Membrane System Design Guidelines for 8-inch FilmTec™ Elements
The following tables show the recommended guidelines for designing RO systems
with 8-inch FilmTec™ Elements according to feedwater type.
Table 1: Design guidelines for 8-inch FilmTec™ Elements in water

treatment applications
Feed Source RO Well Surface Water Wastewater Seawater

Permeate Water (Filtered Municipal Effluent or
Industrial Effluent)
Surface Generic Generic Ultrafiltration Generic Conventional Well or Open Open Intake Open Intake
Water with membrane conventional membrane pretreatment Intake with with generic with generic
Ultrafiltration filtration or pretreatment filtration Ultrafiltration membrane conventional
advanced (MBR/MF/UF) filtration or pretreatment
conventional advanced
pretreatment conventional
pretreatment
Feed Silt Density Index
SDI < 1 SDI < 3 SDI < 2.5 SDI < 3 SDI < 5 SDI < 2.5 SDI < 3 SDI < 5 SDI < 2.5 SDI < 3 SDI < 5
(%/min)
Maximum Element
30 19 19 17 15 14 13 12 15 14 13
Recovery (%)
Active Membrane Area Maximum Permeate Flow, gpd
365-ft2 elements 10,200 8,500 8,500 7,200 6,600 6,300 5,900 5,200 — Not Recommended —
370-ft2 elements 10,200 8,500 8,500 7,200 6,600 6,300 5,900 5,200 7,800 7,400 7,000
380-ft2 elements 10,700 8,900 8,900 7,500 6,900 6,500 6,000 5,300 7,900 7,600 7,200
390-ft2 elements 10,920 9,200 — Not Recommended — — Not Recommended — — Not Recommended —
400-ft2 elements 11,200 9,300 9,300 7,900 7,300 6,800 6,400 5,700 8,400 8,000 7,600
440-ft2 elements 12,300 10,300 10,300 8,700 8,000 7,600 7,100 6,300 9,200 8,800 8,360
Design Flux Range, gfd 21 – 25 16 – 20 16 – 20 13 – 17 12 – 16 11 – 15 10 – 14 8 – 12 9 – 11 8 – 10 7 – 10

(lmh) (36 – 43) (27 – 34) (27 – 34) (22 – 29) (20– 27) (19 – 26) (17 – 24) (14 – 20) (15 – 19) (14 – 17) (12 – 17)
Max. Element Flux, gfd
28 (48) 22.7 (39) 22.7 (39) 20 (34) 18 (31) 17 (29) 16 (27) 14 (24) 21 (36) 20 (34) 19 (32)
(lmh)
3
Element Type Minimum Concentrate Flowrate , gpm (m /h)
BW elements (365 ft2) 10 (2.3) 13 (3.0) 13 (3.0) 13 (3.0) 15 (3.4) 16 (3.6) 16 (3.6) 18 (4.1) — Not Recommended —
BW elements
10 (2.3) 13 (3.0) 13 (3.0) 13 (3.0) 15 (3.4) 18 (4.1) 18 (4.1) 20 (4.6) — Not Recommended —
(400 ft2 and 440 ft2)
NF elements 10 (2.3) 13 (3.0) 13 (3.0) 13 (3.0) 15 (3.4) 18 (4.1) 18 (4.1) 18 (4.1) — Not Recommended —
Fullfit elements 25 (5.7) 25 (5.7) — Not Recommended — — Not Recommended — — Not Recommended —
SW elements 10 (2.3) – NR– — Not Recommended — — Not Recommended — 13 (3.0) 14 (3.2) 15 (3.4)
Active Area 3
Element Type 2 2 Maximum Feed Flowrate , gpm (m /h)
ft (m )
BW/NF
400 (37.2) 75 (17) 75 (17) 75 (17) 73 (17) 67 (15) 61 (14) 61 (14) 61 (14) — Not Recommended —
elements
Fullfit
390 (36.2) 85 (19) 75 (17) — Not Recommended — — Not Recommended — — Not Recommended —
elements
SW elements 370 (34.4) 65 (15) – NR– — Not Recommended — — Not Recommended — 63 (14) 60 (13.5) 56 (13)

April 2020
Excerpt from FilmTec™ Reverse Osmosis Membranes Technical Manual (Form No. 45-D01504-en), Chapter 3, "System Design."
Have a question? Contact us at: All information set forth herein is for informational purposes only. This information is general information and may differ from that
based on actual conditions. Customer is responsible for determining whether products and the information in this document are
appropriate for Customer's use and for ensuring that Customer's workplace and disposal practices are in compliance with
applicable laws and other government enactments. The product shown in this literature may not be available for sale and/or
available in all geographies where DuPont is represented. The claims made may not have been approved for use in all countries.
Please note that physical properties may vary depending on certain conditions and while operating conditions stated in this
document are intended to lengthen product lifespan and/or improve product performance, it will ultimately depend on actual
circumstances and is in no event a guarantee of achieving any specific results. DuPont assumes no obligation or liability for the
information in this document. References to “DuPont” or the “Company” mean the DuPont legal entity selling the products to
Customer unless otherwise expressly noted. NO WARRANTIES ARE GIVEN; ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY
OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE EXPRESSLY EXCLUDED. No freedom from infringement of any patent or
trademark owned by DuPont or others is to be inferred.
© 2020 DuPont. DuPont™, the DuPont Oval Logo, and all trademarks and service marks denoted with ™, ℠ or ® are owned by
affiliates of DuPont de Nemours Inc., unless otherwise noted.

April 2020

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Year of Validity: 2020

USA FDA – Food Additive Status

FilmTec™ SW30ULE-440 Element

Form No. 45-D00194-en

WAVE Technical Manual

Form No. 45-D01378-en, Rev. 5

Form No. 45-D01378-en, Rev. 5

Form No. 45-D01378-en, Rev. 5

Form No. 45-D01378-en, Rev. 5

Form No. 45-D01378-en, Rev. 5

Form No. 45-D01378-en, Rev. 5

Form No. 45-D01378-en, Rev. 5

Form No. 45-D01378-en, Rev. 5

1.1 Defining the User Information 10

1.1 Defining the User Information

1. Click on “User Settings” in the top ribbon

Figure 1. Selection of User Settings to specify User Information

Form No. 45-D01378-en, Rev. 5

Figure 2. Selection of User Info button to specify User Information

Figure 3. Specification of user information

Form No. 45-D01378-en, Rev. 5

1.1.1 Defining the User Language

This can be done by the following steps:

1. Click on “User Settings” in the top ribbon

Figure 4. Selection of User Settings to specify User Information

Form No. 45-D01378-en, Rev. 5

Figure 5. Selection of User Info button to specify User Information

Figure 6. Specifiying a language

Form No. 45-D01378-en, Rev. 5

1. Click on “User Settings” in the top ribbon

2. Click on “Project Info.”

Figure 7. Selection of the Project Info button to specify Project Information

Figure 8. Specification of the Project Information

Form No. 45-D01378-en, Rev. 5

1.3 Currencies and Exchange Rates

1. Click on “User Settings” in the top ribbon

Figure 9. Selection of User Settings to specify Currencies and Exchange

Form No. 45-D01378-en, Rev. 5

Figure 10. Selection of Currency to specify Currencies and Exchange Rates

Figure 11. Specification of Currencies and Exchange Rates

Form No. 45-D01378-en, Rev. 5

1.4 Chemical Library

1. Click on ‘User Settings’ in the top ribbon

Figure 12. Selection of User Settings to specify Chemicals

Form No. 45-D01378-en, Rev. 5

Figure 13. Selection of the Chemical Library to specify Chemicals

Figure 14. Specification of Chemicals

Form No. 45-D01378-en, Rev. 5

1. To add a new chemical, click on “Add Chemical”

Figure 15. Click on add chemical

Figure 16. Selection of a chemical category

Form No. 45-D01378-en, Rev. 5

Figure 17. Specification of a new chemical

Form No. 45-D01378-en, Rev. 5

1. Click on “User Settings” in the top ribbon

Figure 18. Selection of User Settings to specify Operating Costs

Figure 19. Selection of the Operating Costs window

Form No. 45-D01378-en, Rev. 5

Figure 20. Specification of Operating Costs.

Form No. 45-D01378-en, Rev. 5

1. Click on “User Settings” in the top ribbon

Figure 21. Selection of User Settings to specify Pump Efficiencies

Figure 22. Selection of the Pumps window

Form No. 45-D01378-en, Rev. 5