“Possible sustainable value chain for reverse

logistic of retired Lithium-Ion batteries with focus on

the American and European market”

Chapter 1. Introduction
An eco-balance refers to the consumption of energy and resources and the pollution caused
by the production cycle of a given product, which the product is followed throughout its entire
life cycle, from the extraction of the raw materials, manufacturing, and use, right through to
recycling and final handling of waste . (eea.europa) The process of ‘Li-ion’ battery recycling
has negative eco-balance effect, aim of this paper is to find a sustainable value chain to reduce
this negative effect. Trend of electrification in automotive industry create this whole new
problem of battery recycling. The demand is expected to grow by around 30 percent, nearing
4,500 gigawatt-hours (GWh) a year globally by 2030, and the battery value chain is expected
to increase by as much as ten times between 2020 and 2030 to reach annual revenue as high
as $410 billion. (Mackiensy & Company, January 7, 2022) A qualitative research gives 3 major
values chains which are briefly discussed in this paper. Now question is, are these value
chains are sustainable enough to reduce negative eco-balance effect and carbon footprint of
whole recycling process. The idea of a sustainable economy, which includes a focus on
reducing waste and maximising resource utilisation, has gained support as a possible solution
for the growing amount of waste and the loss of important raw resources. Reverse logistics,
which includes the procedures of gathering, transporting, repairing, recycling, and reusing
products at the end of their life cycles, has become an essential part of sustainable value
chains in this environment. Also, by emphasising on the recovery and reuse of essential
materials from expired Li-ion batteries, such as lithium, cobalt, and nickel, primary mining
activities can be made less demanding, and the environmental impact of battery manufacture
can be greatly reduced. The current research combines theoretical frameworks from the
domains of supply chain management, environmental economics, and industrial ecology to
investigate the possible sustainable value chain for reverse logistics of retired lithium-ion
batteries. The data gathered from industry reports, government documents, scholarly works,
and stakeholder interviews will help to complete an in-depth analysis of the present situation
and potential developments in sustainable battery end-of-life management. This research
aims to give stakeholders, policymakers, and industry players with a path for collectively
developing a circular economy for lithium-ion batteries that is in line with environmental
preservation and economic growth by integrating scientific work and practical findings.
Keywords: (Li-ion: Lithium-ion battery, Eco-Balance, Value chain, Carbon Footprint, recycling,
reuse, sustainable, Reverse logistic, supply chain management, industrial ecology)
1.1. Research objectives
The following are the research's main objectives:
• To assess how reverse logistics procedures are currently being used for retired LIBs
in the American and European markets.
• To recognise barriers and opportunities for creating a sustainable value chain for
retired LIBs.
• To provide strategies and suggestions for putting into place a sustainable value chain
in both markets
1.2. Research questions
In this research researcher going to answer the main research question and sub research
questions which are: “Which are the best sustainable practices for the reverse logistics of
retired lithium-ion batteries in the American and European market.”
“What roles do legal frameworks, technological advancements, and stakeholder engagement
play in the development and implementation of a sustainable value chain for the reverse
logistics of retired lithium-ion batteries in the American and European markets?”
1.3. Problem Statement
Battery consumption has significantly increased because of the growing use of lithium-ion
batteries (LIBs) in electronic devices, electric cars, and renewable energy systems. Although
LIBs have exceptional energy storage capacities, managing them at the end of their useful
lives poses significant environmental and resource issues. With an emphasis on the American
and European markets, this study intends to address the challenging problem of creating a
viable value chain for the reverse logistics of decommissioned LIBs. The correct management
of retired LIBs becomes a top priority as societies work to switch to cleaner energy sources
and circular economies. These batteries, which contain priceless components like lithium,
cobalt, and nickel, have the potential to lower the demand on the extraction of primary
resources, reduce e-waste, and aid in the preservation of natural resources. However, there
are considerable obstacles to developing an effective and long-lasting reverse logistics system
due to the absence of logical legal frameworks, technical advancements, and stakeholder
participation. With a particular focus on the American and European markets, the purpose of
this study is to examine the challenges, opportunities, and strategies involved in developing a
sustainable value chain for the reverse logistics of retired lithium-ion batteries. This study aims
to inform policy suggestions and industry practises that support a circular economy, resource
efficiency, and environmental sustainability by examining the interaction of regulatory,
technological, and stakeholder elements. The study's variables centre on same points
regulatory frameworks, technological advancements, and stakeholder engagement. This
study was inspired by the growing understanding of the negative environmental effects of
incorrect LIB disposal and the potential economic value of retired batteries. The need to
manage the end-of-life phase of LIBs is constantly highlighted by the quick development of
technology, particularly in electric vehicles and renewable energy systems.

Chapter 2. Literature review

2.1. Critical review of Literature
In considering raising environmental concerns and resource limitation, the literature on
sustainable value chains for reverse logistics of retired lithium-ion batteries emphasises the
urgent need for efficient end-of-life management techniques. The recovery and recycling of
valuable elements from used batteries as part of a circular economy strategy has gained
popularity as a possible solution. The important findings from diverse sources that provide
insight into the issues, opportunities, and strategies relating to the American and European
markets are summarised in this literature review. To solve the problems associated with
electronic waste, (Dijkman et al. 2015) claim that the European Union's waste electrical and
electronic equipment (WEEE) recycling body is an excellent example of the potential benefit
of circular economy principles. This regulation puts a strong emphasis on extended producer
responsibility and establishes high goals for resource recovery, recycling, and collection. The
need of recycling programmes in developing a closed-loop system for lithium-ion batteries is
also stressed by Hagelüken and Meskers (2018). Their analysis emphasises the need for
effective sorting and recycling technologies to recover elements like lithium, cobalt, and nickel,
which are crucial for the creation of sustainable batteries. The regulation conditions in Europe
have made it possible for early battery recycling, but the American market has shown a more
confused attitude. Lithium-ion batteries are becoming more common in the US, but there are
not any standardised mechanisms for collecting and recycling them, according to
Call2Recycle (2019). The difficulty of classifying batteries as hazardous waste exacerbates
this lack of uniformity and prevents cogent regulatory action. Gaines and Suddaby (2020), on
the other hand, highlight encouraging advancements in the United States by highlighting
programmes like the ReCell Centre, which is advancing recycling technology for end-of-life
batteries. Remanufacturing Industries Council (2018) describes the financial and
environmental advantages of remanufacturing, which involves restoring used products to their
original state, in terms of sustainable value chain integration. By applying this theory to lithium-
ion batteries, resource efficiency might be improved and the need for virgin materials could be
decreased. (McKinnon et al. 2015), focusing on the wider supply chain, highlight the value of
stakeholder engagement and highlight the part that logistics service providers play in creating
effective reverse logistics networks. However, problems still exist. Lack of understanding,
logistical complexity, and financial constraints are some of the obstacles to implementing
reverse logistics practises, according to a 2013 study by Achillas et al. Economic challenges
are also brought on by resource shortages and shifting material prices (Ellingsen et al., 2019).
To encourage sustainable practises, policy and regulatory systems must be in line with the
goals of the circular economy (Huisman and Stevels, 2014).
2.2. Reverse logistic
Reverse logistic is thought to be the key to reducing waste and resource depletion through the
implementation of a closed-loop supply chain and achieving a circular economy considering
the increasing concern and recognition for the environment, our natural resources, and climate
change on a global scale (Zarbakhshnia et al. 2020, Azadina et al. 2021). According to Rogers
and Tibben-Lembke (1999), reverse logistics is "the process of planning, implementing and
controlling the efficient, cost-effective flow of raw materials, in-process inventory, finished
goods, and related information from the point of consumption to the point of origin for the
purpose of recapturing or creating value for proper disposal" Closing the supply chain loop
and implementing the concepts of the circular economy need the development of reverse
logistics and supply chain systems, however there are still numerous problems. In this context,
Turki et al. (2018) divided such issues into four main categories that deal with the planning
(Pushpamali et al., 2021) and (Zarbakhshnia et al., 2020b) management of remanufacturing
systems and carbon emission-related constraints (Turki et al., 2020) returned goods as well.
Numerous studies tried to convert these problems into reverse logistic implementation
obstacles for various business sectors and goods.
2.3. Lithium-ion battery
In a variety of applications, including portable devices, electric cars, and renewable energy
systems, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have become the go-to energy storage technology. The
anode, cathode, separator, and electrolyte are only a few of the essential parts that make up
lithium-ion batteries, which are electrochemical devices. Graphite is commonly used as the
anode, and a variety of materials, including lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2), lithium iron
phosphate (LiFePO4), and lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide (LiNiCoMnO2), are used as
the cathode. The energy density, life cycle, and safety of the battery are all impacted by the
cathode material selection (Whittingham, 2004; Armand & Tarascon, 2008). In addition, high
energy density, longer battery life, lightweight construction, and relatively low self-discharge
rates are some of the benefits that LIBs have to offer. These qualities make them essential for
grid energy storage for occasionally renewable energy sources (solar, wind), portable
electronics (smartphones, laptops), electrified transportation (electric vehicles, hybrid electric
vehicles), and other applications (Scrosati & Garche, 2010; Larcher & Tarascon, 2015). Both
the resource extraction process and end-of-life management influence the environment when
LIBs are used. To reduce waste and recover valuable resources, recycling and second-life
applications are increasing popularity (Chen et al., 2019). Life cycle analyses are also carried
out to examine the total environmental impact of LIBs in comparison to their advantages
(Majeau-Bettez et al., 2011).
2.4. American market and their conduct of end-of-life cycle management of LIBs
The spike in EV adoption and the ongoing expansion of electronic technology have increased
the demand of LIBs that needs an effective management at the end of their useful lives. The
management of the rising number of retired batteries is a difficulty for the American market,
which is a key consumer of these technologies (Cook & Zhang, 2018). While regulatory
frameworks for LIB recycling remain fragmented in the U.S., various initiatives have been
launched to address this concern. Call2Recycle, a non-profit organization, has played a pivotal
role in establishing collection and recycling networks for batteries (Call2Recycle, 2019). These
initiatives contribute to reducing the environmental impact of improper disposal and enabling
valuable material recovery. A comprehensive and reliable recycling system is difficult to
implement because to the absence of standardised regulations for the management of
decommissioned LIBs. The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) governs
hazardous waste management, but its application to LIBs remains uncertain, impacting the
adoption of uniform recycling practices (Soo et al., 2020). The retired LIB market offers
economic prospects through recycling and repurposing. Lithium, cobalt, and other materials
present in these batteries have considerable economic value. The ReCell Center, an initiative
supported by the U.S. Department of Energy, focuses on developing advanced recycling
technologies to recover these valuable materials (Gaines & Suddaby, 2020). Recycling
procedures are complicated by the fact that retired LIBs frequently have a variety of
chemistries, designs, and states of health. Researchers are exploring innovative technologies
to improve the efficiency of LIB recycling, including hydrometallurgical and pyrometallurgical
methods, as well as mechanical separation techniques (Kang et al., 2020). The need for
proper recycling solutions is becoming more and more obvious as the American market for
retired lithium-ion batteries is positioned at a crucial stage. The issues posed by LIB end-of-
life management can potentially be addressed through initiatives including collection networks,
policy creation, and technological advancements.
2.5. European market and their conduct of end-of-life cycle management of LIBs
In considering Europe's commitment to sustainable development and the concepts of the
circular economy, the management of retired lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has attracted
considerable attention. Europe's regulatory framework has been pivotal in shaping the
management of retired LIBs. The Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE)
Directive sets ambitious targets for battery collection and recycling, encouraging producers to
take responsibility for end-of-life products (Dijkman et al., 2015). Additionally, the EU's Circular
Economy Action Plan emphasizes closed-loop material cycles, aligning with LIB recycling
goals. Europe's advanced waste collection infrastructure has facilitated the establishment of
efficient LIB recycling networks. The extended producer responsibility (EPR) approach
obligates manufacturers to finance and operate collection and recycling systems, leading to
better battery recovery rates (Remondes et al., 2021). Europe has made investments in the
study and creation of cutting-edge LIB recycling technology. Technologies for sorting and
separating materials have advanced, leading to increased recovery rates and better
environmental results. While Europe's regulatory framework is robust, challenges such as
harmonization of recycling processes across member states and ensuring a consistent supply
of retired batteries persist. Collaborative efforts among manufacturers, policymakers, and
researchers are vital in addressing these challenges and advancing LIB recycling practices
(Remondes et al., 2021). The end-of-life management system for lithium-ion batteries in
Europe is an excellent illustration of how proactive policy, strong infrastructure, and technology
advancements can create a system that is sustainable.

Chapter 3. Research Methodology

A specific approach by which the researcher carries out their research is known as research
methodology. The researcher used a thorough methodology in this study and a variety of tools,
including a research philosophy, a methodology, a design, a data collection method, and
sampling. Additionally, the researcher in this case upheld the ethics, dependability, and validity
standards for doing this research. In order to thoroughly analyse the development of a
sustainable value chain for reverse logistics of retired lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in the
American and European markets, this study uses a mixed-methods research methodology.
To get a deep understanding of the subject, the study combines qualitative and quantitative
methods. A survey will be given to an objective group of the manufacturers, key players, and
consumers who are involved in the LIBs value chain. Quantitative information on variables like
recycling rates, collection networks, regulatory awareness, and economic and ecological
concerns will be gathered through the survey. Key players such as lawmakers, industry
professionals, recycling businesses, battery producers, and environmental organisations will
all be subjected to in-depth literature research through their published blogs and articles. The
qualitative data will shed light on the legislative landscape, business customs, scientific
advances, and difficulties posed by the reverse logistics of retired LIBs. A thorough overview
of the challenges, possibilities, and approaches for setting up a sustainable value chain for
retired LIBs in the American and European markets will be provided by integrating qualitative
and quantitative findings. The synthesis will serve as the basis for suggestions for decision-
makers, business leaders, and other stakeholders. A series of suggestions will be developed
based on the research findings to direct the creation of a potential sustainable value chain for
the reverse logistics of retired LIBs. Regulations, technology developments, stakeholder
cooperation, and circular economy concepts will all be considered in these suggestions.
Potential biases in participant selection, the constantly changing nature of legislation, and the
dynamic battery industry environment may all be considered study limitations.

Chapter 4. Data Analysis

Data Analysis considered the process of collecting information about the topic on which
research is conducted (Mishra and Alok, 2022). Primary and secondary data collection are the
two basic types (Saunders et al. 2019). The researcher has chosen to gather secondary data
from pre-existing sources using the secondary data collecting process. Secondary data-
gathering is a versatile and in-depth strategy for acquiring data from sources that are already
available (Saunders et al. 2019). Pre-published peer-reviewed publications can be easily
located and downloaded from legitimate websites like Google Scholar, SciHub, and ProQuest
(Fitrianingsih et al. 2021). This approach of data collection enhances the researcher's flexibility
by allowing them to obtain data solely utilising electronic devices, saving both time and money.
4.1. Qualitative Analysis
To find common themes and patterns in the qualitative information from the literature, an
analysis of themes will be used. The labelling and categorization of texts will make it possible
to find common issues, best practises, and potential solutions for creating a sustainable value
chain.
4.2. Quantitative Analysis
Descriptive statistics will be used to analyse the quantitative survey results and reveal
information about the recycling rates, reverse logistics practises, and stakeholder attitudes as
they currently stand. To examine relationships between variables, correlation analysis may be
used.
4.3. Comparative Analysis
To contrast the results from the American and European markets, a comparative analysis will
be done. This analysis will emphasise the parallels and divergences between each market's
strategy for sustainable reverse logistics of retired LIBs, as well as any lessons that can be
drawn from it.

Chapter 5. Research Findings

In this chapter, secondary qualitative data analysis techniques have been used to examine
the data related to the recycling techniques. More specifically, the theme analysis will be
carried out to evaluate the factual secondary data and facts about discussion. Researcher
came-up with a possible business value chain for after-life Li-ion batteries, with minimal
ecofootprint as main goal researcher find the three sustainable procedures to deal with
excessive number of retired batteries in future. Thus, using an effective theme analysis
process and data from more than 30 peer-reviewed articles, the researcher here attempted to
achieve the goals of the current study.
5.1 Stationary storage
With the increase of EV penetration in the market, it can be estimated that the number of
batteries on their second life will also be increasing. These large number of LiBs can be used
to create a large array of packs having power in MWh range, thus, can be applicable in
stationary grids. (C. Koch-Ciobotaru, IEEE,2015). According to research, recycling used
batteries for stationary storage applications might greatly increase the viability of energy
storage solutions from an economic and environmental standpoint (Arnaud et al., 2020). By
maximising resource usage and reducing waste, this strategy follows to the principles of the
circular economy. Such used batteries can aid in system stabilisation, managing peak
demand, and integrating renewable energy sources. Nissan's "Leaf to Home" project in Japan
offers a specific illustration of how used batteries can be used. Nissan's electric car, the Nissan
Leaf, has retired batteries that are being used for stationary energy storage. During the day,
these systems store extra solar energy and use it to power homes at night or during grid
outages. The project shows the viability and advantages of reusing LIBs outside of their
original usage. (Nissan Global Newsroom, 2016). A single used Nissan Leaf battery module
(48 kWh) can store enough energy for a typical home for around two days, says Nissan. When
compared to purchasing new batteries, the cost of the energy storage system is greatly
decreased by reusing these retired modules. Residential energy storage is now cheaper
thanks to this strategy, which reduces the system cost by about 10% (Nissan Global
Newsroom, 2016). The European Union-funded "Second Life Batteries for Stationary Energy
Storage" initiative in Europe uses electric vehicle batteries that have been retired for stationary
energy storage. The project's objective is to utilise second-life LIBs to construct an energy
storage system with a maximum capacity of 3 MW and a maximum storage time of 4 hours
(European Commission, 2021). Lithium-ion batteries with a long useful life have enormous
promise as grid-connected stationary energy storage. To support the 98 MW wind generation
plant in New York, a business erected a LIB energy storage system with a power of 32 MW/8
MWh (Laurel Mountain) in 2011. (Subburaj AS, Bayne SB et al 2014). The biggest European
LIB energy storage pilot is now underway in the UK. At the primary substation, a LIB system
with a power of 6 MW/10 MWh will be installed. This system can be used to efficiently balance
the unpredictable nature of wind and other renewable energy sources. (Dooner M et al 2015,
Daim TU et al 2017) Although these batteries are no longer suited for their intended
applications, they can nevertheless help develop cost-effective sustainable energy solutions
and encourage the use of renewable energy sources. Second-life batteries are influencing the
future of energy storage and grid stability through creative ideas and initiatives.
5.2 Refurbish or Reuse
The growing popularity of electric vehicles (EVs) and renewable energy sources has sparked
interest in finding long-term solutions for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) that have reached the end
of their useful lives. The reuse and refurbishment of "second life" LIBs is one such approach
that is gaining popularity. Batteries that are no longer appropriate for their original use are
repurposed in this process, creating new opportunities for energy storage, grid support, and
other uses. Over time, LIBs often exhibit performance degradation, which causes them to no
longer meet the requirements for EVs or portable devices. They can nevertheless work for
less demanding applications because they frequently retain a sizable amount of their original
capability. Battery undergoes a three-step process for its new application. The first step is
assessment, which provides all the data and history of individual batteries. The second step
is remanufacturing, where the battery goes through a specific process of part removal in
accordance with usage requirements. The final step is recertification, where the battery that
has undergone remanufacturing or alteration needs a certificate like UN 38.3. By extending
the life of retired LIBs, less new battery production is required, also limiting resource use and
waste. By extending the life of retired LIBs, less new battery production is required, also
limiting resource use and waste. By extending the life of retired LIBs, less new battery
production is required, also limiting resource use and waste. Reusing batteries considerably
lowers the upfront cost of energy storage devices, lowering their cost. Because they may store
surplus energy and release it when needed, used batteries help ensure the stability of the
integration of renewable energy sources. By supplying energy during times of peak demand
or frequency regulation, these batteries can offer grid stabilisation services. Renault's
"Advanced Battery Storage" project in France is an example of how used EV batteries may be
reused and upgraded. The business transforms EV batteries, including those from the Renault
Zoe, to build massive energy storage systems. In order to promote the integration of
renewable energy and support grid stability, the project as of 2021 involved around 1,000 used
batteries with a total capacity of 55 MWh (Renault Group, 2021). Second-life batteries can
retain up to 80% of their initial capacity, according to research published in the journal "Nature
Sustainability" (Ellingsen et al., 2019). This indicates that these batteries could potentially have
significant energy storage capabilities long after their primary use. Lithium-ion batteries that
have reached the end of their useful lives can be recycled and upgraded in order to increase
their worth beyond their original usage. These batteries can promote grid stability, energy
transition support, and resource conservation by making use of their remaining capacity, all of
which are objectives of a circular economy.
5.3 Extraction of materials
Batteries in poor condition are brought to this process, where material can be removed using
three separate processes. Hydrometallurgical, mechanical separation, and pyrometallurgical
processes. Most participants are taking a combined mechanical and hydraulic strategy in the
hopes that it would maximise recovered material efficiency.2022 (ARTHUR D. LITTLE)
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