Disassembly and discharge of batteries

Ediraldo dos Santos Filho; Eduardo Santos Izumida de Almeida;

Gabriel Souto Fargnoli; Julia Maria Otero Marcelino
Universidade Estadual de Campinas

Abstract
The growing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) underscores the need for sustainable practices in
managing end-of-life batteries. While extensive research examines various aspects of battery recycling
and reuse, there’s a notable gap in understanding the holistic challenges and opportunities across social,
environmental, and economic dimensions. This article provides insights into the increasing demand for
EVs and the consequent surge in end-of-life batteries, highlighting the importance of efficient disassembly
and recycling methods. Lithium-ion cells, integral to battery packs, are lauded for their high energy
density, long lifespan, and low self-discharge rate. Ongoing research aims to enhance the efficiency, safety,
and lifespan of lithium-ion cells to meet evolving demands. With projections indicating a significant rise in
end-of-life batteries, addressing these challenges is crucial for a sustainable transition to electric mobility.

1 Addressing Challenges in Battery Transportation for Recy-

cling
1.1 Current Scenario
When discussing the utilization of batteries in their second life and all associated points regarding
recycling and reuse, we often encounter studies and scientific articles that delve into numerous aspects.
These include materials, disassembly processes, risk management, and structural considerations for recy-
cling. However, there is a tendency to overlook the fact that recycling commences upon the removal of
a battery from the vehicle. This presupposes that the battery must be transported to the facility where
necessary recycling procedures will be conducted. Therefore, in order to facilitate an efficient transition
towards electric vehicles from combustion cars, it is necessary that this transition be sustainable across
social, environmental, and economic dimensions. Notably, transportation costs represent approximately
40% of the total recycling expenses, underscoring the critical nature of this aspect in understanding and
optimizing the use of batteries in their second life.[36]
Despite the apparent significance of transportation costs, challenges persist, including the regional
variability of transport expenses and the lack of comprehensive data collection on this matter in major
research articles within the recycling domain. This directly impacts the efficiency of battery collection
systems, which, when optimized, can have profound effects on the economic viability of recycling.

1.2 Responsibilities and a possible way out

Beyond costs, regulatory frameworks and responsibilities concerning battery recycling must also be
considered. In many jurisdictions, transportation poses challenges and increases costs due to the hazar-
dous nature of battery materials, particularly during transit. Different regions and countries have their
own legislation in place. For instance, China and the European Union require producers to take respon-
sibility for establishing an ecosystem capable of receiving batteries for recycling. This entails the collec-
tion and transportation of batteries, with producers can’t give away these activities, even if third-party
contractors are involved. This regulatory approach may incentivize the development of more efficient,
cost-effective, and streamlined recycling processes, because it involves companies. Addressing the chal-
lenges posed requires careful consideration of potential interventions. Two possible approaches emerge:
firstly, developing regionally optimized system projects to account for costs, greenhouse gas emissions,

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regional impacts, and social considerations, while also relocating recycling infrastructure. Alternatively,
conducting a comprehensive analysis of existing options, including route planning and access to various
locations, while examining all variables that could contribute to cost reduction, presents another viable
pathway forward.

1.3 Case study: USA Possibilities

In the context of the United States, a study [16] of two alternative scenarios were examined to illustrate
options for battery end-of-life management: recycling within and outside the state of California. In-
state recycling offers advantages in terms of state-level oversight and decreased transportation distances
for batteries, whereas out-of-state recycling enables the establishment of larger centralized facilities,
leveraging economies of scale and accessing markets for recovered materials. To model the supply chain,
the research [26] employed ArcGIS software to simulate transportation distances and associated costs.
Collection points were designated at car dealerships, and the ultimate destination for batteries was
identified as potential recycling facilities. Utilizing California-specific data, optimal locations for these
facilities were determined, along with the corresponding total ton-miles traveled for both in-state and
out-of-state recycling scenarios. The sensitivity analysis indicated that the economic benefits are most
pronounced with two dismantling facilities situated near the state’s primary population centers. Moreover,
the addition of a third dismantling facility prompted a reassessment of transport distances and the
categorization of collection points into distinct groups. While a higher number of facilities may yield
greater transportation cost savings, it also entails additional capital investment for construction and
upkeep. Consequently, incorporating multimodal transportation into the supply chain and conducting
a preliminary assessment of disassembly facility locations are necessary to evaluate costs and foster
the formulation of effective strategies for battery waste management, striving for both environmental
sustainability and economic feasibility.

2 Methods of disassembly and discharge

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are increasing whereas the demand for electric vehicles (EVs) is rising.
This means that lots of spent batteries will be generated, and with that, the process of disassembly of
these batteries for recycling and reusing must be improved in the matter of efficiency and safety. In this
chapter, we will be discussing the various methods of disassembly and discharge of batteries.

2.1 Problems and approaches nowadays

Currently, the main approach for recycling spent LIBs involves crushing them to harvest the valuable
content. Nevertheless, this process risks the integrity of the battery, since there is a chance that the
anode and cathode will contact each other, releasing any stored chemical energy. This energy release can
cause an abrupt temperature rise[32], fires, and explosions[23]. To reduce the risks during this operation,
some approaches have been suggested, such as freezing the LIBs with liquid nitrogen or crushing the
batteries in an inert atmosphere[30]. However, these techniques do not account for the hazardous potential
during storage and transportation[30]. Knowing that the main problem in the disassembly, storage, and
transportation of these spent LIBs is the residual energy on them, one solution is to discharge the battery
for all the operations.

2.2 Discharge
One of the methods used for discharging batteries and proved effective[21], is the use of saline solution,
but little attention has been paid to the environmental impacts of the process. Even though the use
of NaCl can fully release residual electricity from LIBs, it causes corrosion and possibly electrolyte
leakage[40]. This can cause serious secondary pollution[40]. It becomes important to avoid the leakage of
toxic electrolytes, which can be turned into nerve agents that are a threat to the environment and human

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 Figura 1: Re per time[40]

health [liu et all (a cleaner approach xiao)]. Xiao [40] studied the discharge performances of spent LIBs
in different solutions. It was used AB-type salts (A: cation; B: anion) to prepare the discharge solution,
to keep the same cation/anion concentration. The subsequent solutions were used:
1. NaCl
2. KCl
3. NaNo3
4. MnSO4
5. MgSO4
in which the NaCl and KCl solutions the electricity of batteries rapidly decreased within 2 h to achieve the
rate of residual electricity of 27.64 % (rate of residual electricity = theresidualvoltageof batteryaf terdischargingf ort
theinitialvoltageof battery ×
100%). With 6 h, the efficiency of NaNo3 and MnSO4 were surpassed by MgSO4. Apart from this, the
batteries in chlorine solutions were seriously destroyed after discharging. Figure 1 shows the rate of
residual electricity per time.
Knowing that, a high discharge rate is accompanied by the structural destruction of batteries, causing
serious secondary pollution. Using the MnSO4, galvanic reaction and organic leakage can be avoided, and
using pH adjustment few sediments were observed around the electrode. With that, a cleaner approach
is achieved to discharge the batteries in MnSO4 solution[40].
With the to be considered the first step in recycling batteries cleared, we can proceed to the disas-
sembly part.

2.3 Disassembly
Nowadays, the disassembly process is carried out manually and without robots, and it’s usually
performed by a handful of multiple qualified workers[15]. The disassembly operation, being manual, brings
a lot of risks to the workers, such as high-voltage risk, so they must have complete high-voltage training[35]
and there are also the potential hazards from the toxic electrolyte in the cells[39]. The operation begins
with opening the battery pack. The structural design of the battery system and connections are of
decisive importance for the disassembly task[27]. Figure 2 shows the general structure of a battery pack.

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 Figura 2: Basic battery pack[18]

Klohs et al. [18] uses the example of three different systems used in three different cars, the VW
e-Golf, BMW i3, and Audi e-tron to show that the process is not standardized, mostly because the
assembly and design of the packs of each one of the companies are different. Figure 3 shows the various
disassembly times, and costs for some car models.

Figura 3: Overview[18]

Khlos et al.[18] used a methodological approach to highlight the current industrial challenges for
increasing the automation of battery disassembly in Europe. For this purpose, twelve experts from
various sectors along the chain were gathered and interviewed. The interviews were divided into four
subcategories:

1. Motivation for an automated disassembly

2. Product-related challenges
3. Procces-related challenges
4. Future development

In the matter of motivation, the greatest potential for automation is in recycling. Khlos affirms this
is due to the fact that in this scenario each one of the steps of dismantling will not only be carried

4
out non-destructively. Besides, the recycling process routes in scaled stages are more dependent on a
continuous supply of input material streams, requiring an automated dismantling in the chain[37].
Regarding product-related challenges, the main related problem was the diversity of battery systems,
not only in design but minimal deviations between the battery generation. Figure 4 shows some challenges.

Figura 4: Problem related challenges[18]

As regards the process-related challenges, the experts affirm that opening the housing cover, detaching
cables, and removing the modules were the most challenging steps for the automation process. Figure 5
shows the expert’s percentage of which step is more challenging.

Figura 5: Problem related challenges[18]

In the matter of future development, Cell-to-X approaches, in which design for disassembly it is a
research and development potential; cell potting, with research and dev potential in process control for a
variety of different battery models; and platform strategies, with component detection and visual camera
support regarding the research and development potential.
With that said, the feasibility of the dismantling of batteries would increase if the same company that
assembled the battery pack disassembled them, because of the specificities of each pack. However, as said
above, the process needs to be done by multiple qualified workers, which can hold off the corporation.
The automation of the process can attract companies to do the operation themselves, excluding the step
of transportation of the pack from the owner of the spent LIB to the company, and then to a place that
would disassemble, and then back to the company again. Above, we have some methods of automated
disassembly.

1. Choux et al.[6] describe a method where task planning is used to analyze the information provided
by a camera, make a decision about the disassembly process, and send a path to the industrial
robot’s controller, that will do the work of dismantling the LIB pack.

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 2. In the article [45], the authors propose a methodological approach for an Automated Disassembly,
in which the main idea is based on automated detection and pose estimation of components. This
would be done using a depth camera and 3D processing.
3. Li et al.[22] propose a semi-destructive robotic disassembly using a robot cell with tools made for
extracting strategically important materials.
4. Zhou et al. [44] propose the automated disassembly using a Kinect camera and six degrees of
freedom robots.
5. Lai et al. propose a capacity screening model based on a Genetic Algorithm-Back Propagation
(GA-BP) neural network.

3 BMS
Initially, we will address a detailed analysis regarding the technological aspects that permeate the
second life of a Lithium electric battery. The thorough analysis of the constituent elements seeks to
generate a grounded procedure, with the intention of pointing out the advantages and disadvantages of
the battery pack reuse process as a whole, so that financial utilization is possible and at the same time
feasible for implementation in a company. The scope of this work will be based on the most qualified
scientific works possible that will guide us and help to point out some important points, in the context
of the current market and technology, regarding the procedures of disassembly and reuse of a second-life
battery.
Introduction about lithium-ion cells that make up the battery pack: Lithium-ion cells are essential
components of lithium-ion battery packs, widely used in portable electronic devices, electric vehicles,
and energy storage systems. These cells are recognized for their high energy density, long life, and
low self-discharge rate, making them popular in various applications. Each lithium-ion cell has a basic
structure composed of three main components: anode, cathode, and electrolyte. The anode is where the
oxidation reaction occurs during discharge, usually made of graphite carbon. The cathode, in turn, is
where the reduction reaction occurs during discharge, usually composed of transition metal oxides such
as LiCoO2, LiMn2O4, or LiFePO4. As for the electrolyte, it is responsible for allowing the movement
of lithium ions between the anode and the cathode during cell charging and discharging. In addition
to these main components, lithium-ion cells may contain other materials, such as porous separators to
prevent internal short circuits and current collectors to facilitate electrical connection within the cell. The
efficiency and performance of lithium-ion cells are influenced by various factors, including the quality of
the materials used, cell design, operating conditions, and battery management system. Ongoing research
and development efforts aim to further improve the energy density, safety, and life of lithium-ion cells to
meet the growing demands for portable power and electric vehicles.
Introduction about BMS (Battery Management System): BMS, in fact, is generally a control circuit
designed to protect the cell against phenomena of overcharge, deep discharge, and over-temperature.
Overcharge, in a lithium-ion battery pack (Li-ion), refers to a situation where the battery is charged
beyond its safe voltage limit. When a Li-ion battery is subjected to excessive charging, a series of
problems can occur, including battery degradation. Deep discharge refers to discharging the battery to a
very low charge level. Over-temperature refers to a situation where the temperature exceeds a safe limit
during charging, discharging, or storage.[1]

3.1 Ideal Battery Pack Disassembly Conditions and Temperature Concerns;

Battery Variability.
An important aspect to be highlighted is to speak a little about the systematic identification of
hazardous states and approach to condition monitoring within the dismantling of LIBs. Lithium-ion
batteries are quite common nowadays and are widely used in electric vehicles due to their energy storage
capacity. They are composed of cells that are grouped into modules, and in turn, these modules are

6
grouped into larger packs. Each cell is like a small container containing materials such as anode, cathode,
and electrolyte, essential for storing electrical energy. Within each cell, there are a series of layers of
materials that play specific roles. The anode and cathode, for example, are coated in thin metal foils and
contain active materials that store and release lithium ions during charging and discharging. A permeable
separator sits between the anode and cathode to prevent short circuits. Additionally, the electrolyte is a
solution that allows lithium ions to move between the anode and cathode during battery use.
There are different types of lithium-ion cells, such as cylindrical, prismatic, and pouch, each with their
own characteristics and applications. However, all these cells have in common the fact that they need
to be handled with care, especially under extreme temperature conditions, as they can pose safety risks.
Therefore, understanding the composition and operation of lithium-ion cells is crucial to ensuring their
safe and effective use in a variety of applications, from portable electronic devices to electric vehicles.[20]
Existing methods for monitoring thermal runaway conditions in lithium-ion battery modules can basi-
cally be divided according to the location of the sensors to measure the variables that provide information
about the occurrence of a thermal runaway. On one hand, there are external measurements, where sen-
sors are attached outside the battery module. On the other hand, sensors installed within the module
are mentioned, including internal temperature sensors, voltage and current sensors, resistance sensors,
and pressure sensors. Especially for deeply discharged cells, as they are considered during disassembly,
approaches using internal sensors may be excluded, as there is no power supply or interruption of cur-
rent circuits and information is the consequence. For a monitoring concept, it is necessary to work with
external sensors, especially if battery modules from different manufacturers are being disassembled, as
there is no immediate access to the battery management system. Furthermore, since a thermal runaway
is characterized by a specific heating process of the respective cell or affected cell groups, targeted moni-
toring of the heating state of the entire battery module is a possible approach to monitor relevant critical
paths. The heating process in a thermal runaway largely depends on various factors. These include the
specific properties of the cell (material, geometry, ...), safety mechanisms installed in the module, and
the history of the cell or battery module. Therefore, the critical temperature that triggers a thermal ru-
naway of discharged lithium-ion battery cells must be determined individually for each type of cell within
the battery module. This can be achieved through experimental tests, for example, using Accelerating
Rate Calorimeter.[12] The proposed monitoring concept in this work is shown in Figure 1. An externally
mounted thermographic camera and a weight measurement system are used to detect ”thermal”runaway
and substance leakage. On one hand, the thermographic camera enables monitoring of a maximum ”li-
mit”temperature of the battery module. Furthermore, it is possible to evaluate the absolute or relative
temperature curve over time, which allows conclusions to be drawn about critical heating processes of
the module. In this context, the correlation between the actual internal heating of the individual cells
affected by the delayed detection on cell or module surfaces is of particular importance. Regions of
interest should be defined as cell or module surfaces where the occurrence of a thermal runaway due
to cell heating becomes immediately visible. For this purpose, test cells with temperature control will
be developed in subsequent work to simulate thermal runaway. This will enable investigations into the
thermal detection of thermal runaway.[42]
In this part of the article, the requirements for a monitoring system during the disassembly of lithium-
ion batteries for recycling were briefly analyzed. One of several other hazard areas identified is the thermal
area and its effects, seeking ways to prevent problems. A monitoring system was proposed that utilizes
thermal cameras and weighing systems to detect leaks and overheating. Future experiments will be
conducted to improve the system before its implementation in lithium-ion battery reuse processes. This
basic analysis of the temperature effect within a battery module disassembly process will serve as a basis
for the concept of modifying individual battery cells in the future, which cannot undergo processes such
as soldering heating, for example.

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Figura 6: Adapted from GERLITZ, Eduard et al. Systematic Identification of Hazardous States and
Approach for Condition Monitoring in the Context of Li-ion Battery Disassembly. Procedia CIRP, v.
107, p. 308-313, 2022.

3.2 The various models of lithium-ion battery modules, and the systematic
challenges of automated disassembly
Facing the challenges of battery module disassembly into cells is a complex task, especially considering
the non-removable joints in the modules, along with the hazards associated with lithium-ion cells.[10] In
this context, it is crucial to identify the non-removable joints commonly found in battery modules, as well
as to recognize the main risks involved. The location of non-removable joints is an essential step in this
analysis. These joints can be divided into two main categories: mechanical, such as welds, and chemical,
such as adhesives. Non-removable mechanical joints are especially prominent in contact areas between
cells (cell-cell, cell contact) and in cell fixation or casing. The choice of these joints is justified by the need
for high mechanical and thermal resistance, as well as low electrical contact resistance. Depending on the
type of cell used, a variety of mechanical joining methods can be applied.[38] On the other hand, adhesives
play a crucial role in various functions in battery modules, including electrical insulation, sealing, and
thermal management. They are commonly used to bond individual cells, cooling plates, and casings.
Different types of adhesives, such as epoxy resin, polyurethanes, and adhesive tapes, can be employed
to meet different application requirements. By understanding the location and purpose of these non-
removable joints, it is possible to develop more effective strategies for the safe and efficient disassembly
of battery modules, thereby contributing to more sustainable and responsible recycling processes. [29]
According to a study conducted in 2023, motivations for employing automated disassembly in the
battery disassembly context have also been discussed in the scientific community.
In this study, experts estimated that automated disassembly would have the future function of serving
various aspects of battery module utilization. However, it is noteworthy, within the scope of our interest
in this article, to comment on and observe that only 36.2% of automated disassembly utilizations are
intended for the battery’s second-life process[19]. This is important for our work to assert because, in this
context, there is an urgent need to develop a methodology that meets the financial feasibility of financing
aimed at second-life batteries.

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 Figura 7:

3.3 Technological Methodology for Implementing a Second Life of an SLB

It is clear that over the past decade, we have observed growth in the LIB market. However, just like
with all objects, there is a lifespan for them. In this context, with the increasing number of used LIBs in
the market, there emerges a need to broaden the perspective and seek means to implement a technology
that is both of high quality and financially viable in the long term. Considering the aforementioned, we
see that currently, there are two options in the literature for restructuring the battery to prepare it for
reuse. On the other hand, rather than simply discarding old batteries, a smarter approach is to reuse
them to extract the maximum remaining lifespan. Reusing electric vehicle batteries means giving them
a second chance by using them to store energy in household systems and even as a backup in modern
grids that utilize renewable energy sources such as solar or wind.
There are two common ways to reuse these electric vehicle batteries: repurposing and remanufacturing.
In repurposing, batteries are repaired or refurbished and then reintegrated into automotive applications.
In remanufacturing, batteries are reconfigured for use in less demanding secondary applications. Howe-
ver, before being reused, batteries may need to undergo testing, inspections, and in some cases, even
disassembly and replacement of faulty cells. A study in the United States showed that reusing electric
vehicle batteries can be more economical and environmentally friendly than using new batteries in certain
energy storage applications. Compared to new batteries, reused batteries significantly reduced energy
costs and carbon emissions, making them an attractive option for households and businesses interested
in adopting renewable energies. In summary, disposing of electric vehicle batteries after their first use
is not a viable option from both an economic and environmental perspective. Reusing them not only
maximizes their potential use but also contributes to waste reduction and carbon emissions reduction.

1. Discussion about the BMS, what literature tells us about the topic, and what the best options are.
Should the old BMS be replaced with a new one, undergo an upgrade, or receive a software update?
Which option would be more financially viable? Are there any other alternatives regarding the

9
 BMS?
2. Discussion about the cells, in which cases it would be more financially viable to perform an internal
repair or replace the old cells with newer ones. Additionally, what would be the details of these
repairs for a new market use of these batteries? What problems tend to be more frequent over
time in these batteries and how could we mitigate these issues for prolonged battery use, as well as
better delivery state of these batteries in their second-life utilization.

3.4 What is BMS (Battery Management System)

The Battery Management System (BMS) in lithium-ion batteries plays a crucial role in their second-
life use. To address the BMS for second-life applications, several factors need to be considered. This
includes the State of Health (SoH) of the batteries, capacity compatibility, and cell degradation state.
The SoH of the batteries must be accurately and quickly assessed to ensure reliable performance in
second-life applications. Additionally, the acquisition cost of end-of-life (EoL) batteries, as well as the
costs associated with disassembly and reassembly of the batteries, need to be taken into account to
maintain cost-effectiveness. Furthermore, the orientation of the batteries within the pack can affect their
aging and degradation, highlighting the importance of uniform aging for sustainable design in future
EV batteries. Addressing these considerations overall will contribute to the success of BMS treatment
for second-life use in lithium-ion batteries[24]. Due to the variation of cells within used electric vehicle
batteries, it is not safe to reuse them directly after removal from the vehicle. While used batteries offer
economic advantages, they need to undergo screening to verify if they are still in suitable conditions.
Batteries with consistency issues may pose risks such as overheating or even explosion. Therefore, tests
are required to assess their capacity and endurance. Additionally, advanced techniques such as neural
networks and electrochemical impedance analysis are available to identify and classify these used batteries.
These processes ensure that only batteries in good condition are repurposed, enhancing their safety
and prolonging their lifespan. For the second-life application of retired batteries to become popular,
several challenges need to be addressed and resolved. Some efforts and policies are expected to remedy
some of these issues while others remain questionable. The economic benefit of adopting second-life
batteries is the most challenging component, even though these batteries may seem attractive from the
standpoint of initial capital cost investment. With their shorter lifespan compared to new batteries and
the cost of repurposing (disassembly, evaluation, BMS implementation, and repackaging), they may not
be economically viable in the long term. Furthermore, as the cost of new batteries is decreasing over
time, the application of second-life batteries may become a hindrance in the future. Consumers would
opt for new batteries instead of second-life batteries if the environmental effect is neglected if the price
of lithium-ion batteries drops to the point of costing the same as second-life batteries, which is limited
by the cost of repurposing. Another barrier is that the battery disassembly process is done manually
due to a lack of automation, which requires skilled labor and has a significant impact on the selling price
of second-life batteries. The application of second-life batteries in various types, shapes, and chemical
compositions is another issue. This makes the assessment of the State of Health (SOH) difficult and
renders the procedure more challenging and expensive. Although battery matching is vital for enhanced
second-life application efficiency and longer lifespan, they come in a variety of voltage levels, capacities,
and types, making it difficult to find equivalent batteries[33].
To ensure the successful adoption of second-life batteries as a product, it’s essential to secure a
reliable supply of old batteries, an efficient production line, and an effective distribution chain. Moreover,
increasing awareness and interest are crucial to creating sufficient demand. To sustain this demand, costs
need to be kept under control, and appropriate policies, incentives, and business models need to be
developed. Tax credits and discounts should be offered to encourage the use of second-life batteries.
Data availability on the batteries is essential, and one way to ensure this is by using software in the
battery management system to track them from inception. While there are challenges associated with
second-life batteries, they can be overcome considering the benefits they offer[41][3].

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Figura 8: Illustration of a battery management system.XING, Yinjiao et al. Battery management systems
in electric and hybrid vehicles. Energies, v. 4, n. 11, p. 1840-1857, 2011.

3.5 Second-Life Batteries: Repurposing BMS as a Viable Financial Alterna-

tive
Currently, there is extensive research underway on the emerging technology of second-life battery
repurposing. Some technological and economic studies are considering the effects of battery degradation
in second-life applications, but many of them rely on battery capacity estimates, efficiency, and lack of
data on battery usage history. Economic models tend to be specific to battery types, their chemistry, or
the specific application under certain conditions, so there is still no generic tool available that addresses
all these technological and economic aspects. In this context, it is important to understand the progress
made in studies of second-life battery degradation, especially considering the economic benefits involved.
Several projects and research efforts are being reviewed to analyze advancements related to second-life
batteries. This includes investigations into the technical, economic, and environmental feasibility of
using these batteries in various applications. The first energy storage system composed of second-life
batteries from the BMW i3 is a significant example that sets a standard for future reliable energy storage
systems. For a comprehensive assessment of the technological and economic viability of these batteries,
a combination of estimation techniques for battery health state and cost analysis tools is necessary. This
will allow for a more precise and complete consideration of the concept of extending the lifespan of
second-life batteries[14][13].
Recently, a case study was conducted in Spain, where two distinct scenarios were analyzed to assess
the feasibility of energy storage using second-life batteries. While some estimates were made, an economic
model developed in MATLAB was employed to predict the expected outcomes, utilizing a system known
as SMEs (Small and Medium Enterprises)[31]. In this context, a reduction in electricity tariffs was
suggested as part of an energy storage system, considering market data and a specific battery aging
model. A major electric vehicle manufacturer also contributed to this research by developing a research
methodology that combines different approaches. A detailed analysis of economic viability based on
various second-life battery repurposing applications, such as refurbishment for use in electric vehicles or
their reuse in secondary storage systems, was conducted. It was found that reuse in secondary storage
systems, without the need for categorization or refurbishment, is the most economical method. To
bolster the idea of economic gains from battery reuse, it is essential to conduct a detailed economic
analysis of these concepts, highlighting their advantages over recycling. Additionally, investigating the
use of second-life batteries in residential systems with photovoltaic solar energy is recommended. The
Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE) is a useful tool for this analysis, allowing for the comparison of

11
economic and environmental benefits. A recent study suggests that the grid-level scenario may be the
most advantageous in terms of overall cost reduction when compared to other specific applications[17].
The viable business model for electric vehicle battery reuse is based on several important factors. The
cost of reuse, which includes disassembly, evaluation, implementation of a Battery Management System
(BMS), and repackaging, can make the price of second-life batteries (SLBs) unfavorable. Furthermore,
since the cost of new lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) is decreasing over time, the implementation of SLBs
may become a problem in the future. According to Reference[34][7], between 2008 and 2021, the cost of a
LIB pack for an electric vehicle decreased by 87%. This is due to significant technical advances in battery
production and economies of scale. Customers will choose new LIBs over SLBs if the environmental gain
is overlooked and the price of LIBs decreases to the point of costing the same as SLBs. According to
Reference [2], Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) will play a significant role in the SLB industry
by launching SLB projects, as they have convenient access to the SLB supply chain and already possess
the experience and equipment needed to produce Second-Life Battery Energy Storage Systems (SLB-
ESS). Nissan has already demonstrated the viability of such a strategy through its joint venture 4R
Energy Corp. with Sumitomo Corp [5]. A sustainable business model must be built based on criteria
such as current expenses, internal rate of return, and return on investment to achieve sustainability.
Several OEMs have played a key role.

3.6 Component Treatment, BMS in an SLB (Second-Life Battery).

Currently, not all batteries have an onboard health estimator or an accessible message to know it.
Therefore, it is necessary to perform a functional battery test to assess its health and functional capacity
at the remanufacturing plant. There are several possible tests to assess battery health, such as capacity
and pulse tests, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, monitoring of voltage and temperature behavior,
battery cell imbalance, among others. In the future, access to onboard health estimation algorithms of
electric vehicles can accelerate this process. Once characterized, batteries can be prepared for a second
life or discarded if they are damaged or highly degraded. This alternative is suitable for applications with
only one battery, such as in autonomous systems or battery-to-home (B2H) systems. However, to prepare
multiple battery energy storage units, which is common in many stationary second-life applications,
interactions of the Battery Management System (BMS) pose a challenge. This study assumes that all
car manufacturers provide a communication interface or have sufficient trust in the company to share the
necessary information to communicate with the battery. However, this assumption may be questionable
due to confidentiality concerns related to the BMS. The difficulties in predicting the State of Health
(SOH) and State of Charge (SOC) of a battery pack arise due to the variability of cell chemistries.
Charging and discharging all batteries to 100% is a challenge, especially when dealing with different cell
capacities. For example, if there are cells of 40 A/H and 15 A/H, when the lower capacity cell is fully
discharged, the battery will consider it fully discharged, ignoring the remaining capacity of the other cells.
BMS technologies and programming have been developed to handle these disparities, but they require
additional electronic equipment and increase the cost of batteries.[9][11].
Clustering different battery models into a single block results in empty and inefficient spaces, reducing
the energy density and power of the final product. Additionally, standardization is a challenge as the
model and number of collected batteries may vary weekly due to market diversity. This results in the
production of customized battery packs to meet each order, leveraging all available batteries but also
resulting in a non-ideal approach for mass production. This preliminary classification eliminates most
of the previous impediments, such as charging efficiency, battery clustering design, and standardization.
However, it still relies on the key assumption that all car manufacturers will provide the necessary BMS
specifications or a communication gateway to the remanufacturing company. For this alternative, the use
of a communication interface is preferable, as all second-life batteries grouped into a new remanufactured
pack will come from the same EV model and use the same messages and protocol. Once the batteries
arrive at the remanufacturing plant, the management process begins with sorting and classification based
on some of their characteristics. Namely, for example, by battery chemistry, cell shape, voltage range,
form factor, capacity in kWh, SOH, etc. However, a selection by model or car manufacturer resolves

12
almost all controversies, as one EV model will always have the same battery chemistry, shape, power,
energy, cell shape, cooling system, etc.
The quantity of batteries arriving at the factory will also determine the degree of automation. Produc-
tion line stations can be manually adjustable for different battery references or can have multi-reference
automated stations. Meanwhile, specialized lines will have fixed and robust workstations, providing higher
production rates, efficiency, and reliability, but with less adaptability. Flexibility always requires higher
investments, but it can also yield better results in unsaturated production lines. Complete Specialization:
With such low numbers of batteries and consequently low revenues, some car manufacturers try to assist
investors in participating in the business by sharing and opening markets, such as the 4Renergy joint
venture. These partnerships offer the possibility to investigate the gaps between customer demand and
battery capabilities, facilitating entry into the business. Additionally, the involved companies typically
sign confidential agreements offering a friendly environment and partnership structure. Thus, the most
optimistic assumption made in the previous two solutions, considering BMS information exchange, is
presumably addressed in this case. This alternative is followed in most second-life demonstrations.
Ultimately, all options for direct reuse still face a major obstacle to overcome, related to the series
and parallel connection of batteries in terms of safety. Each battery model has its own safety configu-
ration. For example, some batteries perform Insulation Voltage tests, applying energy pulses between
the electrodes and the battery casing. These routinely programmed tests prevent direct connection of
batteries in series, requiring the introduction of multiple components to resolve this issue. Additionally,
when connecting them in parallel, unexpected balancing currents may arise between batteries with dif-
ferent voltages. This problem is exacerbated when dealing with different battery models simultaneously.
This is why most demonstration projects currently are presented in pairs of one battery along with a
converter, as shown in Figure 4. This temporary solution resolves most issues but requires a considerable
amount of power electronics, which can be costly. In fact, it is challenging to find commercial DC/AC
converters in the range of 250–400V DC and 230V AC capable of handling the power that EV batteries
can provide. Currently, these converters are specially designed for each battery type and specific pro-
ject. Communications between batteries and stationary equipment must be seriously considered as they
are one of the main barriers to overcome. In fact, some car manufacturers are studying the possibility
of introducing two connectors (one for the first and another for the second life) or a flash memory to
reprogram the BMS for a second life in new EV battery designs. The entry of EVs into the automotive
industry will encourage battery reuse, which, at the same time, will provide economic profit that could
be used to incentivize the EV market and reinforce the virtuous circle. Ultimately, this could lead to
cleaner transportation and an enhanced energy system [4].
Proposal:
In this logic, the problem lies in being able to develop a methodology that should serve for different
types of interfaces, so that when working with a specific type of battery, we can accurately collect the
data, ensuring reliability for the SLB product. This methodology could be the development of software
that can be used solely and simply to collect battery data, regardless of the model or specific type, and
from this data collection, verify the charging conditions, enabling product evaluation. Literature indicates
that screening of used batteries is a necessary validation for the venture, as ineffective second-life product
conditions can pose risks to the business model. Therefore, for the reuse of the BMS component, which
would make the implementation of the SLB product viable, the development of a tool by the interested
company would be necessary, capable of providing an overview of the battery’s condition, regardless of
the type of battery in question.

3.7 Second-Life Cells

The Challenge of Battery Pricing in Second Life The Sandia National Laboratories conducted a
detailed study on the cost of second-life batteries. The percentage distribution across various sectors is
shown in Figure 16a. It was identified that the acquisition cost of retired EV batteries, labor, general
and administrative expenses (GA), and packaging material are the primary contributors. Among these
costs, the procurement of retired EV batteries is the most expensive part, representing 56% of the total

13
 Figura 9: Adapted [28]

cost of the second-life battery[8]. Government regulation to curb the illegal trafficking of used batteries is
crucial to safeguard battery reuse and recycling, avoiding additional acquisition costs. Labor and general
administration costs are the second-largest expense, each contributing 13% to the battery refurbishment
cost. While another cost study conducted by McLoughlin et al. [25] showed that transportation costs
are the second most prominent expense. This may result from different definitions or classifications of
cost components in the two studies. The acquisition cost of second-life batteries may already include
transportation costs, which along with battery materials become the largest overall cost. The labor
cost analysis conducted by the Sandia National Laboratories was based on the US market; hence, labor
costs will be vastly different in other countries. According to the cost of qualified technical labor for
different countries shown in Figure 16b, labor costs for refurbishment in China, Chile, and Poland are
comparatively lower, around 5%. Since general administration is also a labor-related expense, it is
reasonable to assume that the total battery refurbishment cost could be approximately 20% lower in
countries with significantly lower labor costs compared to the US. There is a significant discrepancy in
battery repurposing across different cost studies [29], summarized in Figure 16c. Among these estimates,
Neubauer’s values are among the highest and lowest cost estimates. The market price, salvage value, and
refurbishment cost studied by Neubauer et al. [30] are summarized in figure 9.
I’m sorry for missing that. Here’s the revised passage with the reference included:
Market prices for second-life batteries ranged from $44 to $180 per kilowatt-hour, based on Neubauer’s
analysis [43]. It was found that small differences in DoD (depth of discharge in second life) would have
a significant effect on the health factor and salvage value of second-life batteries. Neubauer et al. found
that refurbishment costs could be as low as $20 per kilowatt-hour if vehicle diagnostic data is available
and can be used to support the purchase of used batteries. Since technician labor cost is a significant
component of refurbishment costs, it is economically impractical to replace defective cells within modules;
therefore, minimizing the purchase of modules containing defective cells is critical.
From the analysis of battery refurbishment cost breakdown and economic analysis research, this review
suggests that the use of LIBs in second life is profitable for some applications and may remain profitable
in countries with high productivity and low labor costs, even with the likelihood of further battery price
drops. From the review of activity in the battery reuse area, it was found that the reuse of LIBs has
attracted increasing interest and significant actions from global EV manufacturers, especially for combined
PV/energy storage applications. Partnerships and collaboration between battery manufacturers, EV
manufacturers, and battery recyclers are forming globally, which will eventually help accelerate battery
reuse and recycling industries and supply chains towards a more efficient Battery Circular Economy.
At this transition point, it has been advocated by some groups and researchers that batteries with
high recovery value or unsuitable for second life will inevitably be immediately recycled to extract critical
metals for use in next-generation battery manufacturing. In this scenario, multi-step hydrothermal pro-
cesses can be simplified to only recover high-value elements to further reduce the capital and operational

14
recycling costs to fit the change in battery chemistry. Based on some of the economic studies, the most
viable way is to use a battery for as long as possible without intensive refurbishment. A battery trac-
king system called a ”battery passport”to track the battery’s usage history internally through battery
management systems and external flow history through unique ID numbers is key to reducing costs and
improving battery management efficiency. Battery standardization, battery tracking, and EV battery
reuse are predicted to be future trends contributing to the operation of global battery value chains.[43]
Proposal:
Therefore, after the literary analysis, we observe that indeed, we can make use of second-life batteries
as they are, without seeking to open or modify the battery module, simply by maintaining and analyzing
the state of the batteries before applying them in a second life.

3.8 Battery Pack Design Recommendations for EVs

With the substantial growth in the adoption of electric vehicles, it is anticipated that the annual
increase in end-of-life batteries in the United States will surge from 400,000 in 2016 to 650,000 in 2025
and exceed 1.65 million in 2040. In the case of increased market penetration, the annual number of
end-of-life batteries could reach 2.45 million by 2040. Among the various battery chemistries, NMC622
is prevalent, constituting 36% of electric vehicle batteries in 2021, valued for its stability, long lifespan,
and high energy density. However, its reliance on cobalt poses challenges due to the material’s unstable
price and associated unethical mining practices.
From a design perspective, lithium-ion battery packs primarily use three cell formats: cylindrical,
prismatic, or pouch. These cells, whether cylindrical, prismatic, or pouch, consist of alternating layers
of separator, cathode, separator, and anode, which are then rolled, compressed, and packaged in a
configuration known as ”jellyroll.”
Pouch cells offer advantages such as compactness, a high area-to-volume ratio facilitating cooling,
and lower weight than other cell types. However, their packaging is mechanically fragile, introducing
stress on electrodes and compromising spatial efficiency in packaging corners, leading to the formation
of ”tabs”vulnerable to failure. Prismatic cells, similar to pouch cells, facilitate efficient packaging, with
nearly 100% utilization. Yet, they differ in the area-to-volume ratio, presenting challenges in cooling
and increased weight due to their rigid casing. Cylindrical cells strike a balance between strength and
lightweight design, featuring a protective metal casing. Despite being less rigid than prismatic cells, their
cylindrical shape accommodates electrodes and separators naturally, avoiding compression-related issues
and tab formation. Although cylindrical cells lose some energy density due to their hexagonal packing,
they occupy up to 91% of available space.
Even with added mechanical protections, both prismatic and cylindrical cells remain fragile for elec-
tric vehicle applications, subject to various mechanical stresses such as impacts, vibrations, and abrupt
braking. Additional protective layers, cooling systems, electrical connections, electronic boards, cooling
pastes, and fastenings further complicate the battery pack design. In the assembly’s final stage, cell
weight constitutes only 60% of the pack weight in certain electric vehicles.
Another factor influencing battery pack design is cell capacity. Increasing individual cell capacity
reduces the overall number of cells required, minimizing interconnections, plugs, protective elements, and
wiring. This enhances volumetric efficiency and reduces assembly costs. However, larger cells lead to
increased pack weight and lower area-to-volume ratios, making cooling more challenging.
Innovative designs, such as Tesla’s experimental patent utilizing cells as structural elements, aim to
reduce pack weight by eliminating redundant structural elements. This design is not yet common in the
electric vehicle market.
Wiring is a significant factor in battery pack design, with numerous high- and low-voltage cables
necessary for the system’s proper operation. The Battery Management System (BMS), among low-
voltage connections, requires extensive wiring for interaction with internal or external electric vehicle
systems. High-voltage cables, considerably larger and rigid, transfer energy from cells to the traction
system and other car components, posing an additional challenge in battery pack design.

15
 The cooling system, responsible for adding weight and complexity to electric vehicle pack designs, va-
ries based on performance. Low-performance electric vehicles often use air cooling, while high-performance
vehicles require more efficient fluid cooling systems, adding weight through tubing, coolant, and thermal
pastes.
Regarding durability, electric vehicle battery packs usually reach the end of their lifespan when cell
charging capacity drops to 80%, occurring approximately after 10 years or 2,000 cycles. Manufacturers
commonly provide an 8-year or 100,000-mile warranty, during which the pack retains around 90% capacity.
The subsequent 10% reduction occurs over the next 5 to 7 years, depending on usage.
The substantial volume of battery packs to be replaced will result in a supply of second-life batteries
reaching approximately 200 GWh per year by 2030, surpassing the estimated global demand for storage
at 150 GWh. This market is valued at an estimated $30 billion. The utilization of discarded packs, known
as ”second-life batteries,”is expected to be a fundamental contribution to the future energy market. For
instance, in the Business to User (B2U) model, a Southern California experiment employed 160 end-of-
life Nissan Leaf packs to complement a 1MW solar farm. The project’s cost was less than $200/kWh,
two-thirds of a similar project using new batteries. This economic viability was achieved through selling
the energy back to the grid at $200/MWh, while the cost of charging the batteries during the day was
only $25/MWh. Although these packs were used without undergoing disassembly, not all future projects
will follow suit.
In many cases, it will be necessary to replace one or more modules within the battery pack or remove
all modules to place them in another protective compartment. In this context, it is crucial to disassemble
the electric vehicle pack without damaging the modules and cells. Considering a circular economy and
environmental sustainability, ideally, it should be possible to remove nearly all components without
damage. For this to be economically viable, disassembly must be automated and safe. However, the
current market’s diversity makes it impossible to develop a universal and significantly automated process.
This situation is expected to worsen with estimates suggesting over 250 electric vehicle models from more
than 15 manufacturers by 2025.
Considering all the factors mentioned above, future battery pack designs should prioritize easy as-
sembly and disassembly. Practices that can be employed include low-resistance electrical buses between
cells, avoiding the use of glue for component fixation, favoring assembly and disassembly processes that
facilitate automation, preventing configurations that pose potential electrical shock risks to operators,
creating configurations that maximize pack and worker protection in case of thermal runaway, designing
wiring for easy removal through automated processes, and avoiding excessively heavy packs compared to
the state of the art.
Additional recommendations aimed at a long second life for packs involve cell design that optimizes
battery chemistry to prevent degradation and increase longevity. This includes avoiding raw materials
with volatile prices and scarcity, such as cobalt and nickel, enabling easy separation of anodes and
cathodes, standardizing cathode chemistry, and using durable casings to prevent electrode delamination.
Based on the aforementioned considerations, strategies facilitating module integration into the battery
pack, enhancing recycling and reuse, can be envisioned. These strategies include mechanical methods
for closing electrical contacts, avoiding sealants and adhesives for fixation, steering clear of welding,
standardizing pack size, shape, and internal configuration, standardizing fasteners and disassembly tools,
using larger modules in smaller quantities, and strategically locating sensor wiring and other electronics
to ease disassembly.

4 Design
With the substantial growth in the adoption of electric vehicles, it is anticipated that the annual
increase in end-of-life batteries in the United States will surge from 400,000 in 2016 to 650,000 in 2025
and exceed 1.65 million in 2040. In the case of increased market penetration, the annual number of
end-of-life batteries could reach 2.45 million by 2040. Among the various battery chemistries, NMC622
is prevalent, constituting 36% of electric vehicle batteries in 2021, valued for its stability, long lifespan,

16
and high energy density. However, its reliance on cobalt poses challenges due to the material’s unstable
price and associated unethical mining practices.
From a design perspective, lithium-ion battery packs primarily use three cell formats: cylindrical,
prismatic, or pouch. These cells, whether cylindrical, prismatic, or pouch, consist of alternating layers
of separator, cathode, separator, and anode, which are then rolled, compressed, and packaged in a
configuration known as ”jellyroll.”
Pouch cells offer advantages such as compactness, a high area-to-volume ratio facilitating cooling,
and lower weight than other cell types. However, their packaging is mechanically fragile, introducing
stress on electrodes and compromising spatial efficiency in packaging corners, leading to the formation
of ”tabs”vulnerable to failure. Prismatic cells, similar to pouch cells, facilitate efficient packaging, with
nearly 100% utilization. Yet, they differ in the area-to-volume ratio, presenting challenges in cooling
and increased weight due to their rigid casing. Cylindrical cells strike a balance between strength and
lightweight design, featuring a protective metal casing. Despite being less rigid than prismatic cells, their
cylindrical shape accommodates electrodes and separators naturally, avoiding compression-related issues
and tab formation. Although cylindrical cells lose some energy density due to their hexagonal packing,
they occupy up to 91% of available space.
Even with added mechanical protections, both prismatic and cylindrical cells remain fragile for elec-
tric vehicle applications, subject to various mechanical stresses such as impacts, vibrations, and abrupt
braking. Additional protective layers, cooling systems, electrical connections, electronic boards, cooling
pastes, and fastenings further complicate the battery pack design. In the assembly’s final stage, cell
weight constitutes only 60% of the pack weight in certain electric vehicles.
Another factor influencing battery pack design is cell capacity. Increasing individual cell capacity
reduces the overall number of cells required, minimizing interconnections, plugs, protective elements, and
wiring. This enhances volumetric efficiency and reduces assembly costs. However, larger cells lead to
increased pack weight and lower area-to-volume ratios, making cooling more challenging.
Innovative designs, such as Tesla’s experimental patent utilizing cells as structural elements, aim to
reduce pack weight by eliminating redundant structural elements. This design is not yet common in the
electric vehicle market.
Wiring is a significant factor in battery pack design, with numerous high- and low-voltage cables
necessary for the system’s proper operation. The Battery Management System (BMS), among low-
voltage connections, requires extensive wiring for interaction with internal or external electric vehicle
systems. High-voltage cables, considerably larger and rigid, transfer energy from cells to the traction
system and other car components, posing an additional challenge in battery pack design.
The cooling system, responsible for adding weight and complexity to electric vehicle pack designs, va-
ries based on performance. Low-performance electric vehicles often use air cooling, while high-performance
vehicles require more efficient fluid cooling systems, adding weight through tubing, coolant, and thermal
pastes.
Regarding durability, electric vehicle battery packs usually reach the end of their lifespan when cell
charging capacity drops to 80%, occurring approximately after 10 years or 2,000 cycles. Manufacturers
commonly provide an 8-year or 100,000-mile warranty, during which the pack retains around 90% capacity.
The subsequent 10% reduction occurs over the next 5 to 7 years, depending on usage.
The substantial volume of battery packs to be replaced will result in a supply of second-life batteries
reaching approximately 200 GWh per year by 2030, surpassing the estimated global demand for storage
at 150 GWh. This market is valued at an estimated $30 billion. The utilization of discarded packs, known
as ”second-life batteries,”is expected to be a fundamental contribution to the future energy market. For
instance, in the Business to User (B2U) model, a Southern California experiment employed 160 end-of-
life Nissan Leaf packs to complement a 1MW solar farm. The project’s cost was less than $200/kWh,
two-thirds of a similar project using new batteries. This economic viability was achieved through selling
the energy back to the grid at $200/MWh, while the cost of charging the batteries during the day was
only $25/MWh. Although these packs were used without undergoing disassembly, not all future projects
will follow suit.
In many cases, it will be necessary to replace one or more modules within the battery pack or remove

17
all modules to place them in another protective compartment. In this context, it is crucial to disassemble
the electric vehicle pack without damaging the modules and cells. Considering a circular economy and
environmental sustainability, ideally, it should be possible to remove nearly all components without
damage. For this to be economically viable, disassembly must be automated and safe. However, the
current market’s diversity makes it impossible to develop a universal and significantly automated process.
This situation is expected to worsen with estimates suggesting over 250 electric vehicle models from more
than 15 manufacturers by 2025.
Considering all the factors mentioned above, future battery pack designs should prioritize easy as-
sembly and disassembly. Practices that can be employed include low-resistance electrical buses between
cells, avoiding the use of glue for component fixation, favoring assembly and disassembly processes that
facilitate automation, preventing configurations that pose potential electrical shock risks to operators,
creating configurations that maximize pack and worker protection in case of thermal runaway, designing
wiring for easy removal through automated processes, and avoiding excessively heavy packs compared to
the state of the art.
Additional recommendations aimed at a long second life for packs involve cell design that optimizes
battery chemistry to prevent degradation and increase longevity. This includes avoiding raw materials
with volatile prices and scarcity, such as cobalt and nickel, enabling easy separation of anodes and
cathodes, standardizing cathode chemistry, and using durable casings to prevent electrode delamination.
Based on the aforementioned considerations, strategies facilitating module integration into the battery
pack, enhancing recycling and reuse, can be envisioned. These strategies include mechanical methods
for closing electrical contacts, avoiding sealants and adhesives for fixation, steering clear of welding,
standardizing pack size, shape, and internal configuration, standardizing fasteners and disassembly tools,
using larger modules in smaller quantities, and strategically locating sensor wiring and other electronics
to ease disassembly.

5 Conclusion
The transition towards electric vehicles (EVs) represents a pivotal shift in transportation, promising
benefits across social, environmental, and economic spheres. Central to this transition is the sustainable
management of end-of-life batteries, which necessitates efficient recycling and reuse practices. While
significant progress has been made in understanding battery materials, disassembly processes, and risk
management, there’s a crucial need for holistic approaches that consider the entire lifecycle of batteries.
Transportation logistics, often overlooked, play a critical role in initiating the recycling process and
must be optimized to reduce costs and environmental impact. Additionally, ongoing research efforts
aim to enhance the efficiency, safety, and lifespan of lithium-ion cells, which form the backbone of EV
battery packs. However, challenges remain. Addressing these challenges requires collaboration across
industries, policymakers, and researchers to ensure a sustainable transition to electric mobility. By
prioritizing innovation, regulation, and stakeholder engagement, we can maximize the benefits of EV
adoption while minimizing its environmental footprint, paving the way toward a cleaner, greener future
for transportation.

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