IET Generation, Transmission & Distribution

Research Article

ISSN 1751-8687
Decentralised wide-area fractional order Received on 2nd June 2015
Revised on 20th October 2015
damping controller for a large-scale Accepted on 25th October 2015
doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2015.0747
power system www.ietdl.org

Rajaa Vikhram Yohanandhan ✉, Latha Srinivasan

Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Thiagarajar College of Engineering, Tirupparankundram, Madurai – 625015, Tamil Nadu, India
✉ E-mail: rajaavikhram@yahoo.co.in

Abstract: This study presents the design of wide-area fractional order damping controller for low frequency inter-area
oscillations in Western Electricity Coordinating Council (WECC) system. The developed wide-area damping control
scheme is implemented in a decentralised manner by examining the entire system through decentralised identification
at the level of each generator bus and FACTS devices in large-scale system. The decentralised identification is done by
applying n4sid (Subspace State Space System Identification) algorithm to the time-domain simulated response of
WECC system. The main features of the proposed approach are: (a) measurement-based control which does not
require complete model of WECC; (b) minimise the communicating signals required for damping controller and
incorporate practical method of time-delay compensator (TDC) design to reduce the effect of time-varying delay. The
performance of wide-area control (WAC) scheme is tested on the practical WECC system and verified by non-linear
time-domain simulation. The proposed decentralised WAC scheme is compared with local and centralised control
scheme, which enhances the damping of inter-area oscillation effectively compared to local control scheme and more
reliable compared to centralised control scheme and its robustness is verified over a wide-range of operating conditions.

Vref, Pref, Qref reference voltage in p.u., reference

Nomenclature real Power in p.u., reference reactive
power in p.u.
A, B, C system matrix, input matrix, output Vabc(inj) phasors of injected voltages in p.u.
matrix of overall system ‘S’ WADC wide-area damping controller
BC British Columbia WAPA Western area power administration
G, L generation rich areas, load rich areas
GPS Global Positioning System
HSV Hankel Singular Value
Iabc(sh) phasor currents flowing into the Shunt 1 Introduction
converter in p.u.
IDDATA Sink Export Identification (Simulated Power system is a non-linear, large-scale interconnected system
Input and Output) Data from which is more stressed day-by-day to meet its load demand. Due
time-domain simulation response of to large amount of power transfer in weak tie-lines with
WECC system to MATLAB inadequate controlling devices, it exhibits a low-frequency
workspace (by System Identification inter-area oscillation, which is a major concern to the power
Toolbox in MATLAB) system stability [1]. If the inter-area oscillations are not well
LADWP Los Angeles Department of Water damped, it will lead to system blackout as occurred in Western
and Power Electricity Coordinating Council (WECC) system on July 2nd,
LMI linear matrix inequality 3rd 1996, August 10th 1996, August 4th 2000 and August 14th
MSV minimum singular value 2003 in Eastern USA [2]. The conventional approach of power
ns number of interconnected subsystem oscillation damping (POD) is done by installing the PSS [3],
PTie-MW tie-line power flow in MW other controlling devices like FACTS, HVDC and Wind farms
parfor execute loop iterations in parallel with supplementary damping controller are also capable to
PG&E Pacific Gas and Electric Company perform well in damping inter-area oscillations [4–8]. WAMS and
RGA relative gain array wide-area control (WAC) acts together which utilises the
RHP-Zeros right-half plane zeros controlling devices simultaneously to damp inter-area oscillations.
SIDGEN System identification of generator Therefore multiple damping controllers are utilised to make the
subsystem wide-area damping control as an effective tool to maintain the
SIDSVC System identification of SVC stability and security of a large-scale interconnected system by
subsystem damping multiple inter-area modes [4, 9–12]. Centralised
SIDSTATCOM System identification of STATCOM wide-area damping controller is designed using PSS based on
subsystem linear matrix inequality (LMI) approach [3], Dual Youla
SIDVUPFC, system identification of UPFC Parameterisation technique [11], Reinforcement learning [13] and
SIDPUPFC, SIDQUPFC (voltage control, real power control, for FACTS devices using the Bang–Bang modulation technique
reactive power control) subsystem [4], Fuzzy logic control technique [5], LMI technique [6],
SoCalif southern California inversion technique [14] and for HVDC using modal linear
Ts sampling time quadratic Gaussian technique [9] to damp critical inter-area

IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2016, Vol. 10, Iss. 5, pp. 1164–1178
1164 & The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016
oscillations. The POD using power converters of variable-speed
wind farms and wide-area POD controller implemented through
coordination of multiple variable speed–wind energy conversion
system with power system devices such as FACTS and
Synchronous generators to damp low-frequency oscillation modes
by centralised coordinating control is also performed in [7, 8].
Time-delay in WAC will degrade the performance of the
controller and even makes the system unstable; therefore it is
necessary to consider time-delay in centralised wide-area
controller design using PSS [15, 16], FACTS devices [5, 6] and
Wind farms [7] for effective damping of power oscillations and
also robustness to time-delay effects.
The application of the n4sid technique is used to estimate the
multi-input multi-output (MIMO) open-loop model of the power
system for centrally coordinating controller design is performed
[17]. Subspace State Space System Identification (n4sid) algorithm
is used to derive the linearised model for POD control
(multi-input, single output) through HVDC is discussed in [18].
The input and output signal of n4sid is the set of measurements
derived out by probing the system through HVDC link. The type
of probing signal and its characteristic have been seen to have a
major factor in the accuracy of results. The application of subspace
identification (SSI) is also used for online identification of
inter-area modes for adaptive WAC scheme, which requires more
computation facility and time. The effect of time-delay in damping
control is considered in the wide-area signal transmission as
150–250 ms respectively, which is not a practical time-delay value
[19]. The supplementary Fractional order damping controller is
designed by GAPSO algorithm for optimal controller parameters
to damp inter-area oscillations and tested in New-England 39-bus
system [20]. The model-based method is adopted to design the
damping controller and the results shows that, damping and
stability performance is improved compared to conventional PID
controller. The supplementary Fractional order damping controller
is designed for FACTS (TCSC) controller using PSO algorithm,
which is also a model based method tested in Single Machine
Infinite Bus system [21].
From the past research works, some important observations are
made, regarding WAC for power oscillation damping. WAC
design needs the complete mathematical model of the power
system. Deriving models for large-scale interconnected system is
tedious and inaccurate (all dominant inter-area modes are not
present in the model, particularly for complex system such as
WECC) and impractical for WAC design [17]. The proposed
WAC in past research works are also implemented in a
centralised manner. Therefore it is necessary to deal with
measurement based WAC for large-scale interconnected power
system [22] which offers the best performance, when applied to
the time synchronised data from WAMS through GPS and
independent of the size, complexity and structure of the power
system [23–25]. With the continuous expansion of the modern
power system, the design of single Centralised coordinating
controller [17–19] for damping inter-area oscillations are chance
to failure and no other sources to control the system, which
leads to system unstable and also the cost of implementing
centralised controller is very high, this motivates to develop a
decentralised control for power system which is more attractive
than centralised control.
Inspired by the past research works, this paper proposed the
design of wide-area fractional order damping controller for
inter-area oscillations in large-scale interconnected system
(WECC) by decentralised SSI approach (measurement-based
model identification method). The decentralised control of power
system is developed using WAMS, in which the input and
output signals of each generator (without aggregation) and
FACTS devices are measured in open-loop condition (excluding
wide-area damping controller (WADC)), and then D-n4sid
algorithm is applied over the WAMS ambient data. Each
subsystem (Generator and FACTS devices) are identified as a
SISO model. SVC and STATCOM are identified as a SISO
model and the supplementary controller acts through voltage
modulation only. For UPFC subsystem, three controllers are
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2016, Vol. 10, Iss. 5, pp. 1164–1178
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016
designed for real power control, reactive power control and
voltage control as a SISO controller. Therefore MIMO approach
is not used in this work. The main advantage of using n4sid
identification technique is non-iterative, data-driven approach
(avoids computation of covariances), applied to time-domain
response of randomly excited loads which actually occurs in
normal power system, does not require large disturbances or
probing signal to estimate the linear model by
measurement-based system identification [18]. Now the generator
and FACTS model is identified as a SISO subsystem and the
oscillation characteristics of each SISO subsystem will be in the
range of 0.1 to 0.8 Hz which represents the electromechanical
oscillation behaviour of the system. For each identified
subsystem (Generator and FACTS devices), PSS and
supplementary WADC are designed, whereas the structure of
PSS and WADC is FOPID controller. The main feature of
fractional order PID (FOPID) compared to integer order PID
controller is unique isodamping property which enhances the
system performance by improving robustness against system
uncertainties [20, 26]. The PSS and external WADC parameters
are tuned by PSO with parallel computing features. Hence, the
overall interconnected system is identified, constructed and
controlled in decentralised manner, thus the stability and security
of the system is guaranteed. The stabilisation of inter-area
oscillation is done by modulating the control signal input to the
generator excitation through PSS and reference point of the
FACTS devices through external damping controller
simultaneously, under various disturbances occurring in the
system. The robustness of the developed WAC scheme is
verified through various contingency scenarios. The proposed
decentralised wide-area damping control scheme (decentralised
supplementary controller (DSC)) is compared with local
supplementary controller (LSC) and centralised supplementary
controller (CSC). The reported results shows that DSC performs
better than LSC and comparable performance to CSC with
reduced communicating signals requirement and subsystem
autonomy is enhanced which increases the reliability of the
control scheme.
The contribution of this paper is summarised as follows:
(a) Decentralised SSI (D-n4sid) method is applied successfully for a
large-scale power system (WECC) to design wide-area FOPID
damping controller for inter-area oscillations.
(b) Three types of FACTS devices are considered and their
performance of supplementary damping controller is compared for
damping inter-area oscillations.
(c) Automatic selection of subsystem model order is implemented to
ensure accurate system identification.
(d) Measurement based control is used, which does not require
complex mathematical model of the WECC system.
(e) The practical time-varying delay (600 ms constant delay + 100
ms time-varying delay) occurring in power system is considered
for time-delay compensator. Using SimEvents, time-varying delay
is calculated by time-stamped information and then the time-delay
compensator is designed.
2 Mathematical formulation of WAC scheme
The mathematical formulation of developed WAC scheme for
large-scale interconnected system (WECC) is analysed with the
help of Fig. 1. Each generator and FACTS devices are
considered as a subsystem. Each subsystem has a local
dynamics of Aj, Ak, Al, Af and interconnection dynamics of Ajl
between two generator subsystem and Af l between generator and
FACTS subsystem. The components are considered as Exciter,
Hydraulic Turbine Governor and PSS. The interconnection
dynamics between component to component is described as Lcd
and component to subsystem is described as Qjd and Qje,
respectively. The local and WAC (two-level control) acts on
generator and FACTS devices through PSS and FOPID
controller with time-delay compensator.
1165
Fig. 1 Variables, component and subsystem interconnection in large-scale interconnected system

2.1 Large-scale system (WECC) constitutes where the function gj: T × R nj → R nj represents the dynamics of Sj and
interconnected subsystems the function hj: T × R nj → R nj represents the interconnection of Sj
with neighbour subsystem in system S.
Let us consider a Large Scale system (LSS) described by linear
time-invariant system
2.2 Subsystem and components interconnection
S: ẋ(t ) = Ax(t ) + Bu(t), x(0) = x0 (1)
A subsystem constitutes an interconnection of components. Each
y(t ) = Cx(t ) (2) subsystem Sj is an interconnection of Mj components which is
given as
where x(t) ∈ R n is the overall state vector, u(t) ∈ R m is the control
input and y(t) ∈ R p is the overall output vector of S. The system S    
to be composed of ns interconnected subsystems, i.e. Sj : ẋ jk = P jk t, x jk + q jk t, xj , k [ Mj (6)

ns

ns
Sj : ẋj (t ) = Aj xj (t ) + Bj uj (t ) + A jk xk (t ) + B jk uk (t ) (3) where Pjk: R × R nj,k → R nj,k is the component function representing as
k=1,j=k k=1
 


ns
C jk = P jk t, x jk , k [ Mj , (7)
y j (t ) = C jk xk (t ) (4)
k=1, j=k

and qjk: R × R nj → R njk is the interconnection function, where M =

where xj (t) ∈ R nj, uj (t) ∈ R mj, yj (t) ∈ R lj are the state, input and output {1, 2, …, Mj}.
of the subsystem Sj and ns = {1, 2, … ns} then the partition of state The LSS in (1) can also expressed as
vector x(t) into sub vectors xj (t), j = 1, … ns yields (3) and (4), where
the matrices B, C have been partitioned into blocks Bjk and Cjk, j = 1,
… ns ,k = 1, … ns according to the partition of x(t), u(t) and y(t). The S: ẋ = f (t, x; E, L) (8)
matrices Aj and Ajk represent the local subsystem dynamics and the
interconnection dynamics between jth and kth subsystems,
and its subsystem can be in the form
respectively. Equation (3) can be written as
   
Sj : ẋj = gj t, xj + hj (t, x), j [ ns (5) Sj : ẋj = gj t, xj ; Lj + hj (t, x; E ), j [ ns (9)

IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2016, Vol. 10, Iss. 5, pp. 1164–1178
1166 & The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016
When E(t) ≡ 0, the subsystem
 
Sj : ẋj = gj t, x; Lj , j [ ns
are decoupled from other subsystems.
The interconnection functions h(t, x) among the components have
the form
   
j
q jk t, x; Lj ; q jk t, lk1 j
x j1 , lk2 j
x j2 , . . . lkm x jm
where lklj : R  [0, 1] are the elements of the Mj × Mj matrix.
The nominal structure of the LSS(S) is described by the
interconnection among the components in each subsystems Sj is
j
represented by the component interconnection matrix Lj = (lkl ),
j
where lkl quantifies the individual interconnection of components
Cjk in subsystem Sj with respect to the nominal interconnection
strength.
The interconnection functions h(t, x) among the subsystem is
represented as
 
hj (t, x) = hj t, e j1 x1 , e j2 x2 , . . . e jN xN , i[N
where the binary numbers e jk are elements of the N × N fundamental
interconnection matrix E. 
The matrix E is the standard occurrence (interconnection) matrix:
e jk = 1 if Sk acts on Sj, (or) e jk = 0 if Sk does not acts on Sj. In
applications, e jk = 1 if there is a physical interconnection from Sj
to Sk and e jk = 0 otherwise. Thus, two levels of interconnection
structure are represented for LSS(S). The first level interconnection
matrix L  = diag{L 2 , . . . , L
1 , L N } represents the interconnection
structure of the components in LSS(S) and the second level
interconnection matrix E  represents the interconnection among the
subsystems. In order to establish the interconnected stability of
LSS(S), it is assumed that each component Cjk in the subsystem is
stable and then constructing the subsystem performance index in a
decentralised manner for determining the overall system(S)
interconnected stability.
2.3 Decentralised SSI of a large-scale interconnected
system
The global system S is an interconnection of ns number of local
subsystems Sj, with each subsystem is represented by S

ẋj (t) = A j,j xj (t) + E j,j−1 x j−1 (t ) + E j,j+1 x j+1 (t ) + Bj uj (t )
Sj
yj (t ) = Cj xj (t ) + nj (t )
where xj (t) ∈ R n is the state of the local subsystem Sj, xj−1(t) ∈ R n and
xj+1(t) ∈ R n are the states of the neighbouring local subsystems Sj−1
and Sj+1, respectively, yj (t) ∈ R r is the local output, uj (t) ∈ R m is the
local input and nj (t) ∈ R r is the local measurement noise. After the
identification of ns local subsystems using decentralised subspace
state-space system identification (D-n4sid), it constitutes the global
state space model of large-scale interconnected system(S).
 delay) and among the subsystems (interconnection delay),
ẋ(t ) = Ax(t ) + Bu(t)
S (14)
y(t ) = Cx(t ) + n(t )
where the vector x(t) is the global state consisting of the local states
xj,k(t). Similarly, the vectors u(t), y(t), n(t) are the global input,
global output and global measurement noise, respectively.
2.4 Local control, wide-area (global) control and
performance index for each subsystem
Decentralised control lay on stabilising each subsystem by local
control signal and then stabilising the inter-connected closed-loop
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2016, Vol. 10, Iss. 5, pp. 1164–1178
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016
subsystems by the WAC signal. The local control signal act as a
first level of control and wide-area signal is given as an additional
input to the subsystem for global coordination. The WAC signal is
(10)
appended with decentralised control to enhance the dominance of
subsystems stability by reducing the effect of interconnections and
interactions between the subsystems.
Let us consider the subsystem represented in (3) which is
controlled by local control and global control
(11)

N
Sj : xj = Aj xj + Bj ulj + A jk xk + Gj uwj , j[N (15)
j=1
where ulj (t) [ Rmi , uwj (t) [ Rli are the local control signal input and
WAC signal inputs of Sj. By applying controls ulj and uwj to
subsystem Sj (i.e.)
uj (t) = ulj (t) + uwj (t) (16)
the closed-loop subsystem with interconnection matrix is obtained as


N
(12) Sj : ẋj = Aj xj + e jk D jk xk , j[N (17)
k=1
Any variation in the strength of the effective interconnections Δ jk,
implies a corresponding variation in the WAC signal. The
large-scale interconnected system (S) is decentrally stabilisable, if
and only if the controllers exist such that the individual subsystem
and interconnected overall system are simultaneously
asymptotically stable (decentrally connectively stable). FOPID
controller is designed for each subsystem (PSS for generator and
supplementary WADC for FACTS devices) using PSO, with the
performance index of minimising Integral Time Absolute Error.
2.5 Time delay in large-scale interconnected system
When delay occurred in wide-area signal feedback to the controller,
the performance of the large-scale interconnected system will be
degraded (or) malfunctioning of components will occur (or)
different from its actual operation will be happen in each
subsystem through interconnection. Let us again consider ns
interconnected subsystems Sj with delay and the model of the jth
subsystem is
 
ẋj (t ) = Aj xj (t ) + Adj xj t − tj (t) + Bj uj (t )


ns  
(13)
+ E jk xk t − h jk (t ) + Gj wj (t ) (18)
k=1,k=j
 
yj (t ) = Cj xj (t ) + Cdj xj t − tj (t) (19)
where j ∈ (1, …, ns), xj (t) ∈ R nj is the state vector, uj (t) ∈ R mj is
the control input, wj (t) ∈ R qj is the disturbance input and tj, ηjk, j,
k ∈ {1, …, ns} are time delay factors. The term Adj xj (t − tj (t)),
Ejk xk(t − ηjk(t)) represents the delay within the subsystem (local
respectively.
2.6 Decentralised wide-area damping controller design
for inter-area oscillations in large-scale interconnected
system
For each generator subsystem and FACTS subsystem identified
model through measurement data, PSS damping controller and
supplementary WADC is tuned using PSO. The local control
signal and suitable WAC signal is applied to the controller of each
subsystem decentrally and also decentralised control for each
subsystem is independent of another subsystem. In centralised
1167
controller, it is possible to identify an inter-area mode from two
remote areas with the help of real time sensing of the network.
When the inter-area is detected by real-time monitoring, centralised
controller make a direct signals to excitation system of each
generator and reference signal of FACTS devices to regulate its
input, so that satisfactory operation of the AC system is maintained.
However, centralised controller requires the complex mathematical
model of the system, to calculate the control signal and to maintain
the coordination to damp the particular inter-area mode. It also
needs complete topology information of the large-scale system
before designing the centralised controller. In case of decentralised
Fig. 2 One-line diagram of WECC 179 – bus test system
1168
control, each subsystem with its local control signal can able to
damp only the local mode of oscillations. For inter-area mode
damping, the control devices are placed based on the controllability
analysis related to the inter-area modes of WECC system, which is
previously calculated in off-line mode. So that four FACTS devices
location are selected as inter-area tie-lines. With the help of
observability analysis, the signal which is mostly affected by
inter-area oscillations are selected and given as an input to the
supplementary damping controller of FACTS devices. Since angles
and real power signals are directly depend on the steady-state
equilibrium point, whereas speed difference of the generator gives
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2016, Vol. 10, Iss. 5, pp. 1164–1178
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016
a high observability of the modes and also independent of the
operating point, is selected as a supplementary damping controller
signal. Similar to centralised control, coordination occurs in
decentralised control also, by direct coordination and indirect
coordination. In direct coordination, rotor speed difference signal
as an input to supplementary FACTS damping controller which is
independent of the system state; therefore it combines the four
FACTS controllable devices to coordinately damp the modes. It is
assumed that, PMU is installed in each generator bus to identify
the generator subsystem model. Based on the subsystem model
identified, PSS is designed with the local control signal (Δω –
speed deviation). Therefore an indirect coordination occurs
between the decentralised controllers through time synchronisation
of the PMUs with the help of GPS, thereby the global behaviour of
the system is identified using local signals. Thus, the direct and
indirect coordination in decentralised control helps to identify the
inter-area mode from any two remote areas.
3 WECC 179-bus test system
The equivalent WECC 179-bus system is shown in Fig. 2, to
demonstrate the developed WAC scheme and the details of the
system are available in [27]. WECC consists of 11 control areas
and for the sake of simplicity, these control areas are grouped into
three main areas, namely North, West and Central. Both North and
Central areas are exporting power to the West area.
About 3000 MW of power is delivered through the tie-lines
between Oregon and California from North to West which consists
of three 500-kV transmission lines. WECC system exhibits four
main inter-area modes [28]:
† North-South (NS) Mode A @0.25 Hz (varies from 0.2 Hz to 0.25
Hz) – Northern half of WECC (G) system swinging against Southern
half of WECC (L) system – Controllable and Observable from
Alberta area (Canada).
† NS Mode B @0.4 Hz (varies from 0.35 to 0.4 Hz) – Alberta area
swinging against British Columbia (BC) and Northern USA (G)
which in turn swings against the Southern part of USA (L) –
Controllable and Observable are widespread.
† BC Mode @0.6 Hz – swinging against the rest of the system –
Controllable and Observable are localised.
† Montana Mode @0.8 Hz – swinging against the rest of the system
– Controllable and Observable are localised.
Four FACTS devices are embedded into WECC system in the
mid-point of tie-line between Canada and North-West (NW), NW
and Montana, NW and PG&E, SoCalif and Arizona for damping
both local and inter-area modes. With only the main controller of
FACTS devices, the power flow control is effective, but damping
control is ineffective. The main objective is to design the
Fig. 3 IDDATA block connected to generator subsystem and FACTS device subsystem
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2016, Vol. 10, Iss. 5, pp. 1164–1178
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016
supplementary damping controller of FACTS devices to increase
the damping of inter-area modes.
4 Wide-area damping controller design procedure
The following steps summarises the proposed wide-area damping
control scheme with the help of Supporting diagram (Integrated
Diagram of Decentralised Wide-Area Damping Control scheme in
Western Electricity Coordinating Council (WECC) – 179Bus
System).
Step I: With the help of Matlab/Simulink, the detailed model of
WECC – 179 bus test system is constructed with the given
operating condition. All the 29 generators are equipped with PSS
with speed deviation as a local control signal input. The validation
of the WECC system (modelled in Simulink) is carried out with
load flow of [27]. Generators are Salient-pole type modelled in the
dq rotor reference frame, Loads are constant PQ type and FACTS
devices are three-phase phasor model type.
Step II: FACTS devices are embedded into the system with only the
main controller in service (excluding WADC).
Step III: The white noise (noise power = 0.015) is injected into all the
load buses in West region (load rich area) to create a practical load
disturbance scenario which exhibit dominant inter-area modes.
Now the system is set to operate in ambient condition. The
IDDATA SINK block is connected to each generator and FACTS
devices as shown in Fig. 3.
The subsystem model (for example in SVC and STATCOM) is
identified by Vref as input and PTie_MW as output. It can be also
identified with Vref as input and corresponding Delta_ω as output,
but the fitting accuracy for Vref/PTie_MW is more than Vref/Delta_ω.
Therefore SVC and STATCOM model is identified by Vref as
input and PTie_MW as output signal, rather than Vref/Delta_ω. For
both generator and FACTS subsystem the input and output signals
are selected based on fitting accuracy for n4sid identification method.
Step IV: The system is simulated for 10 Minutes duration (block
processing method). When the simulation starts, the IDDATA
SINK block starts storing the input and output signal of each
Generator and FACTS devices at a sampling time of 0.1 s. Two
main inter-area modes (0.25 & 0.4 Hz) of WECC system are
exhibited and detected (0.26 & 0.32 Hz) in the three major tie-line
power flows under ambient condition as shown in Fig. 4. The NW
to PG&E and NW to Canada mode energy is very high compared
to NW to Montana mode.
Step V: Now the WAMS will apply the D-n4sid algorithm as shown
in Fig. 5a to the measurement data (IDDATA SINK block) of
generator and FACTS devices obtained from WECC system in
ambient condition. Each generator and FACTS device is a
subsystem, which is identified decentrally and the best model
order is automatically selected in the range of 1–50th order based
1169

Fig. 4 Inter-area modes of WECC under ambient condition
Fig. 5 Decentralised subsystem model identification using D-n4sid
a Decentralised Subspace State-Space System Identification algorithm
b SVC and STATCOM at tie-line 6–7 is identified by D-n4sid
1170
upon the fitting accuracy. The Matlab script given in Fig. 5a for
automatic selection of model order in the range of 1 to 50th order
based on fitting accuracy. As shown in Fig. 5b, based upon the
highest fitting accuracy, the best model order for SVC is 8th order
and STATCOM is 9th order, thus the identified model exactly
matches the measurement data.
Step VI: Two main operations are performed in WAC centre –
wide-area signal selection and PSS & External damping controller
parameter optimisation.
Step VII: For each identified subsystem (Generator and FACTS)
model, PSS and supplementary FACTS damping controller are
designed, by optimising its parameters using PSO algorithm with
parallel computing feature ( parfor) for faster computation of
FOPID controller parameters as shown in Fig. 6.
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2016, Vol. 10, Iss. 5, pp. 1164–1178
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016
Fig. 6 Structure of FOPID controller and its Optimisation process using PSO

Fig. 7 Time-delay compensator design using SimEvents in Matlab

IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2016, Vol. 10, Iss. 5, pp. 1164–1178
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016 1171
Fig. 8 Disturbances applied to time-domain simulation of WECC system
Step VIII: Wide-area signal selection for PSS and FACTS damping
controller is performed by the first level of controllability/
observability analysis [29] and second level by MSV, RHP-zeros,
RGA and HSV methods. The difference between generator bus
frequency and reference generator (G13) bus frequency is given as
the wide-area signal input to PSS. The wide-area signal selection
for FACTS devices are given in Appendix.
Step IX:
(i) Time-delay compensator (TDC) is designed using SimEvents in
Matlab as shown in Fig. 7. After the suitable wide-area signal are
Fig. 9 Comparison between LSC and proposed DSC
a Inter-area oscillation between NW & Canada with disturbances applied
b Inter-area oscillation between NW & PG&E with disturbances applied
1172
selected, the start timer is placed at where the signal is acquired
and read timer is placed at the reference point of the excitation of
generator & FACTS devices. Therefore the magnitude of
time-varying delay in seconds (communication delay) is
calculated. Time-series plot of wide-area signal time-stamped at
the sending end, receiving end and its corresponding time-varying
delay, average delay is shown in TDC window.
(ii) TDC block consists of a lead-lag compensator and its parameters
are available in [29]. From [29] a one-dimensional (1D) adaptive
Look up Table (LUT) is formed. For the given time delay input in
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2016, Vol. 10, Iss. 5, pp. 1164–1178
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016
Fig. 10 Comparison between LSC and proposed DSC
a Inter-area oscillation (NW & Canada) of WECC system, when time-varying delay applied
b Time-varying delay compensated signal to the wide-area signal input of PSS and external damping controller of FACTS devices with disturbances
c Inter-area oscillation (NW & PG&E) of WECC system, when time-varying delay applied
d Time-varying delay compensated signal to the wide-area signal input of PSS and external damping controller of FACTS devices with disturbances

IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2016, Vol. 10, Iss. 5, pp. 1164–1178
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016 1173
Fig. 11 Power spectral density estimate of tie-line power flow in NW to Canada (line 6–7), NW to Montana (9–40) and NW to PG&E (34–135) for
a Contingency applied
b Time-varying delay applied to wide-area signal
c Time-varying delay compensated wide-area signal
seconds, the output of the LUT is a gain (KWADC). LUT is formed for
the time-delay in the range of 0.01–0.7 s with the interval of 0.01 s
by Curve Fitting Toolbox with interpolation/extrapolation function.
(iii) The switch has three position (A, B & C). ‘A’, ‘C’ input ports are
Data ports and ‘B’ input port is the Control port. If the time-delay
(from read timer) is greater than zero, which is sensed by Control
port ‘B’ and make the switch position in ‘A’. Therefore the
time-delay magnitude information signal is passed to the 1D
adaptive LUT, and then the output of LUT will be the gain value
adjustment of TDC. If the delay is zero (td = 0) then the Control
port ‘B’ will makes the switch position in ‘C’, therefore the TDC
is bypassed. Now the wide-area signal is directly passed to the
respective generator PSS (or) FACTS external damping controller.
Step X: The performance of developed wide-area damping control
scheme is verified by closed-loop non-linear time-domain
simulation under various operating conditions.
5 Results and discussions
The developed measurement based decentralised wide-area damping
control scheme is implemented in WECC –179 bus system with
various disturbance scenario as shown in Fig. 8.
The proposed DSC is compared with LSC and CSC as shown in
Figs. 9–11. The results of two inter-area oscillation behavior (due to
journal length policy) (Rotor speed difference) between NW &
1174
Canada and NW & PG&E is presented. These two main inter-area
modes of WECC system are responsible for cause of instability
which leads to system blackout.
From Figs. 9a and b the time scale of t = 0 s to 4.9 s shows the
oscillatory response due to machine initialisation and our interest
is to analyse the time-scale response from t = 5–30 s for which
the disturbances are applied sequentially and finally to attain the
steady – state condition for different cases. Table 1 shows the
order of damping performance by different controller for particular
inter-area mode in each case. For example in case (a) three-phase
fault at t = 5 s, for local control signal input to PSS the rotor speed
difference between NW & Canada is oscillating and sustained for
long period (∼7.5 s) from the instant of fault with increasing in
magnitude and for other two inter-area oscillation modes, i.e. NW
& Montana, NW & PG&E, the magnitude of oscillation is reduced
with longer settling time. On comparing with proposed
decentralised wide-area signal input of PSS, SVC, STATCOM and
UPFC, UPFC with supplementary damping controller performs
better in damping of NW to Canada inter-area mode by reducing
the sustainability of oscillations to 2.5 s from the instant of fault.
Next to UPFC, STATCOM performs better in damping of
inter-area mode and finally for local control signal input to PSS
which makes the inter-area mode unstable. Therefore for case (a),
damping of three inter-area modes is effective by proposed DSC
when compared to LSC which is directly inferred from rotor-speed
difference plot.
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2016, Vol. 10, Iss. 5, pp. 1164–1178
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016
Table 1 Performance comparison of damping controllers for each damping three inter-area modes is shown in Figs. 10b and d. From
inter-area mode under different contingencies (LSC vs DSC) Figs. 10b and d it is inferred that, the damping of inter-area rotor
contingency applied speed difference is better than uncompensated time-varying delay
case – a (three-phase NW to UPFC, STATCOM, SVC, Wide-area case in Figs. 10a and c but inappreciable degraded performance
fault) Canada signal(G), Local signal(G)(Unstable) when compared to without delay as shown in Figs. 9a and b.
NW to UPFC, STATCOM, Wide-area signal From Table 1 for time-varying delay compensated case; it is
Montana (G), SVC, Local signal(G)(Stable)
NW to PG UPFC, STATCOM, Wide-area signal
inferred that UPFC with external damping controller performs
&E (G), SVC, Local signal(G)(Stable) better than PSS with wide-area signal input. Therefore it is
case – b (line outage) NW to UPFC, Wide-area signal(G), concluded that UPFC with external damping controller performs
Canada STATCOM, SVC, Local signal(G) better damping of two inter-area modes compared to PSS with
(Unstable)
NW to UPFC, Wide-area signal(G), wide-area signal input, but it requires the time-delay compensator.
Montana STATCOM, SVC, Local signal(G) The frequency domain analysis of WECC inter-area modes is
(Stable) performed by FFT analysis of real power flow in inter-area
NW to PG wide-area signal(G), UPFC, tie-lines through the Pwelch method. It considers the problem of
&E STATCOM, SVC, Local signal(G)
(Stable)
determining the spectral content (i.e. power present at each
case – c (generator NW to wide-area signal(G), UPFC, particular frequency) of a time series from a finite set of
outage) Canada STATCOM, SVC, Local signal(G) measurements. The Welch power spectral density estimate of two
(Stable) inter-area tie-line (lines 6–7 and 34–135) power flow for three
NW to wide-area signal(G), UPFC,
Montana STATCOM, SVC, Local signal(G)
cases (contingency applied, time-varying delay applied and
(Stable) time-delay compensation case) is shown in Fig. 11. Mode energy
NW to PG wide-area signal(G), UPFC, (y-axis) and excitation of frequency range (x-axis) are the two
&E STATCOM, SVC, Local signal(G) important characteristics of Welch spectrum. The frequency
(Stable)
case – d (increase of NW to UPFC, STATCOM, Wide-area signal
domain analysis is performed on a recorded time-domain data of
load) Canada (G), SVC, Local signal(G)(Unstable) the WECC system, for a period of 35 s with five contingencies are
NW to UPFC, STATCOM, Wide-area signal considered. All the three cases are compared with ambient
Montana (G), SVC, Local signal(G)(Stable) condition and the mode energy in ambient condition (numerical
NW to PG UPFC, STATCOM, Wide-area signal
&E (G), SVC, Local signal(G)(Stable)
value of y-axis) is shown in each case of Fig. 10.
case – e (WACy) NW to wide-area signal(G), UPFC, For case (a) with contingency applied, NW–Canada mode energy
Canada STATCOM, SVC, Local signal(G) is increased for both SVC and STATCOM supplementary damping
(Unstable) controller (118 db/rad/sample) compared to ambient condition
NW to wide-area signal(G), UPFC, SVC,
Montana STATCOM, Local signal(G)(Stable) (106.6 db/rad/sample), UPFC, PSS with local and WAS input.
NW to PG wide-area signal(G), UPFC, SVC, However, PSS with local and wide-area signal input, excites
&E STATCOM, Local signal(G)(Stable) inter-area frequency range more than UPFC. Therefore UPFC
time-varying delay NW to wide-area signal(G), STATCOM, performs better in damping of NW–Canada mode compared to
applied Canada SVC, UPFC
NW to wide-area signal(G), SVC,UPFC,
other controllers and also UPFC damping performance is better in
Montana STATCOM the NW–PG&E mode. For time-varying delay case (b), NW–
NW to PG wide-area signal(G), SVC,UPFC, Canada mode energy is increased for all the four types of
&E STATCOM controller compared to ambient condition except the NW–PG&E
time-varying delay NW to UPFC, Wide-area signal(G), SVC,
compensated Canada STATCOM mode. For the NW–Canada mode, excitation of inter-area
NW to UPFC, STATCOM, Wide-area signal frequency range throughout 0.1 to 1 Hz is occurred which is
Montana (G), SVC higher than ambient condition, therefore time-varying delay
NW to PG UPFC, STATCOM, Wide-area signal compensator is needed. For time-varying delay compensated case
&E (G), SVC
(c), NW–Canada mode energy is increased only for STATCOM
controller when compared to ambient condition, whereas PSS with
WAS input, SVC and UPFC performances are similar, but its
In order to check the performance of developed wide-area damping performance is better when compared to the STATCOM
damping control scheme with time-delay disturbance scenario, a controller. For the NW–PG&E mode, the mode energy is
time-varying delay is applied to the wide-area signal input of increased only for the STATCOM controller when compared to
generator PSS and FACTS devices simultaneously. However, ambient condition, but PSS with WAS input performs better than
delay will not occur in local control signal input. Therefore a SVC and UPFC controller.
maximum time-varying delay of 700 ms (constant time-delay = The performance of DSC is also compared with CSC for various
600 ms, time-varying delay = 100 ms) is applied. The basis for disturbances and the response of two inter-area modes is shown in
selecting time-varying delay parameter in WAC signal is depends Figs. 12a and b. It is inferred that, DSC performance is
on PMU calculation, Communication system loading and comparable (similar) to CSC. It is necessary to compare the
wide-area supplementary damping controller calculation. This reliability of DSC and CSC for this large-scale system. Therefore,
maximum delay reflects the actual time-delay occurring in six subsystems (G19, G85, G148, G61, G178 and G92) are
practical power system [30]. disconnected for 10 ms at t = 5 s as shown in Figs. 12c, and d, the
The inter-area oscillation responses with delayed wide-area performance of CSC is slightly degraded compared to DSC. This
signal feedback to the damping controller for five contingency confirms that the proposed DSC maintains the autonomy of each
cases are shown in Figs. 10a and c. From the response it is subsystem and inter-area oscillations are damped out effectively
inferred that, for the four damping controller with delayed compared to CSC. Thus, the non-linear time-domain simulation
wide-area signal feedback, the magnitude of rotor speed results confirm the robust performance of developed decentralised
difference (inter-area oscillation) is very high which leads to WAC scheme compared to local and centralised damping control
excite other inter-area modes. From Table 1 for time-varying scheme for damping inter-area oscillations in WECC system for
delay applied case; the magnitude of oscillation are minimum for various disturbances applied.
Generator PSS with delayed wide-area signal input, compared to
FACTS with delayed wide-area signal input, and the effect will
be severe in generator side control if the time-varying delay is not 6 Conclusions
compensated further.
Therefore time-varying delay compensated wide-area signal from To deal with the complexity and high dimensionality of modern
TDC as shown in Fig. 7 is given as input to PSS and external power system structure and also to improve the dynamic
damping controller of FACTS devices and its performance on performance of the system, this paper presented a D-n4sid

IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2016, Vol. 10, Iss. 5, pp. 1164–1178
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016 1175
Fig. 12 Comparison between proposed decentralised supplementary controller (DSC) and centralised supplementary controller (CSC)
a, b Inter-area oscillation (rotor speed difference) between NW & Canada and NW & PG&E with disturbances applied
c, d Inter-area oscillation of WECC system, when six subsystems (G19, G85, G148, G61, G178 and G92) are disconnected at t = 5 s for 10 ms to verify the reliability of the system
algorithm based wide-area damping control scheme for a large-scale
interconnected system. Each generator & FACTS devices are
considered as a subsystem, identified by D-n4sid algorithm.
FOPID controller is designed by offline using PSO with parallel
computing feature for each subsystem. The performance of
developed decentralised wide-area damping control scheme (DSC)
is verified through non-linear time-domain simulations which
shows that the damping is improved by reducing the sustainable
period of oscillations; stability of the system is enhanced and
remains stable for large-scale disturbances. Multiple time-varying
delays are considered in the wide-area signal input to PSS and
external damping controller of FACTS devices, which shows that
the damping is deteriorated without TDC. The TDC is designed
by practical time-stamping technique using SimEvents which
confirms that damping is improved with TDC. The proposed DSC
is compared with LSC and CSC, which shows that DSC is better
than LSC and comparable with CSC with less communication
signal requirements, subsystem autonomy and damping of
inter-area oscillations are enhanced and ensures prevention of
blackouts.
The main advantages of the proposed wide-area damping control
scheme for LSS is: (i) Decentralised identification and controller
design for each subsystem needs only the input and output
disturbance measurement data for each subsystem. (ii) No need for
the complex mathematical model for the WECC system. The
interconnection structure also preserved. (iii) The damping of
inter-area oscillation in the WECC system which does not excite
other inter-area modes, particularly for wide-area contingency. (iv)
A practical approach of TDC is designed using time-stamping
technique for LSS which does not require Pade approximation for
modelling the delay. (v) Co-simulation for wide-area damping
control scheme is performed.
7 Acknowledgments
This research work is supported and funded by the EMR Division
under HRD Group of Council of Scientific & Industrial Research
(CSIR) Fellowship (Ref.No.08/237(0007)/2012 – EMR – I). The
1176
authors would like to thank the Management and Principal of
Thiagarajar College of Engineering for their consistent
encouragement and providing with necessary facilities to carry out
this research work and also like to thank the Department of
Electrical and Electronics Engineering of Thiagarajar College of
Engineering for their support and facilities rendered for this work.
8 References
1 Klein, M., Rogers, G.J., Kundur, P.: ‘A fundamental study of inter-area oscillations
in power systems’, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., 1991, 6, (3), pp. 914–921
2 Andersson, G., Donalek, P., Farmer, R., et al.: ‘Causes of the 2003 major grid
blackouts in North America and Europe, and recommended means to improve
system dynamic performance’, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., 2005, 20, (4),
pp. 1922–1928
3 Yang, Z., Bose, A.: ‘Design of wide-area damping controllers for interarea
oscillations’, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., 2008, 23, (3), pp. 1136–1143
4 Huy, N.-D., Dessaint, L.A., Okou, A.F., et al.: ‘A power oscillation damping
control scheme based on bang-bang modulation of FACTS signals’, IEEE Trans.
Power Syst., 2010, 25, (4), pp. 1918–1927
5 Mokhtari, M., Aminifar, F., Nazarpour, D., et al.: ‘Wide-area power oscillation
damping with a fuzzy controller compensating the continuous communication
delays’, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., 2013, 28, (2), pp. 1997–2005
6 Yao, W., Jiang, L., Wen, J., et al.: ‘Wide-area damping controller of FACTS
devices for inter-area oscillations considering communication time delays’, IEEE
Trans. Power Syst., 2014, 29, (1), pp. 318–329
7 Leon, A.E., Mauricio, J.M., Gomez-Exposito, A., et al.: ‘Hierarchical wide-area
control of power systems including wind farms and FACTS for short-term
frequency regulation’, IEEE Trans. Power Sys., 2012, 27, (4), pp. 2084–2092
8 Leon, A.E., Solsona, J.A.: ‘Power oscillation damping improvement by adding
multiple wind farms to wide-area coordinating controls’, IEEE Trans. Power
Sys., 2014, 29, (3), pp. 1356–1364
9 Preece, R., Milanovic, J.V., Alumutairi, A.M., et al.: ‘Damping of inter-area
oscillations in mixed AC/DC networks using WAMS based supplementary
controller’, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., 2013, 28, (2), pp. 1160–1169
10 Junbo, Z., Chung, C.Y., Shuqing, Z., et al.: ‘Practical wide area damping controller
design based on ambient signal analysis’, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., 2013, 28, (2),
pp. 1687–1696
11 Ma, J., Wang, T., Wang, S., et al.: ‘Application of dual Youla parameterization
based adaptive wide-area damping control for power system oscillations’, IEEE
Trans. Power Syst., 2014, 29, (4), pp. 1602–1610
12 Ma, J., Wang, T., Wang, Z., et al.: ‘Adaptive damping control of inter-area
oscillations based on federated Kalman filter using wide area signals’, IEEE
Trans. Power Syst., 2013, 28, (2), pp. 1627–1635
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2016, Vol. 10, Iss. 5, pp. 1164–1178
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016
13 Hadidi, R., Jeyasurya, B.: ‘Reinforcement learning based real-time wide-area 22 Bevrani, H., Watanabe, M., Mitani, Y.: ‘Power system monitoring and control’
stabilizing control agents to enhance power system stability’, IEEE Trans. Smart (John Wiley & Sons, New Jersey, 2014)
Grid, 2013, 4, (1), pp. 489–497 23 Haber, A., Verhaegen, M.: ‘Subspace identification of large-scale interconnected
14 Chakrabortty, A.: ‘Wide-area damping control of power systems using dynamic systems’, IEEE Trans. Autom. Control., 2014, 59, (10), pp. 2754–2759
clustering and TCSC-based redesigns’, IEEE Trans. Smart Grid, 2012, 3, (3), 24 Siljak, D.D.: ‘Decentralized control of complex systems’ (Dover, Boston, 2012)
pp. 1503–1514 25 Mohammadpour, J., Grigoriadis, M.K.: ‘Efficient modeling and control of
15 Dotta, D., e Silva, A.S., Decker, I.C.: ‘Wide-area measurements-based two-level large-scale systems’ (Springer, New York, 2010)
control design considering signal transmission delay’, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., 26 Podlubny, I.: ‘Fractional-order systems and pildμ – controllers’, IEEE Trans.
2009, 24, (1), pp. 208–216 Autom. Control., 1999, 44, (1), pp. 208–214
16 Yao, W., Jiang, L., Wen, J., et al.: ‘Wide-area damping controller for power system 27 Khatib, A.R.A.: ‘Internet-based wide area measurement applications in deregulated
interarea oscillations: a networked predictive control approach’, IEEE Trans. power systems’. Ph.D. thesis, Virginia Polytechnic & State University, 2002
Control Syst. Tech., 2015, 23, (1), pp. 27–36 28 Trudnowski, D., Kosterev, D., Undrill, J.J.: ‘PDCI damping control analysis for the
17 Eriksson, R., Sodder, L.: ‘Wide-area measurement system-based subspace western North American power system’. Power and Energy Society General
identification for obtaining linear models to centrally coordinate controllable Meeting, 2013
devices’, IEEE Trans. Power Deliv., 2011, 26, (2), pp. 988–997 29 Yang, B., Sun, Y.: ‘Damping factor based delay margin for wide area signals in
18 Pipelzadeh, Y., Chaudhuri, B., Green, T.C.: ‘Wide-area power oscillation damping power system damping control’, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., 2013, 28, (3),
control through HVDC: a case study on Australian equivalent system’. Power and pp. 3501–3502
Energy Society General Meeting, 2010 30 Mokhtari, M., Aminifar, F.: ‘Toward wide-area oscillation control through
19 Zhang, P., Yang, D.Y., Chan, K.W., et al.: ‘Adaptive wide-area damping control doubly-fed induction generator wind farms’, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., 2014, 29,
scheme with stochastic subspace identification and signal time delay (9), pp. 2985–2992
compensation’, IET Gen. Trans. Distrib., 2011, 6, (9), pp. 844–852
20 Zhao, Y., Gao, Y., Hu, Z., et al.: ‘Damping inter area oscillations of power systems
by a fractional order PID controller’. Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. on Energy and 9 Appendix
Environment Technology, 2009
21 Bamasak, M.S., Bensenouci, A.: ‘Tuning of fractional order PID controller for
TCSC-based stabilizer using PSO for power system oscillation damping’. Proc. (See Table 2)
of the IEEE Int. Conf. on Energy (ENERGYCON), 2014 (See next page for the Figure)

Table 2 Wide-area signal & external damping controller parameters of FACTS devices
FACTS location Type of FACTS device and its External FOPID damping controller parameters (Kp, Ki, l, Kd, μ)
wide-area input signal

FACTS 1 – Tie-line (6–7)-Canada–NW (ω1–ω5) SVC (10, 4.8941, 0.1, 0.44418, 0.1)
STATCOM (10,8.1971,0.1,1,0.1)
UPFC(V,P,Q) (2.0537,0.28338,0.079699,1,0.7006),
(2.5251,0.1,0.094261,0.69747,0.90669),
(1.2117,2.3544,0.001,1,1).
FACTS 2 – Tie-line (9–40)-NW–Montana (ω8–ω42) SVC (9.3838,10,0.001,1,0.1)
STATCOM (0.37558,0.1,0.1,0.5087,0.82246)
UPFC(V,P,Q) (3.9219,0.11184,0.001,0.60048,1),
(0.1,1.8812,0.081393,0.86773,0.4095),
(2.3235,2.0297,0.067312,0.54255,0.67876).
FACTS 3 – Tie-line (34-135)-NW–PG&E (ω103–ω165) SVC (9.2704,5.0052,0.059185,0.64827,0.10433)
STATCOM (3.7638,0.1,0.1,0.65523,0.62159)
UPFC(V,P,Q) (10,8.7703,0.1,0.1,0.76887),
(3.4366,0.1,0.073156,0.49434,0.53026),
(0.18134,1.5979,0.001,0.1,0.54135).
FACTS 4 – Tie-line (91-80)-Socalif–Arizona (ω103–ω81) SVC (8.9182,8.0046,0.1,0.34938,0.1)
STATCOM (10,10,0.019798,0.89082,1)
UPFC(V,P,Q) (0.1,2.0404,0.001,0.89722,1),
(10,7.5223,0.042246,0.26688,0.1),
(10,8.9192,0.1,0.49106,1).

IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2016, Vol. 10, Iss. 5, pp. 1164–1178
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016 1177
 IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2016, Vol. 10, Iss. 5, pp. 1164–1178
1178 & The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016