Into Research Pro L1

COLLEGE OF AGRI.
AND NATURAL
SCIENCES
SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF STATISTICS
STA 399: RESEARCH METHODS

3 CREDIT COURSE
compiled by Dr Mrs. Irene Kafui Vorsah Amponsah 1
You are warmly welcome students!!!
 Introduction
 Lecturer’s name:
 Course outline: distribution and discussion
 Any other business:

compiled by I. K. Vorsah Amponsah 2
 Why are we interested in research?
 What is research?
 Key concepts and issues

Understanding research …
 help make informed decisions
 need to produce research in career
 evaluating research in the media, etc
 assist in classes work (at all levels)
 etc
What is research?
 Knowledge acquired
◦ through reasoning
◦ through intuition
◦ but most importantly through the use of
appropriate methods….
The Scientific Method
compiled by I. K.Vorsah Amponsah Polga and Thomas, 2013 5
Research definitions
 The main goal of research is the gathering and interpreting of
information to answer questions (Hyllegard, Mood, and
Morrow, 1996).
 Research is a systematic attempt to provide answers to
questions (Tuckman, 1999).
 Research may be defined as the systematic and objective
analysis and recording of controlled observations that may
lead to the development of generalizations, principles, or
theories, resulting in prediction and possible control of
events (Best and Kahn, 1998).
 Research is a systematic way of asking questions, a systematic
method of inquiry (Drew, Hardman, and Hart, 1996).

Characteristics of Research
1. Systematic – research process
2. Logical – induction/deduction
3. Empirical – evidence based
4. Reductive – generalisation
5. Replicable – methodology.
compiled by I.K.Vorsah Amponsah Uni. Of BATH 7
Development of Research Skills

 Learning how to conduct good research:
◦ New skills (that many people do not have)
◦ Better understanding and interpretation of
the literature
◦ Recognize new questions that need
investigation
 Objectivity is the key element of research
Review the Available

Literature
Publish Findings Formulate a

Question
Research Process
Interpret Findings Select an Appropriate
Research Design
Collect Relevant Data
Uni. Of BATH 9
B
Beliefs
Biases
A Perceptions
C
?
We all see
the world
differently
Truth non truth

compiled by I. K.Vorsah Amponsah Kumari Tilakaratne, 2014 10
Search for Truth

 Five sources of evidence in the pursuit
of truth:
1. Custom and tradition
2. Authority (academic, legal, institutional,)
3. Personal experience
4. Deductive/Inductive reasoning
5. Scientific inquiry
compiled by I. K.Vorsah Amponsah 11
Deductive Reasoning
 A.k.a., Logic.
◦ In deductive reasoning, thinking proceeds from general
assumption to specific application
◦ GENERAL  SPECIFIC
◦ Aristotle and other early philosophers
 Drawing conclusions through categorical syllogism.
 All philosophers are moral. Socrates is a philosopher. Therefore,
Socrates is moral.
 Resistance training makes one big and bulky by increasing body mass.
Sandi is resistance training. Therefore, Sandi will become big and
bulky.
◦ Not sufficient as a source of new truth
compiled by I.K. Vorsah Amponsah 12
Inductive Reasoning
 Conclusions about events (general) are
based on information generated through
many individual and direct observations
(specific).
◦ SPECIFIC  GENERAL
◦ Researchers observe an individual or group of
individuals from a larger population  based
on these observations, generalizations are
made back to the larger population.
compiled by I.K. Vorsah Amponsah 13
Inductive Reasoning
 Two kinds of induction:

◦ Perfect
 Conclusions based on observations made from ALL
members of a group or population
◦ Imperfect
 Conclusions based on observations made from a
random sample of members of a population
compiled by I.K.Vorsah Amponsah 14

Deductive vs. Inductive Reasoning
 Deductive:
◦ Every mammal has lungs. All rabbits are
mammals. Therefore, every rabbit has lungs.
 Inductive:
◦ Every rabbit that has been observed has lungs.
Therefore, every rabbit has lungs.

•Scientists face same problem:
sorting out the truth from non
truths.
•Solution: they devised a
methodical framework within
which to work called
The scientific method

compiled by I.K.Vorsah Amponsah Kumari, 2014 16
A scientist often credited with being the first
to employ the scientific method is Francesco
Redi, an Italian physician who lived from 1626
until 1697.
Scientific method requires :
intelligence,
imagination,
and creativity.
What is scientific method?
The scientific method is a tool that helps scientists

and the rest of us to solve problems and determine
answers to questions in a logical format.
It provides step-by-step, general directions to help
us work through problems.
compiled by I.K.Vorsah Amponsah Kumari, 2014

18
There are five steps to the scientific method
•Identify a problem.
•Research the problem.
•Formulate a hypothesis.
•Conduct an experiment.
•Reach a conclusion.
compiled by I.K.Vorsah Amponsah Kumari, 2014
19
Identifying the Problem
 First, and arguably the most important, step
◦ Starts as a broad question that must be narrowed
◦ Problem statement; experimental approach to the

problem; etc.

The Research Idea: sources

 Professional experience/practice
 Burning questions
 Literature
 Professional meetings
 Discussions
 Theoretical basis
 Personal experience
 Sheer curiosity

Identifying the Problem
 Three categories when selecting a
research problem
◦ Those who know precisely what they want
to do and have a well conceived problem
◦ Those who have many interest areas and
are having difficulty deciding exactly what
they want to study
◦ Those who do not have any idea about a
worthwhile research problem
compiled by I. K.Vorsah Amponsah 22
Philosophy of Graduate Education
 MENTORSHIP!
◦ Work with a professor/researcher that has
established a research agenda

Criteria for developing a good research
question
 Feasible
 Interesting
 Novel
 Ethical
 Relevant
 Cummings et al. 2001

Good research question?

 Feasible  Ethical
◦ Subjects ◦ Social or scientific value
◦ Resources ◦ Safe
◦ Manageable  Relevant
◦ Data available? ◦ Advance scientific
 Interesting knowledge?
 Novel ◦ Influence clinical practice?
◦ Impact health policy?
◦ In relation to previous
findings ◦ Guide future research?
 Confirm or refute?
◦ New setting, new
population
Types of Research Questions
 3 Types
◦ Descriptive questions
◦ Difference questions
◦ Relationship questions

Descriptive Questions
 Purpose:
◦ To describe phenomena or characteristics of
a particular group of subjects being studied
 Survey research
 Qualitative research

Weight management behaviors of African American female college
students.
July F, Hawthorne D, Elliot J, Robinson W.
Department of Nursing, Fayetteville State University, USA.
The prevalence of overweight and obesity among African American women is a

problem of significance, and one, which demands investigation through scientific
research. The purpose of this study was to determine the weight management;
behaviors among African American female college students. A descriptive correlational
study was conducted to answer this question. The results revealed that at least fifty
percent (50%) of these students exhibited behavior that could lead to obesity.

Difference Questions
 Purpose:
◦ To make comparisons between or within groups.
◦ Is there a difference?
 Experimental research
 Treatment vs. control
 Pre- vs. post-test comparisons
 Nonexperimental research
 Compare one group to another based on existing
characteristics
J Appl Physiol. 2000 Sep;89(3):1179-88.
Reduced strength after passive stretch of the human plantarflexors.
Fowles JR, Sale DG, MacDougall JD.
Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8S 4K1.
The purpose of this study was to assess strength performance after an acute bout of maximally tolerable
passive stretch (PS(max)) in human subjects. Ten young adults (6 men and 4 women) underwent 30 min of
cyclical PS(max) (13 stretches of 135 s each over 33 min) and a similar control period (Con) of no stretch of
the ankle plantarflexors. Measures of isometric strength (maximal voluntary contraction), with twitch
interpolation and electromyography, and twitch characteristics were assessed before (Pre), immediately after
(Post), and at 5, 15, 30, 45, and 60 min after PS(max) or Con. Compared with Pre, maximal voluntary
contraction was decreased at Post (28%) and at 5 (21%), 15 (13%), 30 (12%), 45 (10%), and 60 (9%) min after
PS(max) (P < 0.05). Motor unit activation and electromyogram were significantly depressed after PS(max) but
had recovered by 15 min. An additional testing trial confirmed that the torque-joint angle relation may have
been temporarily altered, but at Post only. These data indicate that prolonged stretching of a single muscle
decreases voluntary strength for up to 1 h after the stretch as a result of impaired activation and contractile
force in the early phase of deficit and by impaired contractile force throughout the entire period of deficit.

Relationship Questions
 Purpose
◦ To investigate the degree to which two or
more variables covary or are associated with
each other
 Rather than analyzing the differences between
groups, researchers characterize the relationships
among them.
 Extent to which variables are related
 Not to establish cause-and-effect

Am J Epidemiol. 1988 May;127(5):933-41.
Relation of cardiovascular fitness and physical activity to cardiovascular

disease risk factors in children and adults.
Sallis JF, Patterson TL, Buono MJ, Nader PR.
Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla.
The associations of physical activity and cardiovascular fitness with cardiovascular disease risk factors were
studied in 88 male adults, 180 female adults, 148 male children, and 142 female children. Subjects were families
recruited from elementary schools in San Diego, California. Fitness (VO2 max) was measured by a submaximal
cycle ergometer test. Physical activity was assessed by seven-day recall interview, yielding caloric expenditure, and
by a simple self-rating of activity level. Risk factors included blood pressure, high density lipoprotein (HDL)
cholesterol, the ratio of high density lipoproteins to low density lipoproteins (LDL), and body mass index. For all
subgroups, fitness was strongly and significantly correlated with virtually all risk factors. After adjustment for body
mass index, most fitness-risk factor associations were no longer significant. Seven-day caloric expenditure was
significantly correlated with HDL/LDL only in female adults and children. The activity rating was significantly
correlated with body mass index in all subgroups and with HDL/LDL in female adults and male adults. The simple
activity rating tended to be correlated with fitness. The pattern of association was similar for adults and children.

A Research Question Must Identify
1. The variables under study

2. The population being studied
3. The testability of the question

Variables
 variable…
◦ any observation that can take on different values
 attribute…
◦ a specific value on a variable

Examples
Variable Attribute
age

Examples
Variable Attribute
age 18, 19, 20, etc...

Examples
Variable Attribute
Gender or sex

Examples
Variable Attribute
Gender or sex Male, female

Examples
Variable Attribute
satisfaction

Examples
Variable Attribute
satisfaction 1 = very satisfied
2 = satisfied
3= somewhat satisfied
4 = not satisfied
5 = not satisfied at all

Types of Variables
 independent variable (IV)…

◦ what you (or nature) manipulates in some way
 dependent variable (DV)…
◦ what you presume to be influenced by the IV

Examples
IV DV
health status
attitude
exercise
participation
social support
intervention
Formulating a Hypothesis
 Hypothesis:
◦ A belief or prediction of the eventual outcome
of the research
◦ A concrete, specific statement about the
relationships between phenomena
◦ Based on deductive reasoning
◦ 2 types of hypotheses:
 Null hypothesis (HO)
 All is equal; no differences exist
 Alternative (research) hypothesis (HA)
 Usually specific and opposite to the null
Hypotheses
 hypothesis…
◦ a specific statement of prediction
 Comparing hypotheses
◦ alternative vs. null
◦ one-tailed vs. two-tailed

Hypotheses
 alternative hypothesis (HA)…

◦ An effect (that you predict)
 null hypothesis (HO) …
◦ Null effect

Hypotheses
hypothesis there is a relationship between age
and exercise participation
HA there is a relationship
HO there is not a relationship
this is a two-tailed hypothesis as no

direction is predicted
Hypotheses
hypothesis an incentive program will increase
exercise participation
HA participation will increase
HO participation will not increase or

will decrease
this is a one-tailed hypothesis as a

specific direction is predicted
Developing the Research Plan
 A strategy must be developed for gathering
and analyzing the information that is required
to test the hypotheses or answer the
research question
◦ Four parts:
 Selection of a relevant research methodology/Research
design
 Identification of subjects or participants
 Description of the data-gathering procedures
 Specification of the data analysis techniques
◦ Pilot studies, etc all must be determined in
advance!
Collecting and Analyzing the Data
 Following all the pre-determined
protocols
◦ Time in the lab collecting data
◦ Analyzing the composite data
◦ Controlling the environment
 Easiest part of the process…
◦ However, sometime the most time-consuming
part of the process…

Interpreting Results and Forming
Conclusions
 DATA ANALYSIS IS NOT AN END IN
ITSELF!
 Does the evidence support or refute the
original hypotheses?
◦ Accept or reject the hypotheses
◦ Conclusions should be drawn:
 Develop new hypotheses to explain the results
 Inferences are typically made beyond the specific
study
New Questions Arise
Question Identified
Results Interpreted Hypotheses Formed
Data Collected Research Plan
Closed-loop conceptualization of the research process (Drew, Hardman, and

Hart, 1996)
Theory vs. Hypothesis
 Hypothesis
◦ A belief or prediction of the eventual outcome of the
research
◦ A concrete, specific statement about the relationships
between phenomena
◦ Based on deductive reasoning
 Theory
◦ A belief or assumption about how things relate to each
other
◦ A theory establishes a cause-and-effect relationship
between variables with a purpose of explaining and
predicting phenomena
◦ Based on inductive reasoning
Hypotheses
In an ideal Theories
world…
Laws
Summary of SM
Scientific method

you're faced with the problem Identify a problem.
of not being able to read
because your pen torch
doesn't work, and you're not
happy about it.
You think back to the last
Research the problem.
time your pen torch didn't
work, and you remember
e
that it was because of worn-
x
out batteries.
a
m You guess that worn-out Formulate a hypothesis.
p batteries is the reason your
l pen torch isn't working
e now, so you get some new
Conduct an experiment.
batteries from the drawer
next to your bed and
replace the ones in your pen
torch.
Oh! Your pen torch works. Reach a conclusion.

Basic Elements of the Scientific Method
 Empiricism: the notion that enquiry is
conducted through observation and
knowledge verified through evidence
 Determinism: the notion that events occur
according to regular laws and causes. The
goal of research is to discover these
 Scepticism: the notion that any proposition is
open to analysis and critique
PolgarThomas, 56
compiled by I.K.Vorsah Amponsah
Characteristics of Scientific Method
 objective
 precise
 verifiable
 parsimonious
 empirical
 logical
 probabilistic

Methodology and Method are often (incorrectly)

used interchangeable
• Methodology – the study of the general

approach to inquiry in a given field
• Method – the specific techniques, tools or
procedures applied to achieve a given objective
– Research methods in economics include regression
analysis, mathematical analysis, operations research,
surveys, data gathering, etc.
Methodology/Method
 While these are different they are
interdependent ( in the same way as
science and research are related)
 The methodology requires the knowledge

of a good research design.

Research Design
 A research design is a systematic approach
that a researcher uses to conduct a scientific
study. It is the overall synchronization of
identified components and data resulting in a
plausible outcome. To conclusively come up
with an authentic and accurate result,
the research design should follow a
strategic methodology, in line with the
type of research chosen. To have a better
understanding of which research paper
topic to begin with, it is imperative to first
identify the types of research.

Research Design
 Research design L1.docx

Research Classifications
 Group 1
◦ Basic research
◦ Applied research
 Group 2
◦ Quantitative research
◦ Qualitative research
 Group 3
◦ Experimental research
◦ Nonexperimental research compiled by I.K.Vorsah Amponsah 62
Basic vs. Applied Research

 Basic  Applied
◦ Pure, fundamental ◦ Central purpose to
research solve an immediate
problem
◦ Discovery of new
◦ Improved products or
knowledge; theoretical processes
in nature
◦ Infers beyond the
◦ Takes many years for group or situation
the results of basic studied
research to find some ◦ Interpretation of
practical utility results relies upon
Basic research
Experimental vs. Nonexperimental
 Experimental  Nonexperimental
◦ IVs and DVs
1. Causal-comparative
◦ Cause-and-effect
◦ Extraneous variable 2. Descriptive
controls 3. Correlational
◦ 3 fundamental 4. Historical
characteristics
1. At least 1 active IV
2. Extraneous var
controls
3. Observation of the
DV response to the
IV
Steps to Experimental Research
1. Identifying the research question or problem
area
2. Initial review of literature
3. Distilling the question to a specific research
problem
4. Continued review of literature
5. Formulation of hypotheses
6. Determining the basic research approach
7. Identifying the population and sample
Steps to Experimental Research

8. Designing data collection plan
9. Selecting or developing specific data collection
instruments or procedures
10. Choosing the method of data analysis
11. Implementing the research plan
12. Preparing the research report

Into Research Pro L1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Into Research Pro L1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

COLLEGE OF AGRI.

SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES

STA 399: RESEARCH METHODS

You are warmly welcome students!!!

 Course outline: distribution and discussion

 Any other business:

 Why are we interested in research?

 Key concepts and issues

compiled by I. K. Vorsah Amponsah 3

 help make informed decisions

 need to produce research in career

 evaluating research in the media, etc

 assist in classes work (at all levels)

compiled by I. K. Vorsah Amponsah 6

1. Systematic – research process

3. Empirical – evidence based

Development of Research Skills

Review the Available

Publish Findings Formulate a

Collect Relevant Data

Truth non truth

Search for Truth

 Two kinds of induction:

compiled by I.K.Vorsah Amponsah 14

Deductive vs. Inductive Reasoning

compiled by I.K.Vorsah Amponsah 15

The scientific method

What is scientific method?

The scientific method is a tool that helps scientists

compiled by I.K.Vorsah Amponsah Kumari, 2014

There are five steps to the scientific method

Identifying the Problem

 First, and arguably the most important, step

◦ Starts as a broad question that must be narrowed

◦ Problem statement; experimental approach to the

compiled by I.K.Vorsah Amponsah 20

The Research Idea: sources

compiled by I.K.Vorsah Amponsah 21

Philosophy of Graduate Education

compiled by I.K.Vorsah Amponsah 23

 Cummings et al. 2001

compiled by I.K.Vorsah Amponsah 24

Good research question?

Types of Research Questions

compiled by I.K.Vorsah Amponsah 26

compiled by I.K.Vorsah Amponsah 27

July F, Hawthorne D, Elliot J, Robinson W.

Department of Nursing, Fayetteville State University, USA.

The prevalence of overweight and obesity among African American women is a

compiled by I.K.Vorsah Amponsah 28

Reduced strength after passive stretch of the human plantarflexors.

Fowles JR, Sale DG, MacDougall JD.

Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8S 4K1.

compiled by I.K.Vorsah Amponsah 30

compiled by I.K.Vorsah Amponsah 31

Relation of cardiovascular fitness and physical activity to cardiovascular

Sallis JF, Patterson TL, Buono MJ, Nader PR.

Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla.

compiled by I.K.Vorsah Amponsah 32

A Research Question Must Identify

1. The variables under study

compiled by I.K.Vorsah Amponsah 33

compiled by I.K.Vorsah Amponsah 34