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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HISTORY OF

LITERARY CRITICISM IN THE RENAISSANCE ***
 Transcriber's Notes

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A HISTORY OF LITERARY
CRITICISM IN THE
RENAISSANCE

Columbia University
 STUDIES IN LITERATURE

Columbia University
STUDIES IN LITERATURE

A HISTORY OF LITERARY
CRITICISM IN THE
RENAISSANCE: With Special
Reference to the Influence of
Italy in the Formation and
Development of Modern
Classicism. By Joel Elias
Spingarn.
In Press:
ROMANCES OF ROGUERY: An
Episode in the Development of
the Modern Novel, Part I. The
Picaresque Novel in Spain. By
Frank Wadleigh Chandler.
SPANISH LITERATURE IN
ENGLAND UNDER THE
TUDORS. By John Garrett
Underhill.
 ***Other numbers of this series
will be issued from time to time,
containing the results of literary
research, or criticism by the
students or officers of Columbia
University, or others associated
with them in study, under the
authorization of the Department
of Literature, George Edward
Woodberry and Brander Matthews,
Professors.

A HISTORY
OF

LITERARY CRITICISM
IN THE RENAISSANCE

WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE INFLUENCE OF

ITALY IN THE FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT
OF MODERN CLASSICISM
BY
 JOEL ELIAS SPINGARN

New York
PUBLISHED FOR THE COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS BY
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd.
1899
All rights reserved

Copyright, 1899,
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.

Norwood Press
J. S. Cushing & Co.—Berwick & Smith
Norwood Mass. U.S.A.
 PREFACE
This essay undertakes to treat the history of literary criticism in the
Renaissance. The three sections into which the essay is divided are
devoted, respectively, to Italian criticism from Dante to Tasso, to
French criticism from Du Bellay to Boileau, and to English criticism
from Ascham to Milton; but the critical activity of the sixteenth
century has been the main theme, and the earlier or later literature
has received treatment only in so far as it serves to explain the
causes or consequences of the critical development of this central
period. It was at this epoch that modern criticism began, and that
the ancient ideals of art seemed once more to sway the minds of
men; so that the history of sixteenth-century criticism must of
necessity include a study of the beginnings of critical activity in
modern Europe and of the gradual introduction of the Aristotelian
canons into modern literature.
This study has been made subservient, more particularly, to two
specific purposes. While the critical activity of the period is important
and even interesting in itself, it has been here studied primarily for
the purpose of tracing the origin and causes of the classic spirit in
modern letters and of discovering the sources of the rules and
theories embodied in the neo-classic literature of the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries. How did the classic spirit arise? Whence
did it come, and how did it develop? What was the origin of the
principles and precepts of neo-classicism? These are some of the
questions I have attempted to answer in this essay; and, in
answering them, I have tried to remember that this is a history, not
of critical literature, but of literary criticism. For this reason I have
given to individual books and authors less prominence than some of
them perhaps deserved, and have confined myself almost exclusively
to the origin of principles, theories, and rules, and to the general
temper of classicism. For a similar reason I have been obliged to say
little or nothing of the methods and results of applied, or concrete,
criticism.
This, then, has been the main design of the essay; but
furthermore, as is indicated in the title, I have attempted to point
out the part played by Italy in the growth of this neo-classic spirit
and in the formulation of these neo-classic principles. The influence
of the Italian Renaissance in the development of modern science,
philosophy, art, and creative literature has been for a long time the
subject of much study. It has been my more modest task to trace
the indebtedness of the modern world to Italy in the domain of
literary criticism; and I trust that I have shown the Renaissance
influence to be as great in this as in the other realms of study. The
birth of modern criticism was due to the critical activity of Italian
humanism; and it is in sixteenth-century Italy that we shall find,
more or less matured, the general spirit and even the specific
principles of French classicism. The second half of the design, then,
is the history of the Italian influence in literary criticism; and with
Milton, the last of the humanists in England, the essay naturally
closes. But we shall find, I think, that the influence of the Italian
Renaissance in the domain of literary criticism was not even then all
decayed, and that Lessing and Shelley, to mention no others, were
the legitimate inheritors of the Italian tradition.
This essay was submitted to the Faculty of Philosophy, Columbia
University, in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy. The bibliography at the end of the essay
indicates sufficiently my obligations to preceding writers. It has been
prepared chiefly for the purpose of facilitating reference to works
cited in the text and in the foot-notes, and should be consulted for
the full titles of books therein mentioned; it makes no pretence of
being a complete bibliography of the subject. It will be seen that the
history of Italian criticism in the sixteenth century has received
scarcely any attention from modern scholars. In regard to Aristotle's
Poetics, I have used the text, and in general followed the
interpretation, given in Professor S. H. Butcher's Aristotle's Theory of
Poetry and Fine Art, a noble monument of scholarship vivified by
literary feeling. I desire also to express my obligations to Professor
Butcher for an abstract of Zabarella, to Mr. P. O. Skinner of Harvard
for an analysis of Capriano, to my friend, Mr. F. W. Chandler, for
summaries of several early English rhetorical treatises, and to
Professor Cavalier Speranza for a few corrections; also to my friends,
Mr. J. G. Underhill, Mr. Lewis Einstein, and Mr. H. A. Uterhart, and to
my brother, Mr. A. B. Spingarn, for incidental assistance of some
importance.
But, above all, I desire to acknowledge my indebtedness to
Professor George E. Woodberry. This book is the fruit of his
instruction; and in writing it, also, I have had recourse to him for
assistance and criticism. Without the aid so kindly accorded by him,
the book could hardly have been written, and certainly would never
have assumed its present form. But my obligations to him are not
limited to the subject or contents of the present essay. Through a
period of five years the inspiration derived from his instruction and
encouragement has been so great as to preclude the possibility of its
expression in a preface. Quare habe tibi quidquid hoc libelli.
New York,
March, 1899.
 CONTENTS
PART FIRST
LITERARY CRITICISM IN ITALY
PAGE

I. The Fundamental Problem of Renaissance Criticism

i. Mediæval Conceptions of Poetry. 3
ii. The Moral Justification of Poetry.
iii. The Final Justification of Poetry.

II. The General Theory of Poetry in the Italian

Renaissance 24
i. Poetry as a Form of Scholastic
Philosophy.
ii. Poetry as an Imitation of Life.
iii. The Function of Poetry.

III. The Theory of the Drama 60

i. The Subject of Tragedy.
ii. The Function of Tragedy.
iii. The Characters of Tragedy.
iv. The Dramatic Unities.
v. Comedy.

IV. The Theory of Epic Poetry 107

i. The Theory of the Epic Poem.
ii. Epic and Romance.

V. The Growth of the Classic Spirit in Italian

Criticism 125
i. Humanism.
ii. Aristotelianism.
 iii. Rationalism.

VI. Romantic Elements in Italian Criticism 155

i. The Ancient Romantic Element.
ii. Mediæval Elements.
iii. Modern Elements.

PART SECOND
LITERARY CRITICISM IN FRANCE

I. The Character and Development of French

Criticism in the Sixteenth Century 171
i. Character.
ii. Development.

II. The Theory of Poetry in the French Renaissance

i. The Poetic Art. 190
ii. The Drama.
iii. Heroic Poetry.

III. Classic and Romantic Elements in French

Criticism
during the Sixteenth Century 214
i. Classical Elements.
ii. Romantic Elements.

IV. The Formation of the Classic Ideal in The

Seventeenth Century 232
i. The Romantic Revolt.
ii. The Reaction against the Pléiade.
iii. The Second Influx of Italian
Ideas.
iv. The Influence of Rationalistic
Philosophy.

PART THIRD
 LITERARY CRITICISM IN ENGLAND

I. The Evolution of English Criticism From Ascham

to Milton 253

II. The General Theory of Poetry in the Elizabethan

Age 261

III. The Theory of Dramatic and Heroic Poetry 282

i. Tragedy.
ii. Comedy.
iii. The Dramatic Unities.
iv. Epic Poetry.

IV. Classical Elements in Elizabethan Criticism 296

i. Introductory: Romantic Elements.
ii. Classical Metres.
iii. Other Evidences of Classicism.

Appendices 312
A. Chronological Table of the Chief
Critical Works of the Sixteenth
Century.
B. Salviati's Account of the
Commentators on Aristotle's
Poetics.

Bibliography 317

Index 325
 Part First
LITERARY CRITICISM IN ITALY
LITERARY CRITICISM IN ITALY
 CHAPTER I
THE FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEM OF RENAISSANCE
CRITICISM

The first problem of Renaissance criticism was the justification of

imaginative literature. The existence and continuity of the æsthetic
consciousness, and perhaps, in a less degree, of the critical faculty,
throughout the Middle Ages, can hardly be denied; yet distrust of
literature was keenest among the very class of men in whom the
critical faculty might be presupposed, and it was as the handmaid of
philosophy, and most of all as the vassal of theology, that poetry was
chiefly valued. In other words, the criteria by which imaginative
literature was judged during the Middle Ages were not literary
criteria. Poetry was disregarded or contemned, or was valued if at all
for virtues that least belong to it. The Renaissance was thus
confronted with the necessity of justifying its appreciation of the vast
body of literature which the Revival of Learning had recovered for
the modern world; and the function of Renaissance criticism was to
reëstablish the æsthetic foundations of literature, to reaffirm the
eternal lesson of Hellenic culture, and to restore once and for all the
element of beauty to its rightful place in human life and in the world
of art.

I. Mediæval Conceptions of Poetry

The mediæval distrust of literature was the result of several

coöperating causes. Popular literature had fallen into decay, and in
its contemporary form was beneath serious consideration. Classical
literature was unfortunately pagan, and was moreover but
imperfectly known. The mediæval Church from its earliest stages
had regarded pagan culture with suspicion, and had come to look
upon the development of popular literature as antagonistic to its
own supremacy. But beyond this, the distrust of literature went
deeper, and was grounded upon certain theoretical and fundamental
objections to all the works of the imagination.
These theoretical objections were in nowise new to the Middle
Ages. They had been stated in antiquity with much more directness
and philosophical efficacy than was possible in the mediæval period.
Plato had tried imaginative literature by the criteria of reality and
morality, both of which are unæsthetic criteria, although
fundamentally applicable to poetry. In respect to reality, he had
shown that poetry is three removes from the truth, being but the
imitation, by the artist, of the imitation, in life, of an idea in the mind
of God. In respect to morality, he had discovered in Homer, the
greatest of poets, deviations from truth, blasphemy against the
gods, and obscenity of various sorts. Furthermore, he had found that
creative literature excites the emotions more than does actual life,
and stirs up ignoble passions which were better restrained.
These ideas ran throughout the Middle Ages, and indeed persisted
even beyond the Renaissance. Poetry was judged by these same
criteria, but it was natural that mediæval writers should substitute
more practical reasons for the metaphysical arguments of Plato.
According to the criterion of reality, it was urged that poetry in its
very essence is untrue, that at bottom it is fiction, and therefore
false. Thus Tertullian said that "the Author of truth hates all the
false; He regards as adultery all that is unreal.... He never will
approve pretended loves, and wraths, and groans, and tears;"[1] and
he affirmed that in place of these pagan works there was in the
Bible and the Fathers, a vast body of Christian literature and that this
is "not fabulous, but true, not tricks of art, but plain realities."[2]
According to the criterion of morality, it was urged that as few works
of the imagination were entirely free from obscenity and blasphemy,
such blemishes are inseparable from the poetic art; and accordingly,
Isidore of Seville says that a Christian is forbidden to read the
figments of the poets, "quia per oblectamenta inanium fabularum
mentem excitant ad incentiva libidinum."[3]
 The third, or psychological objection, made by Plato, was similarly
emphasized. Thus Tertullian pointed out that while God has enjoined
us to deal calmly and gently and quietly with the Holy Spirit,
literature, and especially dramatic literature, leads to spiritual
agitation.[4] This point seemed to the mediæval mind fundamental,
for in real beauty, as Thomas Aquinas insisted, desire is quieted.[5]
Furthermore, it was shown that the only body of literary work
worthy of serious study dealt with pagan divinities and with religious
practices which were in direct antagonism to Christianity. Other
objections, also, were incidentally alluded to by mediæval writers.
For example, it was said, the supreme question in all matters of life
is the question of conduct, and it was not apparent in what manner
poetry conduces to action. Poetry has no practical use; it rather
enervates men than urges them to the call of duty; and above all,
there are more profitable occupations in which the righteous man
may be engaged.
These objections to literature are not characteristically mediæval.
They have sprung up in every period of the world's history, and
especially recur in all ages in which ascetic or theological
conceptions of life are dominant. They were stock questions of the
Greek schools, and there are extant treatises by Maximus of Tyre
and others on the problem whether or not Plato was justified in
expelling Homer from his ideal commonwealth. The same objections
prevailed beyond the Renaissance; and they were urged in Italy by
Savonarola, in Germany by Cornelius Agrippa, in England by Gosson
and Prynne, and in France by Bossuet and other ecclesiastics.

II. The Moral Justification of Poetry

The allegorical method of interpreting literature was the result of

the mediæval attempt to answer the objections just stated. This
method owed its origin to the mode of interpreting the popular
mythology first employed by the Sophists and more thoroughly by
the later Stoics. Such heroes as Hercules and Theseus, instead of
being mere brute conquerors of monsters and giants, were regarded