1st Crusade

Thursday, 2 March 2023 11:44 am

Crusader Leadership
Muslim Disunity
Help from Byzantium

The Situation in Western Europe

- The Role of the Church
→ The medieval church was an all powerful, international institution: Europe was bound by its rules, popes and bishops anointed kings
and doom paintings reminded individuals what awaited for sinners in the afterlife
→ Unexplained phenomena were explained through miracles and society worked as they knew their place under God
→ Holy Roman Empire
▪ The position of the Holy Roman Emperor emerged from the time of Charlemagne, Charles the Magnificent, King of the Franks
and the formation of France and Germany in the 9th Century
▪ He styled himself as a Roman Emperor, and with the support of the Pope, added 'Holy' to the title
▪ Despite the HRE splitting into France and Germany, Germany still insisted on using the title of 'Holy Roman Emperor', but this
needed papal support
→ Relationship between pope and the nobility of Europe
▪ The relationship between the pope and nobility of Europe was important
▪ Church appointments (investitures) were the responsibility of the church, but the right to appoint to lucrative posts was often
sold to the ruling nobility (Simony), although this was against canon law
▪ Simony have the nobility much needed income but also gave second sons careers in the Church to secure a future
▪ Church appointments were thus controlled by the nobility and resemble stocks and shares today (since an income fee was
given to the Church through tithes)
- Rising Influence of the Papacy
→ Medieval thinkers saw power split between 'spiritual' power and 'earthly' power
→ Pope was the spiritual leader of Western Christendom - he made decisions on matters of religion and what was acceptable in the
Catholic Church
→ However, it was unclear if the Pope had 'earthly' power - which is the right to tell a king what to do, intervene with kings on the
running of kingdoms
→ Link to the HRE
▪ Since the HRE's title came with Popish permission, it was unclear if the HRE was subject to the demands of the pope?
▪ 1056 Investiture Contest - Time when nobles in the HRE were becoming keen to assert independence from the Emperor - a 6
year old Henry IV inherited the throne, spending his reign fighting for his title and maintain control over nobles - His biggest
fight was against the Pope, trying to maintain control in the Investiture Contest
- The Church Reform Movement
→ 1056 Investiture Contest
▪ The controversy developed over whether or not the nobility had the right to appoint individuals to church positions
(Investiture)
▪ Church Reformers seized the opportunity of there being a 6 year old Henry IV to take back the power of investiture to church
positions from the nobility - This resulted in the creation of the College of Cardinals, a system to elect new popes
→ Henry IV's Response and excommunication
▪ Henry IV, once matured, continued to appoint his own bishops
▪ 1073 Pope excommunicated Henry IV, since Pope had the support of the barons in the HRE (since they wanted a weaker
emperor so they could seize royal holdings and build forts), Pope also had support from the Normans of Sicily, which were
highly useful
→ 1073 Walk to Canossa
▪ Due to the Normans of Sicily response and issues with disloyalty from barons within the HRE, Henry IV had to back down
▪ Henry IV then was absolved, forced to wear a hair shirt and stand in the snow barefoot in the middle of winter for 3 days a
penance, until the Pope absolved him
▪ The Investiture Contest shows that after decades of secular rulers investing and making money from Church appointments, the
popes of the late 11th Century were becoming more powerful
→ 1084 Backlash
▪ In late 1084, The Pope was under pressure from the leaders of the people of Rome who disapproved of his Norman allies'
methods in fighting Henry IV
▪ This meant by Spring 1084 Rome was in carnage, forcing Gregory to escape with the help of the Normans whilst Clement III
was trying to make himself the anti-pope
▪ Pope Gregory Dies in 1085
→ Impact of Gregory's Death
▪ Following his death, Abbot Desiderius is persuaded to leave his monastery at Monte Cassino to become Pope Victor III
▪ 4 Days after his installation, riots broke out in Rome - 10 months later he was consecrated in Rome, lasted another month, fled
back to Monte Cassino and died two months later
→ Emergence of Urban II

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 → Emergence of Urban II
▪ After the events of Victor III's failure as Pope, Urban II would emerge as a successor
▪ He was a true Gregorian Reformer - A realist and recognised he would need Normal support to help in asserting his position as
Pope
▪ It took Urban II 6 years to reach Rome, once he did, he opened diplomatic relations with the Byzantine Emperor, Alexius
Komnenus
→ Conclusion
▪ Due to successive popes using army's to instil their beliefs on people, such as Gregory with the Normans in the HRE and Urban
II with the Normans to legitimise his rule
▪ There was an establishing of the idea that there was an army controlled by the Pope
▪ This shows the Popes becoming stronger and asserting itself above the power of the Kings

The Situation in Islamic Near East

- Muslim Expansion
→ Following the death of the Prophet Muhammad, Islam split into two
→ Sunni - Asserted Caliphs should be democratically elected, since the first four caliphs were
→ Shia - Asserted that while caliphs could be democratically elected, only descendants of the Prophet should be Imams
→ By 1095, the two branches of Islam had control of vast swathes of land in the Near East
- Islamic Society and Economy
→ Islam was widespread by this point - It spanned from North Africa to the Iberian Peninsula
→ Islamic Cities
▪ Islamic Cities were much bigger and more 'civilised' than European Cities
▪ Larger cities were >100,000 with Baghdad having 800,000 people in it - This was only rivalled by Constantinople at 200,000 -
whilst London and Paris only had around 20,000 people in them, similar to Jerusalem
→ Islamic Towns
▪ They served a variety of functions in society: Trade centres (market), sacred centre (Mosque), transport hub, garrison town,
and even an administrative centre - Larger cities or towns would combine all of these functions into a single area
▪ Population - There was a cosmopolitan mix of people: Muslims, Jews, Christians, Arabs, Turks, Greeks, Africans, Slavs, and
Europeans
▪ Jizya - Non-Muslims had to pay a Jizya Tax, which serves to show the payers' submission to Muslim rule, allowing them to
practice their own faith while receiving protection from the rulers
→ Islamic Economies
▪ They were an agrarian economy, with the production of foodstuffs meaning that land was key
▪ They sold spices and cloth to Europe, whilst also importing fur and timber from Europe
▪ They made vast amounts of money from trading European Slaves
- Islamic Politics
→ Circle of Equity
▪ This is what it took to be a good Islamic Ruler
▪ 'There is no ruler without an army; no army without revenues; no revenues without cultivation; no cultivation without equity
and good governance'.
→ Government
▪ At the top of society there was a caliph who was just a symbolic figurehead but was a potent one
→ Conflict in the region
▪ The Umayyad Dynasty which lasted from the 7th to 8th centuries was overthrown in Syria by the Abbasids, who made Baghdad
their power centre - The Umayyad Dynasty re-emerged in Spain
▪ A Shi'a caliphate emerged following the conquest of Northern Africa, pushing into Syria as well - They had a base in Cairo and
would jostle for Supremacy in Sicily, Syria, and Palestine
▪ Thus, when the Crusaders arrived, there were 2 power-bases - One in Cairo, One in Baghdad
- Rise of the Seljuk Turks
→ Context
▪ Seljuk Turks were recent converters to Islam and staunchly Sunni
▪ They had been the dominant power in the region since the mid-11th Century - They had power bases in Iran and Iraq, further
expanding into Central and Southern Syria by 1070s, expanding this to Northern Syria by 1080
▪ Sulayman and then Malik Shah exerted power over a wide area due to the defeat in the 'Battle of Manzikert'
▪ Malik Shah's brother, Tutush, continued the family dynasty in the North of Syria until his death in 1095 - His sons, Ridwan of
Aleppo and Duqaq of Damascus, argued with themselves, allowing Kerbogha of Mosul to become the pre-eminent power in
Northern Syria
→ Danishmends
▪ The Danishmends controlled North and East Anatolia, while the South and West became the Sultanate of Rum under Kilij
Arslan (Sulayman's son)
▪ There was great conflict between Kilij Aslan and the Danishmends, which impacted the progression of the crusaders during
their crossing of Anatolia
→ Authority of Seljuk Turks
▪ This relied on their martial ability (military skill)
▪ They had well-garrisoned towns ruled by warlords which kept control over the local populations, and this was essential, as the
Seljuks were at odds with most of their subjects on religious grounds
□ This was because the Seljuk's were Sunni, but most of the peasants they ruled over were Christians or Shi'a Muslims
▪ Fatimid Caliphate (Shi'a)
□ They were to the South of the Seljuk's and relied on a mercenary army, with their soldiers coming from the upper Nile
region or as slaves
□ In 1098, the Vizier of Egypt, al-Afdal, took Jerusalem for the Fatimids

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 □ In 1098, the Vizier of Egypt, al-Afdal, took Jerusalem for the Fatimids

The Situation in Byzantium (Up to 1071)

- Context on Byzantium
→ Creation of Byzantium
▪ The partition of the Roman Empire in 395 created a Western and Eastern Empire, Rome in the West and Byzantium in the East
▪ Byzantium was based around Constantinople - When the Western Roman Empire collapsed, it resulted in an influx of Germanic
tribes, who were gradually Christianised over hundreds of years
▪ During the reign of Emperor Justinian I in the 6th Century, the Byzantine Empire had regained some f the power and glory
associated with Ancient Rome - At its greatest extend it stretched from the Southern Tip of Spain to Egypt to Syria in the East
to the Black Sea including Anatolia, Greece and Italy
▪ By the 11th Century - Empire was under a threefold threat:
□ Normans taking advantage of rivalries in Southern Italy, challenging the empire for control of the area
□ Pecheng tribe based around the Black Sea raiding inland, especially around the Balkans
□ Seljuk Turks, bands of warrior tribesmen, were sweeping in from the East through Anatolia
▪ Impact of the threefold threats:
□ Threats were badly dealt with, by 1071 Normans had taken Sicily and parts of Southern Italy, creating a power -base used
to harass the empire
□ Bribery was used to but off the Pechengs
□ However, the attempt to deal with the Seljuk Turk threat caused the greatest upheaval, listed below
- Impact of defeat in the Battle of Manzikert (Seljuk's)
→ What happened
▪ 1071 Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes took decisive action against the Turks, riding an army into battle with them near the fort
of Manzikert in Eastern Anatolia
▪ Romanos badly underestimated the size of the enemy force, with the battle resulting in humiliating defeat
→ Impact
▪ Most of Byzantium's Anatolian control was wiped out
▪ Mass migration occurred in Constantinople and conscription into the army to fight the battles against the Turks and Pechengs
resulted in a lack of manpower in the fields, reducing the tax revenue
▪ Inflation ensued in Byzantium - this was managed by debasing the coinage, which failed and Constantinople fell into economic
crisis and a civil war
▪ Thus, the Balkans were being freely raided by the Pechengs, the Normans launched an attack on Southern Italy, and the
Seljuk's had reach the shores of the Bosporus
- Alexios Komnenos
→ What did he do?
▪ Komnenos took action against the impending demise of Byzantium
▪ He was in charge of part of the Byzantine army and sent to fight the Norman Threat in Southern Italy - Although instead of
marching to fight the Normans, he turned back around to Constantinople to dethrone the Emperor, targeting the
cosmopolitan elite of Constantinople
▪ The Emperor was placed in a monastery, and Alexios crowned Emperor
→ Role as Emperor
▪ After consolidating his position with the use of appointments to key positions, he turned to fight the Normans
▪ Alexios took control of the army and defeated the Normans
▪ Battle at Lebounion Hill
□ By 1083, he was fighting the Pechengs, which initially was unsuccessful, making no ground until 1091
□ Alexios gathered as many troops as possible, fighting at Lebounion Hill, resulting in the Pechengs being wiped out, posing
no further threat
→ Attack on further threats
▪ For his further threats, he used a different tactic than in Lebounion, he turned to diplomacy
▪ Sulayman Agreement
□ He was the Turkish Chieftain, Alexios negotiated a peace agreement where Sulayman would protect the Emperor's
Anatolian Holdings
□ Sulayman was an able general, who would put down Turkish Raids on Byzantine territory in Anatolia, which even
resulted in a few thousand troops to put down Normans in Durazzo
□ Sulayman would gain money from this, and the agreement lasted until Sulayman's death in the 1090s
▪ Sulayman's Death
□ After his death, Sulayman's successor didn't agree with the agreement, attacking Byzantine lands in Nicaea
□ This reopened the Byzantine threat in Anatolia, since Sulayman could no longer protect him
▪ Turkish Civil Wars in 1092
□ Due to the Turks now fighting in Anatolia again, the Sultan of Baghdad was prepared to enter an alliance with Byzantium
as he was scared this would spill into his land - However, his death came early in 1092, resulting in two years of Turkish
Civil War
□ Alexios couldn't benefit from this power vacuum as most of his warlords were more concerned with fighting their way to
the top
□ However, help for Alexios would come from the Council of Piacenza
- Council of Piacenza 1095
→ Background
▪ Whilst Byzantium, Turkey and Anatolia were in conflict, Pope Urban II was still fighting for Supremacy
▪ Urban II started a tour of Italy and France to display authority over Henry IV, which led to a Council of Piacenza in Northern
Italy which was attended by Bishops and other Church Officials
→ What occurred?

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 → What occurred?
▪ Envoys from Alexios arrived with the request for help to regain lands lost in Anatolia
▪ Alexios essentially was asking the pope for western knights to help him out
→ Why did Urban II surprisingly choose to help?
▪ Urban lifted the excommunication placed on Alexios by Gregory VII, creating a friendly relationship
▪ Urban also wanted to heal the schism between the two churches, hoping that by helping Byzantium, he could put himself at
the head of a united Church
→ Impact
▪ Urban would call for another council for November 1095, asking the Bishops and Abbots to bring the prominent lords of their
provinces, gathering at Clermont
→ Significance
▪ 1095 marked the culmination of several factors that would result in a crusade
1) Actions of a Pope who sought to assert papal authority and continue reforms started by Gregory VII
2) Machinations of a Byzantine emperor who had seized control of an empire and dealt with most of the threats facing him,
only to see his policy with the Turks (Agreement with Sulayman) fail
3) Behaviour of the Turks created a civil war, with a power vacuum created by the deaths of Sulayman and Malik Shah
(Baghdad), meant the Pope was being opportunistic

Pope Urban II
- The Reasons for calling the First Crusade
→ Urban's Context
▪ By 1095, Urban had stabilised the position in Rome and by co-operating with the Normans of Sicily he had established a stable
power based in Italy
▪ His 1095 tour of France and Italy, designed to take him back to his old stamping ground to strengthen his power over Henry IV
resulted in the Council Piacenza, which led to the Council of Clermont due to Alexios' appeals
→ Urban's Motives
▪ A main motive was the desire to re-establish friendly relations with Byzantium and Alexios
□ Since the Schism of 1054 and the excommunication of Byzantium by Gregory VII, relations had been difficult
□ However, thanks to Urban II reversing Gregory VII's decision, him and Alexios were on much more friendly terms, which
is evident by Alexios feeling comfortable to ask the Pope for help in his struggle against the Turks
▪ Moreover, despite it being seen as a Christian helping a Christian, it can be said that Urban just wanted to increase his
influence over the Eastern Church
□ This is because by helping out in Anatolia, he hoped that he could unite the Church under one banner, removing the
impacts of the East and West Schism, with the hopes that Urban II would be heading this new church
□ This meant there was a highly attractive pull for Urban
▪ He also hoped to increase Latin influence over the Christian churches of Asia Minor, Syria and Palestine
▪ Importance of Jerusalem
□ Jerusalem was the centre of the Christian world and by 1098 it was taken by the Fatimid's placing it under Shi'a Muslim
control, which was less than optimal for the Pope
□ Jerusalem was the location for Christ's patrimony and passion - Medieval maps placed Jerusalem at the centre
□ Urban thus wanted Christian control in Jerusalem
▪ Finally, Urban felt responsible for his flock
□ Urban believed that every soul should be saved
□ The fact that knights were being used in Europe to wage war and murder meant they wouldn't reach heaven, so Urban
wanted a way for the knights to gain safe passage to reach heaven
□ He wanted to direct the common violence of Medieval society to a common enemy
- The Council of Clermont 1095
→ The Speech on the penultimate day of the 10 day meeting was outside on a specially constructed stage as so many wanted to hear it
→ No Papal Bull survives but 5 versions of the speech do
→ Gesta Francorum (The Deeds of the Franks) - written by someone associated with Bohemond of Taranto greatly influenced three
other versions - 4 of these versions were written after Jerusalem's capture, by people not present
→ Only version written by someone likely to be there was by Fulchre of Chartres but he also wrote after the Jerusalem capture
→ He also offered a remission of sins for those who went, which means anyone who crusaded would be absolved of their sins, which
was important as many of these rulers had engaged in bloody wars, and murder is a principle sin that sent people to hell

The Motives of the Crusaders

- The Principle Leaders
→ Raymond, Count of Toulouse and Marquis of Provenance (Religious Zeal)
▪ Background
□ Was in his 60s at the time
□ Had a large wealth of military experience and established himself, ahead of his elder brother, as Count of Toulouse
□ He was excommunicated twice by Gregory VII - But by the 1080s Raymond was repentant and an enthusiastic supporter
of the Gregorian Reform Movement of the Church
□ His land received plenty of gossip/news from travellers coming and going between major pilgrimage destinations of
Jerusalem and North-West Iberia - The tales he heard of the mistreatment of pilgrims could have piqued his interest
▪ Relationship with Urban
□ It is likely that Raymond met with the Pope before Clermont to discuss the possibility of Raymond crusading
□ Raymond was keen to go, holding aspirations to be the secular leader of the Crusade -
□ Adhemar, Bishop of Le Puy
 Adhemar, Bishop of Le Puy, would be the spiritual leader and papal legate of the Crusade
He had been on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem before

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  He had been on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem before
 He was seen as someone respected by all, key to keeping major leaders in harmony
 He was close to Raymond
▪ Raymond's Motivations
□ Raymond was a wealthy land-owner, so it wasn't money
□ Religious Zeal
 Raymond, before crusading, settled his accounts in France, giving possessions to the monastery at St Gilles
 In 1090, he renounced all rights to investiture at the church of St Gilles, showing his adherence to Canon Law,
Gregorian Reforms, and Urban during a time when this was rare
 He gave up lots of wealth to fund the crusades expedition, intending to use it all to go crusading
 Anna Komnenus' Accounts
◊ Daughter of Alexios who was present at the meetings between the two
◊ She spoke of him as a pious and spiritual man - Although the good relationship of Alexios and Raymond
could've influence this
→ Hugh of Vermandois (To help his brother gain back Urban's Trust, but also self-importance)
▪ Background
□ King Philip I of France's Brother - Philip was excommunicated by Urban II at Clermont in 1095 due to an affair - Urban II's
growing strength due to reform can be seen through Philip submitting to Urban as a result, and his brother joining the
crusade
□ Hugh has been said to have an over-inflated sense of self-worth, on his arrival to Constantinople it was said he sent word
that he should be welcomed as on benefitting his great status
□ Anna Komnenus' Accounts
 She considered him coming from a small, backward country - She said Hugh thought of himself as King of Kings
▪ Hugh's Motivations
□ Due to the excommunication of Philip I at Clermont, and his subsequent submission to Urban II, it is suggested that Hugh
joined as his brother needed to make up to the pope
□ Hugh, as described by Anna Komnenus and his actions at Constantinople, also saw himself as highly important, so
naturally wanted to be involved as a leader of the crusade - Further shown by Riley-Smith suggesting Hugh had decided
just weeks after Clermont that he would lead a contingent East
→ Godfrey of Bouillon (Religious Zeal, but still some finance)
▪ Background
□ Duke of Lower Lorraine, Vassal of Henry IV of the HRE, former opponent of the pope
□ He made lots of money selling lands to the Church, being astute enough to make sure he could buy them back when he
returned
□ He travelled with his brothers Eustace, Count of Boulogne, and Baldwin of Boulogne, and their cousin Baldwin of Bourcq
□ All of these men had large military experience, which greatly impacted the outcome of the crusade and its success
▪ Motives
□ They were all already highly wealthy landowners, so there was no financial reason to be stated
□ Evidence points to them mostly going for religious reasons
□ They sold most of their land to the church to participate, suggesting a religious zeal - despite this, they included
provisions for when they came home to gain large amounts of land by buying it back, so finance was ever -present
→ Bohemond of Taranto (Financial)
▪ Background
□ Clearly went for financial reasons
□ He was overlooked by his father Norman Robert Guiscard and didn't inherit the Sicilian lands he felt he should have
□ Guiscard's 2nd wife wanted her son to inherit the title and land, instead of Bohemond, who was Guiscard's eldest son
but of a different wife - the title went to Guiscard's 2nd wife's son Roger Borsa
□ Bohemond was a good solider, arguably the best of the crusaders
▪ Motives for Crusade
□ After learning of the Crusade when besieging Amalfi with his brother after the Normans invaded and captured much of
Sicily, he left immediately with his nephew Tancred of Lecce
□ He saw it as an opportunity to create his own financial dynasty after losing out on the inheritance he felt he should've
gotten
□ His actions at Antioch during the Crusade solidify this view
→ Northern French Leaders
▪ Background
□ Robert, Duke of Normandy
 Had little money and mortgaged his duchy to his brother, William Rufus the King of England, to gain 10,000 marks
to finance the journey
□ Stephen, Count of Blois
□ Robert II, Count of Flanders
 His father had fought in the Byzantine army on return from pilgrimage in 1089
▪ Motives
□ The fact that Robert, Duke of Normandy, was willing to mortgage his duchy clearly shows his dedication to a spiritual
cause of the Crusade
□ Flanders was inspired by his father, with pilgrimaging and piety running in the family, further suggesting a religious and
spiritual motivation for going on crusade
→ Conclusion
▪ The exact motives will never be known
▪ It could be the spiritual reward offered by the pope, remission of sins (especially for older militarily experience people like
Raymond), the cost was high so something special had to be on offer to attract the right calibre of soldier

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 Raymond), the cost was high so something special had to be on offer to attract the right calibre of soldier
▪ Guaranteed place in heaven was a valuable proposition, especially to men brought up on warfare and violence
▪ Urban II had channelled the violence of medieval England towards the idea of the Muslim infidel
▪ The material gain was also clear, with the potential to gain copious lands in the Near East
- Popular Movements: The Peasants' (or People's) Crusade
→ Background
▪ The bulk of the armies motives were that they had no choice: their superior was going and so were they
▪ However, for those who went before the Prince's Crusade, there were three key reasons why they were so motivated they felt
they had to go immediately: The State of the Economy, Breakdown in Society, and a Belief in Religion
→ Breakdown in Society
▪ There was a breakdown in the structure of how a village operated
□ In the Feudal System, the Demesne, which was the way the land was organised, was falling out of use and nothing was
replacing it
□ There was no opportunity for a man to get more land if he needed it, which was an issue since the population of Europe
was increasing, making this an issue
□ 1094 - Floods and pestilence resulted in a 1095 famine, meaning there were practical reasons to want to escape Europe
→ State of the Economy
▪ Medieval life was short and brutal.
▪ There was little movement between social classes (those born peasants and those born nobles would stay there) nor was there
geographical movement
▪ Work was hard and monotonous, with land in Europe suffering the impacts of Barbarian and Norman Invasions, with Dykes
being broken (flooded fields by seas and rivers)
▪ Land was at a premium but landowners did not want to lose their forests because they didn't want to give up hunting
▪ Moreover, if the lord of the land didn't protect the village then the inhabitants could expect to come under fire from robbers
or be involved in local civil wars
▪ There wasn't enough food or money to go around, so famine and war were common facts of life
→ Belief in Religion
▪ Belief in the 2nd Coming of Christ was widespread, so preparations were needed
▪ The use of the idea of the Infidel meant there was a genuine zeal to free Jerusalem from the infidel
→ Urban's Speech at Clermont
▪ Urban's speech as Clermont also played a key role, where he said that 'On this account I, or rather the Lord, beseech you as
Christ's heralds to publish this everywhere and to persuade all people of whatever rank, foot-soldiers and knights, poor and
rich, to carry aid promptly to those Christians and to destroy that vile race from the lands of our friends'
▪ This clearly shows that Urban, who was spreading the idea of the Crusade, set out the clear religious connotations of the
Crusade, before demanding that everyone, including the poor, not only go but also convince as many as possible to go
→ Role of Peter the Hermit
▪ He was also a charismatic speaker, thus like Urban, played a key role in getting people to go on Crusade
▪ Peter was seen as a visionary in his speeches, and people seemed happy to believe he would lead them to Jerusalem to pave
the way for the 2nd Coming of Christ
→ Other Preachers' Role
▪ Preachers toured France and parts of Germany to spread the popish message, further adding to this spiritual zeal of going on
crusade
▪ Robert d'Arbrissel, founder of Fontevraud Abbey, preached about reforming morals, attracting high numbers to his gatherings
▪ Other preachers included an antisemitic message to Urban's, resulting in violence and financial extractions from Jews in the
Rhineland and beyond - this shows the religious zeal as they were scared of the dual threat from Jews and Infidel Muslims
→ Conclusion
▪ Peter led a 15,000 man army
▪ It wasn't wholly militarily unskilled, with one of Peter's troop being Walter Sansavoir who managed to lead a separate group
that left for the Holy Land in May 1096

The Course of the First Crusade

- The Peasants' Crusade
→ Issues facing them
▪ Peasants' Crusade arrived outside Constantinople in August 1096 after walking across Europe, and pillaging throughout Eastern
Europe and antisemitic attacks
▪ Nish 1096 - Fighting had broken out against the Crusaders due to their ill-discipline and constant looting
▪ Peter faced the issue of keeping the Peasants' well ordered as they went through Europe, and stopping them from pillaging,
looting, and attacking once they reached the walls of Constantinople in August 1096
→ Role of Alexios
▪ After reaching the walls of Constantinople in August 1096, Alexios provided plenty of supplies
▪ However, Peter couldn't keep the crusaders civilised, resulting in mass looting and pillaging of nearby areas
▪ Alexios had no choice but to ship the crusaders across the Bosporus, placing them in great danger as they camped at Civetot
on the Southern Coast of the Gulf of Nicomedia, 2 days' march from Nicaea and Kilij Arslan
→ Attack from Nicaea September 1096
▪ After being placed near Nicaea, the Crusaders would raid throughout September, with Italians and Germans attacking a fort at
Xerigordos, resulting in the Peasant's being counter-besieged by a force from Nicaea
▪ They held out for 8 days, but the heat and lack of water resulted in a weakened force, and the Seljuk Turkish force from Nicaea
broke in and enslaved them all
▪ Actions of the rest of the peasant Crusaders
□ After the rest of the peasant crusaders heard of what the Turks had done, they decided the best course of action was to

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 □ After the rest of the peasant crusaders heard of what the Turks had done, they decided the best course of action was to
attack, leaving only the weak and ill behind
□ Led by Walter Sansavoir, they became a well organised fighting force, with around 500 knights and thousands of foot
soldiers and peasants
□ However, they met a highly skilled Turkish force intent on finishing the job they had started at Xerigordos
□ Peter escaped with a few survivors going back to Constantinople, where he and Alexios awaited the Prince's Crusade
→ Conclusion
▪ The Peasants' Crusade had been a disaster
▪ Within Europe they looted, pillaged and killed large numbers of Jews
▪ In Hungary, King Coloman had defeated them in battle as a result of their disobedient and rowdy nature
▪ Nish 1096 - Looting turned ugly and locals had to resort to violence to protect their homes and business
▪ Constantinople August 1096 - Once outside the walls, Alexios didn't let them in, resulting in them becoming out of control, so
Alexios shipped them across the Bosporus, only for them to loot again
▪ September 1096 - They actions near Nicaea were no different to Constantinople, they siege on Xerigordos resulted in the Turks
easily enslaving them - The following attack was no better
- The Journey to Constantinople
→ Different Routes
▪ Different routes were taken, so the main armies arrived in Constantinople separately, each journey different but all had
incidents within them
▪ Hugh of Vermandois' Route
□ First to set off of the main armies, with a carefully planned journey - He collected his papal banner in Italy and corssed
the Adriatic Sea in October
□ He Shipwrecked crossing the Adriatic Sea, he was rescued but then placed under House Arrest by Byzantine Officials in
Durazzo (modern-day Albania)
□ The Byzantines then escorted him to Constantinople, where Hugh sent word to Alexios that his welcome reception
befitted his status
□ Alexios was concerned with issues of loyalty, Hugh was impressed enough with him and Constantinople to swear an oath
of fealty
□ This establishes Hugh as a useful medium/convoy between Alexios (Byzantine Interests) and the Crusader leaders
(Frankish interests)
▪ Godfrey of Bouillon's Route
□ Another carefully planned route - This one took the Pilgrim Route that Peter the Hermit had used months prior
□ August 1096 - Leaves Lorraine and had to negotiate with King Coloman of Hungary as a result of the Peasant Crusade's
actions but on the condition he left his brother Baldwin of Bouillon in Hungary as collateral (He was later returned once
the army left Hungary)
□ Impact of Alexios
 Alexios had left Godfrey supplies within strategic locations, to stop his subject from experiencing the same looting
that Peter the Hermit's Peasant Crusade experienced.
 However, the Byzantine house arrest order in Durazzo on Hugh scared Godfrey into thinking he would see the
same fate
 Violence ensued as a result of this, so Alexios withdrew the aid and the looting within Byzantium began
□ Arrival in Constantinople
 During the looting, an embassy of Westerners and Byzantines went to placate Godfrey, causing him to arrive safely
in Constantinople on the 23rd of December 1096
 After arriving, Godfrey refused to meet Alexios for several weeks, resulting in Alexios withdrawing supplies from
Godfrey
 Godfrey then launched an assault on Constantinople, Spring 1097
◊ This came to nothing, as diplomatic channels opened
◊ Hostages were exchanged and a meeting between them took place
□ Godfrey and his nobles swore an oath to Alexios and were shipped across the Bosporus in February 1097
▪ Bohemond of Taranto
□ Bohemond had the shortest distance to travel, leaving for Constantinople in Late October 1096
□ He crossed the Adriatic, avoiding Durazzo due to what happened to Hugh, making slow progress to Constantinople
taking 6 months (3 miles a day)
□ They faced no real incident and reached the walls of Constantinople in April 1097
□ Bohemond left Tancred in charge of the men, visiting Alexios, where he swore the oath and became a staunch ally
□ They were shipped across the Bosporus by the end of April 1097
▪ Raymond of Toulouse's Journey
□ Possibly the hardest of them all
□ His late start in October 1096 meant that his men were tarnished by the actions of those who travelled before them
□ Moreover, Raymond chose to march around the head of the Adriatic, down the Dalmatian coast, where difficult terrain
and unfriendly natives caused troubles
□ By the time he reached Durazzo, he was short on supplies, inevitably leading to confrontations with locals
□ Adhemar, Bishop of Le Puy
 During the fighting near Durazzo, caused by the low supplies, Adhemar was injured, forcing him to spend time in
Thessalonica, meaning the spiritual leader of the Crusade was thwarted
□ Further lootings took place at Roussa (East Macedonia) before reaching Alexios in April 1097
□ Raymond swore a lesser oath than that of Bohemond, Hugh, and Godfrey
▪ Northern French Leaders (Robert, Duke of Normandy - Robert, Count of Flanders - Stephen, Count of Blois)
□ They went through the Alps and the Po valley - They met the Pope at Lucca in late October, before continuing to Rome,

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 □ They went through the Alps and the Po valley - They met the Pope at Lucca in late October, before continuing to Rome,
Monte Cassino, and then to Bari in Southern Italy
□ Route Split
 In Bari, Southern Italy, the party split into two groups
 Robert of Flanders crossed the Adriatic and made his way to Constantinople
 Robert of Normandy and Stephen delayed and stayed in Southern Italy
□ Why did the split occur?
 It was mainly due to desertions and a lack of money - Robert of Normandy and Stephen of Blois had little troops
and little money, resulting in inactivity
□ Rest of the journey
 After this split, the rest of the journey was uneventful, arriving in Constantinople by May 1097
 They were highly impressed by Constantinople and Alexios, swearing an Oath in May 1097
 By this point, the Siege of Nicaea had started
- The Siege of Nicaea
→ Peasant's Crusade Impact
▪ Having defeated the crusaders, Kilij Arslan felt free to go East to fight the Danishmends, a different Seljuk tribe claiming
territory after Malik Shah's death
▪ This allowed the crusaders to land unharmed off the coast of Asia Minor and freely make preparations to attack Nicaea
→ Role of Alexios
▪ Alexios wanted to return Nicaea back to Byzantium but refused to lead the attack himself, instead appointing a military
advisor, Boutoumites and commander Taticus with 2,000 troops after seeing victory as possible
▪ Alexios opened a secure supply and communication line to the coast and lined with crosses
→ Tactics
▪ By early June Nicaea's land walls were encircled, with the Lake Askanian side not being able to be encircled
▪ The Siege was two-fold: a blockade was placed around the city to starve the garrison into submission, and an assault was
launched with siege engines constructed on-site
▪ The Princes met in a council to make all major decisions and despite their egos and personalities, worked well together
→ Why did they win?
▪ The threat of Kilij Arslan was repulsed by good leadership from Godfrey and Bohemond, allowing the crusaders to concentrate
on breaking the walls to Nicaea
▪ With supplies entering from the lake, boats supplied by Alexios travelled 30km from Civetot to the lake shore where a two-
pronged attack hit the city
→ Aftermath
▪ The Turks then surrendered and sued for peace on 18th June 1097 - Boutoumites and Taticus took the surrender, stopping the
crusaders from plundering
▪ Alexios distributed money and gifts, keeping everyone calm but no entirely happy
▪ Alexios regained Nicaea
- The Battle of Dorylaeum
→ Post-Nicaea Actions
▪ Two groups left Nicaea; the vanguard led by Bohemond and Robert of Normandy, while Godfrey, Robert of Flanders and Hugh
would lead the rear and trail by a few days
▪ This allowed for easier foraging of food and supplies
→ Attack on Bohemond
▪ Bohemond's camp was attacked by a swirling mass of mounted Turkish archers, of equal number to Bohemond's men
▪ Bohemond and Robert of Normandy's Actions were key
□ Firstly, they sent riders off to get reinforcements from the other crusaders
□ Secondly, a makeshift camp, offering protection, was established, with a swamp on one side
□ Third, Knights were deployed in a tight formation and instructed not to be drawn into battle
□ Once in battle, the Knights offered morale-boosting religious phrases and priests moved up and down the ranks offering
prayers
▪ They won due to the combination of military leadership and religious beliefs which managed to keep the lines from breaking
▪ Arrival of Relief
□ Relief arrived after mid-day
□ Adhemar led his troops in a flanking manoeuvre whilst Godfrey, Hugh and Raymond led the cavalry charge
□ This was too much for Kilij Arslan as he couldn't work his way out of the cavalry charge, not could he break Bohemond
and Robert's defensive line - So he fled
▪ Aftermath
□ A day of looting and killing took place by the Crusaders
□ Kilij Arslan introduced a 'scorched-earth' policy as he fed east
□ Casualties were high on both sides and the crusaders had to take three days to recovery and bury the dead
- The March to Antioch
→ Issues facing the Crusaders
▪ They faced a lack of water and food, intense heat, and treacherous weather all around
→ Route taken
▪ Their route, devised by Taticius took them along the edge of them mountains to the south of the Desert
▪ Iconium have respite from the hardships endured, offering fresh streams and delicious orchards
▪ They also were in Armenian Christian territory, meaning they were in a friendly area, with locals offering advice
▪ 20th October - They arrived at the Iron Bridge just 3 hours from Antioch
→ Baldwin and Tancred's Separation
▪ Baldwin and Tancred wanted to carve their own territories, causing them to leave the main army

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 ▪ Baldwin and Tancred wanted to carve their own territories, causing them to leave the main army
▪ Over the next few weeks a number of Turkish-held but Armenian populated towns were taken by both men, such as the
notable port town of Alexandretta - which was useful for the later siege of Antioch
▪ Thoros and Edessa
□ At Edessa, Baldwin received an embassy from Thoros who wanted Baldwin's help in the event of a battle against the
atabeg of Mosul (Kerbogha)
□ Thoros adopted Baldwin, making him is heir - a few days later, he is ousted and Baldwin took his place (probably by
sabotage)
□ Baldwin thus controlled Edessa, and the next few months would see him enlarge his Edessan territories
▪ Edessa was held by Thoros for Alexios - By right, Baldwin should do the same, but there was slim chance of this, with Baldwin
ruling it independently until Zengi capturing it in 1144
- The Siege of Antioch
→ Background
▪ Antioch was governed by the Seljuks but was home to Greek, Armenian and Syrian Christians - Muslims, Arabs, and Jews also
lived there
▪ On the death of Malik Shah, his nephews Duqaq and Ridwan fought over who got Damascus and Aleppo - This resulted in
Ridwan trying to kill Duqaq, failed, and Antioch fell into the hands of Ridwan's father-in-law Yagi-Siyan
▪ Antioch needed to be taken before Jerusalem could be thought about - because of the clear path to Jerusalem that is created
→ Beginnings
▪ The siege was started in October 1097 - However, Franks were more concerned with foraging for food - Bohemond and R.
Flanders find Duqaq whilst foraging, they are outnumbered but still force Duqaq to flee
▪ By January 1098, the food situation got even worse - Taticius left the camp to travel into Asia Minor for food and supplies but
never returned - Alexios who was meant to show up never arrived ever
→ Start of fighting
▪ By early February, Ridwan decided to lead a relief force of around 12,000 to Antioch
▪ Bohemond, R. Flanders, and Stephen of Blois were heavily outnumbered by faced the Turkish Force anyway and were
surprisingly successful, defeating them
▪ Duqaq and Aleppo had been neutralised but the Crusaders hadn't broken the walls of Antioch
▪ March 1098 - Better weather brought more supplies from the coast and the Crusaders constructed forts in strategic positions,
placing a stranglehold on the garrison in Antioch
▪ Bohemond also started communicating with a guard on the wall, who eventually agreed to let Bohemond in
→ Breaking the walls
▪ With Kerbogha's army fast approaching, it was agreed that Bohemond should have the city unless Alexios arrived
▪ 3 June - force of 700 crusaders, led by Bohemond, R. Flanders, and Godfrey got in after the guard lowered a rope to let 60 men
ascend
▪ They were able to secure 3 guard towers before bugles were blown to signal attack
▪ Garrison was quickly dealt with and before dawn it was clear the Franks would win
▪ 4th June - Kerbogha's army arrived - great timing from the Franks!
- Stephen of Blois's Desertion
→ Background
▪ Stephen was one of the most prominent leaders of the crusade and his decision to leave on June 2nd, the day before the
capturing of Antioch is unknown - the fact that Kerbogha's massive army was about to arrive could've resulted in this
▪ As a result of his desertion two main issues occurred
□ He met Alexios on the 20th June, painting a dire picture of the position in Antioch that Alexios decided to avoid Antioch,
a key issue
□ His wife was also so ashamed that Blois was forced to join the 2nd Crusade, where he died in the 2nd Battle of Ramla,
1102
→ Post-Antioch Siege Position
▪ Once inside the walls of Antioch, their position barely improved, and Yagi-Siyan's son held the citadel above them whilst in
contact with Kerbogha
▪ Peter Bartholomew, a preacher, had visions and came to Raymond and Adhemar saying that Christ told him where the Holy
Lance was buried - Adhemar was sceptical but ordered for the floor of St Peter's Church to be dug up - They found the metal
tip of a spear and a piece of wood, causing rejoice and a huge moral boost
→ Impact of the Holy Lance
▪ With their spirits lifted, the army made a final attack on Kerbogha, believing they were protected by Christ, and surprisingly
won
▪ However, there was a 2 week gap between the two events - Asbridge says this increased the desperation
□ This is because the Crusaders were waiting for Alexios' reinforcements, found out none were coming and even sent
envoys to Kerbogha for peace but Kerbogha let them know he wanted to destroy them
□ This made it a do-or-die battle, which is possibly why the Franks won
→ Battle with Kerbogha June 28th 1098
▪ Crusaders filed out the gates of Antioch to an overwhelmingly larger army of Kerbogha
▪ Franks had around 20,000 men and a few horses but were hungry, deprived of energy, and battle torn
▪ However, Bohemond's brilliant plan and its super execution by the other leaders meant that they capitalised on Kerbogha's
hesitancy, resulting in victory
▪ This left Antioch safely in Christian hands
- The Death of Adhemar and the march to Jerusalem
→ Impact
▪ When Adhemar died in August, there was no clear appointed leader, resulting in intense rivalry since Adhemar was the neutral
spiritual leader, who was close friends with Raymond - This creates a huge issue of relations

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 spiritual leader, who was close friends with Raymond - This creates a huge issue of relations
▪ Raymond and Bohemond start a rivalry over who owns Antioch - this was side-lined as the rank and file wanted to complete
their mission and take Jerusalem
→ March to Jerusalem
▪ Began in November 1098, three months after Antioch was taken
▪ Bohemond didn't leave with the rest but stayed in Antioch to press home his claim to the city - showing how the death of
Adhemar created disunity
▪ Raymond during the march to Jerusalem thus emerged as the Crusading leader
▪ Raymond associated himself with the Holy Lance and thus the men saw him in a positive light
▪ Issues during the journey
□ It went through the Syrian winter, with food becoming an issue
□ Crusaders supposedly turned to cannibalism to survive
□ Thus, the Crusaders that arrived in Jerusalem in June 1099 were very weary, weak, and lacked nutrition
- The Siege of Jerusalem
→ Strength
▪ Around 1,300 knights and 12,500 infantrymen arrived to take Jerusalem from the Shi'a Muslims under al-Afdal's leadership,
just a year after al-Afdal took Jerusalem from Sunni Muslims for the Fatimids
▪ Whilst in Antioch, an Egyptian convoy was sent to the crusaders to reach an agreement of future co-operation, but no
agreement was reached
→ Start of the siege
▪ In the early stages, the strong walls made it in impossible to siege but three key events would change the fortune of the
crusaders
1) Arrival of a Genoese fleet, meant that 2 siege engines could be made from new wood supplies
2) Visions of Adhemar asserted the men needed to reconnect with God, providing the spiritual backbone of the attack
3) News of an Egyptian relief force created a spirit of do-or-die, much like Kerbogha with Antioch
▪ Thus, it was the practical and the divine that combined to create a win
→ Religious Aspect
▪ 8th July - after a day of fasting, the clergy led the crusaders on a barefoot procession to the Mount of Olives to ask for God's
intercession
▪ In the Vanguard of this procession, there were the holy relics, showing how important religion war
▪ The visions of Adhemar provided more spiritual support, asserting the men needed to reconnect with God
→ Godfrey's Military Strategy
▪ Military genius of Godfrey finally allowed for the break-through - His men were positioned in the North-Western corner of the
walls and spotted a part of the wall that looked weak
▪ However, the weak part of the wall wasn't where the siege engine was firing at, which was in full view of Jerusalem's men - So
Godfrey created a plan to, in darkness, dismantle it, carry it a few hundred metres East, and rebuild it by morning to attack the
weak spot
▪ The plan worked and after further hard fighting, the walls were breached on the 15th of July
▪ From here, Crusaders scaled the walls and swarmed the cities, with a bloodbath occurring
→ Aftermath
▪ A bloodbath occurred after the capture of Jerusalem but stories of them wading in their knees was likely an exaggeration with
the use of imagery deriving from the apocalyptic Book of Revelation 14:20
▪ Egyptian contemporaries say 3,000 died - 10,000 says William of Tyre - 65,000 says Armenian writer Matthew of Edessa -
75,000 says 13th Century Muslim Ibn al-Athir

The Impact of the First Crusade

- Impact of the First Crusade on the Muslim Near East
→ Sunni-Shi'a Split
▪ The major split remained in place after the crusade, with no unity initially arising from the loss of Jerusalem
→ Failed Counter-offences
▪ Baghdad was thus not interested in the loss, leaving the situation to the local Sunni warlords if they wanted to attack again -
However, Ridwan and Duqaq were just defeated by the Crusaders, so had no way of retaliating
▪ Kerbogha also just suffered a loss, returning to Mosul and not attacking the Crusaders again
▪ Syria was also quiet, with Muslim preachers in Damascus trying to mount a charge but nothing ever occurred
→ Shi'a Egypt's Counter-Attack
▪ They were unhappy with the loss and planned a counter-attack immediately
▪ Within 3 weeks, they gathered in Ascalon, 70km away and were ready to launch an attack
▪ Godfrey thus led a pre-emptive strike on the garrison at Ascalon, believing attack to be the best form of defence, surprising the
foe and scattering them back to Egypt
→ Lack of desire?
▪ The Muslims saw the Franks as a Byzantine force rather than being viewed as a separate army bent on the subjugation and
occupation of their home territory
▪ This is why they could survive, as there was no necessity amongst Muslims to unite to oppose this new threat
▪ Once the idea of Jihad and a united Muslim front formed then this wasn't an issue, but for now there was no desire
- Impact of the First Crusade on the Byzantine Empire
→ Suspicions
▪ Despite the Byzantines and the Franks coming from the same religion, and the fact it was called by Alexios in the first place, the
two sides were suspicious of each other from the beginning
▪ Bohemond had already spent some of his formative years fighting to claim Byzantine land, which further added to the tensions
▪ Alexios also never expected such high numbers of volunteers, he just wanted a few knights to fight off the Turkish power

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 ▪ Alexios also never expected such high numbers of volunteers, he just wanted a few knights to fight off the Turkish power
vacuum in Anatolia, not tens of thousands of people ready to conquer the region
▪ The fact he also wanted oaths from all of the leaders further illustrates the suspicious relationship with the Byzantines
→ Role of Alexios
▪ Alexios provided food, transport, guides, and crucially, soldiers and leadership - but this ended at Antioch when Taticius and
Alexios deserted at Antioch
▪ This resulted in conflict over the ownership of Antioch with Bohemond's insistence on keeping the city for himself causing
tension between the two sides, which would certainly influence events up to and beyond the 4th Crusade
→ Impact on his lands
▪ Alexios used the crusader's might to his own benefit while making their way through Anatolia, mopping up towns that were
previously part of his empire - Also took Nicaea
▪ Southern Anatolian coast returned to Byzantine hands, easing pressure on Alexios' rule by increasing income while reducing
military threats
▪ Despite tension, friendship still existed, with Raymond of Toulouse spending time with Alexios after the conquest of Jerusalem
and before his return to carve out his own fiefdom
- Impact of the First Crusade on the Latin West
→ Urban II
▪ Urban II died 29th July 1099, two weeks after the fall of Jerusalem but he never found out if his mission was successful as
messengers hadn't reached him yet
→ Return of Crusaders
▪ Most Crusaders visited holy sites then went home, returning has heroes, albeit it a bit poorer
▪ Most were welcomed, except Stephen of Blois who was sent back by his wife
→ Holy Relics
▪ Holy Relics flooded Europe, with some pieces of the True Cross and Holy Lance being among the unusual
▪ One crusader is said to have returned with a single hair of Christ's beard
▪ Many returned with Palm fronds as a sign of pilgrimage
→ Crusade of 1101
▪ Europeans were caught up and excited by the victory in the east
▪ Reluctant non-participants of the first crusade signed up for a new expedition
▪ Returning crusaders who deserted in Italy (French Rulers Route) or Stephen of Blois had another chance
→ Reform movement
▪ Reform movement received a welcome enhancement as victory proved that God was supporting the Catholic Church
▪ No immediate end to the Investiture Controversy occurred but the crusade raised the prestige of the Church

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NOTES - Build-Up to Crusade
Tuesday, 14 March 2023 10:06 am

The Situation in Western Europe

- The Role of the Church
→ The medieval church was an all powerful, international institution: Europe was bound by
its rules, popes and bishops anointed kings and doom paintings reminded individuals
what awaited for sinners in the afterlife
→ Unexplained phenomena were explained through miracles and society worked as they
knew their place under God
→ Holy Roman Empire
▪ The position of the Holy Roman Emperor emerged from the time of Charlemagne,
Charles the Magnificent, King of the Franks and the formation of France and
Germany in the 9th Century
▪ He styled himself as a Roman Emperor, and with the support of the Pope, added
'Holy' to the title
▪ Despite the HRE splitting into France and Germany, Germany still insisted on using
the title of 'Holy Roman Emperor', but this needed papal support
→ Relationship between pope and the nobility of Europe
▪ The relationship between the pope and nobility of Europe was important
▪ Church appointments (investitures) were the responsibility of the church, but the
right to appoint to lucrative posts was often sold to the ruling nobility (Simony),
although this was against canon law
▪ Simony have the nobility much needed income but also gave second sons careers
in the Church to secure a future
▪ Church appointments were thus controlled by the nobility and resemble stocks
and shares today (since an income fee was given to the Church through tithes)
- Rising Influence of the Papacy
→ Medieval thinkers saw power split between 'spiritual' power and 'earthly' power
→ Pope was the spiritual leader of Western Christendom - he made decisions on matters
of religion and what was acceptable in the Catholic Church
→ However, it was unclear if the Pope had 'earthly' power - which is the right to tell a king
what to do, intervene with kings on the running of kingdoms
→ Link to the HRE
▪ Since the HRE's title came with Popish permission, it was unclear if the HRE was
subject to the demands of the pope?
▪ 1056 Investiture Contest - Time when nobles in the HRE were becoming keen to
assert independence from the Emperor - a 6 year old Henry IV inherited the
throne, spending his reign fighting for his title and maintain control over nobles -
His biggest fight was against the Pope, trying to maintain control in the Investiture
Contest
- The Church Reform Movement
→ 1056 Investiture Contest
▪ The controversy developed over whether or not the nobility had the right to
appoint individuals to church positions (Investiture)
▪ Church Reformers seized the opportunity of there being a 6 year old Henry IV to
take back the power of investiture to church positions from the nobility - This
resulted in the creation of the College of Cardinals, a system to elect new popes
→ Henry IV's Response and excommunication
▪ Henry IV, once matured, continued to appoint his own bishops
▪ 1073 Pope excommunicated Henry IV, since Pope had the support of the barons in
the HRE (since they wanted a weaker emperor so they could seize royal holdings
and build forts), Pope also had support from the Normans of Sicily, which were
highly useful
→ 1073 Walk to Canossa

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 → 1073 Walk to Canossa
▪ Due to the Normans of Sicily response and issues with disloyalty from barons
within the HRE, Henry IV had to back down
▪ Henry IV then was absolved, forced to wear a hair shirt and stand in the snow
barefoot in the middle of winter for 3 days a penance, until the Pope absolved him
▪ The Investiture Contest shows that after decades of secular rulers investing and
making money from Church appointments, the popes of the late 11th Century
were becoming more powerful
→ 1084 Backlash
▪ In late 1084, The Pope was under pressure from the leaders of the people of Rome
who disapproved of his Norman allies' methods in fighting Henry IV
▪ This meant by Spring 1084 Rome was in carnage, forcing Gregory to escape with
the help of the Normans whilst Clement III was trying to make himself the anti-
pope
▪ Pope Gregory Dies in 1085
→ Impact of Gregory's Death
▪ Following his death, Abbot Desiderius is persuaded to leave his monastery at
Monte Cassino to become Pope Victor III
▪ 4 Days after his installation, riots broke out in Rome - 10 months later he was
consecrated in Rome, lasted another month, fled back to Monte Cassino and died
two months later
→ Emergence of Urban II
▪ After the events of Victor III's failure as Pope, Urban II would emerge as a
successor
▪ He was a true Gregorian Reformer - A realist and recognised he would need
Normal support to help in asserting his position as Pope
▪ It took Urban II 6 years to reach Rome, once he did, he opened diplomatic
relations with the Byzantine Emperor, Alexius Komnenus
→ Conclusion
▪ Due to successive popes using army's to instil their beliefs on people, such as
Gregory with the Normans in the HRE and Urban II with the Normans to legitimise
his rule
▪ There was an establishing of the idea that there was an army controlled by the
Pope
▪ This shows the Popes becoming stronger and asserting itself above the power of
the Kings

The Situation in Islamic Near East

- Muslim Expansion
→ Following the death of the Prophet Muhammad, Islam split into two
→ Sunni - Asserted Caliphs should be democratically elected, since the first four caliphs
were
→ Shia - Asserted that while caliphs could be democratically elected, only descendants of
the Prophet should be Imams
→ By 1095, the two branches of Islam had control of vast swathes of land in the Near East
- Islamic Society and Economy
→ Islam was widespread by this point - It spanned from North Africa to the Iberian
Peninsula
→ Islamic Cities
▪ Islamic Cities were much bigger and more 'civilised' than European Cities
▪ Larger cities were >100,000 with Baghdad having 800,000 people in it - This was
only rivalled by Constantinople at 200,000 - whilst London and Paris only had
around 20,000 people in them, similar to Jerusalem
→ Islamic Towns
▪ They served a variety of functions in society: Trade centres (market), sacred centre
(Mosque), transport hub, garrison town, and even an administrative centre -
Larger cities or towns would combine all of these functions into a single area
▪ Population - There was a cosmopolitan mix of people: Muslims, Jews, Christians,

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 ▪ Population - There was a cosmopolitan mix of people: Muslims, Jews, Christians,
Arabs, Turks, Greeks, Africans, Slavs, and Europeans
▪ Jizya - Non-Muslims had to pay a Jizya Tax, which serves to show the payers'
submission to Muslim rule, allowing them to practice their own faith while
receiving protection from the rulers
→ Islamic Economies
▪ They were an agrarian economy, with the production of foodstuffs meaning that
land was key
▪ They sold spices and cloth to Europe, whilst also importing fur and timber from
Europe
▪ They made vast amounts of money from trading European Slaves
- Islamic Politics
→ Circle of Equity
▪ This is what it took to be a good Islamic Ruler
▪ 'There is no ruler without an army; no army without revenues; no revenues
without cultivation; no cultivation without equity and good governance'.
→ Government
▪ At the top of society there was a caliph who was just a symbolic figurehead but
was a potent one
→ Conflict in the region
▪ The Umayyad Dynasty which lasted from the 7th to 8th centuries was overthrown
in Syria by the Abbasids, who made Baghdad their power centre - The Umayyad
Dynasty re-emerged in Spain
▪ A Shi'a caliphate emerged following the conquest of Northern Africa, pushing into
Syria as well - They had a base in Cairo and would jostle for Supremacy in Sicily,
Syria, and Palestine
▪ Thus, when the Crusaders arrived, there were 2 power-bases - One in Cairo, One
in Baghdad
- Rise of the Seljuk Turks
→ Context
▪ Seljuk Turks were recent converters to Islam and staunchly Sunni
▪ They had been the dominant power in the region since the mid-11th Century -
They had power bases in Iran and Iraq, further expanding into Central and
Southern Syria by 1070s, expanding this to Northern Syria by 1080
▪ Sulayman and then Malik Shah exerted power over a wide area due to the defeat
in the 'Battle of Manzikert'
▪ Malik Shah's brother, Tutush, continued the family dynasty in the North of Syria
until his death in 1095 - His sons, Ridwan of Aleppo and Duqaq of Damascus,
argued with themselves, allowing Kerbogha of Mosul to become the pre-eminent
power in Northern Syria
→ Danishmends
▪ The Danishmends controlled North and East Anatolia, while the South and West
became the Sultanate of Rum under Kilij Arslan (Sulayman's son)
▪ There was great conflict between Kilij Aslan and the Danishmends, which
impacted the progression of the crusaders during their crossing of Anatolia
→ Authority of Seljuk Turks
▪ This relied on their martial ability (military skill)
▪ They had well-garrisoned towns ruled by warlords which kept control over the
local populations, and this was essential, as the Seljuks were at odds with most of
their subjects on religious grounds
□ This was because the Seljuk's were Sunni, but most of the peasants they
ruled over were Christians or Shi'a Muslims
▪ Fatimid Caliphate (Shi'a)
□ They were to the South of the Seljuk's and relied on a mercenary army, with
their soldiers coming from the upper Nile region or as slaves
□ In 1098, the Vizier of Egypt, al-Afdal, took Jerusalem for the Fatimids

The Situation in Byzantium (Up to 1071)

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The Situation in Byzantium (Up to 1071)
- Context on Byzantium
→ Creation of Byzantium
▪ The partition of the Roman Empire in 395 created a Western and Eastern Empire,
Rome in the West and Byzantium in the East
▪ Byzantium was based around Constantinople - When the Western Roman Empire
collapsed, it resulted in an influx of Germanic tribes, who were gradually
Christianised over hundreds of years
▪ During the reign of Emperor Justinian I in the 6th Century, the Byzantine Empire
had regained some f the power and glory associated with Ancient Rome - At its
greatest extend it stretched from the Southern Tip of Spain to Egypt to Syria in the
East to the Black Sea including Anatolia, Greece and Italy
▪ By the 11th Century - Empire was under a threefold threat:
□ Normans taking advantage of rivalries in Southern Italy, challenging the
empire for control of the area
□ Pecheng tribe based around the Black Sea raiding inland, especially around
the Balkans
□ Seljuk Turks, bands of warrior tribesmen, were sweeping in from the East
through Anatolia
▪ Impact of the threefold threats:
□ Threats were badly dealt with, by 1071 Normans had taken Sicily and parts
of Southern Italy, creating a power-base used to harass the empire
□ Bribery was used to but off the Pechengs
□ However, the attempt to deal with the Seljuk Turk threat caused the
greatest upheaval, listed below
- Impact of defeat in the Battle of Manzikert (Seljuk's)
→ What happened
▪ 1071 Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes took decisive action against the Turks, riding
an army into battle with them near the fort of Manzikert in Eastern Anatolia
▪ Romanos badly underestimated the size of the enemy force, with the battle
resulting in humiliating defeat
→ Impact
▪ Most of Byzantium's Anatolian control was wiped out
▪ Mass migration occurred in Constantinople and conscription into the army to fight
the battles against the Turks and Pechengs resulted in a lack of manpower in the
fields, reducing the tax revenue
▪ Inflation ensued in Byzantium - this was managed by debasing the coinage, which
failed and Constantinople fell into economic crisis and a civil war
▪ Thus, the Balkans were being freely raided by the Pechengs, the Normans
launched an attack on Southern Italy, and the Seljuk's had reach the shores of the
Bosporus
- Alexios Komnenos
→ What did he do?
▪ Komnenos took action against the impending demise of Byzantium
▪ He was in charge of part of the Byzantine army and sent to fight the Norman
Threat in Southern Italy - Although instead of marching to fight the Normans, he
turned back around to Constantinople to dethrone the Emperor, targeting the
cosmopolitan elite of Constantinople
▪ The Emperor was placed in a monastery, and Alexios crowned Emperor
→ Role as Emperor
▪ After consolidating his position with the use of appointments to key positions, he
turned to fight the Normans
▪ Alexios took control of the army and defeated the Normans
▪ Battle at Lebounion Hill
□ By 1083, he was fighting the Pechengs, which initially was unsuccessful,
making no ground until 1091
□ Alexios gathered as many troops as possible, fighting at Lebounion Hill,
resulting in the Pechengs being wiped out, posing no further threat

Crusades Page 15
 resulting in the Pechengs being wiped out, posing no further threat
→ Attack on further threats
▪ For his further threats, he used a different tactic than in Lebounion, he turned to
diplomacy
▪ Sulayman Agreement
□ He was the Turkish Chieftain, Alexios negotiated a peace agreement where
Sulayman would protect the Emperor's Anatolian Holdings
□ Sulayman was an able general, who would put down Turkish Raids on
Byzantine territory in Anatolia, which even resulted in a few thousand
troops to put down Normans in Durazzo
□ Sulayman would gain money from this, and the agreement lasted until
Sulayman's death in the 1090s
▪ Sulayman's Death
□ After his death, Sulayman's successor didn't agree with the agreement,
attacking Byzantine lands in Nicaea
□ This reopened the Byzantine threat in Anatolia, since Sulayman could no
longer protect him
▪ Turkish Civil Wars in 1092
□ Due to the Turks now fighting in Anatolia again, the Sultan of Baghdad was
prepared to enter an alliance with Byzantium as he was scared this would
spill into his land - However, his death came early in 1092, resulting in two
years of Turkish Civil War
□ Alexios couldn't benefit from this power vacuum as most of his warlords
were more concerned with fighting their way to the top
□ However, help for Alexios would come from the Council of Piacenza
- Council of Piacenza 1095
→ Background
▪ Whilst Byzantium, Turkey and Anatolia were in conflict, Pope Urban II was still
fighting for Supremacy
▪ Urban II started a tour of Italy and France to display authority over Henry IV, which
led to a Council of Piacenza in Northern Italy which was attended by Bishops and
other Church Officials
→ What occurred?
▪ Envoys from Alexios arrived with the request for help to regain lands lost in
Anatolia
▪ Alexios essentially was asking the pope for western knights to help him out
→ Why did Urban II surprisingly choose to help?
▪ Urban lifted the excommunication placed on Alexios by Gregory VII, creating a
friendly relationship
▪ Urban also wanted to heal the schism between the two churches, hoping that by
helping Byzantium, he could put himself at the head of a united Church
→ Impact
▪ Urban would call for another council for November 1095, asking the Bishops and
Abbots to bring the prominent lords of their provinces, gathering at Clermont
→ Significance
▪ 1095 marked the culmination of several factors that would result in a crusade
1) Actions of a Pope who sought to assert papal authority and continue
reforms started by Gregory VII
2) Machinations of a Byzantine emperor who had seized control of an empire
and dealt with most of the threats facing him, only to see his policy with the
Turks (Agreement with Sulayman) fail
3) Behaviour of the Turks created a civil war, with a power vacuum created by
the deaths of Sulayman and Malik Shah (Baghdad), meant the Pope was
being opportunistic

Pope Urban II
- The Reasons for calling the First Crusade
→ Urban's Context

Crusades Page 16
 → Urban's Context
▪ By 1095, Urban had stabilised the position in Rome and by co-operating with the
Normans of Sicily he had established a stable power based in Italy
▪ His 1095 tour of France and Italy, designed to take him back to his old stamping
ground to strengthen his power over Henry IV resulted in the Council Piacenza,
which led to the Council of Clermont due to Alexios' appeals
→ Urban's Motives
▪ A main motive was the desire to re-establish friendly relations with Byzantium
and Alexios
□ Since the Schism of 1054 and the excommunication of Byzantium by
Gregory VII, relations had been difficult
□ However, thanks to Urban II reversing Gregory VII's decision, him and
Alexios were on much more friendly terms, which is evident by Alexios
feeling comfortable to ask the Pope for help in his struggle against the Turks
▪ Moreover, despite it being seen as a Christian helping a Christian, it can be said
that Urban just wanted to increase his influence over the Eastern Church
□ This is because by helping out in Anatolia, he hoped that he could unite the
Church under one banner, removing the impacts of the East and West
Schism, with the hopes that Urban II would be heading this new church
□ This meant there was a highly attractive pull for Urban
▪ He also hoped to increase Latin influence over the Christian churches of Asia
Minor, Syria and Palestine
▪ Importance of Jerusalem
□ Jerusalem was the centre of the Christian world and by 1098 it was taken by
the Fatimid's placing it under Shi'a Muslim control, which was less than
optimal for the Pope
□ Jerusalem was the location for Christ's patrimony and passion - Medieval
maps placed Jerusalem at the centre
□ Urban thus wanted Christian control in Jerusalem
▪ Finally, Urban felt responsible for his flock
□ Urban believed that every soul should be saved
□ The fact that knights were being used in Europe to wage war and murder
meant they wouldn't reach heaven, so Urban wanted a way for the knights
to gain safe passage to reach heaven
□ He wanted to direct the common violence of Medieval society to a common
enemy
- The Council of Clermont 1095
→ The Speech on the penultimate day of the 10 day meeting was outside on a specially
constructed stage as so many wanted to hear it
→ No Papal Bull survives but 5 versions of the speech do
→ Gesta Francorum (The Deeds of the Franks) - written by someone associated with
Bohemond of Taranto greatly influenced three other versions - 4 of these versions were
written after Jerusalem's capture, by people not present
→ Only version written by someone likely to be there was by Fulchre of Chartres but he
also wrote after the Jerusalem capture
→ He also offered a remission of sins for those who went, which means anyone who
crusaded would be absolved of their sins, which was important as many of these rulers
had engaged in bloody wars, and murder is a principle sin that sent people to hell

Crusades Page 17
NOTES - Course of the First Crusade
Tuesday, 14 March 2023 10:06 am

The Course of the First Crusade

- The Peasants' Crusade
→ Issues facing them
▪ Peasants' Crusade arrived outside Constantinople in August 1096 after walking
across Europe, and pillaging throughout Eastern Europe and antisemitic attacks
▪ Nish 1096 - Fighting had broken out against the Crusaders due to their ill-
discipline and constant looting
▪ Peter faced the issue of keeping the Peasants' well ordered as they went
through Europe, and stopping them from pillaging, looting, and attacking once
they reached the walls of Constantinople in August 1096
→ Role of Alexios
▪ After reaching the walls of Constantinople in August 1096, Alexios provided
plenty of supplies
▪ However, Peter couldn't keep the crusaders civilised, resulting in mass looting
and pillaging of nearby areas
▪ Alexios had no choice but to ship the crusaders across the Bosporus, placing
them in great danger as they camped at Civetot on the Southern Coast of the
Gulf of Nicomedia, 2 days' march from Nicaea and Kilij Arslan
→ Attack from Nicaea September 1096
▪ After being placed near Nicaea, the Crusaders would raid throughout
September, with Italians and Germans attacking a fort at Xerigordos, resulting in
the Peasant's being counter-besieged by a force from Nicaea
▪ They held out for 8 days, but the heat and lack of water resulted in a weakened
force, and the Seljuk Turkish force from Nicaea broke in and enslaved them all
▪ Actions of the rest of the peasant Crusaders
□ After the rest of the peasant crusaders heard of what the Turks had done,
they decided the best course of action was to attack, leaving only the
weak and ill behind
□ Led by Walter Sansavoir, they became a well organised fighting force,
with around 500 knights and thousands of foot soldiers and peasants
□ However, they met a highly skilled Turkish force intent on finishing the
job they had started at Xerigordos
□ Peter escaped with a few survivors going back to Constantinople, where
he and Alexios awaited the Prince's Crusade
→ Conclusion
▪ The Peasants' Crusade had been a disaster
▪ Within Europe they looted, pillaged and killed large numbers of Jews
▪ In Hungary, King Coloman had defeated them in battle as a result of their
disobedient and rowdy nature
▪ Nish 1096 - Looting turned ugly and locals had to resort to violence to protect
their homes and business
▪ Constantinople August 1096 - Once outside the walls, Alexios didn't let them in,
resulting in them becoming out of control, so Alexios shipped them across the
Bosporus, only for them to loot again
▪ September 1096 - They actions near Nicaea were no different to
Constantinople, they siege on Xerigordos resulted in the Turks easily enslaving
them - The following attack was no better
- The Journey to Constantinople
→ Different Routes
▪ Different routes were taken, so the main armies arrived in Constantinople
separately, each journey different but all had incidents within them
▪ Hugh of Vermandois' Route

Crusades Page 18
▪ Hugh of Vermandois' Route
□ First to set off of the main armies, with a carefully planned journey - He
collected his papal banner in Italy and crossed the Adriatic Sea in October
□ He Shipwrecked crossing the Adriatic Sea, he was rescued but then placed
under House Arrest by Byzantine Officials in Durazzo (modern-day
Albania)
□ The Byzantines then escorted him to Constantinople, where Hugh sent
word to Alexios that his welcome reception befitted his status
□ Alexios was concerned with issues of loyalty, Hugh was impressed enough
with him and Constantinople to swear an oath of fealty
□ This establishes Hugh as a useful medium/convoy between Alexios
(Byzantine Interests) and the Crusader leaders (Frankish interests)
▪ Godfrey of Bouillon's Route
□ Another carefully planned route - This one took the Pilgrim Route that
Peter the Hermit had used months prior
□ August 1096 - Leaves Lorraine and had to negotiate with King Coloman of
Hungary as a result of the Peasant Crusade's actions but on the condition
he left his brother Baldwin of Bouillon in Hungary as collateral (He was
later returned once the army left Hungary)
□ Impact of Alexios
 Alexios had left Godfrey supplies within strategic locations, to stop
his subject from experiencing the same looting that Peter the
Hermit's Peasant Crusade experienced.
 However, the Byzantine house arrest order in Durazzo on Hugh
scared Godfrey into thinking he would see the same fate
 Violence ensued as a result of this, so Alexios withdrew the aid and
the looting within Byzantium began
□ Arrival in Constantinople
 During the looting, an embassy of Westerners and Byzantines went
to placate Godfrey, causing him to arrive safely in Constantinople
on the 23rd of December 1096
 After arriving, Godfrey refused to meet Alexios for several weeks,
resulting in Alexios withdrawing supplies from Godfrey
 Godfrey then launched an assault on Constantinople, Spring 1097
◊ This came to nothing, as diplomatic channels opened
◊ Hostages were exchanged and a meeting between them took
place
□ Godfrey and his nobles swore an oath to Alexios and were shipped across
the Bosporus in February 1097
▪ Bohemond of Taranto
□ Bohemond had the shortest distance to travel, leaving for Constantinople
in Late October 1096
□ He crossed the Adriatic, avoiding Durazzo due to what happened to Hugh,
making slow progress to Constantinople taking 6 months (3 miles a day)
□ They faced no real incident and reached the walls of Constantinople in
April 1097
□ Bohemond left Tancred in charge of the men, visiting Alexios, where he
swore the oath and became a staunch ally
□ They were shipped across the Bosporus by the end of April 1097
▪ Raymond of Toulouse's Journey
□ Possibly the hardest of them all
□ His late start in October 1096 meant that his men were tarnished by the
actions of those who travelled before them
□ Moreover, Raymond chose to march around the head of the Adriatic,
down the Dalmatian coast, where difficult terrain and unfriendly natives
caused troubles
□ By the time he reached Durazzo, he was short on supplies, inevitably

Crusades Page 19
 □ By the time he reached Durazzo, he was short on supplies, inevitably
leading to confrontations with locals
□ Adhemar, Bishop of Le Puy
 During the fighting near Durazzo, caused by the low supplies,
Adhemar was injured, forcing him to spend time in Thessalonica,
meaning the spiritual leader of the Crusade was thwarted
□ Further lootings took place at Roussa (East Macedonia) before reaching
Alexios in April 1097
□ Raymond swore a lesser oath than that of Bohemond, Hugh, and Godfrey
▪ Northern French Leaders (Robert, Duke of Normandy - Robert, Count of
Flanders - Stephen, Count of Blois)
□ They went through the Alps and the Po valley - They met the Pope at
Lucca in late October, before continuing to Rome, Monte Cassino, and
then to Bari in Southern Italy
□ Route Split
 In Bari, Southern Italy, the party split into two groups
 Robert of Flanders crossed the Adriatic and made his way to
Constantinople
 Robert of Normandy and Stephen delayed and stayed in Southern
Italy
□ Why did the split occur?
 It was mainly due to desertions and a lack of money - Robert of
Normandy and Stephen of Blois had little troops and little money,
resulting in inactivity
□ Rest of the journey
 After this split, the rest of the journey was uneventful, arriving in
Constantinople by May 1097
 They were highly impressed by Constantinople and Alexios,
swearing an Oath in May 1097
 By this point, the Siege of Nicaea had started
- The Siege of Nicaea
→ Peasant's Crusade Impact
▪ Having defeated the crusaders, Kilij Arslan felt free to go East to fight the
Danishmends, a different Seljuk tribe claiming territory after Malik Shah's death
▪ This allowed the crusaders to land unharmed off the coast of Asia Minor and
freely make preparations to attack Nicaea
→ Role of Alexios
▪ Alexios wanted to return Nicaea back to Byzantium but refused to lead the
attack himself, instead appointing a military advisor, Boutoumites and
commander Taticus with 2,000 troops after seeing victory as possible
▪ Alexios opened a secure supply and communication line to the coast and lined
with crosses
→ Tactics
▪ By early June Nicaea's land walls were encircled, with the Lake Askanian side
not being able to be encircled
▪ The Siege was two-fold: a blockade was placed around the city to starve the
garrison into submission, and an assault was launched with siege engines
constructed on-site
▪ The Princes met in a council to make all major decisions and despite their egos
and personalities, worked well together
→ Why did they win?
▪ The threat of Kilij Arslan was repulsed by good leadership from Godfrey and
Bohemond, allowing the crusaders to concentrate on breaking the walls to
Nicaea
▪ With supplies entering from the lake, boats supplied by Alexios travelled 30km
from Civetot to the lake shore where a two-pronged attack hit the city
→ Aftermath
▪ The Turks then surrendered and sued for peace on 18th June 1097 -

Crusades Page 20
 ▪ The Turks then surrendered and sued for peace on 18th June 1097 -
Boutoumites and Taticus took the surrender, stopping the crusaders from
plundering
▪ Alexios distributed money and gifts, keeping everyone calm but no entirely
happy
▪ Alexios regained Nicaea
- The Battle of Dorylaeum
→ Post-Nicaea Actions
▪ Two groups left Nicaea; the vanguard led by Bohemond and Robert of
Normandy, while Godfrey, Robert of Flanders and Hugh would lead the rear and
trail by a few days
▪ This allowed for easier foraging of food and supplies
→ Attack on Bohemond
▪ Bohemond's camp was attacked by a swirling mass of mounted Turkish archers,
of equal number to Bohemond's men
▪ Bohemond and Robert of Normandy's Actions were key
□ Firstly, they sent riders off to get reinforcements from the other crusaders
□ Secondly, a makeshift camp, offering protection, was established, with a
swamp on one side
□ Third, Knights were deployed in a tight formation and instructed not to be
drawn into battle
□ Once in battle, the Knights offered morale-boosting religious phrases and
priests moved up and down the ranks offering prayers
▪ They won due to the combination of military leadership and religious beliefs
which managed to keep the lines from breaking
▪ Arrival of Relief
□ Relief arrived after mid-day
□ Adhemar led his troops in a flanking manoeuvre whilst Godfrey, Hugh and
Raymond led the cavalry charge
□ This was too much for Kilij Arslan as he couldn't work his way out of the
cavalry charge, not could he break Bohemond and Robert's defensive
line - So he fled
▪ Aftermath
□ A day of looting and killing took place by the Crusaders
□ Kilij Arslan introduced a 'scorched-earth' policy as he fed east
□ Casualties were high on both sides and the crusaders had to take three
days to recovery and bury the dead
- The March to Antioch
→ Issues facing the Crusaders
▪ They faced a lack of water and food, intense heat, and treacherous weather all
around
→ Route taken
▪ Their route, devised by Taticius took them along the edge of them mountains to
the south of the Desert
▪ Iconium have respite from the hardships endured, offering fresh streams and
delicious orchards
▪ They also were in Armenian Christian territory, meaning they were in a friendly
area, with locals offering advice
▪ 20th October - They arrived at the Iron Bridge just 3 hours from Antioch
→ Baldwin and Tancred's Separation
▪ Baldwin and Tancred wanted to carve their own territories, causing them to
leave the main army
▪ Over the next few weeks a number of Turkish-held but Armenian populated
towns were taken by both men, such as the notable port town of Alexandretta -
which was useful for the later siege of Antioch
▪ Thoros and Edessa
□ At Edessa, Baldwin received an embassy from Thoros who wanted
Baldwin's help in the event of a battle against the atabeg of Mosul

Crusades Page 21
 Baldwin's help in the event of a battle against the atabeg of Mosul
(Kerbogha)
□ Thoros adopted Baldwin, making him is heir - a few days later, he is
ousted and Baldwin took his place (probably by sabotage)
□ Baldwin thus controlled Edessa, and the next few months would see him
enlarge his Edessan territories
▪ Edessa was held by Thoros for Alexios - By right, Baldwin should do the same,
but there was slim chance of this, with Baldwin ruling it independently until
Zengi capturing it in 1144
- The Siege of Antioch
→ Background
▪ Antioch was governed by the Seljuks but was home to Greek, Armenian and
Syrian Christians - Muslims, Arabs, and Jews also lived there
▪ On the death of Malik Shah, his nephews Duqaq and Ridwan fought over who
got Damascus and Aleppo - This resulted in Ridwan trying to kill Duqaq, failed,
and Antioch fell into the hands of Ridwan's father-in-law Yagi-Siyan
▪ Antioch needed to be taken before Jerusalem could be thought about - because
of the clear path to Jerusalem that is created
→ Beginnings
▪ The siege was started in October 1097 - However, Franks were more concerned
with foraging for food - Bohemond and R. Flanders find Duqaq whilst foraging,
they are outnumbered but still force Duqaq to flee
▪ By January 1098, the food situation got even worse - Taticius left the camp to
travel into Asia Minor for food and supplies but never returned - Alexios who
was meant to show up never arrived ever
→ Start of fighting
▪ By early February, Ridwan decided to lead a relief force of around 12,000 to
Antioch
▪ Bohemond, R. Flanders, and Stephen of Blois were heavily outnumbered by
faced the Turkish Force anyway and were surprisingly successful, defeating
them
▪ Duqaq and Aleppo had been neutralised but the Crusaders hadn't broken the
walls of Antioch
▪ March 1098 - Better weather brought more supplies from the coast and the
Crusaders constructed forts in strategic positions, placing a stranglehold on the
garrison in Antioch
▪ Bohemond also started communicating with a guard on the wall, who
eventually agreed to let Bohemond in
→ Breaking the walls
▪ With Kerbogha's army fast approaching, it was agreed that Bohemond should
have the city unless Alexios arrived
▪ 3 June - force of 700 crusaders, led by Bohemond, R. Flanders, and Godfrey got
in after the guard lowered a rope to let 60 men ascend
▪ They were able to secure 3 guard towers before bugles were blown to signal
attack
▪ Garrison was quickly dealt with and before dawn it was clear the Franks would
win
▪ 4th June - Kerbogha's army arrived - great timing from the Franks!
- Stephen of Blois's Desertion
→ Background
▪ Stephen was one of the most prominent leaders of the crusade and his decision
to leave on June 2nd, the day before the capturing of Antioch is unknown - the
fact that Kerbogha's massive army was about to arrive could've resulted in this
▪ As a result of his desertion two main issues occurred
□ He met Alexios on the 20th June, painting a dire picture of the position in
Antioch that Alexios decided to avoid Antioch, a key issue
□ His wife was also so ashamed that Blois was forced to join the 2nd
Crusade, where he died in the 2nd Battle of Ramla, 1102

Crusades Page 22
 Crusade, where he died in the 2nd Battle of Ramla, 1102
→ Post-Antioch Siege Position
▪ Once inside the walls of Antioch, their position barely improved, and Yagi-
Siyan's son held the citadel above them whilst in contact with Kerbogha
▪ Peter Bartholomew, a preacher, had visions and came to Raymond and
Adhemar saying that Christ told him where the Holy Lance was buried -
Adhemar was sceptical but ordered for the floor of St Peter's Church to be dug
up - They found the metal tip of a spear and a piece of wood, causing rejoice
and a huge moral boost
→ Impact of the Holy Lance
▪ With their spirits lifted, the army made a final attack on Kerbogha, believing
they were protected by Christ, and surprisingly won
▪ However, there was a 2 week gap between the two events - Asbridge says this
increased the desperation
□ This is because the Crusaders were waiting for Alexios' reinforcements,
found out none were coming and even sent envoys to Kerbogha for peace
but Kerbogha let them know he wanted to destroy them
□ This made it a do-or-die battle, which is possibly why the Franks won
→ Battle with Kerbogha June 28th 1098
▪ Crusaders filed out the gates of Antioch to an overwhelmingly larger army of
Kerbogha
▪ Franks had around 20,000 men and a few horses but were hungry, deprived of
energy, and battle torn
▪ However, Bohemond's brilliant plan and its super execution by the other
leaders meant that they capitalised on Kerbogha's hesitancy, resulting in victory
▪ This left Antioch safely in Christian hands
- The Death of Adhemar and the march to Jerusalem
→ Impact
▪ When Adhemar died in August, there was no clear appointed leader, resulting
in intense rivalry since Adhemar was the neutral spiritual leader, who was close
friends with Raymond - This creates a huge issue of relations
▪ Raymond and Bohemond start a rivalry over who owns Antioch - this was side-
lined as the rank and file wanted to complete their mission and take Jerusalem
→ March to Jerusalem
▪ Began in November 1098, three months after Antioch was taken
▪ Bohemond didn't leave with the rest but stayed in Antioch to press home his
claim to the city - showing how the death of Adhemar created disunity
▪ Raymond during the march to Jerusalem thus emerged as the Crusading leader
▪ Raymond associated himself with the Holy Lance and thus the men saw him in a
positive light
▪ Issues during the journey
□ It went through the Syrian winter, with food becoming an issue
□ Crusaders supposedly turned to cannibalism to survive
□ Thus, the Crusaders that arrived in Jerusalem in June 1099 were very
weary, weak, and lacked nutrition
- The Siege of Jerusalem
→ Strength
▪ Around 1,300 knights and 12,500 infantrymen arrived to take Jerusalem from
the Shi'a Muslims under al-Afdal's leadership, just a year after al-Afdal took
Jerusalem from Sunni Muslims for the Fatimids
▪ Whilst in Antioch, an Egyptian convoy was sent to the crusaders to reach an
agreement of future co-operation, but no agreement was reached
→ Start of the siege
▪ In the early stages, the strong walls made it in impossible to siege but three key
events would change the fortune of the crusaders
1) Arrival of a Genoese fleet, meant that 2 siege engines could be made from
new wood supplies
2) Visions of Adhemar asserted the men needed to reconnect with God,

Crusades Page 23
 2) Visions of Adhemar asserted the men needed to reconnect with God,
providing the spiritual backbone of the attack
3) News of an Egyptian relief force created a spirit of do-or-die, much like
Kerbogha with Antioch
▪ Thus, it was the practical and the divine that combined to create a win
→ Religious Aspect
▪ 8th July - after a day of fasting, the clergy led the crusaders on a barefoot
procession to the Mount of Olives to ask for God's intercession
▪ In the Vanguard of this procession, there were the holy relics, showing how
important religion war
▪ The visions of Adhemar provided more spiritual support, asserting the men
needed to reconnect with God
→ Godfrey's Military Strategy
▪ Military genius of Godfrey finally allowed for the break-through - His men were
positioned in the North-Western corner of the walls and spotted a part of the
wall that looked weak
▪ However, the weak part of the wall wasn't where the siege engine was firing at,
which was in full view of Jerusalem's men - So Godfrey created a plan to, in
darkness, dismantle it, carry it a few hundred metres East, and rebuild it by
morning to attack the weak spot
▪ The plan worked and after further hard fighting, the walls were breached on the
15th of July
▪ From here, Crusaders scaled the walls and swarmed the cities, with a bloodbath
occurring
→ Aftermath
▪ A bloodbath occurred after the capture of Jerusalem but stories of them wading
in their knees was likely an exaggeration with the use of imagery deriving from
the apocalyptic Book of Revelation 14:20
▪ Egyptian contemporaries say 3,000 died - 10,000 says William of Tyre - 65,000
says Armenian writer Matthew of Edessa - 75,000 says 13th Century Muslim Ibn
al-Athir

Crusades Page 24
NOTES - Motives of Crusaders
Tuesday, 14 March 2023 10:06 am

The Motives of the Crusaders

- The Principle Leaders
→ Raymond, Count of Toulouse and Marquis of Provenance (Religious Zeal)
▪ Background
□ Was in his 60s at the time
□ Had a large wealth of military experience and established himself, ahead of
his elder brother, as Count of Toulouse
□ He was excommunicated twice by Gregory VII - But by the 1080s Raymond
was repentant and an enthusiastic supporter of the Gregorian Reform
Movement of the Church
□ His land received plenty of gossip/news from travellers coming and going
between major pilgrimage destinations of Jerusalem and North-West Iberia -
The tales he heard of the mistreatment of pilgrims could have piqued his
interest
▪ Relationship with Urban
□ It is likely that Raymond met with the Pope before Clermont to discuss the
possibility of Raymond crusading
□ Raymond was keen to go, holding aspirations to be the secular leader of the
Crusade -
□ Adhemar, Bishop of Le Puy
 Adhemar, Bishop of Le Puy, would be the spiritual leader and papal
legate of the Crusade
 He had been on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem before
 He was seen as someone respected by all, key to keeping major
leaders in harmony
 He was close to Raymond
▪ Raymond's Motivations
□ Raymond was a wealthy land-owner, so it wasn't money
□ Religious Zeal
 Raymond, before crusading, settled his accounts in France, giving
possessions to the monastery at St Gilles
 In 1090, he renounced all rights to investiture at the church of St
Gilles, showing his adherence to Canon Law, Gregorian Reforms, and
Urban during a time when this was rare
 He gave up lots of wealth to fund the crusades expedition, intending
to use it all to go crusading
 Anna Komnenus' Accounts
◊ Daughter of Alexios who was present at the meetings between
the two
◊ She spoke of him as a pious and spiritual man - Although the
good relationship of Alexios and Raymond could've influence
this
→ Hugh of Vermandois (To help his brother gain back Urban's Trust, but also self-
importance)
▪ Background
□ King Philip I of France's Brother - Philip was excommunicated by Urban II at
Clermont in 1095 due to an affair - Urban II's growing strength due to reform
can be seen through Philip submitting to Urban as a result, and his brother
joining the crusade
□ Hugh has been said to have an over-inflated sense of self-worth, on his
arrival to Constantinople it was said he sent word that he should be
welcomed as on benefitting his great status

Crusades Page 25
 welcomed as on benefitting his great status
□ Anna Komnenus' Accounts
 She considered him coming from a small, backward country - She said
Hugh thought of himself as King of Kings
▪ Hugh's Motivations
□ Due to the excommunication of Philip I at Clermont, and his subsequent
submission to Urban II, it is suggested that Hugh joined as his brother
needed to make up to the pope
□ Hugh, as described by Anna Komnenus and his actions at Constantinople,
also saw himself as highly important, so naturally wanted to be involved as a
leader of the crusade - Further shown by Riley-Smith suggesting Hugh had
decided just weeks after Clermont that he would lead a contingent East
→ Godfrey of Bouillon (Religious Zeal, but still some finance)
▪ Background
□ Duke of Lower Lorraine, Vassal of Henry IV of the HRE, former opponent of
the pope
□ He made lots of money selling lands to the Church, being astute enough to
make sure he could buy them back when he returned
□ He travelled with his brothers Eustace, Count of Boulogne, and Baldwin of
Boulogne, and their cousin Baldwin of Bourcq
□ All of these men had large military experience, which greatly impacted the
outcome of the crusade and its success
▪ Motives
□ They were all already highly wealthy landowners, so there was no financial
reason to be stated
□ Evidence points to them mostly going for religious reasons
□ They sold most of their land to the church to participate, suggesting a
religious zeal - despite this, they included provisions for when they came
home to gain large amounts of land by buying it back, so finance was ever-
present
→ Bohemond of Taranto (Financial)
▪ Background
□ Clearly went for financial reasons
□ He was overlooked by his father Norman Robert Guiscard and didn't inherit
the Sicilian lands he felt he should have
□ Guiscard's 2nd wife wanted her son to inherit the title and land, instead of
Bohemond, who was Guiscard's eldest son but of a different wife - the title
went to Guiscard's 2nd wife's son Roger Borsa
□ Bohemond was a good solider, arguably the best of the crusaders
▪ Motives for Crusade
□ After learning of the Crusade when besieging Amalfi with his brother after
the Normans invaded and captured much of Sicily, he left immediately with
his nephew Tancred of Lecce
□ He saw it as an opportunity to create his own financial dynasty after losing
out on the inheritance he felt he should've gotten
□ His actions at Antioch during the Crusade solidify this view
→ Northern French Leaders
▪ Background
□ Robert, Duke of Normandy
 Had little money and mortgaged his duchy to his brother, William
Rufus the King of England, to gain 10,000 marks to finance the journey
□ Stephen, Count of Blois
□ Robert II, Count of Flanders
 His father had fought in the Byzantine army on return from pilgrimage
in 1089
▪ Motives
□ The fact that Robert, Duke of Normandy, was willing to mortgage his duchy
clearly shows his dedication to a spiritual cause of the Crusade

Crusades Page 26
 clearly shows his dedication to a spiritual cause of the Crusade
□ Flanders was inspired by his father, with pilgrimaging and piety running in
the family, further suggesting a religious and spiritual motivation for going
on crusade
→ Conclusion
▪ The exact motives will never be known
▪ It could be the spiritual reward offered by the pope, remission of sins (especially
for older militarily experience people like Raymond), the cost was high so
something special had to be on offer to attract the right calibre of soldier
▪ Guaranteed place in heaven was a valuable proposition, especially to men brought
up on warfare and violence
▪ Urban II had channelled the violence of medieval England towards the idea of the
Muslim infidel
▪ The material gain was also clear, with the potential to gain copious lands in the
Near East
- Popular Movements: The Peasants' (or People's) Crusade
→ Background
▪ The bulk of the armies motives were that they had no choice: their superior was
going and so were they
▪ However, for those who went before the Prince's Crusade, there were three key
reasons why they were so motivated they felt they had to go immediately: The
State of the Economy, Breakdown in Society, and a Belief in Religion
→ Breakdown in Society
▪ There was a breakdown in the structure of how a village operated
□ In the Feudal System, the Demesne, which was the way the land was
organised, was falling out of use and nothing was replacing it
□ There was no opportunity for a man to get more land if he needed it, which
was an issue since the population of Europe was increasing, making this an
issue
□ 1094 - Floods and pestilence resulted in a 1095 famine, meaning there were
practical reasons to want to escape Europe
→ State of the Economy
▪ Medieval life was short and brutal.
▪ There was little movement between social classes (those born peasants and those
born nobles would stay there) nor was there geographical movement
▪ Work was hard and monotonous, with land in Europe suffering the impacts of
Barbarian and Norman Invasions, with Dykes being broken (flooded fields by seas
and rivers)
▪ Land was at a premium but landowners did not want to lose their forests because
they didn't want to give up hunting
▪ Moreover, if the lord of the land didn't protect the village then the inhabitants
could expect to come under fire from robbers or be involved in local civil wars
▪ There wasn't enough food or money to go around, so famine and war were
common facts of life
→ Belief in Religion
▪ Belief in the 2nd Coming of Christ was widespread, so preparations were needed
▪ The use of the idea of the Infidel meant there was a genuine zeal to free Jerusalem
from the infidel
→ Urban's Speech at Clermont
▪ Urban's speech as Clermont also played a key role, where he said that 'On this
account I, or rather the Lord, beseech you as Christ's heralds to publish this
everywhere and to persuade all people of whatever rank, foot-soldiers and
knights, poor and rich, to carry aid promptly to those Christians and to destroy
that vile race from the lands of our friends'
▪ This clearly shows that Urban, who was spreading the idea of the Crusade, set out
the clear religious connotations of the Crusade, before demanding that everyone,
including the poor, not only go but also convince as many as possible to go
→ Role of Peter the Hermit

Crusades Page 27
→ Role of Peter the Hermit
▪ He was also a charismatic speaker, thus like Urban, played a key role in getting
people to go on Crusade
▪ Peter was seen as a visionary in his speeches, and people seemed happy to believe
he would lead them to Jerusalem to pave the way for the 2nd Coming of Christ
→ Other Preachers' Role
▪ Preachers toured France and parts of Germany to spread the popish message,
further adding to this spiritual zeal of going on crusade
▪ Robert d'Arbrissel, founder of Fontevraud Abbey, preached about reforming
morals, attracting high numbers to his gatherings
▪ Other preachers included an antisemitic message to Urban's, resulting in violence
and financial extractions from Jews in the Rhineland and beyond - this shows the
religious zeal as they were scared of the dual threat from Jews and Infidel Muslims
→ Conclusion
▪ Peter led a 15,000 man army
▪ It wasn't wholly militarily unskilled, with one of Peter's troop being Walter
Sansavoir who managed to lead a separate group that left for the Holy Land in
May 1096

Crusades Page 28
NOTES - Impact of the First Crusade
Tuesday, 14 March 2023 10:07 am

The Impact of the First Crusade

- Impact of the First Crusade on the Muslim Near East
→ Sunni-Shi'a Split
▪ The major split remained in place after the crusade, with no unity initially arising
from the loss of Jerusalem
→ Failed Counter-offences
▪ Baghdad was thus not interested in the loss, leaving the situation to the local
Sunni warlords if they wanted to attack again - However, Ridwan and Duqaq were
just defeated by the Crusaders, so had no way of retaliating
▪ Kerbogha also just suffered a loss, returning to Mosul and not attacking the
Crusaders again
▪ Syria was also quiet, with Muslim preachers in Damascus trying to mount a charge
but nothing ever occurred
→ Shi'a Egypt's Counter-Attack
▪ They were unhappy with the loss and planned a counter-attack immediately
▪ Within 3 weeks, they gathered in Ascalon, 70km away and were ready to launch
an attack
▪ Godfrey thus led a pre-emptive strike on the garrison at Ascalon, believing attack
to be the best form of defence, surprising the foe and scattering them back to
Egypt
→ Lack of desire?
▪ The Muslims saw the Franks as a Byzantine force rather than being viewed as a
separate army bent on the subjugation and occupation of their home territory
▪ This is why they could survive, as there was no necessity amongst Muslims to
unite to oppose this new threat
▪ Once the idea of Jihad and a united Muslim front formed then this wasn't an issue,
but for now there was no desire
- Impact of the First Crusade on the Byzantine Empire
→ Suspicions
▪ Despite the Byzantines and the Franks coming from the same religion, and the fact
it was called by Alexios in the first place, the two sides were suspicious of each
other from the beginning
▪ Bohemond had already spent some of his formative years fighting to claim
Byzantine land, which further added to the tensions
▪ Alexios also never expected such high numbers of volunteers, he just wanted a
few knights to fight off the Turkish power vacuum in Anatolia, not tens of
thousands of people ready to conquer the region
▪ The fact he also wanted oaths from all of the leaders further illustrates the
suspicious relationship with the Byzantines
→ Role of Alexios
▪ Alexios provided food, transport, guides, and crucially, soldiers and leadership -
but this ended at Antioch when Taticius and Alexios deserted at Antioch
▪ This resulted in conflict over the ownership of Antioch with Bohemond's insistence
on keeping the city for himself causing tension between the two sides, which
would certainly influence events up to and beyond the 4th Crusade
→ Impact on his lands
▪ Alexios used the crusader's might to his own benefit while making their way
through Anatolia, mopping up towns that were previously part of his empire - Also
took Nicaea
▪ Southern Anatolian coast returned to Byzantine hands, easing pressure on Alexios'
rule by increasing income while reducing military threats
▪ Despite tension, friendship still existed, with Raymond of Toulouse spending time

Crusades Page 29
 ▪ Despite tension, friendship still existed, with Raymond of Toulouse spending time
with Alexios after the conquest of Jerusalem and before his return to carve out his
own fiefdom
- Impact of the First Crusade on the Latin West
→ Urban II
▪ Urban II died 29th July 1099, two weeks after the fall of Jerusalem but he never
found out if his mission was successful as messengers hadn't reached him yet
→ Return of Crusaders
▪ Most Crusaders visited holy sites then went home, returning has heroes, albeit it a
bit poorer
▪ Most were welcomed, except Stephen of Blois who was sent back by his wife
→ Holy Relics
▪ Holy Relics flooded Europe, with some pieces of the True Cross and Holy Lance
being among the unusual
▪ One crusader is said to have returned with a single hair of Christ's beard
▪ Many returned with Palm fronds as a sign of pilgrimage
→ Crusade of 1101
▪ Europeans were caught up and excited by the victory in the east
▪ Reluctant non-participants of the first crusade signed up for a new expedition
▪ Returning crusaders who deserted in Italy (French Rulers Route) or Stephen of
Blois had another chance
→ Reform movement
▪ Reform movement received a welcome enhancement as victory proved that God
was supporting the Catholic Church
▪ No immediate end to the Investiture Controversy occurred but the crusade raised
the prestige of the Church

Crusades Page 30
TABLE - Context
Thursday, 13 April 2023 10:18 am
Situation in Western Europe on the eve of the 1st Crusade
- The Role of the Church
→ The medieval church was an all powerful, international
institution: Europe was bound by its rules, popes and
bishops anointed kings and doom paintings reminded
individuals what awaited for sinners in the afterlife
→ Unexplained phenomena were explained through miracles
and society worked as they knew their place under God
→ Holy Roman Empire
▪ The position of the Holy Roman Emperor emerged
from the time of Charlemagne, Charles the
Magnificent, King of the Franks and the formation of
France and Germany in the 9th Century
▪ He styled himself as a Roman Emperor, and with the
support of the Pope, added 'Holy' to the title
▪ Despite the HRE splitting into France and Germany,
Germany still insisted on using the title of 'Holy
Roman Emperor', but this needed papal support
→ Relationship between pope and the nobility of Europe
▪ The relationship between the pope and nobility of
Europe was important
▪ Church appointments (investitures) were the
responsibility of the church, but the right to appoint
to lucrative posts was often sold to the ruling
nobility (Simony), although this was against canon
law
▪ Simony have the nobility much needed income but
also gave second sons careers in the Church to
secure a future
▪ Church appointments were thus controlled by the
nobility and resemble stocks and shares today (since
an income fee was given to the Church through
tithes)
- Rising Influence of the Papacy
→ Medieval thinkers saw power split between 'spiritual'
power and 'earthly' power
→ Pope was the spiritual leader of Western Christendom - he
made decisions on matters of religion and what was
acceptable in the Catholic Church
→ However, it was unclear if the Pope had 'earthly' power -
which is the right to tell a king what to do, intervene with
kings on the running of kingdoms
→ Link to the HRE
▪ Since the HRE's title came with Popish permission, it
was unclear if the HRE was subject to the demands
of the pope?
▪ 1056 Investiture Contest - Time when nobles in the
HRE were becoming keen to assert independence
from the Emperor - a 6 year old Henry IV inherited
the throne, spending his reign fighting for his title
and maintain control over nobles - His biggest fight
was against the Pope, trying to maintain control in
the Investiture Contest
- The Church Reform Movement
→ 1056 Investiture Contest
▪ The controversy developed over whether or not the
nobility had the right to appoint individuals to
church positions (Investiture)
▪ Church Reformers seized the opportunity of there
being a 6 year old Henry IV to take back the power of
investiture to church positions from the nobility -
This resulted in the creation of the College of
Cardinals, a system to elect new popes
→ Henry IV's Response and excommunication
▪ Henry IV, once matured, continued to appoint his
own bishops
▪ 1073 Pope excommunicated Henry IV, since Pope
had the support of the barons in the HRE (since they
wanted a weaker emperor so they could seize royal
holdings and build forts), Pope also had support
from the Normans of Sicily, which were highly useful
→ 1073 Walk to Canossa
▪ Due to the Normans of Sicily response and issues
with disloyalty from barons within the HRE, Henry IV
had to back down
▪ Henry IV then was absolved, forced to wear a hair
shirt and stand in the snow barefoot in the middle of
winter for 3 days a penance, until the Pope absolved
him
▪ The Investiture Contest shows that after decades of
secular rulers investing and making money from
Church appointments, the popes of the late 11th
Century were becoming more powerful
→ 1084 Backlash
▪ In late 1084, The Pope was under pressure from the
leaders of the people of Rome who disapproved of
his Norman allies' methods in fighting Henry IV
Crusades Page 31
Situation in Byzantium on the eve of the 1st Crusade
- Context on Byzantium
→ Creation of Byzantium
▪ The partition of the Roman Empire in 395
created a Western and Eastern Empire, Rome
in the West and Byzantium in the East
▪ Byzantium was based around Constantinople -
When the Western Roman Empire collapsed, it
resulted in an influx of Germanic tribes, who
were gradually Christianised over hundreds of
years
▪ During the reign of Emperor Justinian I in the
6th Century, the Byzantine Empire had
regained some f the power and glory associated
with Ancient Rome - At its greatest extend it
stretched from the Southern Tip of Spain to
Egypt to Syria in the East to the Black Sea
including Anatolia, Greece and Italy
▪ By the 11th Century - Empire was under a
threefold threat:
□ Normans taking advantage of rivalries in
Southern Italy, challenging the empire for
control of the area
□ Pecheng tribe based around the Black Sea
raiding inland, especially around the
Balkans
□ Seljuk Turks, bands of warrior tribesmen,
were sweeping in from the East through
Anatolia
▪ Impact of the threefold threats:
□ Threats were badly dealt with, by 1071
Normans had taken Sicily and parts of
Southern Italy, creating a power-base
used to harass the empire
□ Bribery was used to but off the Pechengs
□ However, the attempt to deal with the
Seljuk Turk threat caused the greatest
upheaval, listed below
- Impact of defeat in the Battle of Manzikert (Seljuk's)
→ What happened
▪ 1071 Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes took
decisive action against the Turks, riding an army
into battle with them near the fort of Manzikert
in Eastern Anatolia
▪ Romanos badly underestimated the size of the
enemy force, with the battle resulting in
humiliating defeat
→ Impact
▪ Most of Byzantium's Anatolian control was
wiped out
▪ Mass migration occurred in Constantinople and
conscription into the army to fight the battles
against the Turks and Pechengs resulted in a
lack of manpower in the fields, reducing the tax
revenue
▪ Inflation ensued in Byzantium - this was
managed by debasing the coinage, which failed
and Constantinople fell into economic crisis and
a civil war
▪ Thus, the Balkans were being freely raided by
the Pechengs, the Normans launched an attack
on Southern Italy, and the Seljuk's had reach
the shores of the Bosporus
- Alexios Komnenos
→ What did he do?
▪ Komnenos took action against the impending
demise of Byzantium
▪ He was in charge of part of the Byzantine army
and sent to fight the Norman Threat in
Southern Italy - Although instead of marching
to fight the Normans, he turned back around to
Constantinople to dethrone the Emperor,
targeting the cosmopolitan elite of
Constantinople
▪ The Emperor was placed in a monastery, and
Alexios crowned Emperor
→ Role as Emperor
▪ After consolidating his position with the use of
appointments to key positions, he turned to
fight the Normans
▪ Alexios took control of the army and defeated
the Normans
▪ Battle at Lebounion Hill
□ By 1083, he was fighting the Pechengs,
which initially was unsuccessful, making
no ground until 1091
□ Alexios gathered as many troops as
Situation in the Islamic Near East on the eve of the 1st Crusade
- Muslim Expansion
→ Following the death of the Prophet Muhammad, Islam split
into two
→ Sunni - Asserted Caliphs should be democratically elected,
since the first four caliphs were
→ Shia - Asserted that while caliphs could be democratically
elected, only descendants of the Prophet should be Imams
→ By 1095, the two branches of Islam had control of vast
swathes of land in the Near East
- Islamic Society and Economy
→ Islam was widespread by this point - It spanned from North
Africa to the Iberian Peninsula
→ Islamic Cities
▪ Islamic Cities were much bigger and more 'civilised' than
European Cities
▪ Larger cities were >100,000 with Baghdad having
800,000 people in it - This was only rivalled by
Constantinople at 200,000 - whilst London and Paris
only had around 20,000 people in them, similar to
Jerusalem
→ Islamic Towns
▪ They served a variety of functions in society: Trade
centres (market), sacred centre (Mosque), transport
hub, garrison town, and even an administrative centre -
Larger cities or towns would combine all of these
functions into a single area
▪ Population - There was a cosmopolitan mix of people:
Muslims, Jews, Christians, Arabs, Turks, Greeks, Africans,
Slavs, and Europeans
▪ Jizya - Non-Muslims had to pay a Jizya Tax, which serves
to show the payers' submission to Muslim rule, allowing
them to practice their own faith while receiving
protection from the rulers
→ Islamic Economies
▪ They were an agrarian economy, with the production of
foodstuffs meaning that land was key
▪ They sold spices and cloth to Europe, whilst also
importing fur and timber from Europe
▪ They made vast amounts of money from trading
European Slaves
- Islamic Politics
→ Circle of Equity
▪ This is what it took to be a good Islamic Ruler
▪ 'There is no ruler without an army; no army without
revenues; no revenues without cultivation; no
cultivation without equity and good governance'.
→ Government
▪ At the top of society there was a caliph who was just a
symbolic figurehead but was a potent one
→ Conflict in the region
▪ The Umayyad Dynasty which lasted from the 7th to 8th
centuries was overthrown in Syria by the Abbasids, who
made Baghdad their power centre - The Umayyad
Dynasty re-emerged in Spain
▪ A Shi'a caliphate emerged following the conquest of
Northern Africa, pushing into Syria as well - They had a
base in Cairo and would jostle for Supremacy in Sicily,
Syria, and Palestine
▪ Thus, when the Crusaders arrived, there were 2 power-
bases - One in Cairo, One in Baghdad
- Rise of the Seljuk Turks
→ Context
▪ Seljuk Turks were recent converters to Islam and
staunchly Sunni
▪ They had been the dominant power in the region since
the mid-11th Century - They had power bases in Iran
and Iraq, further expanding into Central and Southern
Syria by 1070s, expanding this to Northern Syria by 1080
▪ Sulayman and then Malik Shah exerted power over a
wide area due to the defeat in the 'Battle of Manzikert'
▪ Malik Shah's brother, Tutush, continued the family
dynasty in the North of Syria until his death in 1095 - His
sons, Ridwan of Aleppo and Duqaq of Damascus, argued
with themselves, allowing Kerbogha of Mosul to become
the pre-eminent power in Northern Syria
→ Danishmends
▪ The Danishmends controlled North and East Anatolia,
while the South and West became the Sultanate of Rum
under Kilij Arslan (Sulayman's son)
▪ There was great conflict between Kilij Aslan and the
Danishmends, which impacted the progression of the
crusaders during their crossing of Anatolia
→ Authority of Seljuk Turks
▪ This relied on their martial ability (military skill)
▪ They had well-garrisoned towns ruled by warlords which
 his Norman allies' methods in fighting Henry IV
▪ This meant by Spring 1084 Rome was in carnage,
forcing Gregory to escape with the help of the
Normans whilst Clement III was trying to make
himself the anti-pope
▪ Pope Gregory Dies in 1085
→ Impact of Gregory's Death
▪ Following his death, Abbot Desiderius is persuaded
to leave his monastery at Monte Cassino to become
Pope Victor III
▪ 4 Days after his installation, riots broke out in Rome -
10 months later he was consecrated in Rome, lasted
another month, fled back to Monte Cassino and died
two months later
→ Emergence of Urban II
▪ After the events of Victor III's failure as Pope, Urban
II would emerge as a successor
▪ He was a true Gregorian Reformer - A realist and
recognised he would need Normal support to help in
asserting his position as Pope
▪ It took Urban II 6 years to reach Rome, once he did,
he opened diplomatic relations with the Byzantine
Emperor, Alexius Komnenus
→ Conclusion
▪ Due to successive popes using army's to instil their
beliefs on people, such as Gregory with the Normans
in the HRE and Urban II with the Normans to
legitimise his rule
▪ There was an establishing of the idea that there was
an army controlled by the Pope
▪ This shows the Popes becoming stronger and
asserting itself above the power of the Kings
- Council of Piacenza 1095
Crusades Page 32
□ Alexios gathered as many troops as ▪ They had well-garrisoned towns ruled by warlords which
possible, fighting at Lebounion Hill, kept control over the local populations, and this was
resulting in the Pechengs being wiped essential, as the Seljuks were at odds with most of their
out, posing no further threat subjects on religious grounds
→ Attack on further threats □ This was because the Seljuk's were Sunni, but
▪ For Alexios' further threats, he used a different most of the peasants they ruled over were
tactic than in Lebounion, he turned to Christians or Shi'a Muslims
diplomacy ▪ Fatimid Caliphate (Shi'a)
▪ Sulayman Agreement □ They were to the South of the Seljuk's and relied
□ He was the Turkish Chieftain, Alexios on a mercenary army, with their soldiers coming
negotiated a peace agreement where from the upper Nile region or as slaves
Sulayman would protect the Emperor's □ In 1098, the Vizier of Egypt, al-Afdal, took
Anatolian Holdings Jerusalem for the Fatimids
□ Sulayman was an able general, who
would put down Turkish Raids on
Byzantine territory in Anatolia, which
even resulted in a few thousand troops to
put down Normans in Durazzo
□ Sulayman would gain money from this,
and the agreement lasted until
Sulayman's death in the 1090s
▪ Sulayman's Death
□ After his death, Sulayman's successor
didn't agree with the agreement,
attacking Byzantine lands in Nicaea
□ This reopened the Byzantine threat in
Anatolia, since Sulayman could no longer
protect him
▪ Turkish Civil Wars in 1092
□ Due to the Turks now fighting in Anatolia
again, the Sultan of Baghdad was
prepared to enter an alliance with
Byzantium as he was scared this would
spill into his land - However, his death
came early in 1092, resulting in two years
of Turkish Civil War
□ Alexios couldn't benefit from this power
vacuum as most of his warlords were
more concerned with fighting their way
to the top
□ However, help for Alexios would come
from the Council of Piacenza
→ Background
▪ Whilst Byzantium, Turkey and Anatolia were in
conflict, Pope Urban II was still fighting for
Supremacy
▪ Urban II started a tour of Italy and France to
display authority over Henry IV, which led to a
Council of Piacenza in Northern Italy which was
attended by Bishops and other Church Officials
→ What occurred?
▪ Envoys from Alexios arrived with the request
for help to regain lands lost in Anatolia
▪ Alexios essentially was asking the pope for
western knights to help him out
→ Why did Urban II surprisingly choose to help?
▪ Urban lifted the excommunication placed on
Alexios by Gregory VII, creating a friendly
relationship
▪ Urban also wanted to heal the schism between
the two churches, hoping that by helping
Byzantium, he could put himself at the head of
a united Church
→ Impact
▪ Urban would call for another council for
November 1095, asking the Bishops and Abbots
to bring the prominent lords of their provinces,
gathering at Clermont
→ Significance
▪ 1095 marked the culmination of several factors
that would result in a crusade
1) Actions of a Pope who sought to assert
papal authority and continue reforms
started by Gregory VII
2) Machinations of a Byzantine emperor
who had seized control of an empire and
dealt with most of the threats facing him,
only to see his policy with the Turks
(Agreement with Sulayman) fail
3) Behaviour of the Turks created a civil
war, with a power vacuum created by the
deaths of Sulayman and Malik Shah
(Baghdad), meant the Pope was being
opportunistic
U - TABLE - Build-up
Thursday, 13 April 2023 10:19 am
Reasons for Alexius' Appeal
- Alexios Komnenos
→ What did he do?
▪ Komnenos took action against the impending demise of Byzantium
▪ He was in charge of part of the Byzantine army and sent to fight the
Norman Threat in Southern Italy - Although instead of marching to fight
the Normans, he turned back around to Constantinople to dethrone the
Emperor, targeting the cosmopolitan elite of Constantinople
▪ The Emperor was placed in a monastery, and Alexios crowned Emperor
→ Role as Emperor
▪ After consolidating his position with the use of appointments to key
positions, he turned to fight the Normans
▪ Alexios took control of the army and defeated the Normans
▪ Battle at Lebounion Hill
□ By 1083, he was fighting the Pechengs, which initially was
unsuccessful, making no ground until 1091
□ Alexios gathered as many troops as possible, fighting at Lebounion
Hill, resulting in the Pechengs being wiped out, posing no further
threat
→ Attack on further threats
▪ For Alexios' further threats, he used a different tactic than in Lebounion,
he turned to diplomacy
▪ Sulayman Agreement
□ He was the Turkish Chieftain, Alexios negotiated a peace agreement
where Sulayman would protect the Emperor's Anatolian Holdings
□ Sulayman was an able general, who would put down Turkish Raids
on Byzantine territory in Anatolia, which even resulted in a few
thousand troops to put down Normans in Durazzo
□ Sulayman would gain money from this, and the agreement lasted
until Sulayman's death in the 1090s
▪ Sulayman's Death
□ After his death, Sulayman's successor didn't agree with the
agreement, attacking Byzantine lands in Nicaea
□ This reopened the Byzantine threat in Anatolia, since Sulayman
could no longer protect him
▪ Turkish Civil Wars in 1092
□ Due to the Turks now fighting in Anatolia again, the Sultan of
Baghdad was prepared to enter an alliance with Byzantium as he
was scared this would spill into his land - However, his death came
early in 1092, resulting in two years of Turkish Civil War
□ Alexios couldn't benefit from this power vacuum as most of his
warlords were more concerned with fighting their way to the top
□ However, help for Alexios would come from the Council of Piacenza
- Council of Piacenza 1095
→ Background
▪ Whilst Byzantium, Turkey and Anatolia were in conflict, Pope Urban II was
still fighting for Supremacy
▪ Urban II started a tour of Italy and France to display authority over Henry
IV, which led to a Council of Piacenza in Northern Italy which was
attended by Bishops and other Church Officials
→ What occurred?
▪ Envoys from Alexios arrived with the request for help to regain lands lost
in Anatolia
▪ Alexios essentially was asking the pope for western knights to help him
out
→ Why did Urban II surprisingly choose to help?
▪ Urban lifted the excommunication placed on Alexios by Gregory VII,
creating a friendly relationship
▪ Urban also wanted to heal the schism between the two churches, hoping
that by helping Byzantium, he could put himself at the head of a united
Church
→ Impact
▪ Urban would call for another council for November 1095, asking the
Bishops and Abbots to bring the prominent lords of their provinces,
gathering at Clermont
→ Significance
▪ 1095 marked the culmination of several factors that would result in a
crusade
1) Actions of a Pope who sought to assert papal authority and
continue reforms started by Gregory VII
2) Machinations of a Byzantine emperor who had seized control of an
empire and dealt with most of the threats facing him, only to see his - Rising Influence of the Papacy
policy with the Turks (Agreement with Sulayman) fail
3) Behaviour of the Turks created a civil war, with a power vacuum
created by the deaths of Sulayman and Malik Shah (Baghdad),
meant the Pope was being opportunistic
Crusades Page 33
Idea of 'Holy War'
Pope Urban II
- The Reasons for calling the First Crusade
→ Urban's Context
▪ By 1095, Urban had stabilised the position in Rome and by co-operating with the
Normans of Sicily he had established a stable power based in Italy
▪ His 1095 tour of France and Italy, designed to take him back to his old stamping ground to
strengthen his power over Henry IV resulted in the Council Piacenza, which led to the
Council of Clermont due to Alexios' appeals
→ Urban's Motives
▪ A main motive was the desire to re-establish friendly relations with Byzantium and Alexios
□ Since the Schism of 1054 and the excommunication of Byzantium by Gregory VII,
relations had been difficult
□ However, thanks to Urban II reversing Gregory VII's decision, him and Alexios were
on much more friendly terms, which is evident by Alexios feeling comfortable to ask
the Pope for help in his struggle against the Turks
▪ Moreover, despite it being seen as a Christian helping a Christian, it can be said that
Urban just wanted to increase his influence over the Eastern Church
□ This is because by helping out in Anatolia, he hoped that he could unite the Church
under one banner, removing the impacts of the East and West Schism, with the
hopes that Urban II would be heading this new church
□ This meant there was a highly attractive pull for Urban
▪ He also hoped to increase Latin influence over the Christian churches of Asia Minor, Syria
and Palestine
▪ Importance of Jerusalem
□ Jerusalem was the centre of the Christian world and by 1098 it was taken by the
Fatimid's placing it under Shi'a Muslim control, which was less than optimal for the
Pope
□ Jerusalem was the location for Christ's patrimony and passion - Medieval maps
placed Jerusalem at the centre
□ Urban thus wanted Christian control in Jerusalem
▪ Finally, Urban felt responsible for his flock
□ Urban believed that every soul should be saved
□ The fact that knights were being used in Europe to wage war and murder meant
they wouldn't reach heaven, so Urban wanted a way for the knights to gain safe
passage to reach heaven
□ He wanted to direct the common violence of Medieval society to a common enemy
- The Council of Clermont 1095
▪ The Speech on the penultimate day of the 10 day meeting was outside on a specially
constructed stage as so many wanted to hear it
▪ No Papal Bull survives but 5 versions of the speech do
▪ Gesta Francorum (The Deeds of the Franks) - written by someone associated with Bohemond of
Taranto greatly influenced three other versions - 4 of these versions were written after
Jerusalem's capture, by people not present
▪ Only version written by someone likely to be there was by Fulchre of Chartres but he also wrote
after the Jerusalem capture
▪ He also offered a remission of sins for those who went, which means anyone who crusaded
would be absolved of their sins, which was important as many of these rulers had engaged in
bloody wars, and murder is a principle sin that sent people to hell
- The Role of the Church
→ The medieval church was an all powerful, international institution: Europe was bound by its rules,
popes and bishops anointed kings and doom paintings reminded individuals what awaited for sinners
in the afterlife
→ Unexplained phenomena were explained through miracles and society worked as they knew their
place under God
→ Holy Roman Empire
▪ The position of the Holy Roman Emperor emerged from the time of Charlemagne, Charles the
Magnificent, King of the Franks and the formation of France and Germany in the 9th Century
▪ He styled himself as a Roman Emperor, and with the support of the Pope, added 'Holy' to the
title
▪ Despite the HRE splitting into France and Germany, Germany still insisted on using the title of
'Holy Roman Emperor', but this needed papal support
→ Relationship between pope and the nobility of Europe
▪ The relationship between the pope and nobility of Europe was important
▪ Church appointments (investitures) were the responsibility of the church, but the right to
appoint to lucrative posts was often sold to the ruling nobility (Simony), although this was
against canon law
▪ Simony have the nobility much needed income but also gave second sons careers in the Church
to secure a future
▪ Church appointments were thus controlled by the nobility and resemble stocks and shares
today (since an income fee was given to the Church through tithes)
→ Medieval thinkers saw power split between 'spiritual' power and 'earthly' power
→ Pope was the spiritual leader of Western Christendom - he made decisions on matters of religion and
what was acceptable in the Catholic Church
→ However, it was unclear if the Pope had 'earthly' power - which is the right to tell a king what to do,
intervene with kings on the running of kingdoms
→ Link to the HRE
▪ Since the HRE's title came with Popish permission, it was unclear if the HRE was subject to the
demands of the pope?
▪ 1056 Investiture Contest - Time when nobles in the HRE were becoming keen to assert
independence from the Emperor - a 6 year old Henry IV inherited the throne, spending his reign
fighting for his title and maintain control over nobles - His biggest fight was against the Pope,
trying to maintain control in the Investiture Contest
The Situation in Islamic Near East
 The Situation in Islamic Near East
- Muslim Expansion
→ Following the death of the Prophet Muhammad, Islam split into two
→ Sunni - Asserted Caliphs should be democratically elected, since the first four caliphs were
→ Shia - Asserted that while caliphs could be democratically elected, only descendants of the
Prophet should be Imams
→ By 1095, the two branches of Islam had control of vast swathes of land in the Near East
- Islamic Society and Economy
→ Islam was widespread by this point - It spanned from North Africa to the Iberian Peninsula
→ Islamic Cities
▪ Islamic Cities were much bigger and more 'civilised' than European Cities
▪ Larger cities were >100,000 with Baghdad having 800,000 people in it - This was only
rivalled by Constantinople at 200,000 - whilst London and Paris only had around 20,000
people in them, similar to Jerusalem
→ Islamic Towns
▪ They served a variety of functions in society: Trade centres (market), sacred centre
(Mosque), transport hub, garrison town, and even an administrative centre - Larger cities
or towns would combine all of these functions into a single area
▪ Population - There was a cosmopolitan mix of people: Muslims, Jews, Christians, Arabs,
Turks, Greeks, Africans, Slavs, and Europeans
▪ Jizya - Non-Muslims had to pay a Jizya Tax, which serves to show the payers' submission
to Muslim rule, allowing them to practice their own faith while receiving protection from
the rulers
→ Islamic Economies
▪ They were an agrarian economy, with the production of foodstuffs meaning that land was
key
▪ They sold spices and cloth to Europe, whilst also importing fur and timber from Europe
▪ They made vast amounts of money from trading European Slaves
- Islamic Politics
→ Circle of Equity
▪ This is what it took to be a good Islamic Ruler
▪ 'There is no ruler without an army; no army without revenues; no revenues without
cultivation; no cultivation without equity and good governance'.
→ Government
▪ At the top of society there was a caliph who was just a symbolic figurehead but was a
potent one
→ Conflict in the region
▪ The Umayyad Dynasty which lasted from the 7th to 8th centuries was overthrown in Syria
by the Abbasids, who made Baghdad their power centre - The Umayyad Dynasty re-
emerged in Spain
▪ A Shi'a caliphate emerged following the conquest of Northern Africa, pushing into Syria as
well - They had a base in Cairo and would jostle for Supremacy in Sicily, Syria, and
Palestine
▪ Thus, when the Crusaders arrived, there were 2 power-bases - One in Cairo, One in
Baghdad
- Rise of the Seljuk Turks
→ Context
▪ Seljuk Turks were recent converters to Islam and staunchly Sunni
▪ They had been the dominant power in the region since the mid-11th Century - They had
power bases in Iran and Iraq, further expanding into Central and Southern Syria by 1070s,
expanding this to Northern Syria by 1080
▪ Sulayman and then Malik Shah exerted power over a wide area due to the defeat in the
'Battle of Manzikert'
▪ Malik Shah's brother, Tutush, continued the family dynasty in the North of Syria until his
death in 1095 - His sons, Ridwan of Aleppo and Duqaq of Damascus, argued with
themselves, allowing Kerbogha of Mosul to become the pre-eminent power in Northern
Syria
→ Danishmends
▪ The Danishmends controlled North and East Anatolia, while the South and West became
the Sultanate of Rum under Kilij Arslan (Sulayman's son)
▪ There was great conflict between Kilij Aslan and the Danishmends, which impacted the
progression of the crusaders during their crossing of Anatolia
→ Authority of Seljuk Turks
▪ This relied on their martial ability (military skill)
▪ They had well-garrisoned towns ruled by warlords which kept control over the local
populations, and this was essential, as the Seljuks were at odds with most of their
subjects on religious grounds
□ This was because the Seljuk's were Sunni, but most of the peasants they ruled over
were Christians or Shi'a Muslims
▪ Fatimid Caliphate (Shi'a)
□ They were to the South of the Seljuk's and relied on a mercenary army, with their
soldiers coming from the upper Nile region or as slaves
□ In 1098, the Vizier of Egypt, al-Afdal, took Jerusalem for the Fatimids

Crusades Page 34
TABLE - Reasons for 1st Crusade
Thursday, 13 April 2023 10:19 am

Urban II's main concern with calling the crusade was to enhance the reputation of the papacy HDYA/The main aim of the 1st Cru sade was the
capture of Jerusalem HFDYA/Assess the reasons why Urban II made an appeal for a crusade to go the East
Factor Examples For Examples Against
Reputation of the ▪ A main motive was the desire to re-establish friendly relations ▪ Moreover, despite it being seen as a Christian helping a
Papacy with Byzantium and Alexios Christian, it can be said that Urban just wanted to
□ Since the Schism of 1054 and the excommunication of increase his influence over the Eastern Church
Byzantium by Gregory VII, relations had been difficult □ This is because by helping out in Anatolia, he hoped
□ However, thanks to Urban II reversing Gregory VII's that he could unite the Church under one banner,
decision, him and Alexios were on much more friendly removing the impacts of the East and West Schism,
terms, which is evident by Alexios feeling comfortable to with the hopes that Urban II would be heading this
ask the Pope for help in his struggle against the Turks new church
□ This meant there was a highly attractive pull for
▪ Importance of Jerusalem Urban
□ Jerusalem was the centre of the Christian world and by
1098 it was taken by the Fatimid's placing it under Shi'a
Muslim control, which was less than optimal for the Pope
□ Jerusalem was the location for Christ's patrimony and
passion - Medieval maps placed Jerusalem at the centre
□ Urban thus wanted Christian control in Jerusalem
Increasing Church's ▪ Alexios was in a stable position in Rome, so he could look ▪ Importance of Jerusalem
Influence outward by 1095 □ Jerusalem was the centre of the Christian world
□ By 1095, Urban had stabilised the position in Rome and and by 1098 it was taken by the Fatimid's placing it
by co-operating with the Normans of Sicily he had under Shi'a Muslim control, which was less than
established a stable power based in Italy optimal for the Pope
□ His 1095 tour of France and Italy, designed to take him □ Jerusalem was the location for Christ's patrimony
back to his old stamping ground to strengthen his power and passion - Medieval maps placed Jerusalem at
over Henry IV resulted in the Council Piacenza, which led the centre
to the Council of Clermont due to Alexios' appeals □ Urban thus wanted Christian control in Jerusalem
to increase the reputation of the papacy
▪ Moreover, despite it being seen as a Christian helping a
Christian, it can be said that Urban just wanted to increase his
influence over the Eastern Church
□ This is because by helping out in Anatolia, he hoped that
he could unite the Church under one banner, removing
the impacts of the East and West Schism, with the hopes
that Urban II would be heading this new church
□ This meant there was a highly attractive pull for Urban

He also hoped to increase Latin influence over the Christian

churches of Asia Minor, Syria and Palestine

▪ Council of Piacenza 1095

→ Background
▪ Whilst Byzantium, Turkey and Anatolia were in
conflict, Pope Urban II was still fighting for
Supremacy
▪ Urban II started a tour of Italy and France to display
authority over Henry IV, which led to a Council of
Piacenza in Northern Italy which was attended by
Bishops and other Church Officials
→ Why did Urban II surprisingly choose to help?
▪ Urban also wanted to heal the schism between the
two churches, hoping that by helping Byzantium,
he could put himself at the head of a united
Church
→ Impact
▪ Urban would call for another council for November
1095, asking the Bishops and Abbots to bring the
prominent lords of their provinces, gathering at
Clermont
→ Significance
▪ 1095 marked the culmination of several factors that
would result in a crusade
1) Actions of a Pope who sought to assert papal
authority and continue reforms started by
Gregory VII

Crusades Page 35
 Gregory VII
2) Machinations of a Byzantine emperor who
had seized control of an empire and dealt
with most of the threats facing him, only to
see his policy with the Turks (Agreement with
Sulayman) fail
3) Behaviour of the Turks created a civil war,
with a power vacuum created by the deaths
of Sulayman and Malik Shah (Baghdad),
meant the Pope was being opportunistic

Felt Responsible for ▪ Finally, Urban felt responsible for his flock
Alexios □ Urban believed that every soul should be saved
□ The fact that knights were being used in Europe to wage
war and murder meant they wouldn't reach heaven, so
Urban wanted a way for the knights to gain safe passage
to reach heaven
□ He wanted to direct the common violence of Medieval
society to a common enemy
▪ Council of Piacenza 1095
→ Why did Urban II surprisingly choose to help?
▪ Urban also wanted to heal the schism
between the two churches, hoping that by
helping Byzantium, he could put himself at
the head of a united Church

▪ The Council of Clermont 1095

□ The Speech on the penultimate day of the 10 day meeting
was outside on a specially constructed stage as so many
wanted to hear it
□ No Papal Bull survives but 5 versions of the speech do
□ Gesta Francorum (The Deeds of the Franks) - written by
someone associated with Bohemond of Taranto greatly
influenced three other versions - 4 of these versions were
written after Jerusalem's capture, by people not present
□ Only version written by someone likely to be there was by
Fulchre of Chartres but he also wrote after the Jerusalem
capture
□ He also offered a remission of sins for those who went,
which means anyone who crusaded would be absolved of
their sins, which was important as many of these rulers
had engaged in bloody wars, and murder is a principle sin
that sent people to hell

▪ Council of Piacenza 1095

→ Background
▪ Whilst Byzantium, Turkey and Anatolia were in
conflict, Pope Urban II was still fighting for
Supremacy
▪ Urban II started a tour of Italy and France to display
authority over Henry IV, which led to a Council of
Piacenza in Northern Italy which was attended by
Bishops and other Church Officials
→ What occurred?
▪ Envoys from Alexios arrived with the request for
help to regain lands lost in Anatolia
▪ Alexios essentially was asking the pope for western
knights to help him out
→ Why did Urban II surprisingly choose to help?
▪ Urban lifted the excommunication placed on
Alexios by Gregory VII, creating a friendly
relationship
→ Impact
▪ Urban would call for another council for November
1095, asking the Bishops and Abbots to bring the
prominent lords of their provinces, gathering at
Clermont
→ Significance
▪ 1095 marked the culmination of several factors that
would result in a crusade
1) Actions of a Pope who sought to assert papal
authority and continue reforms started by
Gregory VII
2) Machinations of a Byzantine emperor who
had seized control of an empire and dealt
with most of the threats facing him, only to
see his policy with the Turks (Agreement with
Sulayman) fail
3) Behaviour of the Turks created a civil war,
with a power vacuum created by the deaths

Crusades Page 36
 with a power vacuum created by the deaths
of Sulayman and Malik Shah (Baghdad),
meant the Pope was being opportunistic

Crusades Page 37
U - TABLE - Preaching of the 1st Crusade
Thursday, 13 April 2023 10:20 am
Factor
Significance of Jerusalem
Bishop Adhemar and Count
of Toulouse
Use of Saints' Days to
Preach
Examples For
▪ Importance of Jerusalem
□ Jerusalem was the centre of the Christian world and
by 1098 it was taken by the Fatimid's placing it
under Shi'a Muslim control, which was less than
optimal for the Pope
□ Jerusalem was the location for Christ's patrimony
and passion - Medieval maps placed Jerusalem at
the centre
□ Urban thus wanted Christian control in Jerusalem
- Those who preached the crusade would match it up with
the calendar, with Bernard's Processional, he ticked off all
of the key Christian dates, since this is when people would
have the time to listen
- Moreover, this created an association between what
people's saints wanted, and the crusade, increasing how
much people went on Crusade
Crusades Page 38
The Motives of the Crusaders
- The Principle Leaders
→ Raymond, Count of Toulouse and Marquis of Provenance (Religious Zeal)
Examples Against ▪ Background
□ Was in his 60s at the time
□ Had a large wealth of military experience and established himself, ahead of his elder brother, as Count of Toulouse
□ He was excommunicated twice by Gregory VII - But by the 1080s Raymond was repentant and an enthusiastic supporter of the Gregorian Reform Movement of the Church
□ His land received plenty of gossip/news from travellers coming and going between major pilgrimage destinations of Jerusalem a nd North-West Iberia - The tales he heard of the mistreatment of
pilgrims could have piqued his interest
▪ Relationship with Urban
□ It is likely that Raymond met with the Pope before Clermont to discuss the possibility of Raymond crusading
□ Raymond was keen to go, holding aspirations to be the secular leader of the Crusade -
□ Adhemar, Bishop of Le Puy
 Adhemar, Bishop of Le Puy, would be the spiritual leader and papal legate of the Crusade
 He had been on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem before
 He was seen as someone respected by all, key to keeping major leaders in harmony - Council of Piacenza 1095
 He was close to Raymond → Background
▪ Raymond's Motivations ▪ Whilst Byzantium, Turkey and Anatolia were in conflict, Pope Urban II was still fighting for Supremacy
□ Raymond was a wealthy land-owner, so it wasn't money ▪ Urban II started a tour of Italy and France to display authority over Henry IV, which led to a Council of
□ Religious Zeal Piacenza in Northern Italy which was attended by Bishops and other Church Officials
 Raymond, before crusading, settled his accounts in France, giving possessions to the monastery at St Gilles → What occurred?
 In 1090, he renounced all rights to investiture at the church of St Gilles, showing his adherence to Canon Law, Gregorian Reforms, and Urban during a time when▪this was rare
Envoys from Alexios arrived with the request for help to regain lands lost in Anatolia
 He gave up lots of wealth to fund the crusades expedition, intending to use it all to go crusading ▪ Alexios essentially was asking the pope for western knights to help him out
 Anna Komnenus' Accounts → Why did Urban II surprisingly choose to help?
◊ Daughter of Alexios who was present at the meetings between the two ▪ Urban lifted the excommunication placed on Alexios by Gregory VII, creating a friendly relationship
◊ She spoke of him as a pious and spiritual man - Although the good relationship of Alexios and Raymond could've influence this ▪ Urban also wanted to heal the schism between the two churches, hoping that by helping Byzantium, he
→ Hugh of Vermandois (To help his brother gain back Urban's Trust, but also self-importance) could put himself at the head of a united Church
▪ Background → Impact
□ King Philip I of France's Brother - Philip was excommunicated by Urban II at Clermont in 1095 due to an affair - Urban II's growing strength due to reform can be seen through
▪ Urban Philip submitting
would to
call for another council for November 1095, asking the Bishops and Abbots to bring the
Urban as a result, and his brother joining the crusade prominent lords of their provinces, gathering at Clermont
□ Hugh has been said to have an over -inflated sense of self-worth, on his arrival to Constantinople it was said he sent word that he should be welcomed as on benefitting his great statu s
→ Significance
□ Anna Komnenus' Accounts ▪ 1095 marked the culmination of several factors that would result in a crusade
 She considered him coming from a small, backward country - She said Hugh thought of himself as King of Kings 1) Actions of a Pope who sought to assert papal authority and continue reforms started by Gregory VII
▪ Hugh's Motivations 2) Machinations of a Byzantine emperor who had seized control of an empire and dealt with most of the
□ Due to the excommunication of Philip I at Clermont, and his subsequent submission to Urban II, it is suggested that Hugh join ed as his brother needed to make up to the pope threats facing him, only to see his policy with the Turks (Agreement with Sulayman) fail
□ Hugh, as described by Anna Komnenus and his actions at Constantinople, also saw himself as highly important, so naturally wan ted to be involved as a leader of the crusade3)- Further shown
Behaviour by Turks created a civil war, with a power vacuum created by the deaths of Sulayman
of the
Riley-Smith suggesting Hugh had decided just weeks after Clermont that he would lead a contingent East and Malik Shah (Baghdad), meant the Pope was being opportunistic
→ Godfrey of Bouillon (Religious Zeal, but still some finance)
▪ Background Pope Urban II
□ Duke of Lower Lorraine, Vassal of Henry IV of the HRE, former opponent of the pope - The Reasons for calling the First Crusade
□ He made lots of money selling lands to the Church, being astute enough to make sure he could buy them back when he returned → Urban's Context
□ He travelled with his brothers Eustace, Count of Boulogne, and Baldwin of Boulogne, and their cousin Baldwin of Bourcq ▪ By 1095, Urban had stabilised the position in Rome and by co-operating with the Normans of Sicily he had
□ All of these men had large military experience, which greatly impacted the outcome of the crusade and its success established a stable power based in Italy
▪ Motives ▪ His 1095 tour of France and Italy, designed to take him back to his old stamping ground to strengthen his
□ They were all already highly wealthy landowners, so there was no financial reason to be stated
power over Henry IV resulted in the Council Piacenza, which led to the Council of Clermont due to Alexios'
□ Evidence points to them mostly going for religious reasons
appeals
□ They sold most of their land to the church to participate, suggesting a religious zeal - despite this, they included provisions for when they came home to gain large amounts of land by buying it
→ Urban's Motives
back, so finance was ever-present
▪ A main motive was the desire to re-establish friendly relations with Byzantium and Alexios
→ Bohemond of Taranto (Financial) □ Since the Schism of 1054 and the excommunication of Byzantium by Gregory VII, relations had been
▪ Background difficult
□ Clearly went for financial reasons
□ However, thanks to Urban II reversing Gregory VII's decision, him and Alexios were on much more
□ He was overlooked by his father Norman Robert Guiscard and didn't inherit the Sicilian lands he felt he should have
friendly terms, which is evident by Alexios feeling comfortable to ask the Pope for help in his struggle
□ Guiscard's 2nd wife wanted her son to inherit the title and land, instead of Bohemond, who was Guiscard's eldest son but of a different wife - the title went to Guiscard's 2nd wife's son Roger
against the Turks
Borsa
▪ Moreover, despite it being seen as a Christian helping a Christian, it can be said that Urban just wanted to
□ Bohemond was a good solider, arguably the best of the crusaders
increase his influence over the Eastern Church
▪ Motives for Crusade □ This is because by helping out in Anatolia, he hoped that he could unite the Church under one banner,
□ After learning of the Crusade when besieging Amalfi with his brother after the Normans invaded and captured much of Sicily, h e left immediately with his nephew Tancred of Lecce
removing the impacts of the East and West Schism, with the hopes that Urban II would be heading this
□ He saw it as an opportunity to create his own financial dynasty after losing out on the inheritance he felt he should've gott en
new church
□ His actions at Antioch during the Crusade solidify this view
□ This meant there was a highly attractive pull for Urban
→ Northern French Leaders
▪ He also hoped to increase Latin influence over the Christian churches of Asia Minor, Syria and Palestine
▪ Background
▪ Importance of Jerusalem
□ Robert, Duke of Normandy
□ Jerusalem was the centre of the Christian world and by 1098 it was taken by the Fatimid's placing it
 Had little money and mortgaged his duchy to his brother, William Rufus the King of England, to gain 10,000 marks to finance the journey under Shi'a Muslim control, which was less than optimal for the Pope
□ Stephen, Count of Blois
□ Jerusalem was the location for Christ's patrimony and passion - Medieval maps placed Jerusalem at
□ Robert II, Count of Flanders
the centre
 His father had fought in the Byzantine army on return from pilgrimage in 1089 □ Urban thus wanted Christian control in Jerusalem
▪ Motives
▪ Finally, Urban felt responsible for his flock
□ The fact that Robert, Duke of Normandy, was willing to mortgage his duchy clearly shows his dedication to a spiritual cause o f the Crusade
□ Urban believed that every soul should be saved
□ Flanders was inspired by his father, with pilgrimaging and piety running in the family, further suggesting a religious and sp iritual motivation for going on crusade
□ The fact that knights were being used in Europe to wage war and murder meant they wouldn't reach
→ Conclusion heaven, so Urban wanted a way for the knights to gain safe passage to reach heaven
▪ The exact motives will never be known □ He wanted to direct the common violence of Medieval society to a common enemy
▪ It could be the spiritual reward offered by the pope, remission of sins (especially for older militarily experience people like Raymond), the cost was high so something special had to be on offer to
- The Council of Clermont 1095
attract the right calibre of soldier
→ The Speech on the penultimate day of the 10 day meeting was outside on a specially constructed stage as so many
▪ Guaranteed place in heaven was a valuable proposition, especially to men brought up on warfare and violence wanted to hear it
▪ Urban II had channelled the violence of medieval England towards the idea of the Muslim infidel
→ No Papal Bull survives but 5 versions of the speech do
▪ The material gain was also clear, with the potential to gain copious lands in the Near East
→ Gesta Francorum (The Deeds of the Franks) - written by someone associated with Bohemond of Taranto greatly
- Popular Movements: The Peasants' (or People's) Crusade influenced three other versions - 4 of these versions were written after Jerusalem's capture, by people not present
→ Background
→ Only version written by someone likely to be there was by Fulchre of Chartres but he also wrote after the
▪ The bulk of the armies motives were that they had no choice: their superior was going and so were they Jerusalem capture
▪ However, for those who went before the Prince's Crusade, there were three key reasons why they were so motivated they felt th ey had to go immediately: The State of the Economy, Breakdown in
→ He also offered a remission of sins for those who went, which means anyone who crusaded would be absolved of
Society, and a Belief in Religion
their sins, which was important as many of these rulers had engaged in bloody wars, and murder is a principle sin
→ Breakdown in Society that sent people to hell
▪ There was a breakdown in the structure of how a village operated
□ In the Feudal System, the Demesne, which was the way the land was organised, was falling out of use and nothing was replacing it
□ There was no opportunity for a man to get more land if he needed it, which was an issue since the population of Europe was in creasing, making this an issue
□ 1094 - Floods and pestilence resulted in a 1095 famine, meaning there were practical reasons to want to escape Europe
→ State of the Economy
▪ Medieval life was short and brutal.
▪ There was little movement between social classes (those born peasants and those born nobles would stay there) nor was there geographical movement
▪ Work was hard and monotonous, with land in Europe suffering the impacts of Barbarian and Norman Invasions, with Dykes being broken (flooded fields by seas and rivers)
▪ Land was at a premium but landowners did not want to lose their forests because they didn't want to give up hunting
▪ Moreover, if the lord of the land didn't protect the village then the inhabitants could expect to come under fire from robbers or be involved in local civil wars
▪ There wasn't enough food or money to go around, so famine and war were common facts of life
→ Belief in Religion
▪ Belief in the 2nd Coming of Christ was widespread, so preparations were needed
▪ The use of the idea of the Infidel meant there was a genuine zeal to free Jerusalem from the infidel
→ Urban's Speech at Clermont
▪ Urban's speech as Clermont also played a key role, where he said that 'On this account I, or rather the Lord, beseech you as Christ's heralds to publish this everywhere and to persuade all people of
whatever rank, foot-soldiers and knights, poor and rich, to carry aid promptly to those Christians and to destroy that vile race from the lands of our friends'
▪ This clearly shows that Urban, who was spreading the idea of the Crusade, set out the clear religious connotations of the Crusade, before demanding that everyone, including the poor, not only go but
also convince as many as possible to go
→ Role of Peter the Hermit
▪ He was also a charismatic speaker, thus like Urban, played a key role in getting people to go on Crusade
▪ Peter was seen as a visionary in his speeches, and people seemed happy to believe he would lead them to Jerusalem to pave the way for the 2nd Coming of Christ
→ Other Preachers' Role
▪ Preachers toured France and parts of Germany to spread the popish message, further adding to this spiritual zeal of going on crusade
▪ Robert d'Arbrissel, founder of Fontevraud Abbey, preached about reforming morals, attracting high numbers to his gatherings
▪ Other preachers included an antisemitic message to Urban's, resulting in violence and financial extractions from Jews in the Rhineland and beyond - this shows the religious zeal as they were scared of
the dual threat from Jews and Infidel Muslims
→ Conclusion
▪ Peter led a 15,000 man army
▪ It wasn't wholly militarily unskilled, with one of Peter's troop being Walter Sansavoir who managed to lead a separate group that left for the Holy Land in May 1096
TABLE - Motives of the 1st Crusaders
Thursday, 13 April 2023 10:28 am
Possible Question: 'x motives were the most important reason why people went on the First Crusade' HDYA
Factor
Religious Fervour and
Penitence
Political and territorial
reasons (Economic)
Examples For Examples Against
- The Council of Clermont 1095 - Godfrey of Bouillon (Religious Zeal, but still some finance)
→ The Speech on the penultimate day of the 10 day meeting was outside on a specially • despite selling all their land, they included provisions for when they
constructed stage as so many wanted to hear it came home to gain large amounts of land by buying it back, so
→ No Papal Bull survives but 5 versions of the speech do finance was ever-present
→ Gesta Francorum (The Deeds of the Franks) - written by someone associated with
Bohemond of Taranto greatly influenced three other versions - 4 of these versions were - Breakdown in Society
written after Jerusalem's capture, by people not present ▪ There was a breakdown in the structure of how a village operated
→ Only version written by someone likely to be there was by Fulchre of Chartres but he also □ In the Feudal System, the Demesne, which was the way the land
wrote after the Jerusalem capture was organised, was falling out of use and nothing was replacing
→ He also offered a remission of sins for those who went, which means anyone who it
crusaded would be absolved of their sins, which was important as many of these rulers □ There was no opportunity for a man to get more land if he
had engaged in bloody wars, and murder is a principle sin that sent people to hell needed it, which was an issue since the population of Europe
was increasing, making this an issue
- Godfrey of Bouillon (Religious Zeal, but still some finance) □ 1094 - Floods and pestilence resulted in a 1095 famine, meaning
▪ Background there were practical reasons to want to escape Europe
□ Duke of Lower Lorraine, Vassal of Henry IV of the HRE, former opponent of the pope - State of the Economy
□ He made lots of money selling lands to the Church, being astute enough to make ▪ Medieval life was short and brutal.
sure he could buy them back when he returned ▪ There was little movement between social classes (those born
□ He travelled with his brothers Eustace, Count of Boulogne, and Baldwin of peasants and those born nobles would stay there) nor was there
Boulogne, and their cousin Baldwin of Bourcq geographical movement
□ All of these men had large military experience, which greatly impacted the outcome ▪ Work was hard and monotonous, with land in Europe suffering the
of the crusade and its success impacts of Barbarian and Norman Invasions, with Dykes being broken
▪ Motives (flooded fields by seas and rivers)
□ They were all already highly wealthy landowners, so there was no financial reason ▪ Land was at a premium but landowners did not want to lose their
to be stated forests because they didn't want to give up hunting
□ Evidence points to them mostly going for religious reasons ▪ Moreover, if the lord of the land didn't protect the village then the
□ They sold most of their land to the church to participate, suggesting a religious inhabitants could expect to come under fire from robbers or be
zeal - despite this, they included provisions for when they came home to gain involved in local civil wars
large amounts of land by buying it back, so finance was ever-present ▪ There wasn't enough food or money to go around, so famine and war
were common facts of life
- Raymond, Count of Toulouse and Marquis of Provenance (Religious Zeal)
▪ Relationship with Urban
□ It is likely that Raymond met with the Pope before Clermont to discuss the
possibility of Raymond crusading
□ Raymond was keen to go, holding aspirations to be the secular leader of the
Crusade -
□ Adhemar, Bishop of Le Puy
 Adhemar, Bishop of Le Puy, would be the spiritual leader and papal legate of
the Crusade
 He had been on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem before
 He was seen as someone respected by all, key to keeping major leaders in
harmony
 He was close to Raymond
▪ Raymond's Motivations
□ Raymond was a wealthy land-owner, so it wasn't money
□ Religious Zeal
 Raymond, before crusading, settled his accounts in France, giving possessions
to the monastery at St Gilles
 In 1090, he renounced all rights to investiture at the church of St Gilles,
showing his adherence to Canon Law, Gregorian Reforms, and Urban during a
time when this was rare
 He gave up lots of wealth to fund the crusades expedition, intending to use it
all to go crusading
 Anna Komnenus' Accounts
◊ Daughter of Alexios who was present at the meetings between the two
◊ She spoke of him as a pious and spiritual man - Although the good
relationship of Alexios and Raymond could've influence this
- Urban's Speech at Clermont 1095
▪ Urban's speech as Clermont also played a key role, where he said that 'On this account I,
or rather the Lord, beseech you as Christ's heralds to publish this everywhere and to
persuade all people of whatever rank, foot-soldiers and knights, poor and rich, to carry aid
promptly to those Christians and to destroy that vile race from the lands of our friends'
▪ This clearly shows that Urban, who was spreading the idea of the Crusade, set out the
clear religious connotations of the Crusade, before demanding that everyone, including
the poor, not only go but also convince as many as possible to go
▪ Guaranteed place in heaven was a valuable proposition, especially to men brought up on
warfare and violence
▪ Urban II had channelled the violence of medieval England towards the idea of the Muslim
infidel
▪ The material gain was also clear, with the potential to gain copious lands in the Near East
→ Hugh of Vermandois (To help his brother gain back Urban's Trust, but also self-importance) - Godfrey of Bouillon (Religious Zeal, but still some finance)
▪ Background ▪ Background
□ King Philip I of France's Brother - Philip was excommunicated by Urban II at □ Duke of Lower Lorraine, Vassal of Henry IV of the HRE, former
Clermont in 1095 due to an affair - Urban II's growing strength due to reform can opponent of the pope
be seen through Philip submitting to Urban as a result, and his brother joining the □ He made lots of money selling lands to the Church, being astute
crusade enough to make sure he could buy them back when he returned
□ Hugh has been said to have an over-inflated sense of self-worth, on his arrival to □ He travelled with his brothers Eustace, Count of Boulogne, and
Constantinople it was said he sent word that he should be welcomed as on Baldwin of Boulogne, and their cousin Baldwin of Bourcq
benefitting his great status □ All of these men had large military experience, which greatly
□ Anna Komnenus' Accounts impacted the outcome of the crusade and its success
 She considered him coming from a small, backward country - She said Hugh ▪ Motives
thought of himself as King of Kings □ They were all already highly wealthy landowners, so there was
▪ Hugh's Motivations no financial reason to be stated
□ Due to the excommunication of Philip I at Clermont, and his subsequent □ Evidence points to them mostly going for religious reasons
Crusades Page 39
 □ Due to the excommunication of Philip I at Clermont, and his subsequent
submission to Urban II, it is suggested that Hugh joined as his brother needed to
make up to the pope
□ Hugh, as described by Anna Komnenus and his actions at Constantinople, also saw
himself as highly important, so naturally wanted to be involved as a leader of the
crusade - Further shown by Riley-Smith suggesting Hugh had decided just weeks
after Clermont that he would lead a contingent East
→ Bohemond of Taranto (Financial)
▪ Background
□ Clearly went for financial reasons
□ He was overlooked by his father Norman Robert Guiscard and didn't inherit the
Sicilian lands he felt he should have
□ Guiscard's 2nd wife wanted her son to inherit the title and land, instead of
Bohemond, who was Guiscard's eldest son but of a different wife - the title went
to Guiscard's 2nd wife's son Roger Borsa
□ Bohemond was a good solider, arguably the best of the crusaders
▪ Motives for Crusade
□ After learning of the Crusade when besieging Amalfi with his brother after the
Normans invaded and captured much of Sicily, he left immediately with his
nephew Tancred of Lecce
□ He saw it as an opportunity to create his own financial dynasty after losing out on
the inheritance he felt he should've gotten
□ His actions at Antioch during the Crusade solidify this view
→ Breakdown in Society
▪ There was a breakdown in the structure of how a village operated
□ In the Feudal System, the Demesne, which was the way the land was organised,
was falling out of use and nothing was replacing it
□ There was no opportunity for a man to get more land if he needed it, which was
an issue since the population of Europe was increasing, making this an issue
□ 1094 - Floods and pestilence resulted in a 1095 famine, meaning there were
practical reasons to want to escape Europe
→ State of the Economy
▪ Medieval life was short and brutal.
▪ There was little movement between social classes (those born peasants and those born
nobles would stay there) nor was there geographical movement
▪ Work was hard and monotonous, with land in Europe suffering the impacts of Barbarian
and Norman Invasions, with Dykes being broken (flooded fields by seas and rivers)
▪ Land was at a premium but landowners did not want to lose their forests because they
didn't want to give up hunting
▪ Moreover, if the lord of the land didn't protect the village then the inhabitants could
expect to come under fire from robbers or be involved in local civil wars
▪ There wasn't enough food or money to go around, so famine and war were common
facts of life
□ Evidence points to them mostly going for religious reasons
□ They sold most of their land to the church to participate,
suggesting a religious zeal - despite this, they included
provisions for when they came home to gain large amounts of
land by buying it back, so finance was ever-present
- Northern French Leaders
▪ Background
□ Robert, Duke of Normandy
 Had little money and mortgaged his duchy to his brother,
William Rufus the King of England, to gain 10,000 marks to
finance the journey
□ Stephen, Count of Blois
□ Robert II, Count of Flanders
 His father had fought in the Byzantine army on return
from pilgrimage in 1089
▪ Motives
□ The fact that Robert, Duke of Normandy, was willing to
mortgage his duchy clearly shows his dedication to a spiritual
cause of the Crusade
□ Flanders was inspired by his father, with pilgrimaging and piety
running in the family, further suggesting a religious and spiritual
motivation for going on crusade
- Other Preachers' Role
▪ Preachers toured France and parts of Germany to spread the popish
message, further adding to this spiritual zeal of going on crusade
▪ Robert d'Arbrissel, founder of Fontevraud Abbey, preached about
reforming morals, attracting high numbers to his gatherings
▪ Other preachers included an antisemitic message to Urban's, resulting
in violence and financial extractions from Jews in the Rhineland and
beyond - this shows the religious zeal as they were scared of the dual
threat from Jews and Infidel Muslims

Motives of the Normans → Northern French Leaders

▪ Background
□ Robert, Duke of Normandy
 Had little money and mortgaged his duchy to his brother, William Rufus the
King of England, to gain 10,000 marks to finance the journey
□ Stephen, Count of Blois
□ Robert II, Count of Flanders
 His father had fought in the Byzantine army on return from pilgrimage in
1089
▪ Motives
□ The fact that Robert, Duke of Normandy, was willing to mortgage his duchy clearly
shows his dedication to a spiritual cause of the Crusade
□ Flanders was inspired by his father, with pilgrimaging and piety running in the
family, further suggesting a religious and spiritual motivation for going on crusade

Crusades Page 40
TABLE - People's Crusade
Thursday, 13 April 2023 10:20 am
Factor
The Fighters were inexperienced
There were a large number of non- → Urban's Speech at Clermont
combatants including women and
children
→ Attack from Nicaea September 1096 at Xerigordos
Leadership of Peter the Hermit was → Lack of Control to not Attack
poor and he lacked control
→ Role of Alexios
There were problems over supplies → People were desperate to go, so they were inexperienced and lacked supplies
Examples For
→ Urban's Speech at Clermont
▪ Urban's speech as Clermont also played a key role, where he said that 'On this
account I, or rather the Lord, beseech you as Christ's heralds to publish this
everywhere and to persuade all people of whatever rank, foot-soldiers and
knights, poor and rich, to carry aid promptly to those Christians and to destroy
that vile race from the lands of our friends'
▪ This clearly shows that Urban, who was spreading the idea of the Crusade, set out → Actions of the rest of the peasant Crusaders after Nicaea attack in
the clear religious connotations of the Crusade, before demanding that everyone,
including the poor, not only go but also convince as many as possible to go
→ Role of Hungarian King
▪ In Hungary 1096, King Coloman had defeated them in battle as a result of their
disobedient and rowdy nature
→ People were desperate to go, so they were inexperienced and lacked supplies
▪ However, for those who went before the Prince's Crusade, there were three key
reasons why they were so motivated they felt they had to go immediately: The
State of the Economy, Breakdown in Society, and a Belief in Religion
→ Attack from Nicaea September 1096 at Xerigordos
▪ After being placed near Nicaea, the Crusaders would raid throughout September,
with Italians and Germans attacking a fort at Xerigordos, resulting in the
Peasant's being counter-besieged by a force from Nicaea
▪ They held out for 8 days, but the heat and lack of water resulted in a weakened
force, and the Seljuk Turkish force from Nicaea broke in and enslaved them all
→ Actions of the rest of the peasant Crusaders after Nicaea attack in
▪ Urban's speech as Clermont also played a key role, where he said that 'On this
account I, or rather the Lord, beseech you as Christ's heralds to publish this
everywhere and to persuade all people of whatever rank, foot-soldiers and
knights, poor and rich, to carry aid promptly to those Christians and to destroy
that vile race from the lands of our friends'
▪ This clearly shows that Urban, who was spreading the idea of the Crusade, set out
the clear religious connotations of the Crusade, before demanding that everyone,
including the poor, not only go but also convince as many as possible to go
▪ After being placed near Nicaea, the Crusaders would raid throughout September,
with Italians and Germans attacking a fort at Xerigordos, resulting in the
Peasant's being counter-besieged by a force from Nicaea
▪ They held out for 8 days, but the heat and lack of water resulted in a weakened
force, and the Seljuk Turkish force from Nicaea broke in and enslaved them all
• Nish 1096 (Modern day Serbia) -
▪ Fighting had broken out against the Crusaders due to their ill-discipline and
constant looting
▪ Looting turned ugly and locals had to resort to violence to protect their
homes and business
• Constantinople August 1096 -
▪ Once outside the walls, Alexios didn't let them in, resulting in them
becoming out of control, so Alexios shipped them across the Bosporus, only
for them to loot again
• Attack from Nicaea September 1096 at Xerigordos
▪ After being placed near Nicaea, the Crusaders would raid throughout
September, with Italians and Germans attacking a fort at Xerigordos,
resulting in the Peasant's being counter-besieged by a force from Nicaea
▪ They held out for 8 days, but the heat and lack of water resulted in a
weakened force, and the Seljuk Turkish force from Nicaea broke in and
enslaved them all
▪ After reaching the walls of Constantinople in August 1096, Alexios provided
plenty of supplies
▪ However, Peter couldn't keep the crusaders civilised, resulting in mass looting
and pillaging of nearby areas
▪ Alexios had no choice but to ship the crusaders across the Bosporus, placing them
in great danger as they camped at Civetot on the Southern Coast of the Gulf of
Nicomedia, 2 days' march from Nicaea and Kilij Arslan
→ Preachers' Role causing Jewish Attacks
▪ Preachers toured France and parts of Germany to spread the popish message,
further adding to this spiritual zeal of going on crusade
▪ Robert d'Arbrissel, founder of Fontevraud Abbey, preached about reforming
morals, attracting high numbers to his gatherings
▪ Other preachers included an antisemitic message to Urban's, resulting in violence
and financial extractions from Jews in the Rhineland and beyond - this shows the
religious zeal as they were scared of the dual threat from Jews and Infidel Muslim
→ Role of Hungarian King
▪ In Hungary 1096, King Coloman had defeated them in battle as a result of their
disobedient and rowdy nature
Crusades Page 41
Examples Against
→ Strong Leadership/Army
▪ Peter led a 15,000 man army
▪ It wasn't wholly militarily unskilled, with one of Peter's troop
being Walter Sansavoir who managed to lead a separate group
that left for the Holy Land in May 1096
September 1096
□ After the rest of the peasant crusaders heard of what the Turks
had done, they decided the best course of action was to
attack, leaving only the weak and ill behind
□ Led by Walter Sansavoir, they became a well organised fighting
force, with around 500 knights and thousands of foot soldiers
and peasants
□ However, they met a highly skilled Turkish force intent on
finishing the job they had started at Xerigordos
□ Peter escaped with a few survivors going back to
Constantinople, where he and Alexios awaited the Prince's
Crusade
September 1096
□ After the rest of the peasant crusaders heard of what the Turks
had done, they decided the best course of action was to
attack, leaving only the weak and ill behind
□ Led by Walter Sansavoir, they became a well organised fighting
force, with around 500 knights and thousands of foot soldiers
and peasants
□ However, they met a highly skilled Turkish force intent on
finishing the job they had started at Xerigordos
□ Peter escaped with a few survivors going back to
Constantinople, where he and Alexios awaited the Prince's
Crusade
→ Role of Peter the Hermit
• He was also a charismatic speaker, thus like Urban, played a
key role in getting people to go on Crusade
• Peter was seen as a visionary in his speeches, and people
seemed happy to believe he would lead them to Jerusalem to
pave the way for the 2nd Coming of Christ
→ Strong Leadership/Army
• Peter led a 15,000 man army
• It wasn't wholly militarily unskilled, with one of Peter's troop
being Walter Sansavoir who managed to lead a separate group
that left for the Holy Land in May 1096
→ Actions of the rest of the peasant Crusaders after Nicaea attack in
September 1096
• After the rest of the peasant crusaders heard of what the Turks
had done, they decided the best course of action was to
attack, leaving only the weak and ill behind
• Led by Walter Sansavoir, they became a well organised fighting
force, with around 500 knights and thousands of foot soldiers
and peasants
• However, they met a highly skilled Turkish force intent on
finishing the job they had started at Xerigordos
• Peter escaped with a few survivors going back to
Constantinople, where he and Alexios awaited the Prince's
Crusade
→ Role of Alexios
There were problems over supplies → People were desperate to go, so they were inexperienced and lacked supplies
▪ However, for those who went before the Prince's Crusade, there were three key
reasons why they were so motivated they felt they had to go immediately: The
State of the Economy, Breakdown in Society, and a Belief in Religion
→ Breakdown in Society
▪ There was a breakdown in the structure of how a village operated
□ In the Feudal System, the Demesne, which was the way the land was
organised, was falling out of use and nothing was replacing it
□ There was no opportunity for a man to get more land if he needed it, which
was an issue since the population of Europe was increasing, making this an
issue
□ 1094 - Floods and pestilence resulted in a 1095 famine, meaning there
were practical reasons to want to escape Europe
→ Role of Alexios
▪ After reaching the walls of Constantinople in August 1096,
Alexios provided plenty of supplies
▪ However, Peter couldn't keep the crusaders civilised, resulting
in mass looting and pillaging of nearby areas
▪ Alexios had no choice but to ship the crusaders across the
Bosporus, placing them in great danger as they camped at
Civetot on the Southern Coast of the Gulf of Nicomedia, 2
days' march from Nicaea and Kilij Arslan

→ Attack from Nicaea September 1096 at Xerigordos

▪ After being placed near Nicaea, the Crusaders would raid throughout September,
with Italians and Germans attacking a fort at Xerigordos, resulting in the
Peasant's being counter-besieged by a force from Nicaea
▪ They held out for 8 days, but the heat and lack of water resulted in a weakened
force, and the Seljuk Turkish force from Nicaea broke in and enslaved them all

→ State of the Economy

People's Crusade lacked a clear plan → Mix of Motives meant people were divided in their ambitions
Actions of the Hungarian King had
an impact
▪ Medieval life was short and brutal.
▪ There was little movement between social classes (those born peasants and
those born nobles would stay there) nor was there geographical movement
▪ Work was hard and monotonous, with land in Europe suffering the impacts of
Barbarian and Norman Invasions, with Dykes being broken (flooded fields by seas
and rivers)
▪ Land was at a premium but landowners did not want to lose their forests because
they didn't want to give up hunting
▪ Moreover, if the lord of the land didn't protect the village then the inhabitants
could expect to come under fire from robbers or be involved in local civil wars
▪ There wasn't enough food or money to go around, so famine and war were
common facts of life
→ However, people were united in their desire for remission of sins and
→ Religious Motives the belief in Christs 2nd coming, this is why they left before the
▪ Preaching Prince's Crusade
□ Preachers toured France and parts of Germany to spread the popish • Belief in Religion
message, further adding to this spiritual zeal of going on crusade ○ Belief in the 2nd Coming of Christ was widespread, so
□ Robert d'Arbrissel, founder of Fontevraud Abbey, preached about preparations were needed
reforming morals, attracting high numbers to his gatherings ○ The use of the idea of the Infidel meant there was a
▪ Anti-Semitic Preachers genuine zeal to free Jerusalem from the infidel
□ Other preachers included an antisemitic message to Urban's, • Urban's Speech at Clermont
resulting in violence and financial extractions from Jews in the ○ Urban's speech as Clermont also played a key role,
Rhineland and beyond - this shows the religious zeal as they were where he said that 'On this account I, or rather the Lord,
scared of the dual threat from Jews and Infidel Muslims beseech you as Christ's heralds to publish this
▪ Belief in Religion everywhere and to persuade all people of whatever
□ Belief in the 2nd Coming of Christ was widespread, so preparations rank, foot-soldiers and knights, poor and rich, to carry
were needed aid promptly to those Christians and to destroy that vile
□ The use of the idea of the Infidel meant there was a genuine zeal to race from the lands of our friends'
free Jerusalem from the infidel ○ This clearly shows that Urban, who was spreading the
▪ Urban's Speech at Clermont idea of the Crusade, set out the clear religious
□ Urban's speech as Clermont also played a key role, where he said that connotations of the Crusade, before demanding that
'On this account I, or rather the Lord, beseech you as Christ's heralds everyone, including the poor, not only go but also
to publish this everywhere and to persuade all people of whatever convince as many as possible to go
rank, foot-soldiers and knights, poor and rich, to carry aid promptly to • Role of Peter the Hermit
those Christians and to destroy that vile race from the lands of our ○ He was also a charismatic speaker, thus like Urban,
friends' played a key role in getting people to go on Crusade
□ This clearly shows that Urban, who was spreading the idea of the ○ Peter was seen as a visionary in his speeches, and people
Crusade, set out the clear religious connotations of the Crusade, seemed happy to believe he would lead them to
before demanding that everyone, including the poor, not only go but Jerusalem to pave the way for the 2nd Coming of Christ
also convince as many as possible to go
▪ Role of Peter the Hermit
□ He was also a charismatic speaker, thus like Urban, played a key role
in getting people to go on Crusade
□ Peter was seen as a visionary in his speeches, and people seemed
happy to believe he would lead them to Jerusalem to pave the way
for the 2nd Coming of Christ
→ Economic Motives
▪ Medieval life was short and brutal.
▪ There was little movement between social classes (those born peasants and
those born nobles would stay there) nor was there geographical movement
▪ Work was hard and monotonous, with land in Europe suffering the impacts
of Barbarian and Norman Invasions, with Dykes being broken (flooded
fields by seas and rivers)
▪ Land was at a premium but landowners did not want to lose their forests
because they didn't want to give up hunting
▪ Moreover, if the lord of the land didn't protect the village then the
inhabitants could expect to come under fire from robbers or be involved in
local civil wars
▪ There wasn't enough food or money to go around, so famine and war were
common facts of life
→ Political/Territory Motives
▪ There was a breakdown in the structure of how a village operated
□ In the Feudal System, the Demesne, which was the way the land was
organised, was falling out of use and nothing was replacing it
□ There was no opportunity for a man to get more land if he needed it,
which was an issue since the population of Europe was increasing,
making this an issue
□ 1094 - Floods and pestilence resulted in a 1095 famine, meaning
there were practical reasons to want to escape Europe
Role of Hungarian King
→ In Hungary 1096, King Coloman had defeated them in battle as a result of their

Crusades Page 42
an impact
People's Crusade lacked discipline
Time was spent in attacks on Jews
→ In Hungary 1096, King Coloman had defeated them in battle as a result of their
disobedient and rowdy nature
→ Lack of Discipline/Control
• Nish 1096 (Modern day Serbia) - Fighting had broken out against the Crusaders
due to their ill-discipline and constant looting - Looting turned ugly and locals had
to resort to violence to protect their homes and business
• Constantinople August 1096 - Once outside the walls, Alexios didn't let them in,
resulting in them becoming out of control, so Alexios shipped them across the
Bosporus, only for them to loot again
→ Preachers' Role
▪ Preachers toured France and parts of Germany to spread the popish message,
further adding to this spiritual zeal of going on crusade
▪ Robert d'Arbrissel, founder of Fontevraud Abbey, preached about reforming
morals, attracting high numbers to his gatherings
▪ Other preachers included an antisemitic message to Urban's, resulting in violence
and financial extractions from Jews in the Rhineland and beyond - this shows the
religious zeal as they were scared of the dual threat from Jews and Infidel Muslim
Crusades Page 43
U - TABLE - Leadership of the 1st Crusade
Thursday, 13 April 2023 10:20 am

'The Leaders of the 1st Crusade were experienced at fighting in the East' HFDYA

Leader Examples For Examples Against

Raymond
Godfrey
Baldwin
Robert
Bohemond Military Experience (brings a lot)
Hugh
Tancred

Crusades Page 44
TABLE - Course of the 1st Crusade
Thursday, 13 April 2023 10:20 am
Factor Examples For
Siege of Nicaea's - The Siege of Nicaea
Importance → Peasant's Crusade Impact
▪ Having defeated the crusaders, Kilij Arslan felt free
to go East to fight the Danishmends, a different
Seljuk tribe claiming territory after Malik Shah's
death
▪ This allowed the crusaders to land unharmed off
the coast of Asia Minor and freely make
preparations to attack Nicaea
→ Aftermath
▪ The Turks then surrendered and sued for peace on
18th June 1097 - Boutoumites and Taticus took the
surrender, stopping the crusaders from plundering
▪ Alexios distributed money and gifts, keeping
everyone calm but no entirely happy
▪ Alexios regained Nicaea
Battle of Dorylaeum's - The Battle of Dorylaeum
Importance → Post-Nicaea Actions
▪ Two groups left Nicaea; the vanguard led by
Bohemond and Robert of Normandy, while
Godfrey, Robert of Flanders and Hugh would lead
the rear and trail by a few days
▪ This allowed for easier foraging of food and
supplies
→ Attack on Bohemond
▪ Bohemond's camp was attacked by a swirling mass
of mounted Turkish archers, of equal number to
Bohemond's men
▪ Bohemond and Robert of Normandy's Actions were
key
□ Firstly, they sent riders off to get
reinforcements from the other crusaders
□ Secondly, a makeshift camp, offering
protection, was established, with a swamp on
one side
□ Third, Knights were deployed in a tight
formation and instructed not to be drawn
into battle
□ Once in battle, the Knights offered morale-
boosting religious phrases and priests moved
up and down the ranks offering prayers
▪ They won due to the combination of military
leadership and religious beliefs which managed to
keep the lines from breaking
▪ Arrival of Relief
□ Relief arrived after mid-day
□ Adhemar led his troops in a flanking
manoeuvre whilst Godfrey, Hugh and
Raymond led the cavalry charge
□ This was too much for Kilij Arslan as he
couldn't work his way out of the cavalry
charge, not could he break Bohemond and
Robert's defensive line - So he fled
Siege of Antioch's • The Siege of Antioch
Importance • Background
○ Antioch was governed by the Seljuks but was home
to Greek, Armenian and Syrian Christians -
Muslims, Arabs, and Jews also lived there
○ On the death of Malik Shah, his nephews Duqaq
and Ridwan fought over who got Damascus and
Aleppo - This resulted in Ridwan trying to kill
Duqaq, failed, and Antioch fell into the hands of
Ridwan's father-in-law Yagi-Siyan
○ Antioch needed to be taken before Jerusalem
could be thought about - because of the clear path
to Jerusalem that is created
• Post-Antioch Siege Position
• Once inside the walls of Antioch, their position barely
improved, and Yagi-Siyan's son held the citadel above
them whilst in contact with Kerbogha
• Peter Bartholomew, a preacher, had visions and came to
Raymond and Adhemar saying that Christ told him where
the Holy Lance was buried - Adhemar was sceptical but
ordered for the floor of St Peter's Church to be dug up -
They found the metal tip of a spear and a piece of wood,
causing rejoice and a huge moral boost
• Impact of the Holy Lance
• With their spirits lifted, the army made a final attack on
Kerbogha, believing they were protected by Christ, and
surprisingly won
• However, there was a 2 week gap between the two
events - Asbridge says this increased the desperation
○ This is because the Crusaders were waiting for
Alexios' reinforcements, found out none were
coming and even sent envoys to Kerbogha for
peace but Kerbogha let them know he wanted to
destroy them
○ This made it a do-or-die battle, which is possibly
why the Franks won
• Battle with Kerbogha June 28th 1098
• Crusaders filed out the gates of Antioch to an
overwhelmingly larger army of Kerbogha
• Franks had around 20,000 men and a few horses but
were hungry, deprived of energy, and battle torn
• However, Bohemond's brilliant plan and its super
execution by the other leaders meant that they
capitalised on Kerbogha's hesitancy, resulting in victory
• This left Antioch safely in Christian hands
Capture of Antioch's • Battle with Kerbogha June 28th 1098
Importance • Crusaders filed out the gates of Antioch to an
overwhelmingly larger army of Kerbogha
• Franks had around 20,000 men and a few horses but
were hungry, deprived of energy, and battle torn
• However, Bohemond's brilliant plan and its super
execution by the other leaders meant that they
capitalised on Kerbogha's hesitancy, resulting in victory
• This left Antioch safely in Christian hand
• The Siege of Antioch
• Background
○ Antioch was governed by the Seljuks but was home
to Greek, Armenian and Syrian Christians -
Muslims, Arabs, and Jews also lived there
○ On the death of Malik Shah, his nephews Duqaq
and Ridwan fought over who got Damascus and
Aleppo - This resulted in Ridwan trying to kill
Duqaq, failed, and Antioch fell into the hands of
Ridwan's father-in-law Yagi-Siyan
○ Antioch needed to be taken before Jerusalem
could be thought about - because of the clear path
to Jerusalem that is created
Edessa's Importance → Baldwin and Tancred's Separation
▪ Baldwin and Tancred wanted to carve their own
territories, causing them to leave the main army
▪ Over the next few weeks a number of Turkish-held but
Armenian populated towns were taken by both men,
such as the notable port town of Alexandretta - which
was useful for the later siege of Antioch
▪ Thoros and Edessa
□ At Edessa, Baldwin received an embassy from
Thoros who wanted Baldwin's help in the event of
a battle against the atabeg of Mosul (Kerbogha)
□ Thoros adopted Baldwin, making him is heir - a
few days later, he is ousted and Baldwin took his
place (probably by sabotage)
□ Baldwin thus controlled Edessa, and the next few
months would see him enlarge his Edessan
territories
▪ Edessa was held by Thoros for Alexios - By right,
Baldwin should do the same, but there was slim chance
of this, with Baldwin ruling it independently until Zengi
capturing it in 1144
March across Anatolia and
it's impact/importance
Crusades Page 45
Examples Against
The Course of the First Crusade
- The Siege of Nicaea
▪ Impact of Dorylaeum
□ A day of looting and killing took place by the
Crusaders
□ Kilij Arslan introduced a 'scorched-earth' policy as
he fed east
□ Casualties were high on both sides and the
crusaders had to take three days to recovery and
bury the dead
- Stephen of Blois's Desertion
→ Background
▪ Stephen was one of the most prominent
leaders of the crusade and his decision to
leave on June 2nd, the day before the
capturing of Antioch is unknown - the fact
that Kerbogha's massive army was about to
arrive could've resulted in this
▪ As a result of his desertion two main issues
occurred
□ He met Alexios on the 20th June,
painting a dire picture of the position in
Antioch that Alexios decided to avoid
Antioch, a key issue
□ His wife was also so ashamed that Blois
was forced to join the 2nd Crusade,
where he died in the 2nd Battle of
Ramla, 1102
- The Death of Adhemar and the march to Jerusalem
→ Impact
▪ When Adhemar died in August, there was no
clear appointed leader, resulting in intense
rivalry since Adhemar was the neutral
spiritual leader, who was close friends with
Raymond - This creates a huge issue of
relations
▪ Raymond and Bohemond start a rivalry over
who owns Antioch - this was side-lined as the
rank and file wanted to complete their
mission and take Jerusalem
- The Death of Adhemar and the march to Jerusalem
→ Impact
▪ When Adhemar died in August, there was no
clear appointed leader, resulting in intense
rivalry since Adhemar was the neutral
spiritual leader, who was close friends with
Raymond - This creates a huge issue of
relations
▪ Raymond and Bohemond start a rivalry over
who owns Antioch - this was side-lined as the
rank and file wanted to complete their
mission and take Jerusalem
→ March to Jerusalem
▪ Began in November 1098, three months after
Antioch was taken
▪ Bohemond didn't leave with the rest but
stayed in Antioch to press home his claim to
the city - showing how the death of Adhemar
created disunity
▪ Raymond during the march to Jerusalem thus
emerged as the Crusading leader
→ Peasant's Crusade Impact
▪ Having defeated the crusaders, Kilij Arslan felt free to go East to fight the Danishmends, a different Seljuk tribe claiming territory after Malik Shah's death
▪ This allowed the crusaders to land unharmed off the coast of Asia Minor and freely make preparations to attack Nicaea
→ Role of Alexios
▪ Alexios wanted to return Nicaea back to Byzantium but refused to lead the attack himself, instead appointing a military advisor, Boutoumites and commander Taticus with 2,000 troops
after seeing victory as possible
▪ Alexios opened a secure supply and communication line to the coast and lined with crosses
→ Tactics
▪ By early June Nicaea's land walls were encircled, with the Lake Askanian side not being able to be encircled
▪ The Siege was two-fold: a blockade was placed around the city to starve the garrison into submission, and an assault was launched with siege en gines constructed on-site
▪ The Princes met in a council to make all major decisions and despite their egos and personalities, worked well together
→ Why did they win?
▪ The threat of Kilij Arslan was repulsed by good leadership from Godfrey and Bohemond, allowing the crusaders to concentrate o n breaking the walls to Nicaea
▪ With supplies entering from the lake, boats supplied by Alexios travelled 30km from Civetot to the lake shore where a two-pronged attack hit the city
→ Aftermath
▪ The Turks then surrendered and sued for peace on 18th June 1097 - Boutoumites and Taticus took the surrender, stopping the crusaders from plundering
▪ Alexios distributed money and gifts, keeping everyone calm but no entirely happy
▪ Alexios regained Nicaea
- The Battle of Dorylaeum
→ Post-Nicaea Actions
▪ Two groups left Nicaea; the vanguard led by Bohemond and Robert of Normandy, while Godfrey, Robert of Flanders and Hugh would lead the rear and trail by a few days
▪ This allowed for easier foraging of food and supplies
→ Attack on Bohemond
▪ Bohemond's camp was attacked by a swirling mass of mounted Turkish archers, of equal number to Bohemond's men
▪ Bohemond and Robert of Normandy's Actions were key
□ Firstly, they sent riders off to get reinforcements from the other crusaders
□ Secondly, a makeshift camp, offering protection, was established, with a swamp on one side
□ Third, Knights were deployed in a tight formation and instructed not to be drawn into battle
□ Once in battle, the Knights offered morale-boosting religious phrases and priests moved up and down the ranks offering prayers
▪ They won due to the combination of military leadership and religious beliefs which managed to keep the lines from breaking
▪ Arrival of Relief
□ Relief arrived after mid-day
□ Adhemar led his troops in a flanking manoeuvre whilst Godfrey, Hugh and Raymond led the cavalry charge
□ This was too much for Kilij Arslan as he couldn't work his way out of the cavalry charge, not could he break Bohemond and Rob ert's defensive line - So he fled
▪ Aftermath
□ A day of looting and killing took place by the Crusaders
□ Kilij Arslan introduced a 'scorched-earth' policy as he fed east
□ Casualties were high on both sides and the crusaders had to take three days to recovery and bury the dead
- The March to Antioch
→ Issues facing the Crusaders
▪ They faced a lack of water and food, intense heat, and treacherous weather all around
→ Route taken
▪ Their route, devised by Taticius took them along the edge of them mountains to the south of the Desert
▪ Iconium have respite from the hardships endured, offering fresh streams and delicious orchards
▪ They also were in Armenian Christian territory, meaning they were in a friendly area, with locals offering advice
▪ 20th October - They arrived at the Iron Bridge just 3 hours from Antioch
→ Baldwin and Tancred's Separation
▪ Baldwin and Tancred wanted to carve their own territories, causing them to leave the main army
▪ Over the next few weeks a number of Turkish-held but Armenian populated towns were taken by both men, such as the notable port town of Alexandretta - which was useful for the later
siege of Antioch
▪ Thoros and Edessa
□ At Edessa, Baldwin received an embassy from Thoros who wanted Baldwin's help in the event of a battle against the atabeg of M osul (Kerbogha)
□ Thoros adopted Baldwin, making him is heir - a few days later, he is ousted and Baldwin took his place (probably by sabotage)
□ Baldwin thus controlled Edessa, and the next few months would see him enlarge his Edessan territories
▪ Edessa was held by Thoros for Alexios - By right, Baldwin should do the same, but there was slim chance of this, with Baldwin ruling it independently until Zengi capturing it in 1144
- The Siege of Antioch
→ Background
▪ Antioch was governed by the Seljuks but was home to Greek, Armenian and Syrian Christians - Muslims, Arabs, and Jews also lived there
▪ On the death of Malik Shah, his nephews Duqaq and Ridwan fought over who got Damascus and Aleppo - This resulted in Ridwan trying to kill Duqaq, failed, and Antioch fell into the hands
of Ridwan's father-in-law Yagi-Siyan
▪ Antioch needed to be taken before Jerusalem could be thought about - because of the clear path to Jerusalem that is created
→ Beginnings
▪ The siege was started in October 1097 - However, Franks were more concerned with foraging for food - Bohemond and R. Flanders find Duqaq whilst foraging, they are outnumbered but
still force Duqaq to flee
▪ By January 1098, the food situation got even worse - Taticius left the camp to travel into Asia Minor for food and supplies but never returned - Alexios who was meant to show up never
arrived ever
→ Start of fighting
▪ By early February, Ridwan decided to lead a relief force of around 12,000 to Antioch
▪ Bohemond, R. Flanders, and Stephen of Blois were heavily outnumbered by faced the Turkish Force anyway and were surprisingly successful, defeating them
▪ Duqaq and Aleppo had been neutralised but the Crusaders hadn't broken the walls of Antioch
▪ March 1098 - Better weather brought more supplies from the coast and the Crusaders constructed forts in strategic positions, placing a str anglehold on the garrison in Antioch
▪ Bohemond also started communicating with a guard on the wall, who eventually agreed to let Bohemond in
→ Breaking the walls
▪ With Kerbogha's army fast approaching, it was agreed that Bohemond should have the city unless Alexios arrived
▪ 3 June - force of 700 crusaders, led by Bohemond, R. Flanders, and Godfrey got in after the guard lowered a rope to let 60 men ascend
▪ They were able to secure 3 guard towers before bugles were blown to signal attack
▪ Garrison was quickly dealt with and before dawn it was clear the Franks would win
▪ 4th June - Kerbogha's army arrived - great timing from the Franks!
- Stephen of Blois's Desertion
→ Background
▪ Stephen was one of the most prominent leaders of the crusade and his decision to leave on June 2nd, the day before the capturing of Antioch is unknown - the fact that Kerbogha's massive
army was about to arrive could've resulted in this
▪ As a result of his desertion two main issues occurred
□ He met Alexios on the 20th June, painting a dire picture of the position in Antioch that Alexios decided to avoid Antioch, a key issue
□ His wife was also so ashamed that Blois was forced to join the 2nd Crusade, where he died in the 2nd Battle of Ramla, 1102
→ Post-Antioch Siege Position
▪ Once inside the walls of Antioch, their position barely improved, and Yagi-Siyan's son held the citadel above them whilst in contact with Kerbogha
▪ Peter Bartholomew, a preacher, had visions and came to Raymond and Adhemar saying that Christ told him where the Holy Lance was buried - Adhemar was sceptical but ordered for the
floor of St Peter's Church to be dug up - They found the metal tip of a spear and a piece of wood, causing rejoice and a huge moral boost
→ Impact of the Holy Lance
▪ With their spirits lifted, the army made a final attack on Kerbogha, believing they were protected by Christ, and surprisingly won
▪ However, there was a 2 week gap between the two events - Asbridge says this increased the desperation
□ This is because the Crusaders were waiting for Alexios' reinforcements, found out none were coming and even sent envoys to Ke rbogha for peace but Kerbogha let them know he
wanted to destroy them
□ This made it a do-or-die battle, which is possibly why the Franks won
→ Battle with Kerbogha June 28th 1098
▪ Crusaders filed out the gates of Antioch to an overwhelmingly larger army of Kerbogha
▪ Franks had around 20,000 men and a few horses but were hungry, deprived of energy, and battle torn
▪ However, Bohemond's brilliant plan and its super execution by the other leaders meant that they capitalised on Kerbogha's hesitancy, resulting in victory
▪ This left Antioch safely in Christian hands
- The Death of Adhemar and the march to Jerusalem
→ Impact
▪ When Adhemar died in August, there was no clear appointed leader, resulting in intense rivalry since Adhemar was the neutral spiritual leader, who was close friends with Raymond - This
creates a huge issue of relations
▪ Raymond and Bohemond start a rivalry over who owns Antioch - this was side-lined as the rank and file wanted to complete their mission and take Jerusalem
→ March to Jerusalem
▪ Began in November 1098, three months after Antioch was taken
▪ Bohemond didn't leave with the rest but stayed in Antioch to press home his claim to the city - showing how the death of Adhemar created disunity
▪ Raymond during the march to Jerusalem thus emerged as the Crusading leader
▪ Raymond associated himself with the Holy Lance and thus the men saw him in a positive light
▪ Issues during the journey
□ It went through the Syrian winter, with food becoming an issue
□ Crusaders supposedly turned to cannibalism to survive
□ Thus, the Crusaders that arrived in Jerusalem in June 1099 were very weary, weak, and lacked nutrition
- The Siege of Jerusalem
→ Strength
▪ Around 1,300 knights and 12,500 infantrymen arrived to take Jerusalem from the Shi'a Muslims under al-Afdal's leadership, just a year after al-Afdal took Jerusalem from Sunni Muslims for
the Fatimids
▪ Whilst in Antioch, an Egyptian convoy was sent to the crusaders to reach an agreement of future co-operation, but no agreement was reached
→ Start of the siege
▪ In the early stages, the strong walls made it in impossible to siege but three key events would change the fortune of the crusaders
1) Arrival of a Genoese fleet, meant that 2 siege engines could be made from new wood supplies
2) Visions of Adhemar asserted the men needed to reconnect with God, providing the spiritual backbone of the attack
3) News of an Egyptian relief force created a spirit of do-or-die, much like Kerbogha with Antioch
▪ Thus, it was the practical and the divine that combined to create a win
→ Religious Aspect
▪ 8th July - after a day of fasting, the clergy led the crusaders on a barefoot procession to the Mount of Olives to ask for God's intercession
▪ In the Vanguard of this procession, there were the holy relics, showing how important religion war
▪ The visions of Adhemar provided more spiritual support, asserting the men needed to reconnect with God
→ Godfrey's Military Strategy
▪ Military genius of Godfrey finally allowed for the break-through - His men were positioned in the North-Western corner of the walls and spotted a part of the wall that looked weak
▪ However, the weak part of the wall wasn't where the siege engine was firing at, which was in full view of Jerusalem's men - So Godfrey created a plan to, in darkness, dismantle it, carry it a
few hundred metres East, and rebuild it by morning to attack the weak spot
▪ The plan worked and after further hard fighting, the walls were breached on the 15th of July
▪ From here, Crusaders scaled the walls and swarmed the cities, with a bloodbath occurring
→ Aftermath
▪ A bloodbath occurred after the capture of Jerusalem but stories of them wading in their knees was likely an exaggeration with the use of imagery deriving from the apocalyptic Book of
Revelation 14:20
▪ Egyptian contemporaries say 3,000 died - 10,000 says William of Tyre - 65,000 says Armenian writer Matthew of Edessa - 75,000 says 13th Century Muslim Ibn al-Athir
 emerged as the Crusading leader
▪ Raymond associated himself with the Holy
Lance and thus the men saw him in a positive
light
▪ Issues during the journey
□ It went through the Syrian winter, with
food becoming an issue
□ Crusaders supposedly turned to
cannibalism to survive
□ Thus, the Crusaders that arrived in
Jerusalem in June 1099 were very
weary, weak, and lacked nutrition

Crusades Page 46
U - TABLE - Political and Religious Divisions in the Islamic
World
Thursday, 13 April 2023 10:21 am

Sunni Shia

Crusades Page 47
TABLE - Reasons for Success
Thursday, 13 April 2023 10:21 am

Factor Examples For Examples Against

Muslim forces were divided at the time of the
First Crusade
- Islamic Politics (Pre-Crusade)
→ Circle of Equity
▪ This is what it took to be a good Islamic Ruler
▪ 'There is no ruler without an army; no army without revenues; no revenues without cultivation; no cultivation without equity and good governance'.
→ Government
▪ At the top of society there was a caliph who was just a symbolic figurehead but was a potent one
→ Conflict in the region
▪ The Umayyad Dynasty which lasted from the 7th to 8th centuries was overthrown in Syria by the Abbasids, who made Baghdad thei r power centre - The
Umayyad Dynasty re-emerged in Spain
▪ A Shi'a caliphate emerged following the conquest of Northern Africa, pushing into Syria as well - They had a base in Cairo and would jostle for Supremacy
in Sicily, Syria, and Palestine
▪ Thus, when the Crusaders arrived, there were 2 power-bases - One in Cairo, One in Baghdad
- Rise of the Seljuk Turks
→ Context
▪ Seljuk Turks were recent converters to Islam and staunchly Sunni
▪ They had been the dominant power in the region since the mid-11th Century - They had power bases in Iran and Iraq, further expanding into Central and
Southern Syria by 1070s, expanding this to Northern Syria by 1080
▪ Sulayman and then Malik Shah exerted power over a wide area due to the defeat in the 'Battle of Manzikert'
▪ Malik Shah's brother, Tutush, continued the family dynasty in the North of Syria until his death in 1095 - His sons, Ridwan of Aleppo and Duqaq of
Damascus, argued with themselves, allowing Kerbogha of Mosul to become the pre -eminent power in Northern Syria
→ Danishmends
▪ The Danishmends controlled North and East Anatolia, while the South and West became the Sultanate of Rum under Kilij Arslan ( Sulayman's son)
▪ There was great conflict between Kilij Aslan and the Danishmends, which impacted the progression of the crusaders during thei r crossing of Anatolia
→ Authority of Seljuk Turks
▪ This relied on their martial ability (military skill)
▪ They had well-garrisoned towns ruled by warlords which kept control over the local populations, and this was essential, as the Seljuks were at odds with
most of their subjects on religious grounds
□ This was because the Seljuk's were Sunni, but most of the peasants they ruled over were Christians or Shi'a Muslims
▪ Fatimid Caliphate (Shi'a)
□ They were to the South of the Seljuk's and relied on a mercenary army, with their soldiers coming from the upper Nile region or as slaves
□ In 1098, the Vizier of Egypt, al-Afdal, took Jerusalem for the Fatimids

- Impact of the First Crusade on the Muslim Near East

→ Sunni-Shi'a Split
▪ The major split remained in place after the crusade, with no unity initially arising from the loss of Jerusalem
→ Failed Counter-offences
▪ Baghdad was thus not interested in the loss, leaving the situation to the local Sunni warlords if they wanted to attack again - However, Ridwan and Duqaq
were just defeated by the Crusaders, so had no way of retaliating
▪ Kerbogha also just suffered a loss, returning to Mosul and not attacking the Crusaders again
▪ Syria was also quiet, with Muslim preachers in Damascus trying to mount a charge but nothing ever occurred
→ Shi'a Egypt's Counter-Attack
▪ They were unhappy with the loss and planned a counter-attack immediately
▪ Within 3 weeks, they gathered in Ascalon, 70km away and were ready to launch an attack
▪ Godfrey thus led a pre-emptive strike on the garrison at Ascalon, believing attack to be the best form of defence, surprising the foe and scattering them
back to Egypt
→ Lack of desire?
▪ The Muslims saw the Franks as a Byzantine force rather than being viewed as a separate army bent on the subjugation and occup ation of their home
territory
▪ This is why they could survive, as there was no necessity amongst Muslims to unite to oppose this new threat
▪ Once the idea of Jihad and a united Muslim front formed then this wasn't an issue, but for now there was no desire

- The Siege of Nicaea

→ Muslim's Busy Fighting Each other
▪ Having defeated the crusaders, Kilij Arslan felt free to go East to fight the Danishmends, a different Seljuk tribe claiming territory after Malik Shah's death
▪ This allowed the crusaders to land unharmed off the coast of Asia Minor and freely make preparations to attack Nicaea

- The Siege of Antioch

→ Background of Muslim Disunity
▪ Antioch was governed by the Seljuks but was home to Greek, Armenian and Syrian Christians - Muslims, Arabs, and Jews also lived there
▪ On the death of Malik Shah, his nephews Duqaq and Ridwan fought over who got Damascus and Aleppo - This resulted in Ridwan trying to kill Duqaq,
failed, and Antioch fell into the hands of Ridwan's father-in-law Yagi-Siyan
▪ Antioch needed to be taken before Jerusalem could be thought about - because of the clear path to Jerusalem that is created

- The Siege of Jerusalem

→ Background
▪ Around 1,300 knights and 12,500 infantrymen arrived to take Jerusalem from the Shi'a Muslims under al -Afdal's leadership, just a year after al-Afdal took
Jerusalem from Sunni Muslims for the Fatimids
▪ Whilst in Antioch, an Egyptian convoy was sent to the crusaders to reach an agreement of future co -operation, but no agreement was reached

Crusader Military Tactics and Strength → Siege of Nicaea

• Tactics
○ By early June Nicaea's land walls were encircled, with the Lake Askanian side not being able to be encircled
○ The Siege was two-fold: a blockade was placed around the city to starve the garrison into submission, and an assault was launched with siege en gines
constructed on-site
○ The Princes met in a council to make all major decisions and despite their egos and personalities, worked well together
▪ Why did they win?
○ The threat of Kilij Arslan was repulsed by good leadership from Godfrey and Bohemond, allowing the crusaders to concentrate o n breaking the walls to
Nicaea
○ With supplies entering from the lake, boats supplied by Alexios travelled 30km from Civetot to the lake shore where a two -pronged attack hit the city

→ Battle of Dorylaeum
▪ Bohemond's camp was attacked by a swirling mass of mounted Turkish archers, of equal number to Bohemond's men
▪ Bohemond and Robert of Normandy's Tactics
□ Firstly, they sent riders off to get reinforcements from the other crusaders
□ Secondly, a makeshift camp, offering protection, was established, with a swamp on one side
□ Third, Knights were deployed in a tight formation and instructed not to be drawn into battle
□ Once in battle, the Knights offered morale-boosting religious phrases and priests moved up and down the ranks offering prayers

→ Post-Siege of Antioch
▪ Battle with Kerbogha June 28th 1098
□ Crusaders filed out the gates of Antioch to an overwhelmingly larger army of Kerbogha
□ Franks had around 20,000 men and a few horses but were hungry, deprived of energy, and battle torn
□ However, Bohemond's brilliant plan and decision on formation to rush out with cavalry moving first, protecting the knights an d its super execution by
the other leaders meant that they capitalised on Kerbogha's hesitancy, resulting in victory
□ This left Antioch safely in Christian hands

Aid from Byzantium/West ▪ Godfrey of Bouillon's Route ▪ Hugh of Vermandois' Route

□ Another carefully planned route - This one took the Pilgrim Route that Peter the Hermit had used months prior □ First to set off of the main armies, with a carefully planned journey - He collected his papal banner in
□ August 1096 - Leaves Lorraine and had to negotiate with King Coloman of Hungary as a result of the Peasant Crusade's actions but on the condition he left his Italy and crossed the Adriatic Sea in October
brother Baldwin of Bouillon in Hungary as collateral (He was later returned once the army left Hungary) □ He Shipwrecked crossing the Adriatic Sea, he was rescued but then placed under House Arrest by
□ Impact of Alexios Byzantine Officials in Durazzo (modern-day Albania)
 Alexios had left Godfrey supplies within strategic locations, to stop his subject from experiencing the same looting that Pet er the Hermit's Peasant □ The Byzantines then escorted him to Constantinople, where Hugh sent word to Alexios that his
Crusade experienced. welcome reception befitted his status

▪ The Siege of Nicaea ▪ Godfrey of Bouillon's Route

Leadership of the First Crusade
→ Role of Alexios □ Arrival in Constantinople
▪ Alexios wanted to return Nicaea back to Byzantium but refused to lead the attack himself, instead appointing a military advis or, Boutoumites and  During the looting, an embassy of Westerners and Byzantines went to placate Godfrey, causing
commander Taticus with 2,000 troops after seeing victory as possible him to arrive safely in Constantinople on the 23rd of December 1096
▪ Alexios opened a secure supply and communication line to the coast and lined with crosses  After arriving, Godfrey refused to meet Alexios for several weeks, resulting in Alexios
▪ With supplies entering from the lake, boats supplied by Alexios travelled 30km from Civetot to the lake shore where a two -pronged attack hit the city withdrawing supplies from Godfrey
→ Aftermath □ Impact of Alexios
▪ The Turks then surrendered and sued for peace on 18th June 1097 - Boutoumites and Taticus took the surrender, stopping the crusaders from plundering  Alexios had left Godfrey supplies within strategic locations, to stop his subject from experiencing
▪ Alexios distributed money and gifts, keeping everyone calm but no entirely happy the same looting that Peter the Hermit's Peasant Crusade experienced.
▪ Alexios regained Nicaea  However, the Byzantine house arrest order in Durazzo on Hugh scared Godfrey into thinking he
would see the same fate
▪ The Siege of Jerusalem  Violence ensued as a result of this, so Alexios withdrew the aid and the looting within Byzantium
→ Strength began
▪ Around 1,300 knights and 12,500 infantrymen arrived to take Jerusalem from the Shi'a Muslims under al -Afdal's leadership, just a year after al-Afdal took  Godfrey then launched an assault on Constantinople, Spring 1097
Jerusalem from Sunni Muslims for the Fatimids ◊ This came to nothing, as diplomatic channels opened
▪ Whilst in Antioch, an Egyptian convoy was sent to the crusaders to reach an agreement of future co -operation, but no agreement was reached ◊ Hostages were exchanged and a meeting between them took place
→ Start of the siege □ Godfrey and his nobles swore an oath to Alexios and were shipped across the Bosporus in February
▪ In the early stages, the strong walls made it in impossible to siege but three key events would change the fortune of the cru saders 1097
1) Arrival of a Genoese fleet, meant that 2 siege engines could be made from new wood supplies
2) Visions of Adhemar asserted the men needed to reconnect with God, providing the spiritual backbone of the attack ▪ Stephen of Blois's Desertion
3) News of an Egyptian relief force created a spirit of do-or-die, much like Kerbogha with Antioch → Background
▪ Thus, it was the practical and the divine that combined to create a win ▪ Stephen was one of the most prominent leaders of the crusade and his decision to leave on June
2nd, the day before the capturing of Antioch is unknown - the fact that Kerbogha's massive army
was about to arrive could've resulted in this
▪ As a result of his desertion two main issues occurred
□ He met Alexios on the 20th June, painting a dire picture of the position in Antioch that
Alexios decided to avoid Antioch, a key issue
□ His wife was also so ashamed that Blois was forced to join the 2nd Crusade, where he died
in the 2nd Battle of Ramla, 1102
→ Godfrey of Bouillon's Route - The Siege of Antioch
• Another carefully planned route - This one took the Pilgrim Route that Peter the Hermit had used months prior → Beginnings
• August 1096 - Leaves Lorraine and had to negotiate with King Coloman of Hungary as a result of the Peasant Crusade's actions but on the condition he left his ▪ The siege was started in October 1097 - However, Franks were more concerned with foraging for
brother Baldwin of Bouillon in Hungary as collateral (He was later returned once the army left Hungary) food - Bohemond and R. Flanders find Duqaq whilst foraging, they are outnumbered but still
force Duqaq to flee
→ Siege of Nicaea ▪ By January 1098, the food situation got even worse - Taticius left the camp to travel into Asia
• Tactics Minor for food and supplies but never returned (deserted) - Alexios who was meant to show up

Crusades Page 48
 • Tactics Minor for food and supplies but never returned (deserted) - Alexios who was meant to show up
○ By early June Nicaea's land walls were encircled, with the Lake Askanian side not being able to be encircled but never arrived
○ The Siege was two-fold: a blockade was placed around the city to starve the garrison into submission, and an assault was launched with siege en gines
constructed on-site - Stephen of Blois's Desertion
○ The Princes met in a council to make all major decisions and despite their egos and personalities, worked well together → Background
▪ Why did they win? ▪ Stephen was one of the most prominent leaders of the crusade and his decision to leave on June
○ The threat of Kilij Arslan was repulsed by good leadership from Godfrey and Bohemond, allowing the crusaders to concentrate o n breaking the walls to 2nd, the day before the capturing of Antioch is unknown - the fact that Kerbogha's massive army
Nicaea was about to arrive could've resulted in this
▪ Post-Nicaea Actions ▪ As a result of his desertion two main issues occurred
▪ Two groups left Nicaea; the vanguard led by Bohemond and Robert of Normandy, while Godfrey, Robert of Flanders and Hugh would lead the rear and □ He met Alexios on the 20th June, painting a dire picture of the position in Antioch that
trail by a few days Alexios decided to avoid Antioch, a key issue
▪ This allowed for easier foraging of food and supplies □ His wife was also so ashamed that Blois was forced to join the 2nd Crusade, where he died
in the 2nd Battle of Ramla, 1102
→ Battle of Dorylaeum
▪ Bohemond's camp was attacked by a swirling mass of mounted Turkish archers, of equal number to Bohemond's men - The Death of Adhemar and the march to Jerusalem
▪ Bohemond and Robert of Normandy's Actions were key → Impact
□ Firstly, they sent riders off to get reinforcements from the other crusaders ▪ When Adhemar died in August, there was no clear appointed leader, resulting in intense rivalry
□ Secondly, a makeshift camp, offering protection, was established, with a swamp on one side since Adhemar was the neutral spiritual leader, who was close friends with Raymond - This
□ Third, Knights were deployed in a tight formation and instructed not to be drawn into battle creates a huge issue of relations
□ Once in battle, the Knights offered morale-boosting religious phrases and priests moved up and down the ranks offering prayers ▪ Raymond and Bohemond start a rivalry over who owns Antioch - this was side-lined as the rank
▪ They won due to the combination of military leadership and religious beliefs which managed to keep the lines from breaking and file wanted to complete their mission and take Jerusalem
▪ Arrival of Relief → March to Jerusalem
□ Relief arrived after mid-day from Adhemar ▪ Began in November 1098, three months after Antioch was taken
□ Adhemar led his troops in a flanking manoeuvre whilst Godfrey, Hugh and Raymond led the cavalry charge ▪ Bohemond didn't leave with the rest but stayed in Antioch to press home his claim to the city -
□ This was too much for Kilij Arslan as he couldn't work his way out of the cavalry charge, not could he break Bohemond and Rob ert's defensive line - So showing how the death of Adhemar created disunity
he fled ▪ Raymond during the march to Jerusalem thus emerged as the Crusading leader
▪ Raymond associated himself with the Holy Lance and thus the men saw him in a positive light
→ The March to Antioch ▪ Issues during the journey
→ Issues facing the Crusaders □ It went through the Syrian winter, with food becoming an issue
▪ They faced a lack of water and food, intense heat, and treacherous weather all around □ Crusaders supposedly turned to cannibalism to survive
→ Route taken □ Thus, the Crusaders that arrived in Jerusalem in June 1099 were very weary, weak, and
▪ Their route, devised by Taticius took them along the edge of them mountains to the south of the Desert lacked nutrition
▪ Iconium have respite from the hardships endured, offering fresh streams and delicious orchards
▪ They also were in Armenian Christian territory, meaning they were in a friendly area, with locals offering advice
▪ 20th October - They arrived at the Iron Bridge just 3 hours from Antioch
→ Baldwin and Tancred's Separation (gaining of Ports and Edessa is key)
▪ Baldwin and Tancred wanted to carve their own territories, causing them to leave the main army
▪ Over the next few weeks a number of Turkish-held but Armenian populated towns were taken by both men, such as the notable port town of
Alexandretta - which was useful for supplies and helping with the later siege of Antioch
▪ Thoros and Edessa
□ At Edessa, Baldwin received an embassy from Thoros who wanted Baldwin's help in the event of a battle against the atabeg of Mosul (Kerbogha)
□ Thoros adopted Baldwin, making him is heir - a few days later, he is ousted and Baldwin took his place (probably by sabotage)
□ Baldwin thus controlled Edessa, and the next few months would see him enlarge his Edessan territories
▪ Edessa was held by Thoros for Alexios - By right, Baldwin should do the same, but there was slim chance of this, with Baldwin ruling it independently
until Zengi capturing it in 1144

→ The Siege of Antioch (Bohemond Great Leadership)

→ Start of fighting
▪ By early February, Ridwan decided to lead a relief force of around 12,000 to Antioch
▪ Bohemond, R. Flanders, and Stephen of Blois were heavily outnumbered by faced the Turkish Force anyway and were surprisingly successful, defeating
them
▪ Duqaq and Aleppo had been neutralised but the Crusaders hadn't broken the walls of Antioch
▪ March 1098 - Better weather brought more supplies from the coast and the Crusaders constructed forts in strategic positions, placing a str anglehold on
the garrison in Antioch
▪ Bohemond also started communicating with a guard on the wall, who eventually agreed to let Bohemond in
• Breaking the walls
▪ With Kerbogha's army fast approaching, it was agreed that Bohemond should have the city unless Alexios arrived
▪ 3 June - force of 700 crusaders, led by Bohemond, R. Flanders, and Godfrey got in after the guard lowered a rope to let 60 men ascend
▪ They were able to secure 3 guard towers before bugles were blown to signal attack
▪ Garrison was quickly dealt with and before dawn it was clear the Franks would win
▪ 4th June - Kerbogha's army arrived - great timing from the Franks!
• Battle with Kerbogha June 28th 1098
□ Crusaders filed out the gates of Antioch to an overwhelmingly larger army of Kerbogha
□ Franks had around 20,000 men and a few horses but were hungry, deprived of energy, and battle torn
□ However, Bohemond's brilliant plan and decision on formation to rush out with cavalry moving first, protecting the knights an d its super execution by
the other leaders meant that they capitalised on Kerbogha's hesitancy, resulting in victory
□ This left Antioch safely in Christian hands

→ The Siege of Jerusalem

• Godfrey's Military Strategy
□ Military genius of Godfrey finally allowed for the break -through - His men were positioned in the North-Western corner of the walls and spotted a part
of the wall that looked weak
□ However, the weak part of the wall wasn't where the siege engine was firing at, which was in full view of Jerusalem's men - So Godfrey created a plan
to, in darkness, dismantle it, carry it a few hundred metres East, and rebuild it by morning to attack the weak spot
□ The plan worked and after further hard fighting, the walls were breached on the 15th of July
□ From here, Crusaders scaled the walls and swarmed the cities, with a bloodbath occurring
• Aftermath
□ A bloodbath occurred after the capture of Jerusalem but stories of them wading in their knees was likely an exaggeration with the use of imagery
deriving from the apocalyptic Book of Revelation 14:20
□ Egyptian contemporaries say 3,000 died - 10,000 says William of Tyre - 65,000 says Armenian writer Matthew of Edessa - 75,000 says 13th Century
Muslim Ibn al-Athir

Peasant's Crusade's Failure - The Siege of Nicaea

→ Peasant's Crusade Impact
▪ Having defeated the crusaders, Kilij Arslan felt free to go East to fight the Danishmends, a different Seljuk tribe claiming territory after Malik Shah's death
▪ This allowed the crusaders to land unharmed off the coast of Asia Minor and freely make preparations to attack Nicaea
Religious Zeal → Siege of Antioch - The Death of Adhemar and the march to Jerusalem
• Post-Antioch Siege Position → Impact
□ Once inside the walls of Antioch, their position barely improved, and Yagi-Siyan's son held the citadel above them whilst in contact with Kerbogha ▪ When Adhemar died in August, there was no clear appointed leader, resulting in intense rivalry
□ Peter Bartholomew, a preacher, had visions and came to Raymond and Adhemar saying that Christ told him where the Holy Lance w as buried - since Adhemar was the neutral spiritual leader, who was close friends with Raymond - This
Adhemar was sceptical but ordered for the floor of St Peter's Church to be dug up - They found the metal tip of a spear and a piece of wood, causing creates a huge issue of relations
rejoice and a huge moral boost ▪ Raymond and Bohemond start a rivalry over who owns Antioch - this was side-lined as the rank
• Impact of the Holy Lance and file wanted to complete their mission and take Jerusalem
□ With their spirits lifted, the army made a final attack on Kerbogha, believing they were protected by Christ, and surprisingl y won
□ However, there was a 2 week gap between the two events - Asbridge says this increased the desperation
□ This is because the Crusaders were waiting for Alexios' reinforcements, found out none were coming and even sent envoys to Ke rbogha for peace but
Kerbogha let them know he wanted to destroy them
□ This made it a do-or-die battle, which is possibly why the Franks won
▪ Battle with Kerbogha June 28th 1098
□ Crusaders filed out the gates of Antioch to an overwhelmingly larger army of Kerbogha
□ Franks had around 20,000 men and a few horses but were hungry, deprived of energy, and battle torn
□ However, Bohemond's brilliant plan and decision on formation to rush out with cavalry moving first, protecting the knights an d its super execution by
the other leaders meant that they capitalised on Kerbogha's hesitancy, resulting in victory
□ This left Antioch safely in Christian hands

→ The Siege of Jerusalem

→ Start of the siege
▪ In the early stages, the strong walls made it in impossible to siege but three key events would change the fortune of the cru saders
1) Arrival of a Genoese fleet, meant that 2 siege engines could be made from new wood supplies
2) Visions of Adhemar asserted the men needed to reconnect with God, providing the spiritual backbone of the attack
3) News of an Egyptian relief force created a spirit of do-or-die, much like Kerbogha with Antioch
▪ Thus, it was the practical and the divine that combined to create a win
→ Religious Aspect
▪ 8th July - after a day of fasting, the clergy led the crusaders on a barefoot procession to the Mount of Olives to ask for God's interce ssion
▪ In the Vanguard of this procession, there were the holy relics, showing how important religion war
▪ The visions of Adhemar provided more spiritual support, asserting the men needed to reconnect with God

Crusades Page 49
Crusader States
Thursday, 2 March 2023 11:44 am

Crusades Page 50
NOTES - Survival of the States
Wednesday, 22 February 2023 8:30 pm

Survival of the States

→ Leadership
▪ Baldwin I
▪ For
□ 1100 - Claims Jerusalem with 900 men, defeating interceptions from the Duqaq of Damascus, which sets
up the initial Crusader states and is a key place to hold for moral
□ Survived 3 Fatimid Invasions as King of Jerusalem, being renowned for his military tactics
□ Key victories at Ramla in 1101 and 1105
□ In 1111 - He gained minor ports through Diplomacy
□ Worked with Western Aid for ports in Acre, Arsuf and Caesarea, being key for trade and pilgrims later on
in the survival
□ 1115 - Sets up the Castle of Montreal, which becomes key for colonising the trade within Outremer
▪ Against
□ 1100 - Can be said he relied heavily on knights, with 200 of the 900 men being knights, who were key to
fending off from the Duqaq of Damascus
□ His win in Ramla 1105 only came after Western Aid from Italy decided to provide him with Pilgrims after
his loss in Ramla 1102
□ Ramla loss in 1102 was due to his own blunder in terms of his positioning, but also can be blamed on the
reinforcements from the West being smaller in number than Baldwin stated he needed
▪ Baldwin II
▪ For
□ 1119 - Battle of the Field of Blood, after Roger of Antioch's blunder in not waiting for troops, losing to Il-
Ghazi of Mardin and Damascus, Baldwin intervened, reducing the amount of territory lost in the East of
Antioch, restoring stability by marrying his men to the widows
□ By 1124, he has to travel to Antioch 6 times for protection or political reasons, showing how he was vital in
ensuring stability within Antioch
□ 19 campaigns against Muslims in just 13 years, shows he was proactive in the military defence of Outremer
▪ Against
□ Highly reliant on military orders for his campaigns against Muslims
□ He negotiates for Fulk of Anjou to marry his daughter Melisende, but this creates internal tensions with an
outsider being placed in charge - although this provides men, resources, and a clear male successor
□ 1108 - He is captured, and Joscelin of Courtenay makes Alliance with ruler of Mosul for his release, costing
money and blocking the ability to fight Mosul, but does create alliance
▪ Other Leadership
▪ For
□ 1108 - Baldwin II is captured, and Joscelin of Courtenay makes Alliance with ruler of Mosul for his release,
costing money and means they are forced to help Mosul fight Damascus, blocking the ability to fight
Mosul, but does create alliance against Muslims
□ 1105 - Tancred raises an emergency tax, 10,000 men, secured key victories at Edessa and Antioch against
Ridwan of Aleppo's 30,000 men, showing the military strength
□ 1104 - Tancred stabilises Antioch after Bohemond's defeat at the Battle of Harran 1104, which minimises
the amount of land Antioch loses and stabilises the nation
▪ Against
□ 1119 - Battle of the Field of Blood - Roger of Antioch refuses to wait for Jerusalem's reinforcements, is
easily destroyed and killed by Il-Ghazi of Mardin and Damascus
□ 1104 - Bohemond's defeat at Battle of Harran, puts Antioch's borders and stability at risk, needs to be
helped by Tancred
→ Muslim Disunity
▪ For
▪ 1105 - After the Fatimid army is defeated by Baldwin I, the leader of Damascus agrees to a trade-pact with
Baldwin, providing a part-armistice and demilitarised zone by 1109
▪ 1108 - Joscelin of Courtenay agrees to a alliance with the leader of Mosul, which would see Mosul be protected
against Damascus and other Muslim forces in return for the release of Baldwin II

Crusades Page 51
 against Damascus and other Muslim forces in return for the release of Baldwin II
▪ 1115 - Frankish-Il-Ghazi-Damascus alliance is formed to protect Aleppo from the Abbasid army
▪ 1139/40 - Zengi is still busy fighting Muslims, with the Siege of Damascus occurring
▪ Against
▪ 1105 - Battle of Ramla - Fatimid's were aided by Damascus, with 1,500 men provided - doesn't show full unity
but there is willingness to help the other Muslims
▪ 1119 - Battle of the Field of Blood - Il-Ghazi of Mardin and Damascus joined forced to provide Roger of Antioch
a defeat, killing him, destabilising Antioch's nobility and greatly reducing their borders in the East
▪ 1128 - Zengi is still busy fighting Muslims, taking Damascus in 1128, which marks a slow move toward there
being just 1 dominant force
→ Western Aid
▪ For
▪ 1101-1104 - Genoa and Pisa Provide support in the capture of Acre (1101), Arsuf (1104), and Caesarea (1101)
▪ 1102 - Acre and Caesarea were used to provide Pilgrims to replenish the manpower of Baldwin I after his loss at
Ramla 1102
▪ 1120 - 70 Venetian Supplied pilgrim ships reach Outremer - 1124 Capture of Tyre as result
▪ 1129 - Fulk of Anjou married off to Baldwin II's daughter Melisandre, which provides new resources and men for
Jerusalem
▪ Against
▪ 1102 - Western Aid provided to Jerusalem with the intention of the Battle of Ramla 1102 was far less than
Baldwin I had hoped for, resulting in a key loss - However, this was also down to his own strategic blunder in
terms of placement of troops and timing
▪ 1134 - Fulk of Anjou and Hugh of Jaffa have a civil war in Jerusalem, this shows the tensions that outsiders who
came in to rule created
▪ 1129 - Papal Schism meant that Baldwin II and Hugh of Payns calling for more men failed
→ Military Orders
▪ For
▪ 1100 - 200 Knights were used by Baldwin I to capture Jerusalem and fend off from the intercepting troops from
Damascus, their fighting ability and strategies were key to success
▪ 1105 - Tancred's army that defeated the 30,000 men that Ridwan of Aleppo had contained 1,000 knights
▪ 1144 - Hospitallers - Have control over Krak des Chevaliers, which was a key defence between Antioch and
Tripoli, but also key for trade and administration
▪ 1187 - Military Orders were clearly feared by Saladin, after the Battle of Hattin in 1187, all were executed, with
50 Dinars rewarded for each knight imprisoned
▪ Against
▪ 1173 - Templars religion made them hard to control, they killed a peaceful convoy of Religious Pilgrims included
women and children, who were Assassins that were granted safe passage by King Amalric
▪ 1168 - Leader of Hospitallers, convinced Amalric to break treaty with Egypt and attack, they provide 500 knights,
it fails and the Hospitallers go bankrupt
▪ 1153 - Siege of Ascalon, they don't let them in after Templars breach inner wall first, the Muslim reinforcements
then trap the Templars in the Citadel, slaughtering them all
→ Castles
▪ For
▪ 1115 - Castle of Montreal was set up by Baldwin I, this was key for colonisation of trade
▪ 1142 - Fulk of Anjou sets up Kerak, which becomes the major administrative centre for the region
▪ 1168 - The Castle of Belvoir, held by the Hospitallers held out for a year against Saladin's forces - Montreal holds
out for 1.5 years
▪ Against
▪ Most castles had an administrative function, so their role in defence and trade was limited, so their purpose
might have been misunderstood
▪ 1115 - 1169 - there was intense castle building in Jerusalem despite there being peace, but most were simple
enclosures or fortified towers located away from any conflict, suggesting an administrative purpose to them

Breakdown of the States

→ Military Strength
▪ 1149 - Battle of Inab - Nureddin greatly outnumbers Raymond with support from Damascus, allowing him to
destroy Antioch's territory, greatly weakening it and forcing Baldwin III to rule from Jerusalem
▪ 1149-1150 - Joscelin of Edessa sued for peace with Nureddin, which was broken then year later, Joscelin is
captured and held until his death by Nureddin
▪ 1168 - Amalric's decision to invade and break the peace with Fatimid Egypt, ends in disaster despite 500

Crusades Page 52
 ▪ 1168 - Amalric's decision to invade and break the peace with Fatimid Egypt, ends in disaster despite 500
knights, showing how military leadership had broken apart
▪ 1153 - Siege of Ascalon, issues with Templars
▪ 1173 - Issues with Templars and the peaceful Assassin Convoy
▪ 1187 - Battle of Hattin - Franks gather 20,000 men to respond to Saladin's 30,000 men killing 450 knights at
the Springs of Cresson - There is a schism over how to respond, with Raymond wanting to wait for Saladin to
attack, but Guy, possibly influenced by the military orders, wanted to lead an attack into Tiberius where
Saladin was - This resulted in them being surrounded after marching into battle, all but 3 die - Relic of the
Holy Cross is captured, all major leaders in Outremer now die, Saladin easily takes remaining Frankish lands
→ Internal Rivalries
▪ 1153 - Melisende was holding on to power after acting as regent for Baldwin III, refusing to let him take
power, leading to an internal rivalry. Baldwin III has to capture and exile Melisende's Constable, allowing to
finally rule
▪ 1162-1170 - Egypt, Amalric's decision to constantly attack Egypt, which he did 5 times and failed each time,
shows a decline in military and political thinking in terms of leadership, which ultimately facilitates the rise of
Saladin in Egypt - However, Frankish-Byzantium offence in 1169 in Egypt, although this ends in failure
▪ Baldwin IV - Leper King, provided no clear heir, was an issue as their leadership was greatly hindered by their
condition, and by the end of his reign the Franks couldn't fulfil financial needs of defending against growing
Muslim attacks from Nureddin and Saladin
▪ Baldwin V - Leaves no heir and by 1187 Jerusalem is deep in factionalism - this is key as the resistance to
Saladin in 1187 was minimal, not only because most died at the Battle of Hattin but also because there was
no clear successor in Jerusalem, so a small force of the Caliph survived for 2 weeks before falling
→ Rise of Nureddin and Saladin
▪ 1149 - Battle of Inab - Nureddin greatly outnumbers Raymond with support from Damascus, destroys most
of Antioch's Eastern territory, Baldwin III is forced to rule form Jerusalem
▪ 1157 - Nureddin makes an alliance with Emperor Manuel, repelling the Seljuk Turks harming Nureddin in
Anatolia, whilst ending the Frankish-Byzantine alliance that had been conducted raids in Northern Syria
▪ 1162 - Succession Crisis in Egypt - Shawar contacts Nureddin to place him back as Vizier, Nureddin decides to
send Shirkuh to deal with this as he knows Amalric has done the same - This defeats Amalric, placing Shawar
in charge but also placing Shirkuh's troops in Egypt, a key foothold
▪ 1164 - Shawar then betrays Shirkuh, asking Amalric to remove the troops that Shirkuh had there. Shirkuh and
Amalric fight at Bilbays, resulting in a Shirkuh Victory
▪ 1167 - Amalric and Shawar v Nureddin and Shirkuh - Both don't want the other holding Egypt, so Shirkuh
attacks Alexandria, takes it, gives it to Saladin but needed to wait before Cairo could be taken
▪ 1169 - Saladin and Shirkuh attack and easily gain Cairo, due to Shirkuh dying weeks after this, Saladin now
has a foot-hold in Egypt - The Frankish-Byzantium alliance that tried to attack in October 1169 dries out, the
Hospitallers are gone and now Saladin is clearly in charge
▪ 1174 - Muslims unite further as Nureddin dies and Saladin emerges as the new successor, which allows him
to raise the 30,000 needed for the 1187 Battle of Hattin

Crusades Page 53
NOTES - Breakdown of Crusader States
Thursday, 2 February 2023 6:08 pm

Post 1149 Crusader States

- Crusader State Military State
→ Weaknesses
▪ Battle of Inab 1149
□ Nureddin invaded Antioch in 1149 and besieged the fortress of Inab with the help of Unur of Damascus
□ Raymond had no Frankish allies but had the Assassin's support, and was greatly outnumbered by
Nureddin's forces
□ Nureddin was able to lure Raymond into a poor position in during the night, forcing him to charge in the
morning, which resulted in Raymond and the commander of the Assassin Troops being dead and the
combined army destroyed
□ This greatly weakened the position of the Franks in the North
▪ Dismantling Edessa
□ Joscelin II of Edessa sued for a peace deal before the Battle of Inab, understanding the threat Nureddin
posed, although he accepted, Nureddin broke this, capturing Joscelin and imprisoned him
□ This meant from 1149-1150, both Antioch and Edessa had fell, leaving the Franks without any defences
in the North
Issues with the Templars
- The Templars weren't always obedient and under the command of the crusade state leaders
- Siege of Ascalon, 1153
→ In 1153, during the siege of Ascalon
→ A group of Templars breached the walls ahead of the main army
→ They then refused to let the other Franks join them to get all the loot
→ This backfired as they were massacred in the town centre due to them being trapped with no
Frankish support
- Disobedience in 1173
→ For example, in 1173, the Templars killed Muslim assassin envoys who were travelling home
from Jerusalem after being granted rapprochement with King Amalric of Jerusalem,
→ Shows to us how the Templars didn't care as much for the survival of the crusader states as
they did for killing Muslims at any given opportunity, which could've caused a conflict
Issues with the Hospitallers
- Much like the Templars, the Hospitallers were more focused on their religious conviction rather than
the survival of the crusader states
- 1168 Invasion of Egypt
→ In 1168, the Hospitallers went against the advice of the nobles in Jerusalem and the Templars
by advising King Amalric to break a treaty with the Muslims and invade Egypt
→ They promised to supply 500 knights and 500 Turcopoles
→ Showing to us that at times the orders were a lot more focused on attacking Muslims, rather
than trying to secure the longevity of the crusader states
→ This attack failed and created widespread criticism for the Hospitallers greed
→ This caused the Hospitallers to accrue a debt of 100,000 Bezants due to the cost of assembling
a force large enough to attack Egypt
→ Strengths
▪ Military orders
• Knights Templar
→ Due to the present Muslim threat a group of knights joined together to provide protection and
an escort for pilgrims
→ In 1120, High of Payns and Geoffrey of St. Omer officially founded the Templar movement
→ They were given authority to protect pilgrims under God's name due to the approval by the
church at the Council of Troyes in 1129
→ This gave knights the opportunity to dedicate their lives to spiritual military service in Outremer
→ They contained around 500 knights at their peak
• Knights Hospitaller
 Started in the 1070s but began with a more medical role to supporting the pilgrims
 Their main role was to run the Order of St. John's Hospital in Jerusalem
 This hospital contained beds for 2,000 sick or poor pilgrims in 1185
 The order was given independence in 1113
 In 1154, further papal privileges ensured exemption from the jurisdiction of local church
authorities, furthering their independence as an order
 A major difference between the Knights Templar and the Hospitaller was the Hospitaller's
medical function
 They contained around 300-500 knights at their peak
- Internal Divisions of Outremer
→ Political Developments
▪ Role of Baldwin III, King of Jerusalem
□ Baldwin's leadership was key with Antioch, intervening and creating a truce with Nureddin with the help
of the Templars
□ Civil War
 By 1152, Melisende was still holding on to power, with Baldwin increasingly frustrated at this,
which led to an open Civil War
 Baldwin believed that without control of Jerusalem, he couldn't properly fight the enemy,
resulting in Melisende fortifying Jerusalem and Nablus against Baldwin
 Baldwin then captured Melisende's Constable, at castle Mirabel, sparing his life on the condition
he left Outremer, leaving Nablus to Baldwin
□ Antioch
 The death of Raymond meant his widow Constance was ruling Antioch on behalf of their son, but
even when he turned 15, she refused to let him rule, continuing her ruling
 Instead of turning to their Byzantium overlords, they decided to turn to Baldwin III to find a new
ruler, and he chose Bohemond to rule Antioch
▪ Zengi - Exploited Internal Rivalries
□ Made Governor of Mosul in 1127, making treaties with Joscelin of Edessa, so that Zengi could focus
solely on the Muslim threats in the area
□ 1144 Siege of Edessa
 Zengi Besieged Edessa in 1144 since Jerusalem had an alliance with the Muslim Damascus that
Furthermore during the reign of Baldwin IV there was tension between Raymond
meant neither could be attacked or provoked, so he chose Edessa instead III of Tripoli and Guy de Lusignan. Guy had his regency of Baldwin V revoked due to
 Zengi was able to inspire people to fight for him through his use of Jihad, and the idea of people his behaviour this led to resentment with Raymond who assumed the regency in
taking up arms in the name of Islam, similar to what the Frank's had been doing, but also due to 1185. This was what then aided Saladin to increase the strength of the Muslim
his personal actions, such as ensuring the women left behind during long-campaigns were well forces at a time when the power struggle between the peace and war factions at
looked after. the court in Jerusalem was at its height. Both factions were focused on rallying
 Zengi knew that Joscelin and Raymond of Antioch had fallen out, which meant that Antioch internal support rather than coming together to thwart Saladin. This resulted in
wouldn't help Edessa if it were besieged Saladin's acquisition of Mosul in 1186 with castle like Kerak also falling to Islamic
 He gathered a large army and siege engines to surround the walls, eventually tunnelling forces in the same time period. There is a strong case for this internal rivalry acting
as a distraction that made the Islamic threat even greater and more potent.
underneath them and collapsing them on the 24th December 1144, capturing Edessa
▪ Role of King Amalric
□ Amalric succeeded Baldwin and can be characterised by: Egypt - he made 5 attempts to gain the country
between 1163-1170 and briefly held Alexandria in 1167
□ He clearly wasn't strong militarily, since his efforts of securing Egypt resulting in nothing but losses, and
in October 1169, the Frankish-Byzantium alliance to capture Egypt had to be halted due to low supplies
▪ Baldwin IV
□ Baldwin's Kingdom was greatly reduced in size due to Nureddin and Saladin, who were able to remove
the Franks from Syria and push Antioch's borders closer to the city

Crusades Page 54
 the Franks from Syria and push Antioch's borders closer to the city
□ During Baldwin's rule, Outremer could no longer meet the financial needs to defending against the
Muslims, resulting in major tracts of land and castles being passed to the holy order
□ By 1187, 55% of property was given to the religious orders and by 1168, every castle except Tiberius
were with the holy orders
▪ Baldwin V
□ Poor leader since he was the reason Outremer was put into Factionalism since he left no clear heir,
creating major internal rivalries by 1187
▪ Kingdom of Jerusalem, 1185-1187
□ Baldwin IV's Death 1185
 This didn't cause an immediate attack from Saladin nor did the crusader states instantly crumble
 It caused the people of Jerusalem to have "recognised they faced great dangers, but they did not
expect to be defeated" according to Hamilton
 Jerusalem's economy was still flourishing after this, with a control of the ports, and trade with
Italians as well as good links with Damascus and Aleppo meant Jerusalem was economically strong
□ Emergence of two factions
 William of Tyre noted the emergence of two factions, but despite this there had always been
internal rivalries so what made this unique?
 Why did the two factions emerge?
◊ Baldwin V's Death
 Before Baldwin IV's death, he made Raymond of Tripoli regent over Baldwin V, who
once in power, tried to negotiate a truce with Saladin
 This was because Antioch already had a truce, but Raymond wanted to extend this to
all Frankish lands
 Saladin agreed to this, creating a 4-year truce until 1189, protecting Frankish lands
 However, when Baldwin V died in 1186, Raymond's regency ended and he was told to
return to his lands - However, a plot by Joscelin of Courtney to remove Raymond and
allow for the crown to land with Sybilla and Guy of Lusignan emerged
◊ Joscelin of Courtney's Plan
 Sybilla went through a mock divorce of Guy to ensure Jerusalem's nobles would allow
for her coronation, on the condition she could marry her choice afterward: She chose
guy (who she had to divorce since Jerusalem's nobles hated him and would've blocked
her coronation)
 Sibylla's only rival, her Stepsister Isabella and her husband Humphrey of Toron,
decided to offer allegiance to Guy to provide unity to Jerusalem
 This also forced Reynald to support Guy, followed by the Master of the Templars
supporting guy
 This isolated Raymond going from Regent to Opposition
◊ Raymond's Opposition
 Since Raymond was the sole Jerusalem noble in opposition, it was believed he needed
to be removed
 Guy was persuaded to move against Raymond, reading an army for this
 Raymond, who negotiated a treaty with Saladin, then turned to him for support,
resulting in Raymond of Tripoli agreeing to provide free passage across his lands if
they put him back as King
 Other nobles rallied around Guy despite their reservations, as they knew how
important unity was but Raymond just committed treason against his king
◊ Reynald's Attack on a Caravan 1187
 Reynald then decided to attack, plunder, and murder men, women, and children in a
Muslim caravan of pilgrims crossing his land
 Reynald had no Muslim truce, providing Saladin a reason to attack Jerusalem,
resulting in Hattin 1187

- Muslim Threat
→ Nureddin clearly united the Muslim front, pushed the Franks back to the Syrian coast and thwarted Amalric's
opportunities to control Egypt
→ Rise of Nureddin in Syria and Egypt
▪ Nureddin was highly powerful, taking Edessa in 1146, which marked the first of the Frankish settlements to be
taken by Nureddin, with Zengi, his father, besieging Edessa in 1144 as well
▪ Nureddin was able to unite the Muslim force through alliances, with the Unur of Damascus, which resulted
in the Crusaders withdrawing their siege on Damascus
□ However, there were still Muslim-Frankish alliances, with Raymond of Tripoli making an alliance with
Nureddin and Unur to fight his Frankish Cousin, allowing them to capture Bertram and his fortress, so
there was still possibilities for Frankish-Muslim alliances
▪ How impactful was this alliances?
□ After the death of Unur and Saphadin in August and November 1149, the alliance between Mosul -
Aleppo-Damascus was removed, which greatly weakened Nureddin since the new ruler of Damascus
made an alliance with the Franks in Jerusalem.
□ However, Nureddin was still powerful after, being able to take Mosul from his younger brother by
forcing him to acknowledge him as his overlord, which essentially gave Nureddin northern Syria - After
controlling Mosul, he forced the leader of Damascus to recognise him as overlord as well, meaning
Nureddin controlled Aleppo, Damascus and Mosul, key for socio -economic success, especially the
money that was raised in Damascus from agriculture
▪ 1149 Battle of Inab
□ Nureddin defeated and killed Raymond of Poitiers, pushing Antioch's eastern border closer to the city,
reducing the power and making the position of the Frank's weaker
▪ Role with Damascus
□ By blockading Damascus in 1149, he caused the locals to question their support for Abaq, forcing him to
flee the citadel and Nureddin was able to take control of the city unopposed, making him the leader of
Aleppo, Edessa and Damascus
▪ Alliance with Emperor Manuel
□ By 1157, Nureddin was in an alliance with Emperor Manuel, which helped him fight the Seljuk Turks in
Anatolia but also put an end to the Frankish-Byzantium alliance that was causing raids in Northern Syria
□ Nureddin was a good fighter, as shown with the fall of Edessa in 1146 and the Battle of Inab 1149, but
also a great politician with his alliances that made him so strong
→ Rise of Nureddin and Saladin in Egypt
▪ 1162-3 Crisis in Egypt
□ Due to Egypt being ruled by Child Caliphates, the role of Vizier was important, and in December 1162,
Shawar seized the position but was quickly turned out by Dirgham a court official in 1163
□ Shawar then turned to Nureddin to help him restore his place - Amalric them launched an attack on
Egypt as Dirgham had stopped paying the tribute to the Franks
□ Nureddin then wanted Egypt under his control, rather than Amalric's, so he sent Shirkuh to Egypt to
solidify the position, resulting in him swiftly taking Egypt and restoring Shawar as vizier
▪ 1164 Betrayal of Shawar
□ However, Shawar then asked Amalric to remove Shirkuh and his Troops as Shawar couldn’t pay the
money he promised to Nureddin
□ Amalric then interfered, with Shirkuh's army and Amalric's army meeting in 1164 near Bilbays, without a
conclusive victory
▪ 1167
□ By 1167, both armies were now looking to take control of Egypt, with Shirkuh being able to surprise
Shawar and Amalric, which greatly weakened them but wasn't a complete victory for Shirkuh
□ Shirkuh then appealed to Shawar to switch sides, which he didn't and Amalric tried pressing for an
official treaty, which worked and Amalric had a treaty with the Caliph, allowing him to fight Shirkuh in a
larger capacity
□ Shirkuh then attacked Alexandria in 1167, taking it and placing Saladin in charge, but by the time he

Crusades Page 55
 □ Shirkuh then attacked Alexandria in 1167, taking it and placing Saladin in charge, but by the time he
reached Cairo both armies were exhausted and Shirkuh had to pull out
▪ Shirkuh and Saladin in Egypt
□ Shirkuh and Saladin would then lead an army to Egypt after appeals from Shawar who needed to pay a
tribute to Amalric for his support in securing his role as Vizier
□ Shirkuh and Saladin then marched into Egypt, forcing Amalric to withdraw due to the strength of the
forces, capturing Shawar and executing him before Shirkuh proclaimed himself as the vizier of Egypt
□ Shirkuh then died a few weeks after capturing Egypt, which left Saladin in control, which was
controversial as many in Nureddin's army didn't like Saladin, resulting in them leaving Egypt for
Damascus, leaving Saladin weak
▪ October 1169 Frankish-Byzantine Egypt Assault
□ Saladin was weak, but needed to defend him position when Manuel became concerned at the extent of
Nureddin's dominions and powers, which resulted in a Frankish -Byzantine alliance to attack Egypt
□ Luckily for Saladin, the attack was called off due to supplies running low
▪ Fall of Egypt to Saladin
□ Despite Saladin being apart of Nureddin's army, they rarely worked together and Saladin was able to use
his small but brutal local army to secure his role within Egypt and control the area
□ Nureddin tried withdrawing his troops and send in tax inspectors as Saladin was rarely sending taxes
back to Nureddin, even gathering his own army
□ Nureddin died in May 1174, which meant any conflict that might have occurred was called off, with
Saladin then emerging as his successor
→ Growth of Saladin After Egypt
▪ Damascus
□ Context
 By 1173, Nureddin was the last obstacle in the way of Saladin's ultimate rise to power - Nureddin
had been snubbed in Egypt after Saladin and Shirkuh, despite being sent by Nureddin, decided to
keep Egypt after taking it from Shawar and Amalric in by 1169
 Nureddin died in 1174, but Saladin wasn't the clear successor in Egypt and Syria, with Nureddin
leaving his 11 year old son as-Salih in charge of Damascus, his other son governor of Aleppo, and
his nephew in charge of Mosul - Three key cities Saladin would need to cement his power as a
unified Muslim leader
□ Said-ad-Din of Mosul
 Nureddin's nephew, Saif-ad-Din of Mosul, would lead his army to attack Egypt, but Saladin
convinced them to attack Aleppo instead, which was successful as as-Salih, the 11 year old ruler of
Damascus was placed in Aleppo by his mother, with Shams-ad-Din of Aleppo made his regent
 Once in Aleppo, their cousin, Saif-ad-Din of Mosul, sent them both to prison and took over, greatly
weakening Saladin's oppositions
□ Saladin's Diplomacy and use of jealousy
 Saladin sent a delegation to Damascus in 1174, noticed that Saif-ad-Din had taken Aleppo, he
decided to spread discord between Saif-ad-Din and his jealous brother Imad-ad-Din, opening a rift
 Saladin then chastised Damascus for not calling on him to help but instead turning to Amalric,
using Jihad to argue for Muslim collaboration and brotherhood
 Damascus then agreed with the idea of Jihad, willingly opening their gaits to Saladin who took
control in October 1174
 Tughtigan, Saladin's brother was appointed as governor
▪ Aleppo and Mosul
□ Raymond delays Saladin
 Saladin left for Aleppo in December 1174 - Aleppo called for Frankish and Assassin help, which
helped Saladin as leader of Jihad, making him seem like Muslim v Christians
 Raymond of Tripoli was able to launch diversionary attacks on Saladin's town of Homs, forcing him
to withdraw from Aleppo - Raymond then used the citadel of Homs against Saladin's troops, but
was forced to withdraw after Saladin's army came near, delaying Saladin
□ Muslim Disunity - 1175
 Saladin was taken so seriously that by 1175, whilst controlling most of the regions around Aleppo,
in Hamah, a convinced Aleppo and Mosul force marched on him, imposing conditions
undermining his position as head of the Ayyubid Dynasty (Saladin's succession to Nureddin)
□ Battle of Hamah 1175
 Saladin and Aleppo/Mosul fought, resulting in Saladin winning, which resulted in his terms of
victory being that he was recognised as ruler of Syria, forcing Islam into having one united ruler
under Saladin
□ Capture of Aleppo July 1175
 Saladin isolated Aleppo by taking the surrounding towns, including the capture of Manjib and Azaz
in June 1175, which put Aleppo under serious military and socio-economic strain, which allowed
Saladin to negotiate their surrender in July 1175
 By July 1175 - He was lord of Egypt, Damascus (Syria), and Aleppo
▪ Saladin at Hattin - 1187
□ Battle of Hattin - Franks gather 20,000 men to respond to Saladin's 30,000 men killing 450 knights at
the Springs of Cresson - There is a schism over how to respond, with Raymond wanting to wait for
Saladin to attack, but Guy, possibly influenced by the military orders, wanted to lead an attack into
Tiberius where Saladin was - This resulted in them being surrounded after marching into battle, all but 3
die - Relic of the Holy Cross is captured, all major leaders in Outremer now die, Saladin easily takes
remaining Frankish lands
→ Growth of Jihad
▪ Nureddin was able to unite Muslim forces through the idea of Jihad, presenting himself as a warrior of the
Jihad, using propaganda to ensure his message reached every corner of Syria
▪ He had a clear intention, which was to promote Sunni Islam, wanting to unite all Muslims against the Franks in
order to gain Jerusalem
▪ Nureddin's Methods
□ Nureddin's methods were vast, being able to promote and finance a whole range of religious aspects,
such as religious houses, educational establishments, hospitals and organised public readings which
extolled the virtues of Jerusalem
□ He also used money as a weapon, making sure to live a frugal life which was shown in his propaganda,
hoping to win in the name of Islam rather than for himself
□ He clearly inspired Saladin and was crucial for the uniting of a Muslim front and setting up a military
threat to Outremer
▪ Zengi - Key to Jihad
□ Made Governor of Mosul in 1127, making treaties with Joscelin of Edessa, so that Zengi could focus
solely on the Muslim threats in the area
□ 1144 Siege of Edessa
 Zengi Besieged Edessa in 1144 since Jerusalem had an alliance with the Muslim Damascus that
meant neither could be attacked or provoked, so he chose Edessa instead
 Zengi was able to inspire people to fight for him through his use of Jihad, and the idea of people
taking up arms in the name of Islam, similar to what the Frank's had been doing, but also due to
his personal actions, such as ensuring the women left behind during long-campaigns were well
looked after.
 Zengi knew that Joscelin and Raymond of Antioch had fallen out, which meant that Antioch
wouldn't help Edessa if it were besieged
 He gathered a large army and siege engines to surround the walls, eventually tunnelling
underneath them and collapsing them on the 24th December 1144, capturing Edessa
▪ Saladin and Jihad in Damascus
□ Context
 By 1173, Nureddin was the last obstacle in the way of Saladin's ultimate rise to power - Nureddin
had been snubbed in Egypt after Saladin and Shirkuh, despite being sent by Nureddin, decided to
keep Egypt after taking it from Shawar and Amalric in by 1169
Nureddin died in 1174, but Saladin wasn't the clear successor in Egypt and Syria, with Nureddin

Crusades Page 56
  Nureddin died in 1174, but Saladin wasn't the clear successor in Egypt and Syria, with Nureddin
leaving his 11 year old son as-Salih in charge of Damascus, his other son governor of Aleppo, and
his nephew in charge of Mosul - Three key cities Saladin would need to cement his power as a
unified Muslim leader
□ Said-ad-Din of Mosul
 Nureddin's nephew, Saif-ad-Din of Mosul, would lead his army to attack Egypt, but Saladin
convinced them to attack Aleppo instead, which was successful as as-Salih, the 11 year old ruler of
Damascus was placed in Aleppo by his mother, with Shams-ad-Din of Aleppo made his regent
 Once in Aleppo, their cousin, Saif-ad-Din of Mosul, sent them both to prison and took over, greatly
weakening Saladin's oppositions
□ Saladin's Diplomacy and use of jealousy
 Saladin sent a delegation to Damascus in 1174, noticed that Saif-ad-Din had taken Aleppo, he
decided to spread discord between Saif-ad-Din and his jealous brother Imad-ad-Din, opening a rift
 Saladin then chastised Damascus for not calling on him to help but instead turning to Amalric,
using Jihad to argue for Muslim collaboration and brotherhood
 Damascus then agreed with the idea of Jihad, willingly opening their gaits to Saladin who took
control in October 1174
 Tughtigan, Saladin's brother was appointed as governor

Crusades Page 57
TABLE - Survival of Crusader States
Sunday, 5 February 2023 5:01 pm

Factor Summary Examples for Examples against

Leadership Several of the crusader leaders played Leadership Leadership

a pivotal role in consolidating
Outremer, and dealing with threats to
their lands, notably Baldwin I, Baldwin
II and Tancred.
Muslim
▪ Baldwin I
▪ For
□ 1100 - Claims Jerusalem with 900 men,
defeating interceptions from the Duqaq of
Damascus, which sets up the initial Crusader
states and is a key place to hold for moral
□ Survived 3 Fatimid Invasions as King of
Jerusalem, being renowned for his military
tactics
□ Key victories at Ramla in 1101 and 1105
□ Baldwin I's daring actions after disaster at Ramla
in 1102. Escaping on his own with his swift horse
(Gazelle), before making his way to Arsuf and
then sailing through the blockade to the
beleaguered port of Jaffa, saving the town.
□ In 1111 - He gained minor ports through
Diplomacy, including Ascalon for a brief period
of time
□ Worked with Western Aid for ports in Acre,
Arsuf and Caesarea, being key for trade and
pilgrims later on in the survival
□ 1115 - Sets up the Castle of Montreal, which
becomes key for colonising the trade within
Outremer
▪ Baldwin II
▪ For
□ 1119 - Battle of the Field of Blood, after Roger
of Antioch's blunder in not waiting for troops,
losing to Il-Ghazi of Mardin and Damascus,
Baldwin intervened, reducing the amount of
territory lost in the East of Antioch, restoring
stability by marrying his men to the widows
□ By 1124, he has to travel to Antioch 6 times for
protection or political reasons, showing how he
was vital in ensuring stability within Antioch
□ 19 campaigns against Muslims in just 13 years,
shows he was proactive in the military defence of
Outremer
□ 1124-1126: Baldwin II engages in an impressive
series of campaigns, threatening Aleppo,
Ascalon and Damascus, winning several battles.
▪ Tancred
▪ For
□ Tancred regains Cilicia and takes the key Syrian
port of Latakia in 1103, shortly before
Bohemond's release the same year. He then
manages to recover Antioch's prosperity despite
Bohemond's defeat at Harran in 1104 and his
subsequent departure for Europe with most of
the wealth and men of the principality.
□ 1105 - Tancred raises an emergency tax, 10,000
men, secured key victories at Edessa and
Antioch against Ridwan of Aleppo's 30,000
men, showing the military strength
□ 1104 - Tancred stabilises Antioch after
Bohemond's defeat at the Battle of Harran
1104, which minimises the amount of land
Antioch loses and stabilises the nation
□ Tancred's capture of Tiberias and securing
Galilee.
□ 1109 Following his defeat outside Artah, Ridwan
of Aleppo sues for peace with Tancred.
▪ Other Leadership
▪ For
□ 1108 - Baldwin II is captured, and Joscelin of
Courtenay makes Alliance with ruler of Mosul
for his release, costing money and means they
are forced to help Mosul fight Damascus,
blocking the ability to fight Mosul, but does
create alliance against Muslims
▪ Against
□ 1119 - Battle of the Field of Blood - Roger of
Antioch refuses to wait for Jerusalem's
reinforcements, is easily destroyed and killed by
Il-Ghazi of Mardin and Damascus
□ 1104 - Bohemond's defeat at Battle of Harran,
puts Antioch's borders and stability at risk, needs
to be helped by Tancred
□ Neither Bohemond nor Tancred make any effort
to secure the release of Baldwin II of Edessa,
because they retained control of Edessa and its
considerable agrarian wealth (40000 bezants a
year!) in his absence.
For
▪ Baldwin I
▪ Against
□ 1100 - Can be said he relied heavily on knights, with 200 of the
900 men being knights, who were key to fending off from the
Duqaq of Damascus
□ His win in Ramla 1105 only came after Western Aid from Italy
decided to provide him with Pilgrims after his loss in Ramla
1102
□ Ramla loss in 1102 was due to his own blunder in terms of his
positioning, but also can be blamed on the reinforcements
from the West being smaller in number than Baldwin stated he
needed
□ 1113 the forces of Jerusalem are badly mauled near the al-
Sennabra bridge over the Jordan, when Baldwin I advanced to
meet the threat of Tughetin and Maudud without waiting for
his allies.
▪ Baldwin II
▪ Against
□ Highly reliant on military orders for his campaigns against
Muslims
□ He negotiates for Fulk of Anjou to marry his daughter
Melisende, but this creates internal tensions with an outsider
being placed in charge - although this provides men, resources,
and a clear male successor
□ 1108 - He is captured, and Joscelin of Courtenay makes
Alliance with ruler of Mosul for his release, costing money and
blocking the ability to fight Mosul, but does create alliance
□ Baldwin II captured in April 1123 and held for 16 months;
Palestine narrowly avoids a coup.
▪ Roger of Antioch
▪ Against
□ 1115 Roger of Antioch does not wait for reinforcements in
dealing with Bursuq's feinted withdrawal (after the pan-
Levantine alliance had disbanded), but defeated Bursuq alone
by catching his forces off guard with a surprise attack in the
valley of Sarmin. However, this 'set a worrying precedent for
hot-headed impetuosity' (Asbridge p.159).
□ 28 June 1119: Roger of Antioch's forces are destroyed by the
new Emir of Aleppo, the Artuqid Turk Il-ghazi in the Battle of
the Field of Blood near Sarmada just East of the Belus hills.
Roger could have waited for reinforcements from Jerusalem,
but chose instead to take decisive action. His camp was
discovered and this time he was surrounded before dawn.
▪ Tancred
▪ Against
□ 1110: Tancred's overzealous expansion beyond the natural
boundaries of the Belus Hills to the east and the Summaq
plateau to the south, threatening Aleppo and Shaizar. After
initially paying the Franks tribute in return for peace, the
Munqidh clan of Shaizar allied with Maudud of Mosul, who led
an Abbasid army into Syria again in 1111.
Against

Crusades Page 58
Muslim
Disunity
Western Aid
Military 1119 Hugh of Payns, Godfrey St Omer For
Orders and their followers dedicate
themselves to the protection of
pilgrims, and are acknowledged as a
spiritual order by the Latin patriarch
and given quarters in Jerusalem's Aqsa ▪ 1105 - Tancred's army that defeated the 30,000 men that
mosque, known to the Franks as the
Temple of Solomon, hence their
name: the Order of the Temple of
Solomon, or Templars. The Order was
formally recognised at the Council of
Troyes in 1129.
1113 the Order of the Hospital of St
John, or Hospitallers, are recognised
by the pope, but their initial function ▪ By the 1180s, the combined Templar and Hospitaller
was limited to their care of pilgrims
and the sick, only adopting a military
wing by the mid-twelfth century under
its master Raymond of Le Puy.
Castles Ronnie Ellenblum's 2007 Crusader
Castles and Modern Histories,
suggested that there were three
phases to castle building:
1099-1116, 1115-1169 and 1168-87.
Crusader
cooperation
Crusades Page 59
For
▪ 1100: a delegation from Damascus appeals to Baghdad to
respond, but the sultan was embroiled in political
concerns.
▪ After Dog River, where Baldwin's forces had repulsed his
forces, Duqaq of Damascus followed a policy of
neutrality up to his premature death in 1104. This limited
Baldwin's threat to Fatimid Egypt.
▪ 1105 - After the Fatimid army is defeated by Baldwin I,
the leader of Damascus agrees to a trade-pact with
Baldwin, providing a part-armistice and demilitarised
zone by 1109
▪ 1108 - Joscelin of Courtenay agrees to a alliance with the
leader of Mosul, which would see Mosul be protected
against Damascus and other Muslim forces in return for
the release of Baldwin II
▪ 1109 Following his defeat outside Artah, Ridwan of Aleppo
sues for peace with Tancred.
▪ 1115 - Frankish-Il-Ghazi-Damascus alliance is formed to
protect Aleppo from the Abbasid army
▪ 1139/40 - Zengi is still busy fighting Muslims and
absorbing Damascus, with the Siege of Damascus
occurring
For Against
▪ 1101-1104 - Genoa and Pisa Provide support in the
capture of Acre (1104), Arsuf (1101), and Caesarea (1101)
▪ 1102 - Acre and Caesarea provided a sizable Pilgrim fleet
to replenish the manpower of Baldwin I after his loss at
Ramla 1102, providing him with a much larger army for
Ramla 1105
▪ 1104 Capture of Acre ('the Latin kingdom's trading
capital - Asbridge p.124) in 1104 with 70-strong Genoese
fleet without much fighting.
▪ 1110 Capture of Beirut with Genoese and Pisan ships.
▪ 1110 Capture of Sidon with support of King Sigurd of
Norway.
▪ 1120 - 70 Venetian Supplied pilgrim ships reach
Outremer - 1124 Capture of Tyre as result
▪ 1129 - Fulk of Anjou married off to Baldwin II's daughter
Melisandre, which provides new resources and men for
Jerusalem..
▪ 1136 Raymond of Poitiers, Duke of Aquitaine, married
Constance of Antioch, bringing new wealth and manpower
to Antioch.
Against
▪ 1100 - 200 Knights were used by Baldwin I to capture
Jerusalem and fend off from the intercepting troops from
Damascus, their fighting ability and strategies were key to
success
Ridwan of Aleppo had contained 1,000 knights
▪ 1144 - Hospitallers - Have control over Krak des
Chevaliers, which was a key defence between Antioch
and Tripoli, but also key for trade and administration
▪ 1160s - The Hospitallers, who before this point owned
seven castles and aided in the defence of two others,
acquired control of 12 additional castles and gained
theoretical rights over a further 6, whilst also agreeing to
assist in the defence of Sidon.
contribution of around 700 knights to the full muster of the
kingdom of Jerusalem was roughly equal to that of all
other sources.'
▪ 1187 - Military Orders were clearly feared by Saladin,
after the Battle of Hattin in 1187, all were executed, with
50 Dinars rewarded for each knight imprisoned
For
▪ 1115 - Castle of Montreal was set up by Baldwin I, this
was key for colonisation of trade and controlling the
region
▪ 1142 - Fulk of Anjou sets up Kerak, which becomes the
major administrative centre for the region
▪ 1168-87 - The Castle of Belvoir, held by the Hospitallers
held out for a year against Saladin's forces - Montreal
holds out for 1.5 years
▪ Some castles built in the middle period were clearly
designed to have a defensive and offensive function,
notably those around Ascalon, such as Castrum Arnaldi,
1132-33, Bethgibelin 1136, Ibelin 1141, Blanchegarde 1142
and Gaza 1150.
1109 Baldwin calls the crusaders to assist Bertrand of Toulouse
in the conquest of Tripoli. Baldwin then arbitrated over the
dispute between Bertrand and William Jordan splitting the
realm of Tripoli, and establishing Jerusalem's superiority over
Antioch in the process.
Neither Bohemond nor Tancred make any effort to secure the release of
1110 the Franks join together to oppose a Mesopotamian army Baldwin II of Edessa, because they retained control of Edessa and its
sent to attack Edessa by Muhammad, the Seljuk sultan of considerable agrarian wealth (40000 bezants a year!) in his absence.
Bagdhad, under the command of Maudud of Mosul. BUT
Baldwin of Jerusalem used the occasion to convene another When Baldwin II finally is released Tancred refuses to give back control of
Against
▪ 1103- Still posed a clear threat. 1103 raiding ambush almost killed
Baldwin I.
▪ 1104 Mardin and Mosul defeat Edessa and Antioch at Harran in 1104.
▪ 1105 - Battle of Ramla - Fatimid's were aided by Damascus, with 1,500
men provided - doesn't show full unity but there is willingness to help
the other Muslims
▪ 1119 - Battle of the Field of Blood - Il-Ghazi of Mardin and Damascus
joined forced to provide Roger of Antioch a defeat, killing him,
destabilising Antioch's nobility and greatly reducing their borders in the
East
▪ 1128 - Zengi is still busy fighting Muslims, taking Damascus in 1128,
which marks a slow move toward there being just 1 dominant force
▪ 1102 - Western Aid provided to Jerusalem with the intention of the
Battle of Ramla 1102 was far less than Baldwin I had hoped for,
resulting in a key loss - This was because the 2 armies suffered heavy
defeats crossing Asia Minor - However, this was also down to his own
strategic blunder in terms of placement of troops and timing
▪ 1134 - Fulk of Anjou and Hugh of Jaffa have a civil war in Jerusalem,
this shows the tensions that outsiders who came in to rule created.
perhaps caused by tensions between Fulk's new nobility and the
established Jerusalem nobility loyal to Melisende, according to Orderic
Vitalis.
▪ 1129 - Papal Schism meant that Baldwin II and Hugh of Payns calling
for more men failed - Baldwin's appeal for another crusade against
Damascus in 1129, largely preached by Hugh of Payns, master of the
Templars, without papal support, ended in fiasco.
▪ 1137 John II Comnenus marched into Syria to reassert Byzantine control
over the province, partly in fury that he had not been consulted in
Constance's marriage to Raymond of Poitiers in 1136. Raymond swore
homage to John, but their joint offensive on Shaizar ends in failure. 1142
John returns in an effort to restore direct rule of Antioch under his son
Manuel, but John died in a hunting accident in 1143.
▪ 1152 - Siege of Ascalon, they don't let them in after Templars breach
inner wall first, the Muslim reinforcements then trap the Templars in
the Citadel, slaughtering them all
▪ 1168 - Leader of Hospitallers, convinced Amalric to break treaty with
Egypt and attack, they provide 500 knights, it fails and the Hospitallers
go bankrupt
▪ 1173 - Templars religion made them hard to control, they killed a
peaceful convoy of Religious Pilgrims included women and children, who
were Assassins that were granted safe passage by King Amalric
▪ Papal patronage, enormous wealth and relative independence from
local secular and ecclesiastical jurisdictions meant the orders had the
ability to destabilise soveriegn politics. They did not pay feudal dues on
the lands they held and their tenants paid no tax to the Church.
Against
▪ Most castles had an administrative function, so their role in defence and
trade was limited, so their purpose might have been misunderstood
▪ 1099-1116: 21 sites previously existed and only 8 new fortifications were
completed mainly in cities and villages taken from the Muslims, despite
there being major conflicts
▪ 1115 - 1169 - there was intense castle building near Jerusalem despite
there being peace, but most were simple enclosures or fortified towers
located away from any conflict, suggesting an administrative purpose to
them
Aftermath of Ascalon 1099 - mistrust between Godfrey and Raymond causes
negotiations with Ascalon to break down - Asbridge, p.106 'squandered
opportunity.... Leaving the nascent kingdom of Jerusalem dangerously
exposed to Egyptian attack'.

Religious Veneration of the True Cross - a relic
Fervour championed by Godfrey and Arnulf in
1099. Relic taken into battle, often
carried by the patriarch himself - aura
of invincibility and divine support.
Military
Superiority
Crusades Page 60
Baldwin of Jerusalem used the occasion to convene another
council where he accused Tancred of inciting the Muslim attack
and of allying with the Muslims (which was probably false and
quite hypocritical given Jerusalem's dealings with Damascus
and Edessa's with Mosul!).
1111 the Franks joined forces to see off Maudud again,
patiently holding their ground at Apamea.
Series of marriage alliances between Antioch, Edessa and
Tripoli following the deaths of Bertrand and Tancred in 1112:
Roger of Salerno became prince of Antioch and married
Baldwin of Bourcq's sister, whilst Joscelin of Courtenay married
Roger's sister and Pons of Tripoli married Tancred's widow,
Cecilia of France.
Following the Battle of the Field of Blood, the combined forces
of Jerusalem and Tripoli under Baldwin II push back the forces 1134 crisis between Fulk and Count Hugh of Jaffa resulted in civil war. Hugh
of Il-ghazi and Damascus at Zardana in 1119.
Baldwin II agrees to act as regent of Antioch until Bohemond II
came of age.
Battle of Ascalon 12 August 1099 - 20000 Fatimids under the
vizier al-Afdal, defeated by 1200 knights and 9000 infantry, but
surprise attack - insufficient sentries.
First Battle of Ramla September 1101 - Baldwin I victorious
(just) despite only having 260 knights and 900 footmen against
allegedly 31 000 Muslims. 'France is indeed a long way away'.
Baldwin's clever use of his cavalry as a reserve.
Third Battle of Ramla summer 1105 - 500 knights and 2000
infantry under Baldwin defeat a much larger Egyptian force.
However, Asbridge blames 'Egyptian martial indiscipline' rather
than crusader superiority.
When Baldwin II finally is released Tancred refuses to give back control of
Edessa without an oath of subservience which Baldwin refuses. Leading to
battle between Tancred and Baldwin at Tell Bashir in 1108. The battle was
inconclusive, but Patriarch Bernard stepped in to prevent further bloodshed
and arbitrated in favour of Baldwin.
1109 dispute over succession of Tripoli between William Jordan, Raymond's
nephew, and Bertrand of Toulouse, his son, who arrived in 1109. Bertrand
was favoured by Baldwin of Jerusalem, and William Jordan by Tancred of
Antioch.
1113 the forces of Jerusalem are badly mauled near the al-Sennabra bridge
over the Jordan, when Baldwin I advanced to meet the threat of Tughetin
and Maudud without waiting for his allies. BUT, Baldwin survived as he
withdrew to Mount Tabor where he was soon joined by the armies of Antioch
and Tripoli, who helped see off the Muslim threat.
made a treaty with Ascalon and Fulk marched south to besiege Jaffa. Hugh
came to terms and was exiled, but was stabbed before he could leave.
Diambert, patriarch of Jerusalem deposed in 1101 for embezzlement!
Second Battle of Ramla May 1102 - 200 knights and no infantry vs 20000
May 1104 Defeat at Harran of Antioch and Edessa by the Seljuk Turkish rulers
of Mardin and Mosul, leading to the capture of Baldwin II of Edessa.
'shattered' (Asbridge, p.137) the Frankish aura of invincibility.
1113 the forces of Jerusalem are badly mauled near the al-Sennabra bridge
over the Jordan, when Baldwin I advanced to meet the threat of Tughetin
and Maudud without waiting for his allies.
 TABLE - Downfall of Crusader States
Sunday, 12 February 2023 1:36 pm

Factor Examples for Examples against

Military - Battle of Inab 1149 ▪ Military orders

Weakness □ Nureddin invaded Antioch in 1149 and besieged the fortress of Inab with the
help of Unur of Damascus
□ Raymond had no Frankish allies but had the Assassin's support, and was greatly
outnumbered by Nureddin's forces
□ Nureddin was able to lure Raymond into a poor position in during the night,
forcing him to charge in the morning, which resulted in Raymond and the
commander of the Assassin Troops being dead and the combined army
destroyed
□ This greatly weakened the position of the Franks in the North
- Dismantling Edessa (1149-1150)
□ Joscelin II of Edessa sued for a peace deal before the Battle of Inab,
understanding the threat Nureddin posed, although he accepted, Nureddin
broke this, capturing Joscelin and imprisoned him
□ This meant from 1149-1150, both Antioch and Edessa had fell, leaving the
Franks without any defences in the North
- Issues with the Templars
- The Templars weren't always obedient and under the command of the crusade
state leaders
- Siege of Ascalon, 1153
→ In 1153, during the siege of Ascalon
→ A group of Templars breached the walls ahead of the main army
→ They then refused to let the other Franks join them to get all the loot
→ This backfired as they were massacred in the town centre due to them being  Raymond of Tripoli was able to launch diversionary attacks on Saladin's town of Homs,
trapped with no Frankish support
- Disobedience in 1173
→ For example, in 1173, the Templars killed Muslim assassin envoys who were
travelling home from Jerusalem after being granted rapprochement with
King Amalric of Jerusalem,
→ Shows to us how the Templars didn't care as much for the survival of the
crusader states as they did for killing Muslims at any given opportunity,
which could've caused a conflict
• Knights Templar
→ Due to the present Muslim threat a group of knights joined together to provide
protection and an escort for pilgrims
→ In 1120, High of Payns and Geoffrey of St. Omer officially founded the Templar
movement
→ They were given authority to protect pilgrims under God's name due to the approval
by the church at the Council of Troyes in 1129
→ This gave knights the opportunity to dedicate their lives to spiritual military service in
Outremer
→ They contained around 500 knights at their peak
• Knights Hospitaller
→ They contained around 300-knights at their peak
→ 1160s - The Hospitallers, who before this point owned seven castles and aided in the
defence of two others, acquired control of 12 additional castles and gained theoretical
rights over a further 6, whilst also agreeing to assist in the defence of Sidon.
→ By the 1180s, the combined Templar and Hospitaller contribution of around 700
knights to the full muster of the kingdom of Jerusalem was roughly equal to that of all
other sources.'
→ 1187 - Military Orders were clearly feared by Saladin, after the Battle of Hattin in
1187, all were executed, with 50 Dinars rewarded for each knight imprisoned
▪ Raymond delays Saladin
 Saladin left for Aleppo in December 1174 - Aleppo called for Frankish and Assassin help,
which helped Saladin as leader of Jihad, making him seem like Muslim v Christians
forcing him to withdraw from Aleppo - Raymond then used the citadel of Homs against
Saladin's troops, but was forced to withdraw after Saladin's army came near, delaying
Saladin

- Issues with the Hospitallers

- Much like the Templars, the Hospitallers were more focused on their religious
conviction rather than the survival of the crusader states
- 1168 Invasion of Egypt
→ In 1168, the Hospitallers went against the advice of the nobles in Jerusalem
and the Templars by advising King Amalric to break a treaty with the
Muslims and invade Egypt
→ They promised to supply 500 knights and 500 Turcopoles
→ Showing to us that at times the orders were a lot more focused on attacking
Muslims, rather than trying to secure the longevity of the crusader states
→ This attack failed and created widespread criticism for the Hospitallers
greed
→ This caused the Hospitallers to accrue a debt of 100,000 Bezants due to the
cost of assembling a force large enough to attack Egypt

- Saladin at Hattin - 1187

□ Battle of Hattin - Franks gather 20,000 men to respond to Saladin's 30,000
men killing 450 knights at the Springs of Cresson - There is a schism over how
to respond, with Raymond wanting to wait for Saladin to attack, but Guy,
possibly influenced by the military orders, wanted to lead an attack into
Tiberius where Saladin was - This resulted in them being surrounded after
marching into battle, all but 3 die - Relic of the Holy Cross is captured, all
major leaders in Outremer now die, Saladin easily takes remaining Frankish
lands

Lack of Western ▪ 1134 - Fulk of Anjou and Hugh of Jaffa have a civil war in Jerusalem, this shows Role of King Amalric
Aid the tensions that outsiders who came in to rule created. perhaps caused by □ Amalric succeeded Baldwin and can be characterised by: Egypt - he made 5 attempts to
tensions between Fulk's new nobility and the established Jerusalem nobility loyal gain the country between 1163-1170 and briefly held Alexandria in 1167
to Melisende, according to Orderic Vitalis. □ He clearly wasn't strong militarily, since his efforts of securing Egypt resulting in nothing
▪ 1129 - Papal Schism meant that Baldwin II and Hugh of Payns calling for more but losses, and in October 1169, the Frankish-Byzantium alliance to capture Egypt had to
men failed - Baldwin's appeal for another crusade against Damascus in 1129, be halted due to low supplies
largely preached by Hugh of Payns, master of the Templars, without papal
support, ended in fiasco. ▪ 1120 - 70 Venetian Supplied pilgrim ships reach Outremer - 1124 Capture of Tyre as result
▪ 1137 John II Comnenus marched into Syria to reassert Byzantine control over the ▪ 1129 - Fulk of Anjou married off to Baldwin II's daughter Melisandre, which provides new
province, partly in fury that he had not been consulted in Constance's marriage to resources and men for Jerusalem..
Raymond of Poitiers in 1136. Raymond swore homage to John, but their joint ▪ 1136 Raymond of Poitiers, Duke of Aquitaine, married Constance of Antioch, bringing new
offensive on Shaizar ends in failure. 1142 John returns in an effort to restore direct wealth and manpower to Antioch.
rule of Antioch under his son Manuel, but John died in a hunting accident in 1143.
Internal Divisions Role of Baldwin III, King of Jerusalem Role of King Amalric and Byzantium
□ Baldwin's leadership was key with Antioch, intervening and creating a truce □ Amalric succeeded Baldwin and can be characterised by: Egypt - he made 5 attempts to
with Nureddin with the help of the Templars gain the country between 1163-1170 and briefly held Alexandria in 1167
□ Civil War 1152 □ He clearly wasn't strong militarily, since his efforts of securing Egypt resulting in nothing
 By 1152, Melisende was still holding on to power, with Baldwin but losses, and in October 1169, the Frankish-Byzantium alliance to capture Egypt had to
increasingly frustrated at this, which led to an open Civil War be halted due to low supplies
 Baldwin believed that without control of Jerusalem, he couldn't properly
fight the enemy, resulting in Melisende fortifying Jerusalem and Nablus Internal Rivalries had existed before, but it wasn't until Muslim Threat/Unity that they

Crusades Page 61
 fight the enemy, resulting in Melisende fortifying Jerusalem and Nablus
against Baldwin
 Baldwin then captured Melisende's Constable, at castle Mirabel, sparing
his life on the condition he left Outremer, leaving Nablus to Baldwin
□ Antioch
 Similarly, the death of Raymond of Antioch meant his widow Constance
was ruling Antioch on behalf of their son, but even when he turned 15, she
refused to let him rule, continuing her ruling
 Instead of turning to their Byzantium overlords, they decided to turn to
Baldwin III to find a new ruler, and he chose Bohemond to rule Antioch
Zengi - Exploited Internal Rivalries
□ Made Governor of Mosul in 1127, making treaties with Joscelin of Edessa, so
that Zengi could focus solely on the Muslim threats in the area
□ 1144 Siege of Edessa
□ Zengi Besieged Edessa in 1144 since Jerusalem had an alliance with the
Muslim Damascus that meant neither could be attacked or provoked, so
he chose Edessa instead
□ Zengi was able to inspire people to fight for him through his use of Jihad,
and the idea of people taking up arms in the name of Islam, similar to what
the Frank's had been doing, but also due to his personal actions, such as
ensuring the women left behind during long-campaigns were well looked
after.
□ Zengi knew that Joscelin and Raymond of Antioch had fallen out, which
meant that Antioch wouldn't help Edessa if it were besieged
□ He gathered a large army and siege engines to surround the walls,
eventually tunnelling underneath them and collapsing them on the 24th
December 1144, capturing Edessa
→ Rise of Nureddin in Syria and Egypt
▪ Nureddin was highly powerful, taking Edessa in 1146, which marked the first
of the Frankish settlements to be taken by Nureddin, with Zengi, his father,
besieging Edessa in 1144 as well
▪ Nureddin was able to unite the Muslim force through alliances, with the
Unur of Damascus, which resulted in the Crusaders withdrawing their siege
on Damascus
□ However, there were still Muslim-Frankish alliances, with Raymond of
Tripoli making an alliance with Nureddin and Unur to fight his Frankish
Cousin, allowing them to capture Bertram and his fortress, so there was
still possibilities for Frankish-Muslim alliances
Role of King Amalric
□ Amalric succeeded Baldwin and can be characterised by: Egypt - he made 5
attempts to gain the country between 1163-1170 and briefly held Alexandria
in 1167
□ He clearly wasn't strong militarily, since his efforts of securing Egypt resulting
in nothing but losses, and in October 1169, the Frankish-Byzantium alliance to ▪ Alliance between Nureddin and Emperor Manuel - 1157
capture Egypt had to be halted due to low supplies
□ Kingdom of Jerusalem, 1185-1187
□ Baldwin IV's Death 1185
 This didn't cause an immediate attack from Saladin nor did the
crusader states instantly crumble
 It caused the people of Jerusalem to have "recognised they faced great
dangers, but they did not expect to be defeated" according to
Hamilton
 Jerusalem's economy was still flourishing after this, with a control of
the ports, and trade with Italians as well as good links with Damascus
and Aleppo meant Jerusalem was economically strong
 Baldwin's Kingdom was greatly reduced in size due to Nureddin and
Saladin, who were able to remove the Franks from Syria and push
Antioch's borders closer to the city
 During Baldwin's rule, Outremer could no longer meet the financial
needs to defending against the Muslims, resulting in major tracts of
land and castles being passed to the holy order
 By 1187, 55% of property was given to the religious orders and by 1168,
every castle except Tiberius were with the holy orders
□ Emergence of two factions
 William of Tyre noted the emergence of two factions, but despite this
there had always been internal rivalries so what made this unique?
 Why did the two factions emerge?
◊ Baldwin V's Death
 Before Baldwin IV's death, he made Raymond of Tripoli regent
over Baldwin V, who once in power, tried to negotiate a truce
with Saladin
 This was because Antioch already had a truce, but Raymond
wanted to extend this to all Frankish lands
 Saladin agreed to this, creating a 4-year truce until 1189,
protecting Frankish lands
 However, when Baldwin V died in 1186, Raymond's regency
ended and he was told to return to his lands - However, a plot by
Joscelin of Courtney to remove Raymond and allow for the
crown to land with Sybilla and Guy of Lusignan emerged
◊ Joscelin of Courtney's Plan
 Sybilla went through a mock divorce of Guy to ensure
Jerusalem's nobles would allow for her coronation, on the
condition she could marry her choice afterward: She chose guy
(who she had to divorce since Jerusalem's nobles hated him and
would've blocked her coronation)
 Sibylla's only rival, her Stepsister Isabella and her husband
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Internal Rivalries had existed before, but it wasn't until Muslim Threat/Unity that they
could be exploited
□ 1134 crisis between Fulk and Count Hugh of Jaffa resulted in civil war. Hugh made a
treaty with Ascalon and Fulk marched south to besiege Jaffa. Hugh came to terms and
was exiled, but was stabbed before he could leave.
□ 1139/40 - Zengi is still busy fighting Muslims and absorbing Damascus, with the Siege
of Damascus occurring
□ By 1144, Zengi is exploiting these rivalries due to his increased strength
□ Zengi Made Governor of Mosul in 1127, making treaties with Joscelin of Edessa, so
that Zengi could focus solely on the Muslim threats in the area
□ 1144 Siege of Edessa
□ Zengi Besieged Edessa in 1144 since Jerusalem had an alliance with the Muslim
Damascus that meant neither could be attacked or provoked, so he chose Edessa
instead
□ Zengi was able to inspire people to fight for him through his use of Jihad, and the
idea of people taking up arms in the name of Islam, similar to what the Frank's had
been doing, but also due to his personal actions, such as ensuring the women left
behind during long-campaigns were well looked after.
□ Zengi knew that Joscelin and Raymond of Antioch had fallen out, which meant
that Antioch wouldn't help Edessa if it were besieged
□ He gathered a large army and siege engines to surround the walls, eventually
tunnelling underneath them and collapsing them on the 24th December 1144,
capturing Edessa
Role of Baldwin III, King of Jerusalem (Internal Rivalries there before, but it wasn't until
Saladin had the Muslim world united that these could be exploited)
□ Baldwin's leadership was key with Antioch, intervening and creating a truce with
Nureddin with the help of the Templars
□ Civil War 1152
 By 1152, Melisende was still holding on to power, with Baldwin increasingly frustrated
at this, which led to an open Civil War
 Baldwin believed that without control of Jerusalem, he couldn't properly fight the
enemy, resulting in Melisende fortifying Jerusalem and Nablus against Baldwin
 Baldwin then captured Melisende's Constable, at castle Mirabel, sparing his life on the
condition he left Outremer, leaving Nablus to Baldwin
□ Thus, internal rivalries and successions had occurred before, but it wasn't until the
strength in 1187, after the fall of Egypt to Saladin, that this could be exploited
 Saladin at Hattin - 1187
□ Battle of Hattin - Franks gather 20,000 men to respond to Saladin's 30,000 men
killing 450 knights at the Springs of Cresson - There is a schism over how to
respond, with Raymond wanting to wait for Saladin to attack, but Guy, possibly
influenced by the military orders, wanted to lead an attack into Tiberius where
Saladin was - This resulted in them being surrounded after marching into battle,
all but 3 die - Relic of the Holy Cross is captured, all major leaders in Outremer
now die, Saladin easily takes remaining Frankish lands
□ By 1157, Nureddin was in an alliance with Emperor Manuel, which helped him fight the
Seljuk Turks in Anatolia but also put an end to the Frankish-Byzantium alliance that was
causing raids in Northern Syria
□ Nureddin was a good fighter, as shown with the fall of Edessa in 1146 and the Battle of
Inab 1149, but also a great politician with his alliances that made him so strong
Role of Baldwin III, King of Jerusalem
□ Baldwin's leadership was key with Antioch, intervening and creating a truce with
Nureddin with the help of the Templars
□ After the Battle of Inab, 1149, Baldwin moved to the North of Antioch to reclaim the
regency and negotiated a truce with Nureddin in 1150 to prevent the further destruction
on Antioch - This resulted in Antioch remaining in Frankish hands, but was badly
weakened and diminished as a trading post
  Sibylla's only rival, her Stepsister Isabella and her husband
Humphrey of Toron, decided to offer allegiance to Guy to
provide unity to Jerusalem
 This also forced Reynald to support Guy, followed by the Master
of the Templars supporting guy
 This isolated Raymond going from Regent to Opposition
◊ Raymond's Opposition
 Since Raymond was the sole Jerusalem noble in opposition, it
was believed he needed to be removed
 Guy was persuaded to move against Raymond, reading an army
for this
 Raymond, who negotiated a treaty with Saladin, then turned to
him for support, resulting in Raymond of Tripoli agreeing to
provide free passage across his lands if they put him back as
King
 Other nobles rallied around Guy despite their reservations, as
they knew how important unity was but Raymond just
committed treason against his king
◊ Reynald's Attack on a Caravan 1187
 Reynald then decided to attack, plunder, and murder men,
women, and children in a Muslim caravan of pilgrims crossing his
land
 Reynald had no Muslim truce, providing Saladin a reason to
attack Jerusalem, resulting in Hattin 1187
□ Saladin at Hattin - 1187
□ Battle of Hattin - Franks gather 20,000 men to respond to Saladin's
30,000 men killing 450 knights at the Springs of Cresson - There is a
schism over how to respond, with Raymond wanting to wait for Saladin to
attack, but Guy, possibly influenced by the military orders, wanted to lead
an attack into Tiberius where Saladin was - This resulted in them being
surrounded after marching into battle, all but 3 die - Relic of the Holy
Cross is captured, all major leaders in Outremer now die, Saladin easily
takes remaining Frankish lands
□
Muslim Rise of Nureddin and Zengi in Syria and Egypt
Threat/Rise of ▪ Nureddin was highly powerful, succeeding Zengi in Edessa in 1146, which
Zengi marked the first of the Frankish settlements to be taken by Nureddin, with
Zengi, his father, besieging Edessa in 1144 as well
▪ Nureddin was able to unite the Muslim force through alliances, with the Unur
of Damascus, which resulted in the Crusaders withdrawing their siege on
Damascus
□ However, there were still Muslim-Frankish alliances, with Raymond of
Tripoli making an alliance with Nureddin and Unur to fight his Frankish
Cousin, allowing them to capture Bertram and his fortress, so there was
still possibilities for Frankish-Muslim alliances
▪ How impactful was this alliances?
□ After the death of Unur and Saphadin in August and November 1149, the
alliance between Mosul-Aleppo-Damascus was removed, which greatly
weakened Nureddin since the new ruler of Damascus made an alliance
with the Franks in Jerusalem.
□ However, Nureddin was still powerful after, being able to take Mosul from
his younger brother by forcing him to acknowledge him as his overlord,
which essentially gave Nureddin northern Syria - After controlling Mosul,
he forced the leader of Damascus to recognise him as overlord as well,
meaning Nureddin controlled Aleppo, Damascus and Mosul, key for socio-
economic success, especially the money that was raised in Damascus from
agriculture
▪ 1149 Battle of Inab
□ Nureddin defeated and killed Raymond of Poitiers, pushing Antioch's
eastern border closer to the city, reducing the power and making the
position of the Frank's weaker
▪ Role with Damascus in 1149
□ By blockading Damascus in 1149, he caused the locals to question their
support for Abaq, forcing him to flee the citadel and Nureddin was able to
take control of the city unopposed, making him the leader of Aleppo,
Edessa and Damascus
▪ Alliance with Emperor Manuel 1157
□ By 1157, Nureddin was in an alliance with Emperor Manuel, which helped
him fight the Seljuk Turks in Anatolia but also put an end to the Frankish-
Byzantium alliance that was causing raids in Northern Syria
□ Nureddin was a good fighter, as shown with the fall of Edessa in 1146 and
the Battle of Inab 1149, but also a great politician with his alliances that
made him so strong
Rise of Nureddin and Saladin in Egypt
▪ 1162-3 Crisis in Egypt
□ Due to Egypt being ruled by Child Caliphates, the role of Vizier was
important, and in December 1162, Shawar seized the position but was
quickly turned out by Dirgham a court official in 1163
□ Shawar then turned to Nureddin to help him restore his place - Amalric
them launched an attack on Egypt as Dirgham had stopped paying the
tribute to the Franks
□ Nureddin then wanted Egypt under his control, rather than Amalric's, so
he sent Shirkuh to Egypt to solidify the position, resulting in him swiftly
taking Egypt and restoring Shawar as vizier
▪ 1164 Betrayal of Shawar
□ However, Shawar then asked Amalric to remove Shirkuh and his Troops as
Shawar couldn’t pay the money he promised to Nureddin
□ Amalric then interfered, with Shirkuh's army and Amalric's army meeting
in 1164 near Bilbays, without a conclusive victory
Rise of Nureddin and Saladin in Egypt
▪ 1162-3 Crisis in Egypt
□ Due to Egypt being ruled by Child Caliphates, the role of Vizier was important, and in
December 1162, Shawar seized the position but was quickly turned out by Dirgham a
court official in 1163
□ Shawar then turned to Nureddin to help him restore his place - Amalric them
launched an attack on Egypt as Dirgham had stopped paying the tribute to the Franks
□ Nureddin then wanted Egypt under his control, rather than Amalric's, so he sent
Shirkuh to Egypt to solidify the position, resulting in him swiftly taking Egypt and
restoring Shawar as vizier
▪ 1164 Betrayal of Shawar
□ However, Shawar then asked Amalric to remove Shirkuh and his Troops as Shawar
couldn’t pay the money he promised to Nureddin
□ Amalric then interfered, with Shirkuh's army and Amalric's army meeting in 1164 near
Bilbays, without a conclusive victory
▪ Egypt 1167
□ By 1167, both armies were now looking to take control of Egypt, with Shirkuh being
able to surprise Shawar and Amalric, which greatly weakened them but wasn't a
complete victory for Shirkuh
□ Shirkuh then appealed to Shawar to switch sides, which he didn't and Amalric tried
pressing for an official treaty, which worked and Amalric had a treaty with the Caliph,
allowing him to fight Shirkuh in a larger capacity
□ Shirkuh then attacked Alexandria in 1167, taking it and placing Saladin in charge, but
by the time he reached Cairo both armies were exhausted and Shirkuh had to pull out
▪ Shirkuh and Saladin in Egypt
□ Shirkuh and Saladin would then lead an army to Egypt after appeals from Shawar who
needed to pay a tribute to Amalric for his support in securing his role as Vizier
□ Shirkuh and Saladin then marched into Egypt, forcing Amalric to withdraw due to the
strength of the forces, capturing Shawar and executing him before Shirkuh
proclaimed himself as the vizier of Egypt
□ Shirkuh then died a few weeks after capturing Egypt, which left Saladin in control,
which was controversial as many in Nureddin's army didn't like Saladin, resulting in
them leaving Egypt for Damascus, leaving Saladin weak
▪ October 1169 Frankish-Byzantine Egypt Assault
□ Saladin was weak, but needed to defend him position when Manuel became
concerned at the extent of Nureddin's dominions and powers, which resulted in a
Frankish-Byzantine alliance to attack Egypt
□ Luckily for Saladin, the attack was called off due to supplies running low
Alliance with Emperor Manuel 1157
□ By 1157, Nureddin was in an alliance with Emperor Manuel, which helped him fight the
Seljuk Turks in Anatolia but also put an end to the Frankish-Byzantium alliance that was
causing raids in Northern Syria
□ Nureddin was a good fighter, as shown with the fall of Edessa in 1146 and the Battle of
Inab 1149, but also a great politician with his alliances that made him so strong
Raymond delays Saladin
 Saladin left for Aleppo in December 1174 - Aleppo called for Frankish and Assassin help,
which helped Saladin as leader of Jihad, making him seem like Muslim v Christians
 Raymond of Tripoli was able to launch diversionary attacks on Saladin's town of Homs,
forcing him to withdraw from Aleppo - Raymond then used the citadel of Homs against
Saladin's troops, but was forced to withdraw after Saladin's army came near, delaying
Saladin
Muslim Disunity - 1175
 Saladin was taken so seriously that by 1175, whilst controlling most of the regions around
Aleppo, in Hamah, a convinced Aleppo and Mosul force marched on him, imposing

Crusades Page 63
 in 1164 near Bilbays, without a conclusive victory Aleppo, in Hamah, a convinced Aleppo and Mosul force marched on him, imposing
▪ Egypt 1167 conditions undermining his position as head of the Ayyubid Dynasty (Saladin's succession
□ By 1167, both armies were now looking to take control of Egypt, with to Nureddin)
Shirkuh being able to surprise Shawar and Amalric, which greatly Battle of Hamah 1175
weakened them but wasn't a complete victory for Shirkuh  Saladin and Aleppo/Mosul fought, resulting in Saladin winning, which resulted in his terms
□ Shirkuh then appealed to Shawar to switch sides, which he didn't and of victory being that he was recognised as ruler of Syria, forcing Islam into having one
Amalric tried pressing for an official treaty, which worked and Amalric had united ruler under Saladin
a treaty with the Caliph, allowing him to fight Shirkuh in a larger capacity
□ Shirkuh then attacked Alexandria in 1167, taking it and placing Saladin in ▪ Damascus 1149
charge, but by the time he reached Cairo both armies were exhausted and □ After the death of Unur and Saphadin in August and November 1149, the alliance
Shirkuh had to pull out between Mosul-Aleppo-Damascus was removed, which greatly weakened Nureddin
▪ Shirkuh and Saladin in Egypt since the new ruler of Damascus made an alliance with the Franks in Jerusalem.
□ Shirkuh and Saladin would then lead an army to Egypt after appeals from
Shawar who needed to pay a tribute to Amalric for his support in securing
his role as Vizier
□ Shirkuh and Saladin then marched into Egypt, forcing Amalric to withdraw
due to the strength of the forces, capturing Shawar and executing him
before Shirkuh proclaimed himself as the vizier of Egypt
□ Shirkuh then died a few weeks after capturing Egypt, which left Saladin in
control, which was controversial as many in Nureddin's army didn't like
Saladin, resulting in them leaving Egypt for Damascus, leaving Saladin
weak
▪ October 1169 Frankish-Byzantine Egypt Assault
□ Saladin was weak, but needed to defend him position when Manuel
became concerned at the extent of Nureddin's dominions and powers,
which resulted in a Frankish-Byzantine alliance to attack Egypt
□ Luckily for Saladin, the attack was called off due to supplies running low
▪ Fall of Egypt to Saladin
□ Despite Saladin being apart of Nureddin's army, they rarely worked
together and Saladin was able to use his small but brutal local army to
secure his role within Egypt and control the area
□ Nureddin tried withdrawing his troops and send in tax inspectors as Saladin
was rarely sending taxes back to Nureddin, even gathering his own army
□ Nureddin died in May 1174, which meant any conflict that might have
occurred was called off, with Saladin then emerging as his successor

→ Growth of Saladin After Egypt

▪ Damascus
□ Context
 By 1173, Nureddin was the last obstacle in the way of Saladin's ultimate
rise to power - Nureddin had been snubbed in Egypt after Saladin and
Shirkuh, despite being sent by Nureddin, decided to keep Egypt after
taking it from Shawar and Amalric in by 1169
 Nureddin died in 1174, but Saladin wasn't the clear successor in Egypt
and Syria, with Nureddin leaving his 11 year old son as-Salih in charge
of Damascus, his other son governor of Aleppo, and his nephew in
charge of Mosul - Three key cities Saladin would need to cement his
power as a unified Muslim leader
□ Said-ad-Din of Mosul
 Nureddin's nephew, Saif-ad-Din of Mosul, would lead his army to attack
Egypt, but Saladin convinced them to attack Aleppo instead, which was
successful as as-Salih, the 11 year old ruler of Damascus was placed in
Aleppo by his mother, with Shams-ad-Din of Aleppo made his regent
 Once in Aleppo, their cousin, Saif-ad-Din of Mosul, sent them both to
prison and took over, greatly weakening Saladin's oppositions
□ Saladin's Diplomacy and use of jealousy
 Saladin sent a delegation to Damascus in 1174, noticed that Saif-ad-Din
had taken Aleppo, he decided to spread discord between Saif-ad-Din
and his jealous brother Imad-ad-Din, opening a rift
 Saladin then chastised Damascus for not calling on him to help but
instead turning to Amalric, using Jihad to argue for Muslim
collaboration and brotherhood
 Damascus then agreed with the idea of Jihad, willingly opening their
gaits to Saladin who took control in October 1174
 Tughtigan, Saladin's brother was appointed as governor
▪ Aleppo and Mosul
□ Raymond delays Saladin
 Saladin left for Aleppo in December 1174 - Aleppo called for Frankish
and Assassin help, which helped Saladin as leader of Jihad, making him
seem like Muslim v Christians
 Raymond of Tripoli was able to launch diversionary attacks on Saladin's
town of Homs, forcing him to withdraw from Aleppo - Raymond then
used the citadel of Homs against Saladin's troops, but was forced to
withdraw after Saladin's army came near, delaying Saladin
□ Muslim Disunity - 1175
 Saladin was taken so seriously that by 1175, whilst controlling most of
the regions around Aleppo, in Hamah, a convinced Aleppo and Mosul
force marched on him, imposing conditions undermining his position as
head of the Ayyubid Dynasty (Saladin's succession to Nureddin)
□ Battle of Hamah 1175
 Saladin and Aleppo/Mosul fought, resulting in Saladin winning, which
resulted in his terms of victory being that he was recognised as ruler of
Syria, forcing Islam into having one united ruler under Saladin
□ Capture of Aleppo July 1175
 Saladin isolated Aleppo by taking the surrounding towns, including the
capture of Manjib and Azaz in June 1175, which put Aleppo under
serious military and socio-economic strain, which allowed Saladin to
negotiate their surrender in July 1175
 By July 1175 - He was lord of Egypt, Damascus (Syria), and Aleppo
▪ Saladin at Hattin - 1187

Crusades Page 64
 ▪ Saladin at Hattin - 1187
□ Battle of Hattin - Franks gather 20,000 men to respond to Saladin's 30,000
men killing 450 knights at the Springs of Cresson - There is a schism over
how to respond, with Raymond wanting to wait for Saladin to attack, but
Guy, possibly influenced by the military orders, wanted to lead an attack
into Tiberius where Saladin was - This resulted in them being surrounded
after marching into battle, all but 3 die - Relic of the Holy Cross is
captured, all major leaders in Outremer now die, Saladin easily takes
remaining Frankish lands
Growth of Jihad Growth of Jihad
▪ Nureddin was able to unite Muslim forces through the idea of Jihad, presenting
himself as a warrior of the Jihad, using propaganda to ensure his message
reached every corner of Syria
▪ He had a clear intention, which was to promote Sunni Islam, wanting to unite all
Muslims against the Franks in order to gain Jerusalem
▪ Nureddin's Methods
□ Nureddin's methods were vast, being able to promote and finance a whole
range of religious aspects, such as religious houses, educational
establishments, hospitals and organised public readings which extolled the
virtues of Jerusalem
□ He also used money as a weapon, making sure to live a frugal life which was
shown in his propaganda, hoping to win in the name of Islam rather than for
himself
□ He clearly inspired Saladin and was crucial for the uniting of a Muslim front
and setting up a military threat to Outremer
▪ Zengi - Key to Jihad
□ Made Governor of Mosul in 1127, making treaties with Joscelin of Edessa, so
that Zengi could focus solely on the Muslim threats in the area
□ 1144 Siege of Edessa
 Zengi Besieged Edessa in 1144 since Jerusalem had an alliance with the
Muslim Damascus that meant neither could be attacked or provoked, so
he chose Edessa instead
 Zengi was able to inspire people to fight for him through his use of Jihad,
and the idea of people taking up arms in the name of Islam, similar to
what the Frank's had been doing, but also due to his personal actions,
such as ensuring the women left behind during long-campaigns were well
looked after.
 Zengi knew that Joscelin and Raymond of Antioch had fallen out, which
meant that Antioch wouldn't help Edessa if it were besieged
 He gathered a large army and siege engines to surround the walls,
eventually tunnelling underneath them and collapsing them on the 24th
December 1144, capturing Edessa
▪ Saladin and Jihad in Damascus
□ Context
 By 1173, Nureddin was the last obstacle in the way of Saladin's ultimate
rise to power - Nureddin had been snubbed in Egypt after Saladin and
Shirkuh, despite being sent by Nureddin, decided to keep Egypt after
taking it from Shawar and Amalric in by 1169
 Nureddin died in 1174, but Saladin wasn't the clear successor in Egypt and
Syria, with Nureddin leaving his 11 year old son as-Salih in charge of
Damascus, his other son governor of Aleppo, and his nephew in charge of
Mosul - Three key cities Saladin would need to cement his power as a
unified Muslim leader
□ Said-ad-Din of Mosul
 Nureddin's nephew, Saif-ad-Din of Mosul, would lead his army to attack
Egypt, but Saladin convinced them to attack Aleppo instead, which was
successful as as-Salih, the 11 year old ruler of Damascus was placed in
Aleppo by his mother, with Shams-ad-Din of Aleppo made his regent
 Once in Aleppo, their cousin, Saif-ad-Din of Mosul, sent them both to
prison and took over, greatly weakening Saladin's oppositions
□ Saladin's Diplomacy and use of jealousy
 Saladin sent a delegation to Damascus in 1174, noticed that Saif-ad-Din
had taken Aleppo, he decided to spread discord between Saif-ad-Din and
his jealous brother Imad-ad-Din, opening a rift
 Saladin then chastised Damascus for not calling on him to help but
instead turning to Amalric, using Jihad to argue for Muslim collaboration
and brotherhood
 Damascus then agreed with the idea of Jihad, willingly opening their gaits
to Saladin who took control in October 1174
 Tughtigan, Saladin's brother was appointed as governor

Crusades Page 65
TABLE - Rulers of the Crusader States and their success
Saturday, 15 April 2023 2:45 pm
State Evidence of Success
Edessa Joscelin I of Edessa - Joscelin II of Edessa
• 1108 - Baldwin II is captured, and Joscelin of Courtenay makes Alliance with ruler
of Mosul for his release, costing money and means they are forced to help Mosul
fight Damascus, blocking the ability to fight Mosul, but does create alliance
against Muslims
Joscelin II of Edessa
□ Zengi Made Governor of Mosul in 1127, making treaties with Joscelin of Edessa, so
that Zengi could focus solely on the Muslim threats in the area
Antioch Raymond of Antioch
• 1136 Raymond of Poitiers, Duke of Aquitaine, married Constance of Antioch,
bringing new wealth and manpower to Antioch.
Tripoli Pons, Count of Tripoli
• Following the Battle of the Field of Blood, the combined forces of Jerusalem and
Tripoli under Baldwin II push back the forces of Il-ghazi and Damascus at Zardana
in 1119.
Jerusalem Baldwin I
▪ For
□ 1100 - Claims Jerusalem with 900 men, defeating interceptions from the
Duqaq of Damascus, which sets up the initial Crusader states and is a key
place to hold for moral
□ Survived 3 Fatimid Invasions as King of Jerusalem, being renowned for his
military tactics
□ Key victories at Ramla in 1101 and 1105
□ Baldwin I's daring actions after disaster at Ramla in 1102. Escaping on his own
with his swift horse (Gazelle), before making his way to Arsuf and then sailing
through the blockade to the beleaguered port of Jaffa, saving the town.
□ In 1111 - He gained minor ports through Diplomacy, including Ascalon for a Baldwin II
brief period of time
□ Worked with Western Aid for ports in Acre, Arsuf and Caesarea, being key for
trade and pilgrims later on in the survival
□ 1115 - Sets up the Castle of Montreal, which becomes key for colonising the
trade within Outremer
Baldwin II
▪ For
□ 1119 - Battle of the Field of Blood, after Roger of Antioch's blunder in not
waiting for troops, losing to Il-Ghazi of Mardin and Damascus, Baldwin
intervened, reducing the amount of territory lost in the East of Antioch,
restoring stability by marrying his men to the widows
□ By 1124, he has to travel to Antioch 6 times for protection or political reasons,
showing how he was vital in ensuring stability within Antioch
□ 19 campaigns against Muslims in just 13 years, shows he was proactive in the
military defence of Outremer
□ 1124-1126: Baldwin II engages in an impressive series of campaigns,
threatening Aleppo, Ascalon and Damascus, winning several battles.
Tancred
▪ For
□ Tancred regains Cilicia and takes the key Syrian port of Latakia in 1103,
shortly before Bohemond's release the same year. He then manages to
recover Antioch's prosperity despite Bohemond's defeat at Harran in 1104 and
Crusades Page 66
Evidence of Failure
□ Zengi Made Governor of Mosul in 1127, making treaties with Joscelin of Edessa, so that Zengi could focus
solely on the Muslim threats in the area
□ 1144 Siege of Edessa
→ Zengi Besieged Edessa in 1144 since Jerusalem had an alliance with the Muslim Damascus that meant
neither could be attacked or provoked, so he chose Edessa instead
→ Zengi was able to inspire people to fight for him through his use of Jihad, and the idea of people taking
up arms in the name of Islam, similar to what the Frank's had been doing, but also due to his personal
actions, such as ensuring the women left behind during long-campaigns were well looked after.
→ Zengi knew that Joscelin and Raymond of Antioch had fallen out, which meant that Antioch wouldn't
help Edessa if it were besieged
→ He gathered a large army and siege engines to surround the walls, eventually tunnelling underneath
them and collapsing them on the 24th December 1144, capturing Edessa
□ Dismantling Edessa (1149-1150)
→ Joscelin II of Edessa sued for a peace deal before the Battle of Inab, understanding the threat Nureddin
posed, although he accepted, Nureddin broke this, capturing Joscelin and imprisoned him
→ This meant from 1149-1150, both Antioch and Edessa had fell, leaving the Franks without any defences in the North
▪ Bohemond of Antioch
▪ 1104 - Bohemond's defeat at Battle of Harran, puts Antioch's borders and stability at risk, needs to be
helped by Tancred
▪ Neither Bohemond nor Tancred make any effort to secure the release of Baldwin II of Edessa, because they
retained control of Edessa and its considerable agrarian wealth (40000 bezants a year!) in his absence.
▪ Roger of Antioch
□ 1115 Roger of Antioch does not wait for reinforcements in dealing with Bursuq's feinted withdrawal (after the
pan-Levantine alliance had disbanded), but defeated Bursuq alone by catching his forces off guard with a
surprise attack in the valley of Sarmin. However, this 'set a worrying precedent for hot-headed impetuosity'
(Asbridge p.159).
□ 28 June 1119: Roger of Antioch's forces are destroyed by the new Emir of Aleppo, the Artuqid Turk Il-ghazi in
the Battle of the Field of Blood near Sarmada just East of the Belus hills. Roger could have waited for
reinforcements from Jerusalem, but chose instead to take decisive action. His camp was discovered and this
time he was surrounded before dawn.
□ 1113 the forces of Jerusalem are badly mauled near the al-Sennabra bridge over the Jordan, when Baldwin I
advanced to meet the threat of Tughetin and Maudud without waiting for his allies. BUT, Baldwin survived as
he withdrew to Mount Tabor where he was soon joined by the armies of Antioch and Tripoli, who helped see
off the Muslim threat.
▪ Raymond of Antioch
▪ Battle of Inab 1149
□ Nureddin invaded Antioch in 1149 and besieged the fortress of Inab with the help of Unur of Damascus
□ Raymond had no Frankish allies but had the Assassin's support, and was greatly outnumbered by
Nureddin's forces
□ Nureddin was able to lure Raymond into a poor position in during the night, forcing him to charge in the
morning, which resulted in Raymond and the commander of the Assassin Troops being dead and the
combined army destroyed
□ This greatly weakened the position of the Franks in the North
◊ Raymond of Tripoli's Opposition
 Since Raymond was the sole Jerusalem noble in opposition, it was believed he needed to be removed
 Guy was persuaded to move against Raymond, reading an army for this
 Raymond, who negotiated a treaty with Saladin, then turned to him for support, resulting in Raymond of
Tripoli agreeing to provide free passage across his lands if they put him back as King
 Other nobles rallied around Guy despite their reservations, as they knew how important unity was but
Raymond just committed treason against his king
This results in allowing Saladin at Hattin - 1187
□ Battle of Hattin - Franks gather 20,000 men to respond to Saladin's 30,000 men killing 450 knights at
the Springs of Cresson - There is a schism over how to respond, with Raymond wanting to wait for
Saladin to attack, but Guy, possibly influenced by the military orders, wanted to lead an attack into
Tiberius where Saladin was - This resulted in them being surrounded after marching into battle, all but
3 die - Relic of the Holy Cross is captured, all major leaders in Outremer now die, Saladin easily takes
remaining Frankish lands
Baldwin I
▪ Against
□ 1100 - Can be said he relied heavily on knights, with 200 of the 900 men being knights, who were key to
fending off from the Duqaq of Damascus
□ His win in Ramla 1105 only came after Western Aid from Italy decided to provide him with Pilgrims after
his loss in Ramla 1102
□ Ramla loss in 1102 was due to his own blunder in terms of his positioning, but also can be blamed on the
reinforcements from the West being smaller in number than Baldwin stated he needed
□ 1113 the forces of Jerusalem are badly mauled near the al-Sennabra bridge over the Jordan, when
Baldwin I advanced to meet the threat of Tughetin and Maudud without waiting for his allies.
▪ Against
□ Highly reliant on military orders for his campaigns against Muslims
□ He negotiates for Fulk of Anjou to marry his daughter Melisende, but this creates internal tensions with
an outsider being placed in charge - although this provides men, resources, and a clear male successor
□ 1108 - He is captured, and Joscelin of Courtenay makes Alliance with ruler of Mosul for his release,
costing money and blocking the ability to fight Mosul, but does create alliance
□ Baldwin II captured in April 1123 and held for 16 months; Palestine narrowly avoids a coup.
Tancred
▪ Against
□ 1110: Tancred's overzealous expansion beyond the natural boundaries of the Belus Hills to the east and
the Summaq plateau to the south, threatening Aleppo and Shaizar. After initially paying the Franks
tribute in return for peace, the Munqidh clan of Shaizar allied with Maudud of Mosul, who led an Abbasid
army into Syria again in 1111.
Amalric
▪ 1168 Invasion of Egypt
→ In 1168, the Hospitallers went against the advice of the nobles in Jerusalem and the Templars by advising
King Amalric to break a treaty with the Muslims and invade Egypt
→ They promised to supply 500 knights and 500 Turcopoles
→ Showing to us that at times the orders were a lot more focused on attacking Muslims, rather than trying
to secure the longevity of the crusader states
→ This attack failed and created widespread criticism for the Hospitallers greed
→ This caused the Hospitallers to accrue a debt of 100,000 Bezants due to the cost of assembling a force
 recover Antioch's prosperity despite Bohemond's defeat at Harran in 1104 and
his subsequent departure for Europe with most of the wealth and men of the
principality.
□ 1105 - Tancred raises an emergency tax, 10,000 men, secured key victories at Kingdom of Jerusalem, 1185-1187
Edessa and Antioch against Ridwan of Aleppo's 30,000 men, showing the
military strength
□ 1104 - Tancred stabilises Antioch after Bohemond's defeat at the Battle of
Harran 1104, which minimises the amount of land Antioch loses and
stabilises the nation
□ Tancred's capture of Tiberias and securing Galilee.
□ 1109 Following his defeat outside Artah, Ridwan of Aleppo sues for peace with
Tancred.
Saladin at Hattin - 1187
Crusades Page 67
→ This caused the Hospitallers to accrue a debt of 100,000 Bezants due to the cost of assembling a force
large enough to attack Egypt
□ Baldwin IV's Death 1185
 This didn't cause an immediate attack from Saladin nor did the crusader states instantly crumble
 It caused the people of Jerusalem to have "recognised they faced great dangers, but they did not expect
to be defeated" according to Hamilton
 Jerusalem's economy was still flourishing after this, with a control of the ports, and trade with Italians as
well as good links with Damascus and Aleppo meant Jerusalem was economically strong
 Baldwin's Kingdom was greatly reduced in size due to Nureddin and Saladin, who were able to remove
the Franks from Syria and push Antioch's borders closer to the city
 During Baldwin's rule, Outremer could no longer meet the financial needs to defending against the
Muslims, resulting in major tracts of land and castles being passed to the holy order
 By 1187, 55% of property was given to the religious orders and by 1168, every castle except Tiberius were
with the holy orders
□ Emergence of two factions
 William of Tyre noted the emergence of two factions, but despite this there had always been internal
rivalries so what made this unique?
 Why did the two factions emerge?
◊ Baldwin V's Death
 Before Baldwin IV's death, he made Raymond of Tripoli regent over Baldwin V, who once in
power, tried to negotiate a truce with Saladin
 This was because Antioch already had a truce, but Raymond wanted to extend this to all
Frankish lands
 Saladin agreed to this, creating a 4-year truce until 1189, protecting Frankish lands
 However, when Baldwin V died in 1186, Raymond's regency ended and he was told to return to
his lands - However, a plot by Joscelin of Courtney to remove Raymond and allow for the crown
to land with Sybilla and Guy of Lusignan emerged
◊ Joscelin of Courtney's Plan
 Sybilla went through a mock divorce of Guy to ensure Jerusalem's nobles would allow for her
coronation, on the condition she could marry her choice afterward: She chose guy (who she had
to divorce since Jerusalem's nobles hated him and would've blocked her coronation)
 Sibylla's only rival, her Stepsister Isabella and her husband Humphrey of Toron, decided to offer
allegiance to Guy to provide unity to Jerusalem
 This also forced Reynald to support Guy, followed by the Master of the Templars supporting
guy
 This isolated Raymond going from Regent to Opposition
◊ Raymond of Tripoli's Opposition
 Since Raymond was the sole Jerusalem noble in opposition, it was believed he needed to be
removed
 Guy was persuaded to move against Raymond, reading an army for this
 Raymond, who negotiated a treaty with Saladin, then turned to him for support, resulting in
Raymond of Tripoli agreeing to provide free passage across his lands if they put him back as
King
 Other nobles rallied around Guy despite their reservations, as they knew how important unity
was but Raymond just committed treason against his king
◊ Reynald's Attack on a Caravan 1187
 Reynald then decided to attack, plunder, and murder men, women, and children in a Muslim
caravan of pilgrims crossing his land
 Reynald had no Muslim truce, providing Saladin a reason to attack Jerusalem, resulting in
Hattin 1187
□ Battle of Hattin - Franks gather 20,000 men to respond to Saladin's 30,000 men killing 450 knights at the
Springs of Cresson - There is a schism over how to respond, with Raymond wanting to wait for Saladin to
attack, but Guy, possibly influenced by the military orders, wanted to lead an attack into Tiberius where
Saladin was - This resulted in them being surrounded after marching into battle, all but 3 die - Relic of the
Holy Cross is captured, all major leaders in Outremer now die, Saladin easily takes remaining Frankish lands
TABLE - Problems between 2nd (1147-49) and 3rd Crusade (1189-92)
Monday, 17 April 2023 9:58 am

Problem Evidence For Evidence Against

Development of Growth of Jihad ▪ Raymond delays Saladin
Jihad ▪ Nureddin was able to unite Muslim forces through the idea of Jihad, presenting himself as a warrior of the Jihad, using  Saladin left for Aleppo in December 1174 - Aleppo called for Frankish and Assassin help, which helped Saladin as leader of Jihad,
propaganda to ensure his message reached every corner of Syria making him seem like Muslim v Christians
▪ He had a clear intention, which was to promote Sunni Islam, wanting to unite all Muslims against the Franks in order to gain  Raymond of Tripoli was able to launch diversionary attacks on Saladin's town of Homs, forcing him to withdraw from Aleppo -
Jerusalem Raymond then used the citadel of Homs against Saladin's troops, but was forced to withdraw after Saladin's army came near,
▪ Nureddin's Methods delaying Saladin
□ Nureddin's methods were vast, being able to promote and finance a whole range of religious aspects, such as religious
houses, educational establishments, hospitals and organised public readings which extolled the virtues of Jerusalem ▪ Damascus 1149
□ He also used money as a weapon, making sure to live a frugal life which was shown in his propaganda, hoping to win in □ After the death of Unur and Saphadin in August and November 1149, the alliance between Mosul-Aleppo-Damascus was
the name of Islam rather than for himself removed, which greatly weakened Nureddin since the new ruler of Damascus made an alliance with the Franks in Jerusalem.
□ He clearly inspired Saladin and was crucial for the uniting of a Muslim front and setting up a military threat to Outremer
▪ Zengi - Key to Jihad
□ Made Governor of Mosul in 1127, making treaties with Joscelin of Edessa, so that Zengi could focus solely on the Muslim
threats in the area
□ 1144 Siege of Edessa
 Zengi Besieged Edessa in 1144 since Jerusalem had an alliance with the Muslim Damascus that meant neither
could be attacked or provoked, so he chose Edessa instead
 Zengi was able to inspire people to fight for him through his use of Jihad, and the idea of people taking up arms in
the name of Islam, similar to what the Frank's had been doing, but also due to his personal actions, such as
ensuring the women left behind during long-campaigns were well looked after.
 Zengi knew that Joscelin and Raymond of Antioch had fallen out, which meant that Antioch wouldn't help Edessa
if it were besieged
 He gathered a large army and siege engines to surround the walls, eventually tunnelling underneath them and
collapsing them on the 24th December 1144, capturing Edessa
▪ Saladin and Jihad in Damascus
□ Context
 By 1173, Nureddin was the last obstacle in the way of Saladin's ultimate rise to power - Nureddin had been snubbed
in Egypt after Saladin and Shirkuh, despite being sent by Nureddin, decided to keep Egypt after taking it from
Shawar and Amalric in by 1169
 Nureddin died in 1174, but Saladin wasn't the clear successor in Egypt and Syria, with Nureddin leaving his 11 year
old son as-Salih in charge of Damascus, his other son governor of Aleppo, and his nephew in charge of Mosul -
Three key cities Saladin would need to cement his power as a unified Muslim leader
□ Said-ad-Din of Mosul
 Nureddin's nephew, Saif-ad-Din of Mosul, would lead his army to attack Egypt, but Saladin convinced them to
attack Aleppo instead, which was successful as as-Salih, the 11 year old ruler of Damascus was placed in Aleppo by
his mother, with Shams-ad-Din of Aleppo made his regent
 Once in Aleppo, their cousin, Saif-ad-Din of Mosul, sent them both to prison and took over, greatly weakening
Saladin's oppositions
□ Saladin's Diplomacy and use of jealousy
 Saladin sent a delegation to Damascus in 1174, noticed that Saif-ad-Din had taken Aleppo, he decided to spread
discord between Saif-ad-Din and his jealous brother Imad-ad-Din, opening a rift
 Saladin then chastised Damascus for not calling on him to help but instead turning to Amalric, using Jihad to argue
for Muslim collaboration and brotherhood
 Damascus then agreed with the idea of Jihad, willingly opening their gaits to Saladin who took control in October
1174
 Tughtigan, Saladin's brother was appointed as governor
Succession □ Role of Baldwin III, King of Jerusalem Role of Baldwin III, King of Jerusalem (Internal Rivalries there before, but it wasn't until Saladin had the Muslim world uni ted
Issues/Internal □ Baldwin's leadership was key with Antioch, intervening and creating a truce with Nureddin with the help of the Templars that these could be exploited)
Rivalries □ Civil War 1152 □ Baldwin's leadership was key with Antioch, intervening and creating a truce with Nureddin with the help of the Templars
 By 1152, Melisende was still holding on to power, with Baldwin increasingly frustrated at this, which led to an open □ Civil War 1152
Civil War  By 1152, Melisende was still holding on to power, with Baldwin increasingly frustrated at this, which led to an open Civil Wa r
 Baldwin believed that without control of Jerusalem, he couldn't properly fight the enemy, resulting in Melisende  Baldwin believed that without control of Jerusalem, he couldn't properly fight the enemy, resulting in Melisende fortifying
fortifying Jerusalem and Nablus against Baldwin Jerusalem and Nablus against Baldwin
 Baldwin then captured Melisende's Constable, at castle Mirabel, sparing his life on the condition he left Outremer,  Baldwin then captured Melisende's Constable, at castle Mirabel, sparing his life on the condition he left Outremer, leaving
leaving Nablus to Baldwin Nablus to Baldwin
□ Thus, internal rivalries and successions had occurred before, but it wasn't until the strength in 1187, after the fall of Egy pt to
□ Kingdom of Jerusalem, 1185-1187 Saladin, that this could be exploited
□ Baldwin IV's Death 1185  Saladin at Hattin - 1187
 This didn't cause an immediate attack from Saladin nor did the crusader states instantly crumble □ Battle of Hattin - Franks gather 20,000 men to respond to Saladin's 30,000 men killing 450 knights at the Springs of
 It caused the people of Jerusalem to have "recognised they faced great dangers, but they did not expect to be Cresson - There is a schism over how to respond, with Raymond wanting to wait for Saladin to attack, but Guy,
defeated" according to Hamilton possibly influenced by the military orders, wanted to lead an attack into Tiberius where Saladin was - This resulted in
 Jerusalem's economy was still flourishing after this, with a control of the ports, and trade with Italians as well as good them being surrounded after marching into battle, all but 3 die - Relic of the Holy Cross is captured, all major leaders in
links with Damascus and Aleppo meant Jerusalem was economically strong Outremer now die, Saladin easily takes remaining Frankish lands
 Baldwin's Kingdom was greatly reduced in size due to Nureddin and Saladin, who were able to remove the Franks
from Syria and push Antioch's borders closer to the city
 During Baldwin's rule, Outremer could no longer meet the financial needs to defending against the Muslims, resulting
in major tracts of land and castles being passed to the holy order
 By 1187, 55% of property was given to the religious orders and by 1168, every castle except Tiberius were with the holy
orders
□ Emergence of two factions
 William of Tyre noted the emergence of two factions, but despite this there had always been internal rivalries so what
made this unique?
 Why did the two factions emerge?
◊ Baldwin V's Death
 Before Baldwin IV's death, he made Raymond of Tripoli regent over Baldwin V, who once in power, tried to
negotiate a truce with Saladin
 This was because Antioch already had a truce, but Raymond wanted to extend this to all Frankish lands
 Saladin agreed to this, creating a 4-year truce until 1189, protecting Frankish lands
 However, when Baldwin V died in 1186, Raymond's regency ended and he was told to return to his lands -
However, a plot by Joscelin of Courtney to remove Raymond and allow for the crown to land with Sybilla and
Guy of Lusignan emerged
◊ Joscelin of Courtney's Plan
 Sybilla went through a mock divorce of Guy to ensure Jerusalem's nobles would allow for her coronation, on
the condition she could marry her choice afterward: She chose guy (who she had to divorce since Jerusalem's
nobles hated him and would've blocked her coronation)
 Sibylla's only rival, her Stepsister Isabella and her husband Humphrey of Toron, decided to offer allegiance to
Guy to provide unity to Jerusalem
 This also forced Reynald to support Guy, followed by the Master of the Templars supporting guy
 This isolated Raymond going from Regent to Opposition
◊ Raymond's Opposition
 Since Raymond was the sole Jerusalem noble in opposition, it was believed he needed to be removed
 Guy was persuaded to move against Raymond, reading an army for this
 Raymond, who negotiated a treaty with Saladin, then turned to him for support, resulting in Raymond of
Tripoli agreeing to provide free passage across his lands if they put him back as King
 Other nobles rallied around Guy despite their reservations, as they knew how important unity was but
Raymond just committed treason against his king
◊ Reynald's Attack on a Caravan 1187
 Reynald then decided to attack, plunder, and murder men, women, and children in a Muslim caravan of
pilgrims crossing his land
 Reynald had no Muslim truce, providing Saladin a reason to attack Jerusalem, resulting in Hattin 1187
Nureddin's • Battle of Inab 1149 Rise of Nureddin and Saladin in Egypt
Growth • Nureddin invaded Antioch in 1149 and besieged the fortress of Inab with the help of Unur of Damascus ▪ 1162-3 Crisis in Egypt
• Raymond had no Frankish allies but had the Assassin's support, and was greatly outnumbered by Nureddin's forces □ Due to Egypt being ruled by Child Caliphates, the role of Vizier was important, and in December 1162, Shawar seized the
• Nureddin was able to lure Raymond into a poor position in during the night, forcing him to charge in the morning, which position but was quickly turned out by Dirgham a court official in 1163
resulted in Raymond and the commander of the Assassin Troops being dead and the combined army destroyed □ Shawar then turned to Nureddin to help him restore his place - Amalric them launched an attack on Egypt as Dirgham had
• This greatly weakened the position of the Franks in the North stopped paying the tribute to the Franks
• Role with Damascus in 1149 □ Nureddin then wanted Egypt under his control, rather than Amalric's, so he sent Shirkuh to Egypt to solidify the position,
□ By blockading Damascus in 1149, he caused the locals to question their support for Abaq, forcing him to flee the resulting in him swiftly taking Egypt and restoring Shawar as vizier
citadel and Nureddin was able to take control of the city unopposed, making him the leader of Aleppo, Edessa and ▪ 1164 Betrayal of Shawar
Damascus □ However, Shawar then asked Amalric to remove Shirkuh and his Troops as Shawar couldn’t pay the money he promised to
• Dismantling Edessa (1149-1150) Nureddin
□ Joscelin II of Edessa sued for a peace deal before the Battle of Inab, understanding the threat Nureddin posed, □ Amalric then interfered, with Shirkuh's army and Amalric's army meeting in 1164 near Bilbays, without a conclusive victory
although he accepted, Nureddin broke this, capturing Joscelin and imprisoned him ▪ Egypt 1167
□ This meant from 1149-1150, both Antioch and Edessa had fell, leaving the Franks without any defences in the North □ By 1167, both armies were now looking to take control of Egypt, with Shirkuh being able to surprise Shawar and Amalric,
which greatly weakened them but wasn't a complete victory for Shirkuh
• Alliance between Nureddin and Emperor Manuel - 1157 □ Shirkuh then appealed to Shawar to switch sides, which he didn't and Amalric tried pressing for an official treaty, which
• By 1157, Nureddin was in an alliance with Emperor Manuel, which helped him fight the Seljuk Turks in Anatolia but also put worked and Amalric had a treaty with the Caliph, allowing him to fight Shirkuh in a larger capacity
an end to the Frankish-Byzantium alliance that was causing raids in Northern Syria □ Shirkuh then attacked Alexandria in 1167, taking it and placing Saladin in charge, but by the time he reached Cairo both
• Nureddin was a good fighter, as shown with the fall of Edessa in 1146 and the Battle of Inab 1149, but also a great politician armies were exhausted and Shirkuh had to pull out
with his alliances that made him so strong ▪ Shirkuh and Saladin in Egypt
□ Shirkuh and Saladin would then lead an army to Egypt after appeals from Shawar who needed to pay a tribute to Amalric for
• Rise of Nureddin and Saladin in Egypt his support in securing his role as Vizier
▪ 1162-3 Crisis in Egypt □ Shirkuh and Saladin then marched into Egypt, forcing Amalric to withdraw due to the strength of the forces, capturing

Crusades Page 68
 ▪ 1162-3 Crisis in Egypt □ Shirkuh and Saladin then marched into Egypt, forcing Amalric to withdraw due to the strength of the forces, capturing
□ Due to Egypt being ruled by Child Caliphates, the role of Vizier was important, and in December 1162, Shawar seized Shawar and executing him before Shirkuh proclaimed himself as the vizier of Egypt
the position but was quickly turned out by Dirgham a court official in 1163 □ Shirkuh then died a few weeks after capturing Egypt, which left Saladin in control, which was controversial as many in
□ Shawar then turned to Nureddin to help him restore his place - Amalric them launched an attack on Egypt as Dirgham Nureddin's army didn't like Saladin, resulting in them leaving Egypt for Damascus, leaving Saladin weak
had stopped paying the tribute to the Franks ▪ October 1169 Frankish-Byzantine Egypt Assault
□ Nureddin then wanted Egypt under his control, rather than Amalric's, so he sent Shirkuh to Egypt to solidify the □ Saladin was weak, but needed to defend him position when Manuel became concerned at the extent of Nureddin's
position, resulting in him swiftly taking Egypt and restoring Shawar as vizier dominions and powers, which resulted in a Frankish-Byzantine alliance to attack Egypt
□ Luckily for Saladin, the attack was called off due to supplies running low
Civil War in Role of Baldwin III, King of Jerusalem
Jerusalem □ Baldwin's leadership was key with Antioch, intervening and creating a truce with Nureddin with the help of the Templars
□ Civil War 1152
 By 1152, Melisende was still holding on to power, with Baldwin increasingly frustrated at this, which led to an open Civil
War
 Baldwin believed that without control of Jerusalem, he couldn't properly fight the enemy, resulting in Melisende
fortifying Jerusalem and Nablus against Baldwin
 Baldwin then captured Melisende's Constable, at castle Mirabel, sparing his life on the condition he left Outremer,
leaving Nablus to Baldwin
Capture of  Saladin at Hattin - 1187
Jerusalem □ Battle of Hattin - Franks gather 20,000 men to respond to Saladin's 30,000 men killing 450 knights at the Springs of
Cresson - There is a schism over how to respond, with Raymond wanting to wait for Saladin to attack, but Guy, possibly
influenced by the military orders, wanted to lead an attack into Tiberius where Saladin was - This resulted in them being
surrounded after marching into battle, all but 3 die - Relic of the Holy Cross is captured, all major leaders in Outremer now
die, Saladin easily takes remaining Frankish lands
Relations with ▪ Alliance between Nureddin and Emperor Manuel - 1157 Role of King Amalric and Byzantium 1169
Byzantium □ By 1157, Nureddin was in an alliance with Emperor Manuel, which helped him fight the Seljuk Turks in Anatolia but also put □ Amalric succeeded Baldwin and can be characterised by: Egypt - he made 5 attempts to gain the country between 1163-1170 and
an end to the Frankish-Byzantium alliance that was causing raids in Northern Syria briefly held Alexandria in 1167
□ Nureddin was a good fighter, as shown with the fall of Edessa in 1146 and the Battle of Inab 1149, but also a great politician □ He clearly wasn't strong militarily, since his efforts of securing Egypt resulting in nothing but losses, and in October 1169 , the
with his alliances that made him so strong Frankish-Byzantium alliance to capture Egypt had to be halted due to low supplies
Growth of Rise of Nureddin and Saladin in Egypt Raymond delays Saladin
Saladin ▪ 1162-3 Crisis in Egypt  Saladin left for Aleppo in December 1174 - Aleppo called for Frankish and Assassin help, which helped Saladin as leader of Jihad,
□ Due to Egypt being ruled by Child Caliphates, the role of Vizier was important, and in December 1162, Shawar seized making him seem like Muslim v Christians
the position but was quickly turned out by Dirgham a court official in 1163  Raymond of Tripoli was able to launch diversionary attacks on Saladin's town of Homs, forcing him to withdraw from Aleppo -
□ Shawar then turned to Nureddin to help him restore his place - Amalric them launched an attack on Egypt as Raymond then used the citadel of Homs against Saladin's troops, but was forced to withdraw after Saladin's army came near,
Dirgham had stopped paying the tribute to the Franks delaying Saladin
□ Nureddin then wanted Egypt under his control, rather than Amalric's, so he sent Shirkuh to Egypt to solidify the Muslim Disunity - 1175
position, resulting in him swiftly taking Egypt and restoring Shawar as vizier  Saladin was taken so seriously that by 1175, whilst controlling most of the regions around Aleppo, in Hamah, a convinced Alep po
▪ 1164 Betrayal of Shawar and Mosul force marched on him, imposing conditions undermining his position as head of the Ayyubid Dynasty (Saladin's
□ However, Shawar then asked Amalric to remove Shirkuh and his Troops as Shawar couldn’t pay the money he succession to Nureddin)
promised to Nureddin 
□ Amalric then interfered, with Shirkuh's army and Amalric's army meeting in 1164 near Bilbays, without a conclusive
victory
▪ Egypt 1167
□ By 1167, both armies were now looking to take control of Egypt, with Shirkuh being able to surprise Shawar and
Amalric, which greatly weakened them but wasn't a complete victory for Shirkuh
□ Shirkuh then appealed to Shawar to switch sides, which he didn't and Amalric tried pressing for an official treaty,
which worked and Amalric had a treaty with the Caliph, allowing him to fight Shirkuh in a larger capacity
□ Shirkuh then attacked Alexandria in 1167, taking it and placing Saladin in charge, but by the time he reached Cairo
both armies were exhausted and Shirkuh had to pull out
▪ Shirkuh and Saladin in Egypt
□ Shirkuh and Saladin would then lead an army to Egypt after appeals from Shawar who needed to pay a tribute to
Amalric for his support in securing his role as Vizier
□ Shirkuh and Saladin then marched into Egypt, forcing Amalric to withdraw due to the strength of the forces,
capturing Shawar and executing him before Shirkuh proclaimed himself as the vizier of Egypt
□ Shirkuh then died a few weeks after capturing Egypt, which left Saladin in control, which was controversial as many
in Nureddin's army didn't like Saladin, resulting in them leaving Egypt for Damascus, leaving Saladin weak
▪ October 1169 Frankish-Byzantine Egypt Assault
□ Saladin was weak, but needed to defend him position when Manuel became concerned at the extent of Nureddin's
dominions and powers, which resulted in a Frankish-Byzantine alliance to attack Egypt
□ Luckily for Saladin, the attack was called off due to supplies running low
▪ Fall of Egypt to Saladin
□ Despite Saladin being apart of Nureddin's army, they rarely worked together and Saladin was able to use his small
but brutal local army to secure his role within Egypt and control the area
□ Nureddin tried withdrawing his troops and send in tax inspectors as Saladin was rarely sending taxes back to
Nureddin, even gathering his own army
□ Nureddin died in May 1174, which meant any conflict that might have occurred was called off, with Saladin then
emerging as his successor

→ Growth of Saladin After Egypt

▪ Damascus
□ Context
 By 1173, Nureddin was the last obstacle in the way of Saladin's ultimate rise to power - Nureddin had been
snubbed in Egypt after Saladin and Shirkuh, despite being sent by Nureddin, decided to keep Egypt after taking it
from Shawar and Amalric in by 1169
 Nureddin died in 1174, but Saladin wasn't the clear successor in Egypt and Syria, with Nureddin leaving his 11
year old son as-Salih in charge of Damascus, his other son governor of Aleppo, and his nephew in charge of
Mosul - Three key cities Saladin would need to cement his power as a unified Muslim leader
□ Said-ad-Din of Mosul
 Nureddin's nephew, Saif-ad-Din of Mosul, would lead his army to attack Egypt, but Saladin convinced them to
attack Aleppo instead, which was successful as as-Salih, the 11 year old ruler of Damascus was placed in Aleppo
by his mother, with Shams-ad-Din of Aleppo made his regent
 Once in Aleppo, their cousin, Saif-ad-Din of Mosul, sent them both to prison and took over, greatly weakening
Saladin's oppositions
□ Saladin's Diplomacy and use of jealousy
 Saladin sent a delegation to Damascus in 1174, noticed that Saif-ad-Din had taken Aleppo, he decided to spread
discord between Saif-ad-Din and his jealous brother Imad-ad-Din, opening a rift
 Saladin then chastised Damascus for not calling on him to help but instead turning to Amalric, using Jihad to
argue for Muslim collaboration and brotherhood
 Damascus then agreed with the idea of Jihad, willingly opening their gaits to Saladin who took control in October
1174
 Tughtigan, Saladin's brother was appointed as governor
▪ Aleppo and Mosul
□ Raymond delays Saladin
 Saladin left for Aleppo in December 1174 - Aleppo called for Frankish and Assassin help, which helped Saladin as
leader of Jihad, making him seem like Muslim v Christians
 Raymond of Tripoli was able to launch diversionary attacks on Saladin's town of Homs, forcing him to withdraw
from Aleppo - Raymond then used the citadel of Homs against Saladin's troops, but was forced to withdraw after
Saladin's army came near, delaying Saladin
□ Muslim Disunity - 1175
 Saladin was taken so seriously that by 1175, whilst controlling most of the regions around Aleppo, in Hamah, a
convinced Aleppo and Mosul force marched on him, imposing conditions undermining his position as head of the
Ayyubid Dynasty (Saladin's succession to Nureddin)
□ Battle of Hamah 1175
 Saladin and Aleppo/Mosul fought, resulting in Saladin winning, which resulted in his terms of victory being that
he was recognised as ruler of Syria, forcing Islam into having one united ruler under Saladin
□ Capture of Aleppo July 1175
 Saladin isolated Aleppo by taking the surrounding towns, including the capture of Manjib and Azaz in June 1175,
which put Aleppo under serious military and socio-economic strain, which allowed Saladin to negotiate their
surrender in July 1175
 By July 1175 - He was lord of Egypt, Damascus (Syria), and Aleppo
▪ Saladin at Hattin - 1187
□ Battle of Hattin - Franks gather 20,000 men to respond to Saladin's 30,000 men killing 450 knights at the Springs of
Cresson - There is a schism over how to respond, with Raymond wanting to wait for Saladin to attack, but Guy,
possibly influenced by the military orders, wanted to lead an attack into Tiberius where Saladin was - This resulted in
them being surrounded after marching into battle, all but 3 die - Relic of the Holy Cross is captured, all major leaders
in Outremer now die, Saladin easily takes remaining Frankish lands

Crusades Page 69
TABLE - Reasons for Saladin's Success
Monday, 17 April 2023 10:00 am
Factor Examples For
Crusader Role of Baldwin III, King of Jerusalem
Internal Rivalries □ Baldwin's leadership was key with Antioch, intervening and creating a truce
with Nureddin with the help of the Templars
□ Civil War 1152
 By 1152, Melisende was still holding on to power, with Baldwin increasingly
frustrated at this, which led to an open Civil War
 Baldwin believed that without control of Jerusalem, he couldn't properly
fight the enemy, resulting in Melisende fortifying Jerusalem and Nablus
against Baldwin
 Baldwin then captured Melisende's Constable, at castle Mirabel, sparing his
life on the condition he left Outremer, leaving Nablus to Baldwin
□ Antioch
 The death of Raymond meant his widow Constance was ruling Antioch on
behalf of their son, but even when he turned 15, she refused to let him rule,
continuing her ruling
 Instead of turning to their Byzantium overlords, they decided to turn to
Baldwin III to find a new ruler, and he chose Bohemond to rule Antioch
Zengi - Exploited Internal Rivalries
□ Made Governor of Mosul in 1127, making treaties with Joscelin of Edessa, so
that Zengi could focus solely on the Muslim threats in the area
□ 1144 Siege of Edessa
□ Zengi Besieged Edessa in 1144 since Jerusalem had an alliance with the
Muslim Damascus that meant neither could be attacked or provoked, so he
chose Edessa instead
□ Zengi was able to inspire people to fight for him through his use of Jihad,
and the idea of people taking up arms in the name of Islam, similar to what
the Frank's had been doing, but also due to his personal actions, such as
ensuring the women left behind during long-campaigns were well looked
after.
□ Zengi knew that Joscelin and Raymond of Antioch had fallen out, which
meant that Antioch wouldn't help Edessa if it were besieged
□ He gathered a large army and siege engines to surround the walls,
eventually tunnelling underneath them and collapsing them on the 24th
December 1144, capturing Edessa
Role of King Amalric
□ Amalric succeeded Baldwin and can be characterised by: Egypt - he made 5
attempts to gain the country between 1163-1170 and briefly held Alexandria in
1167
□ He clearly wasn't strong militarily, since his efforts of securing Egypt resulting
in nothing but losses, and in October 1169, the Frankish-Byzantium alliance to
capture Egypt had to be halted due to low supplies
□ Kingdom of Jerusalem, 1185-1187
□ Baldwin IV's Death 1185
 This didn't cause an immediate attack from Saladin nor did the crusader
states instantly crumble
 It caused the people of Jerusalem to have "recognised they faced great
dangers, but they did not expect to be defeated" according to Hamilton
 Jerusalem's economy was still flourishing after this, with a control of
the ports, and trade with Italians as well as good links with Damascus
and Aleppo meant Jerusalem was economically strong
 Baldwin's Kingdom was greatly reduced in size due to Nureddin and
Saladin, who were able to remove the Franks from Syria and push
Antioch's borders closer to the city
 During Baldwin's rule, Outremer could no longer meet the financial
needs to defending against the Muslims, resulting in major tracts of
land and castles being passed to the holy order
 By 1187, 55% of property was given to the religious orders and by 1168,
every castle except Tiberius were with the holy orders
□ Emergence of two factions
 William of Tyre noted the emergence of two factions, but despite this
there had always been internal rivalries so what made this unique?
 Why did the two factions emerge?
◊ Baldwin V's Death
 Before Baldwin IV's death, he made Raymond of Tripoli regent
over Baldwin V, who once in power, tried to negotiate a truce
with Saladin
 This was because Antioch already had a truce, but Raymond
wanted to extend this to all Frankish lands
 Saladin agreed to this, creating a 4-year truce until 1189,
protecting Frankish lands
 However, when Baldwin V died in 1186, Raymond's regency
ended and he was told to return to his lands - However, a plot by
Joscelin of Courtney to remove Raymond and allow for the crown
to land with Sybilla and Guy of Lusignan emerged
◊ Joscelin of Courtney's Plan
 Sybilla went through a mock divorce of Guy to ensure
Jerusalem's nobles would allow for her coronation, on the
condition she could marry her choice afterward: She chose guy
(who she had to divorce since Jerusalem's nobles hated him and
would've blocked her coronation)
 Sibylla's only rival, her Stepsister Isabella and her husband
Humphrey of Toron, decided to offer allegiance to Guy to
provide unity to Jerusalem
 This also forced Reynald to support Guy, followed by the Master
of the Templars supporting guy
 This isolated Raymond going from Regent to Opposition
◊ Raymond's Opposition
 Since Raymond was the sole Jerusalem noble in opposition, it
was believed he needed to be removed
 Guy was persuaded to move against Raymond, reading an army
for this
 Raymond, who negotiated a treaty with Saladin, then turned to
him for support, resulting in Raymond of Tripoli agreeing to
provide free passage across his lands if they put him back as King
 Other nobles rallied around Guy despite their reservations, as
they knew how important unity was but Raymond just
committed treason against his king
◊ Reynald's Attack on a Caravan 1187
 Reynald then decided to attack, plunder, and murder men,
women, and children in a Muslim caravan of pilgrims crossing his
land
 Reynald had no Muslim truce, providing Saladin a reason to
attack Jerusalem, resulting in Hattin 1187
□ Saladin at Hattin - 1187
□ Battle of Hattin - Franks gather 20,000 men to respond to Saladin's
30,000 men killing 450 knights at the Springs of Cresson - There is a
schism over how to respond, with Raymond wanting to wait for Saladin to
attack, but Guy, possibly influenced by the military orders, wanted to lead
an attack into Tiberius where Saladin was - This resulted in them being
surrounded after marching into battle, all but 3 die - Relic of the Holy
Cross is captured, all major leaders in Outremer now die, Saladin easily
takes remaining Frankish lands
Crusader Military - Battle of Inab 1149
Weakness □ Nureddin invaded Antioch in 1149 and besieged the fortress of Inab with the
help of Unur of Damascus
□ Raymond had no Frankish allies but had the Assassin's support, and was
greatly outnumbered by Nureddin's forces
□ Nureddin was able to lure Raymond into a poor position in during the night,
Crusades Page 70
Examples Against
Role of Baldwin III, King of Jerusalem (Internal Rivalries there before, but it wasn't
until Saladin had the Muslim world united that these could be exploited)
□ Baldwin's leadership was key with Antioch, intervening and creating a truce with
Nureddin with the help of the Templars
□ Civil War 1152
 By 1152, Melisende was still holding on to power, with Baldwin increasingly
frustrated at this, which led to an open Civil War
 Baldwin believed that without control of Jerusalem, he couldn't properly fight
the enemy, resulting in Melisende fortifying Jerusalem and Nablus against
Baldwin
 Baldwin then captured Melisende's Constable, at castle Mirabel, sparing his life
on the condition he left Outremer, leaving Nablus to Baldwin
□ Thus, internal rivalries and successions had occurred before, but it wasn't until the
strength in 1187, after the fall of Egypt to Saladin, that this could be exploited
 Saladin at Hattin - 1187
□ Battle of Hattin - Franks gather 20,000 men to respond to Saladin's 30,000
men killing 450 knights at the Springs of Cresson - There is a schism over
how to respond, with Raymond wanting to wait for Saladin to attack, but
Guy, possibly influenced by the military orders, wanted to lead an attack into
Tiberius where Saladin was - This resulted in them being surrounded after
marching into battle, all but 3 die - Relic of the Holy Cross is captured, all
major leaders in Outremer now die, Saladin easily takes remaining Frankish
lands
Role of King Amalric and Byzantium
□ Amalric succeeded Baldwin and can be characterised by: Egypt - he made 5
attempts to gain the country between 1163-1170 and briefly held Alexandria in 1167
□ He clearly wasn't strong militarily, since his efforts of securing Egypt resulting in
nothing but losses, and in October 1169, the Frankish-Byzantium alliance to capture
Egypt had to be halted due to low supplies
Internal Rivalries had existed before, but it wasn't until Muslim Threat/Unity that
they could be exploited
□ 1134 crisis between Fulk and Count Hugh of Jaffa resulted in civil war. Hugh made a
treaty with Ascalon and Fulk marched south to besiege Jaffa. Hugh came to terms
and was exiled, but was stabbed before he could leave.
□ 1139/40 - Zengi is still busy fighting Muslims and absorbing Damascus, with the
Siege of Damascus occurring
□ By 1144, Zengi is exploiting these rivalries due to his increased strength
□ Zengi Made Governor of Mosul in 1127, making treaties with Joscelin of Edessa,
so that Zengi could focus solely on the Muslim threats in the area
□ 1144 Siege of Edessa
□ Zengi Besieged Edessa in 1144 since Jerusalem had an alliance with the
Muslim Damascus that meant neither could be attacked or provoked, so he
chose Edessa instead
□ Zengi was able to inspire people to fight for him through his use of Jihad, and
the idea of people taking up arms in the name of Islam, similar to what the
Frank's had been doing, but also due to his personal actions, such as ensuring
the women left behind during long-campaigns were well looked after.
□ Zengi knew that Joscelin and Raymond of Antioch had fallen out, which
meant that Antioch wouldn't help Edessa if it were besieged
□ He gathered a large army and siege engines to surround the walls, eventually
tunnelling underneath them and collapsing them on the 24th December 1144,
capturing Edessa
Role of Baldwin III, King of Jerusalem (Internal Rivalries there before, but it wasn't
until Saladin had the Muslim world united that these could be exploited)
□ Baldwin's leadership was key with Antioch, intervening and creating a truce with
Nureddin with the help of the Templars
□ Civil War 1152
 By 1152, Melisende was still holding on to power, with Baldwin increasingly
frustrated at this, which led to an open Civil War
 Baldwin believed that without control of Jerusalem, he couldn't properly fight
the enemy, resulting in Melisende fortifying Jerusalem and Nablus against
Baldwin
 Baldwin then captured Melisende's Constable, at castle Mirabel, sparing his life
on the condition he left Outremer, leaving Nablus to Baldwin
□ Thus, internal rivalries and successions had occurred before, but it wasn't until the
strength in 1187, after the fall of Egypt to Saladin, that this could be exploited
 Saladin at Hattin - 1187
□ Battle of Hattin - Franks gather 20,000 men to respond to Saladin's 30,000
men killing 450 knights at the Springs of Cresson - There is a schism over
how to respond, with Raymond wanting to wait for Saladin to attack, but
Guy, possibly influenced by the military orders, wanted to lead an attack into
Tiberius where Saladin was - This resulted in them being surrounded after
marching into battle, all but 3 die - Relic of the Holy Cross is captured, all
major leaders in Outremer now die, Saladin easily takes remaining Frankish
lands
▪ Alliance between Nureddin and Emperor Manuel - 1157
□ By 1157, Nureddin was in an alliance with Emperor Manuel, which helped him fight
the Seljuk Turks in Anatolia but also put an end to the Frankish-Byzantium alliance
that was causing raids in Northern Syria
□ Nureddin was a good fighter, as shown with the fall of Edessa in 1146 and the Battle
of Inab 1149, but also a great politician with his alliances that made him so strong
Raymond delays Saladin
 Saladin left for Aleppo in December 1174 - Aleppo called for Frankish and Assassin
help, which helped Saladin as leader of Jihad, making him seem like Muslim v
Christians
 Raymond of Tripoli was able to launch diversionary attacks on Saladin's town of Homs,
forcing him to withdraw from Aleppo - Raymond then used the citadel of Homs
 □ Nureddin was able to lure Raymond into a poor position in during the night,
forcing him to charge in the morning, which resulted in Raymond and the
commander of the Assassin Troops being dead and the combined army
destroyed
□ This greatly weakened the position of the Franks in the North
- Dismantling Edessa (1149-1150)
□ Joscelin II of Edessa sued for a peace deal before the Battle of Inab,
understanding the threat Nureddin posed, although he accepted, Nureddin
broke this, capturing Joscelin and imprisoned him
□ This meant from 1149-1150, both Antioch and Edessa had fell, leaving the
Franks without any defences in the North
forcing him to withdraw from Aleppo - Raymond then used the citadel of Homs
against Saladin's troops, but was forced to withdraw after Saladin's army came near,
delaying Saladin
Muslim Disunity - 1175
 Saladin was taken so seriously that by 1175, whilst controlling most of the regions
around Aleppo, in Hamah, a convinced Aleppo and Mosul force marched on him,
imposing conditions undermining his position as head of the Ayyubid Dynasty
(Saladin's succession to Nureddin)

- Issues with the Templars

- The Templars weren't always obedient and under the command of the
crusade state leaders
- Siege of Ascalon, 1153
→ In 1153, during the siege of Ascalon
→ A group of Templars breached the walls ahead of the main army
→ They then refused to let the other Franks join them to get all the loot
→ This backfired as they were massacred in the town centre due to them
being trapped with no Frankish support
- Disobedience in 1173
→ For example, in 1173, the Templars killed Muslim assassin envoys who
were travelling home from Jerusalem after being granted rapprochement
with King Amalric of Jerusalem,
→ Shows to us how the Templars didn't care as much for the survival of the
crusader states as they did for killing Muslims at any given opportunity,
which could've caused a conflict

- Issues with the Hospitallers

- Much like the Templars, the Hospitallers were more focused on their religious
conviction rather than the survival of the crusader states
- 1168 Invasion of Egypt
→ In 1168, the Hospitallers went against the advice of the nobles in
Jerusalem and the Templars by advising King Amalric to break a treaty
with the Muslims and invade Egypt
→ They promised to supply 500 knights and 500 Turcopoles
→ Showing to us that at times the orders were a lot more focused on
attacking Muslims, rather than trying to secure the longevity of the
crusader states
→ This attack failed and created widespread criticism for the Hospitallers
greed
→ This caused the Hospitallers to accrue a debt of 100,000 Bezants due to
the cost of assembling a force large enough to attack Egypt

- Saladin at Hattin - 1187

□ Battle of Hattin - Franks gather 20,000 men to respond to Saladin's 30,000
men killing 450 knights at the Springs of Cresson - There is a schism over
how to respond, with Raymond wanting to wait for Saladin to attack, but
Guy, possibly influenced by the military orders, wanted to lead an attack into
Tiberius where Saladin was - This resulted in them being surrounded after
marching into battle, all but 3 die - Relic of the Holy Cross is captured, all
major leaders in Outremer now die, Saladin easily takes remaining Frankish
lands
Reduction of
Castles, and
taking of ports
Consolidation of Rise of Nureddin and Saladin in Egypt □ Muslim Disunity - 1175
Egypt and Syria, ▪ 1162-3 Crisis in Egypt  Saladin was taken so seriously that by 1175, whilst controlling most of the regions
creating power □ Due to Egypt being ruled by Child Caliphates, the role of Vizier was around Aleppo, in Hamah, a convinced Aleppo and Mosul force marched on him,
base important, and in December 1162, Shawar seized the position but was imposing conditions undermining his position as head of the Ayyubid Dynasty
quickly turned out by Dirgham a court official in 1163 (Saladin's succession to Nureddin)
□ Shawar then turned to Nureddin to help him restore his place - Amalric
them launched an attack on Egypt as Dirgham had stopped paying the □ Raymond delays Saladin
tribute to the Franks  Saladin left for Aleppo in December 1174 - Aleppo called for Frankish and Assassin
□ Nureddin then wanted Egypt under his control, rather than Amalric's, so help, which helped Saladin as leader of Jihad, making him seem like Muslim v
he sent Shirkuh to Egypt to solidify the position, resulting in him swiftly Christians
taking Egypt and restoring Shawar as vizier  Raymond of Tripoli was able to launch diversionary attacks on Saladin's town of
▪ 1164 Betrayal of Shawar Homs, forcing him to withdraw from Aleppo - Raymond then used the citadel of
□ However, Shawar then asked Amalric to remove Shirkuh and his Troops Homs against Saladin's troops, but was forced to withdraw after Saladin's army came
as Shawar couldn’t pay the money he promised to Nureddin near, delaying Saladin
□ Amalric then interfered, with Shirkuh's army and Amalric's army meeting
in 1164 near Bilbays, without a conclusive victory
▪ Egypt 1167
□ By 1167, both armies were now looking to take control of Egypt, with
Shirkuh being able to surprise Shawar and Amalric, which greatly
weakened them but wasn't a complete victory for Shirkuh
□ Shirkuh then appealed to Shawar to switch sides, which he didn't and
Amalric tried pressing for an official treaty, which worked and Amalric
had a treaty with the Caliph, allowing him to fight Shirkuh in a larger
capacity
□ Shirkuh then attacked Alexandria in 1167, taking it and placing Saladin in
charge, but by the time he reached Cairo both armies were exhausted and
Shirkuh had to pull out
▪ Shirkuh and Saladin in Egypt
□ Shirkuh and Saladin would then lead an army to Egypt after appeals from
Shawar who needed to pay a tribute to Amalric for his support in securing
his role as Vizier
□ Shirkuh and Saladin then marched into Egypt, forcing Amalric to
withdraw due to the strength of the forces, capturing Shawar and
executing him before Shirkuh proclaimed himself as the vizier of Egypt
□ Shirkuh then died a few weeks after capturing Egypt, which left Saladin in
control, which was controversial as many in Nureddin's army didn't like
Saladin, resulting in them leaving Egypt for Damascus, leaving Saladin
weak
→ Growth of Saladin After Egypt
▪ October 1169 Frankish-Byzantine Egypt Assault § Damascus
□ Context
□ Saladin was weak, but needed to defend him position when Manuel ® By 1173, Nureddin was the last obstacle in the way of Saladin's ultimate rise to power -
Nureddin had been snubbed in Egypt after Saladin and Shirkuh, despite being sent by
became concerned at the extent of Nureddin's dominions and powers, Nureddin, decided to keep Egypt after taking it from Shawar and Amalric in by 1169
® Nureddin died in 1174, but Saladin wasn't the clear successor in Egypt and Syria, with
which resulted in a Frankish-Byzantine alliance to attack Egypt Nureddin leaving his 11 year old son as-Salih in charge of Damascus, his other son governor of
Aleppo, and his nephew in charge of Mosul - Three key cities Saladin would need to cement his
□ Luckily for Saladin, the attack was called off due to supplies running low power as a unified Muslim leader
□ Said-ad-Din of Mosul
▪ Fall of Egypt to Saladin ® Nureddin's nephew, Saif-ad-Din of Mosul, would lead his army to attack Egypt, but Saladin
convinced them to attack Aleppo instead, which was successful as as -Salih, the 11 year old
□ Despite Saladin being apart of Nureddin's army, they rarely worked ruler of Damascus was placed in Aleppo by his mother, with Shams-ad-Din of Aleppo made his
regent
together and Saladin was able to use his small but brutal local army to ® Once in Aleppo, their cousin, Saif-ad-Din of Mosul, sent them both to prison and took over,
greatly weakening Saladin's oppositions
secure his role within Egypt and control the area □ Saladin's Diplomacy and use of jealousy
® Saladin sent a delegation to Damascus in 1174, noticed that Saif-ad-Din had taken Aleppo, he
□ Nureddin tried withdrawing his troops and send in tax inspectors as decided to spread discord between Saif-ad-Din and his jealous brother Imad-ad-Din, opening a
rift
Saladin was rarely sending taxes back to Nureddin, even gathering his ® Saladin then chastised Damascus for not calling on him to help but instead turning to
Amalric, using Jihad to argue for Muslim collaboration and brotherhood
own army ® Damascus then agreed with the idea of Jihad, willingly opening their gaits to Saladin who
took control in October 1174
□ Nureddin died in May 1174, which meant any conflict that might have ® Tughtigan, Saladin's brother was appointed as governor
§ Aleppo and Mosul
occurred was called off, with Saladin then emerging as his successor □ Raymond delays Saladin
® Saladin left for Aleppo in December 1174 - Aleppo called for Frankish and Assassin help,
which helped Saladin as leader of Jihad, making him seem like Muslim v Christians

▪ Saladin and Jihad in Damascus (Diplomacy as well) ® Raymond of Tripoli was able to launch diversionary attacks on Saladin's town of Homs,
forcing him to withdraw from Aleppo - Raymond then used the citadel of Homs against
Saladin's troops, but was forced to withdraw after Saladin's army came near, delaying Saladin
□ Context □ Muslim Disunity - 1175

 By 1173, Nureddin was the last obstacle in the way of Saladin's ultimate ® Saladin was taken so seriously that by 1175, whilst controlling most of the regions around
Aleppo, in Hamah, a convinced Aleppo and Mosul force marched on him, imposing conditions
undermining his position as head of the Ayyubid Dynasty (Saladin's succession to Nureddin)
rise to power - Nureddin had been snubbed in Egypt after Saladin and □ Battle of Hamah 1175
Shirkuh, despite being sent by Nureddin, decided to keep Egypt after ® Saladin and Aleppo/Mosul fought, resulting in Saladin winning, which resulted in his terms of
victory being that he was recognised as ruler of Syria, forcing Islam into having one united ruler
taking it from Shawar and Amalric in by 1169 under Saladin
□ Capture of Aleppo July 1175
 Nureddin died in 1174, but Saladin wasn't the clear successor in Egypt and ® Saladin isolated Aleppo by taking the surrounding towns, including the capture of Manjib and
Azaz in June 1175, which put Aleppo under serious military and socio-economic strain, which
Syria, with Nureddin leaving his 11 year old son as-Salih in charge of allowed Saladin to negotiate their surrender in July 1175
® By July 1175 - He was lord of Egypt, Damascus (Syria), and Aleppo
Damascus, his other son governor of Aleppo, and his nephew in charge of § Saladin at Hattin - 1187
□ Battle of Hattin - Franks gather 20,000 men to respond to Saladin's 30,000 men killing 450 knights
Mosul - Three key cities Saladin would need to cement his power as a at the Springs of Cresson - There is a schism over how to respond, with Raymond wanting to wait for
Saladin to attack, but Guy, possibly influenced by the military orders, wanted to lead an attack into
unified Muslim leader Tiberius where Saladin was - This resulted in them being surrounded after marching into battle, all
but 3 die - Relic of the Holy Cross is captured, all major leaders in Outremer now die, Saladin easily
□ Said-ad-Din of Mosul takes remaining Frankish lands

 Nureddin's nephew, Saif-ad-Din of Mosul, would lead his army to attack

Egypt, but Saladin convinced them to attack Aleppo instead, which was

Crusades Page 71
 Egypt, but Saladin convinced them to attack Aleppo instead, which was
successful as as-Salih, the 11 year old ruler of Damascus was placed in
Aleppo by his mother, with Shams-ad-Din of Aleppo made his regent
 Once in Aleppo, their cousin, Saif-ad-Din of Mosul, sent them both to
prison and took over, greatly weakening Saladin's oppositions
□ Saladin's Diplomacy and use of jealousy
 Saladin sent a delegation to Damascus in 1174, noticed that Saif-ad-Din
had taken Aleppo, he decided to spread discord between Saif-ad-Din and
his jealous brother Imad-ad-Din, opening a rift
 Saladin then chastised Damascus for not calling on him to help but
instead turning to Amalric, using Jihad to argue for Muslim collaboration
and brotherhood
 Damascus then agreed with the idea of Jihad, willingly opening their gaits
to Saladin who took control in October 1174
 Tughtigan, Saladin's brother was appointed as governor

▪ Growth of Saladin After Egypt

▪ Damascus
□ Context
 By 1173, Nureddin was the last obstacle in the way of Saladin's
ultimate rise to power - Nureddin had been snubbed in Egypt after
Saladin and Shirkuh, despite being sent by Nureddin, decided to keep
Egypt after taking it from Shawar and Amalric in by 1169
 Nureddin died in 1174, but Saladin wasn't the clear successor in Egypt
and Syria, with Nureddin leaving his 11 year old son as-Salih in charge
of Damascus, his other son governor of Aleppo, and his nephew in
charge of Mosul - Three key cities Saladin would need to cement his
power as a unified Muslim leader
□ Said-ad-Din of Mosul
 Nureddin's nephew, Saif-ad-Din of Mosul, would lead his army to
attack Egypt, but Saladin convinced them to attack Aleppo instead,
which was successful as as-Salih, the 11 year old ruler of Damascus was
placed in Aleppo by his mother, with Shams-ad-Din of Aleppo made his
regent
 Once in Aleppo, their cousin, Saif-ad-Din of Mosul, sent them both to
prison and took over, greatly weakening Saladin's oppositions
□ Saladin's Diplomacy and use of jealousy
 Saladin sent a delegation to Damascus in 1174, noticed that Saif-ad-Din
had taken Aleppo, he decided to spread discord between Saif-ad-Din
and his jealous brother Imad-ad-Din, opening a rift
 Saladin then chastised Damascus for not calling on him to help but
instead turning to Amalric, using Jihad to argue for Muslim
collaboration and brotherhood
 Damascus then agreed with the idea of Jihad, willingly opening their
gaits to Saladin who took control in October 1174
 Tughtigan, Saladin's brother was appointed as governor
▪ Aleppo and Mosul
□ Raymond delays Saladin
 Saladin left for Aleppo in December 1174 - Aleppo called for Frankish
and Assassin help, which helped Saladin as leader of Jihad, making him
seem like Muslim v Christians
 Raymond of Tripoli was able to launch diversionary attacks on Saladin's
town of Homs, forcing him to withdraw from Aleppo - Raymond then
used the citadel of Homs against Saladin's troops, but was forced to
withdraw after Saladin's army came near, delaying Saladin
□ Muslim Disunity - 1175
 Saladin was taken so seriously that by 1175, whilst controlling most of
the regions around Aleppo, in Hamah, a convinced Aleppo and Mosul
force marched on him, imposing conditions undermining his position
as head of the Ayyubid Dynasty (Saladin's succession to Nureddin)
□ Battle of Hamah 1175
 Saladin and Aleppo/Mosul fought, resulting in Saladin winning, which
resulted in his terms of victory being that he was recognised as ruler of
Syria, forcing Islam into having one united ruler under Saladin
□ Capture of Aleppo July 1175
 Saladin isolated Aleppo by taking the surrounding towns, including the
capture of Manjib and Azaz in June 1175, which put Aleppo under
serious military and socio-economic strain, which allowed Saladin to
negotiate their surrender in July 1175
 By July 1175 - He was lord of Egypt, Damascus (Syria), and Aleppo
▪ Saladin at Hattin - 1187
□ Battle of Hattin - Franks gather 20,000 men to respond to Saladin's
30,000 men killing 450 knights at the Springs of Cresson - There is a
schism over how to respond, with Raymond wanting to wait for Saladin to
attack, but Guy, possibly influenced by the military orders, wanted to lead
an attack into Tiberius where Saladin was - This resulted in them being
surrounded after marching into battle, all but 3 die - Relic of the Holy
Cross is captured, all major leaders in Outremer now die, Saladin easily
takes remaining Frankish lands

Concept of Jihad → Growth of Saladin After Egypt

▪ Damascus
□ Context
 By 1173, Nureddin was the last obstacle in the way of Saladin's
ultimate rise to power - Nureddin had been snubbed in Egypt after
Saladin and Shirkuh, despite being sent by Nureddin, decided to keep
Egypt after taking it from Shawar and Amalric in by 1169
 Nureddin died in 1174, but Saladin wasn't the clear successor in Egypt
and Syria, with Nureddin leaving his 11 year old son as-Salih in charge
of Damascus, his other son governor of Aleppo, and his nephew in
charge of Mosul - Three key cities Saladin would need to cement his
power as a unified Muslim leader
□ Said-ad-Din of Mosul
 Nureddin's nephew, Saif-ad-Din of Mosul, would lead his army to
attack Egypt, but Saladin convinced them to attack Aleppo instead,
which was successful as as-Salih, the 11 year old ruler of Damascus
was placed in Aleppo by his mother, with Shams-ad-Din of Aleppo
made his regent
 Once in Aleppo, their cousin, Saif-ad-Din of Mosul, sent them both to
prison and took over, greatly weakening Saladin's oppositions
□ Saladin's Diplomacy and use of jealousy
 Saladin sent a delegation to Damascus in 1174, noticed that Saif-ad-
Din had taken Aleppo, he decided to spread discord between Saif-ad-
Din and his jealous brother Imad-ad-Din, opening a rift
 Saladin then chastised Damascus for not calling on him to help but
instead turning to Amalric, using Jihad to argue for Muslim
collaboration and brotherhood
 Damascus then agreed with the idea of Jihad, willingly opening their
gaits to Saladin who took control in October 1174
 Tughtigan, Saladin's brother was appointed as governor
Growth of Jihad
▪ Zengi - Key to Jihad
□ Made Governor of Mosul in 1127, making treaties with Joscelin of
Edessa, so that Zengi could focus solely on the Muslim threats in the
area
□ 1144 Siege of Edessa
 Zengi Besieged Edessa in 1144 since Jerusalem had an alliance with
the Muslim Damascus that meant neither could be attacked or
provoked, so he chose Edessa instead
 Zengi was able to inspire people to fight for him through his use of
Jihad, and the idea of people taking up arms in the name of Islam,
similar to what the Frank's had been doing, but also due to his
personal actions, such as ensuring the women left behind during
long-campaigns were well looked after.
 Zengi knew that Joscelin and Raymond of Antioch had fallen out,
which meant that Antioch wouldn't help Edessa if it were besieged

Crusades Page 72
 which meant that Antioch wouldn't help Edessa if it were besieged
 He gathered a large army and siege engines to surround the walls,
eventually tunnelling underneath them and collapsing them on the
24th December 1144, capturing Edessa
▪ Saladin and Jihad in Damascus
□ Context
 By 1173, Nureddin was the last obstacle in the way of Saladin's
ultimate rise to power - Nureddin had been snubbed in Egypt after
Saladin and Shirkuh, despite being sent by Nureddin, decided to
keep Egypt after taking it from Shawar and Amalric in by 1169
 Nureddin died in 1174, but Saladin wasn't the clear successor in Egypt
and Syria, with Nureddin leaving his 11 year old son as-Salih in charge
of Damascus, his other son governor of Aleppo, and his nephew in
charge of Mosul - Three key cities Saladin would need to cement his
power as a unified Muslim leader
□ Said-ad-Din of Mosul
 Nureddin's nephew, Saif-ad-Din of Mosul, would lead his army to
attack Egypt, but Saladin convinced them to attack Aleppo instead,
which was successful as as-Salih, the 11 year old ruler of Damascus
was placed in Aleppo by his mother, with Shams-ad-Din of Aleppo
made his regent
 Once in Aleppo, their cousin, Saif-ad-Din of Mosul, sent them both to
prison and took over, greatly weakening Saladin's oppositions
□ Saladin's Diplomacy and use of jealousy
 Saladin sent a delegation to Damascus in 1174, noticed that Saif-ad-
Din had taken Aleppo, he decided to spread discord between Saif-ad-
Din and his jealous brother Imad-ad-Din, opening a rift
 Saladin then chastised Damascus for not calling on him to help but
instead turning to Amalric, using Jihad to argue for Muslim
collaboration and brotherhood
 Damascus then agreed with the idea of Jihad, willingly opening their
gaits to Saladin who took control in October 1174
 Tughtigan, Saladin's brother was appointed as governor

Size of the forces ▪ 1174 - Muslims unite further as Nureddin dies and Saladin emerges as the new
Saladin could successor, which allows him to raise the 30,000 needed for the 1187 Battle of
gather Hattin
▪ Saladin at Hattin - 1187
□ Battle of Hattin - Franks gather 20,000 men to respond to Saladin's 30,000
men killing 450 knights at the Springs of Cresson - There is a schism over
how to respond, with Raymond wanting to wait for Saladin to attack, but
Guy, possibly influenced by the military orders, wanted to lead an attack into
Tiberius where Saladin was - This resulted in them being surrounded after
marching into battle, all but 3 die - Relic of the Holy Cross is captured, all
major leaders in Outremer now die, Saladin easily takes remaining Frankish
lands

Crusades Page 73
TABLE - Importance of Nureddin in recovery of Muslim
Power
Monday, 17 April 2023 10:00 am

Factor Evidence For

Damage done to - Battle of Inab 1149
Edessa □ Nureddin invaded Antioch in 1149 and besieged the fortress of Inab with the help
of Unur of Damascus
□ Raymond had no Frankish allies but had the Assassin's support, and was greatly
outnumbered by Nureddin's forces
□ Nureddin was able to lure Raymond into a poor position in during the night,
forcing him to charge in the morning, which resulted in Raymond and the
commander of the Assassin Troops being dead and the combined army destroyed
□ This greatly weakened the position of the Franks in the North
- Dismantling Edessa (1149-1150)
□ Joscelin II of Edessa sued for a peace deal before the Battle of Inab, understanding
the threat Nureddin posed, although he accepted, Nureddin broke this, capturing
Joscelin and imprisoned him
□ This meant from 1149-1150, both Antioch and Edessa had fell, leaving the Franks
without any defences in the North
Capture of land around ▪ 1149 Battle of Inab
Antioch □ Nureddin defeated and killed Raymond of Poitiers, pushing Antioch's eastern
border closer to the city, reducing the power and making the position of the
Frank's weaker

Role of Baldwin III, King of Jerusalem

Control of Damascus
□ Baldwin's leadership was key with Antioch, intervening and creating a truce with
Nureddin with the help of the Templars
□ After the Battle of Inab, 1149, Baldwin moved to the North of Antioch to reclaim
the regency and negotiated a truce with Nureddin in 1150 to prevent the further
destruction on Antioch - This resulted in Antioch remaining in Frankish hands, but
was badly weakened and diminished as a trading post
▪ Role with Damascus in 1149
□ By blockading Damascus in 1149, he caused the locals to question their support
for Abaq, forcing him to flee the citadel and Nureddin was able to take control of
the city unopposed, making him the leader of Aleppo, Edessa and Damascus

▪ Damascus 1149
□ After the death of Unur and Saphadin in August and November 1149, the
alliance between Mosul-Aleppo-Damascus was removed, which greatly
weakened Nureddin since the new ruler of Damascus made an alliance with the
Franks in Jerusalem.
□ However, Nureddin was still powerful after, being able to take Mosul from his
younger brother by forcing him to acknowledge him as his overlord, which
essentially gave Nureddin northern Syria - After controlling Mosul, he forced the
leader of Damascus to recognise him as overlord as well, meaning Nureddin
controlled Aleppo, Damascus and Mosul, key for socio-economic success,
especially the money that was raised in Damascus from agriculture

▪ Alliance with Emperor Manuel 1157

□ By 1157, Nureddin was in an alliance with Emperor Manuel, which helped him
fight the Seljuk Turks in Anatolia but also put an end to the Frankish-Byzantium
alliance that was causing raids in Northern Syria
□ Nureddin was a good fighter, as shown with the fall of Edessa in 1146 and the
Battle of Inab 1149, but also a great politician with his alliances that made him so
Crusades Page 74
 Battle of Inab 1149, but also a great politician with his alliances that made him so
strong

Development of Jihad ▪ Development of Jihad

□ Nureddin was able to unite Muslim forces through the idea of Jihad, presenting
himself as a warrior of the Jihad, using propaganda to ensure his message
reached every corner of Syria
□ He had a clear intention, which was to promote Sunni Islam, wanting to unite all
Muslims against the Franks in order to gain Jerusalem
▪ Nureddin's Methods
□ Nureddin's methods were vast, being able to promote and finance a whole range
of religious aspects, such as religious houses, educational establishments,
hospitals and organised public readings which extolled the virtues of Jerusalem
□ He also used money as a weapon, making sure to live a frugal life which was
shown in his propaganda, hoping to win in the name of Islam rather than for
himself
□ He clearly inspired Saladin and was crucial for the uniting of a Muslim front and
setting up a military threat to Outremer

Crusades Page 75
 2nd Crusade
Thursday, 2 March 2023 11:45 am
Conrad & Louis in the Levant
- Considerable recruitment: 2 leading monarchs, French and German army
- Conrad III of Germany and Louis VII of France went East over land route
- Long journey, Conrad went first. They went on skirmishes plundered some parts of the Byzantine
Empire, enough to make the emperor notice their motives
○ Manuel Commnenus recently elected as emperor and shifted Conrad to Turkish Anatolia
○ Turkish had hit and run tactics on Conrad's forces with mounted archers, to wear it down
○ Over time, German forces broke down, enough for Conrad to return to Constantinople
○ Not very successful
○ Conrad did not wait for Louis VII for back up
○ What happened in the preparatory stages of the Crusade to allow this to happen
- Initially Louis VII did the same thing later on and did well, won a battle of Neander Valley
○ Spent less time on Anatolian plains
○ However defeat on Mount Cadmus is an example of a disorganised army taken advantage of
by Turks
○ Therefore depleted forces to aid in the Second Crusade
○ Limited French forces came to Antioch
- However Antioch did not unify with the French reasons are not fully known
○ Even with joined forces they would be too little for restarting the Crusade??
○ Louis wife Eleanor of Aquitane maybe had an affair with the Prince of Antioch
▪ Said that Prince of Antioch and Eleanor of Aquitane spoke the same language of
Occitan
- Louis then arrived at Jerusalem, where Conrad came as reinforcement with his existing forces (as
he lost in Anatolia) via ship
- June 1148 - Council of Acre: King of Jerusalem, Knights of Templar and Hospitaller, Conrad and
Louis
○ Wanted to attack Ascillon first, a major target
○ The other attack Damascus
▪ Which is extra ordinally defended
- They chose to attack Damascus
○ Army fights small skirmishes and wins, proceeds to the Walls of Damascus
○ Army proceeds confusingly to the Northern Wall, which is higher and without water
○ Nur Al Din, Zenghi's son arrived at Damascus
○ And they withdrawn
- Why did withdraw?
○ Count of Flanders, rumoured that if they took Damascus he would become its ruler, creating
division
○ Jersualem's forces were bribed by Damascus to withdraw
○ No primary source but the sheer size of Damascus (fear) provided the Crusaders for thought,
it had a population much larger than their army
○ The assault failed
○ It begs the question, the lack of preparation and the lack of western inteligence
- Why did they lose on both cases
○ Maintaining the army was difficult
▪ Lack of supplies such as food + water
▪ Lack of adaptability to Turkish attacks, who fought very differently to Western forces
○ Apparently Conrad's forces were misled by Greek guides
○ Louis VII was not capable as a leader
▪ He did not receive aid from Byzantium, undermining them
▪ Did not receive aid from Antioch
▪ He handed over control of his to the Knights of Templars
□ He is inexperienced as a military commander
▪ Described to be 'more monk than man'
○ Dynamic between Louis and Conrad
▪ Neither forces spoke common languages
▪ They did not set off together
▪ They were not totally unified, there was 'one-upmanship'
To what extent was Zengi’s leadership the primary reason for the failure of the 2nd Crusade?
Zengi’s leadership was the primary reason for the failure of the Second Crusade as he was able to guide the
Muslim army to victory over the crusaders. Where in the past Muslim disunity had arguably allowed for crusaders
to gain easier passage through to the Holy Land, as well as making it easier for the disunited armies to be defeated
by the Christians and territories gained. By the time the second crusade had been called, the Christian leaders such
as Conrad were still revelling in the success of the first crusade; this arrogance placed the Christians at a real
disadvantage. It meant that with-out considering the changed situation, the Christian leaders aimed to replicate
the success of the first crusade through also replicating the methods used at the time, which were now outdated.
This combined with the Christians’ lack of a clear goal in the second crusade led to the overall failure of the second
crusade. However, it was the factor of Zengi’s leadership that was most significant as it changed the way that the
crusade was fought. The crusaders could no longer fight as they had in the past as there was now organisation and
clarity within the Muslim army, and this as well as the Christians’ failure to recognise this, was what doomed the
second crusade to failure.
Zengi was a strong individual who acted as a pillar of the Islamic faith; his name itself translated to “Light of the
Faith”. His leadership was instrumental in the failure of the crusader army. Where in the First Crusade the lack of a
strong Muslim leader and the consequential Muslim disunity had allowed for the Christians to carry out the
crusade effectively, The Crusader army no longer held an advantage over the Muslims and so they started off in a
worse position than that of the successful First Crusade, yet they failed to recognise this and so in deciding that
they would go about the crusade in the same way as they had done previously, thus beginning their path to failure.
Zengi was able to direct his army to defeat the skilled army of Baldwin III, despite them being 50,000 strong. This
displayed the united strength of the Muslim army now that they had one clear leader who they could name as the
head of the Muslim army. His siege of Edessa was a huge success which put him in a position where his Muslim
army had great trust in him. He was esteemed so highly because of his military success, which led to his position of
leader being handed down, his success setting the precedent for leadership of the Muslims against the crusaders.
This lasting effect that Zengi’s leader-ship had on the way that the Muslims fought against the crusaders was
revolutionary, resulting in change that continued throughout the rein of other leaders such as Saladin. Therefore,
all things considered, Zengi’s leadership was paramount for the failure of the second crusade, though other factors
did contribute to the success of the Muslim armies.
Flawed Christian leadership during this period was also an important reason for the failure of the Second Crusade.
Conrad III of Germany, who was the crusader leader of the second crusade, had an ally in Emperor Manuel who
advised him against choosing to follow the same route as had been taken during the first crusade. Conrad, in his
arrogance (having been chosen as leader and also still full of pride from the success of the first crusade) chose not
to heed the advice of the emperor and the crusaders were ambushed by the Muslim army as a consequence of
this. This meant that the crusader armies’ number had now depleted rapidly, not very far into the second crusade
at all. This issue of the Christian leaders seemingly underestimating the capabilities of the Muslims may have
stemmed from the success of the previous crusade, or potentially from biased reports of the first crusade in which
the Muslims may have been portrayed in a less objective, more negative light, in order to present the crusaders as
strong. It would result in some bad decisions being made by the Christian leaders which would cost them lives as
well as valuable territory. However, had the situation of the Muslim army not changed, the arrogance of leaders
such as Conrad may not have been such a devastating blow. In terms of choosing the same route as previously
taken, had the Muslims been as disunited as they had been prior to the leadership of Zengi, the rivalry between
the Muslim tribes would have taken pride of place over the defeating of the crusader army, and so the crusaders
may well have been able to passthrough as had been possible in the first crusade.
Along with strong, sound leadership, another thing the crusader army lacked during the second crusade was a
clear, common goal. At a time where Muslim unity was on the rise, it would have been all the more important for
the Christians to unite under a common goal or an endpoint to the second crusade. As Antioch and Jerusalem were
al-ready in the possession of the Christians there appeared to be no clear goal or purpose established for the
second crusade. Though it was a retaliation to the Zengi’s reclamation of what had become the Christian territory
of Edessa, the crusaders needed an endpoint to work towards. This soon became Damascus, which was named the
goal of the second crusade, which was believable due to the many references to the city in the Bible. Despite this,
it was perhaps too late to change the attitudes of the crusaders. The leaders of the second crusade were trying to
emulate the occurrences of the first crusade and in doing so, achieve a similar success, however, this was difficult
when morale was not nearly as high and in these new times where change had occurred. The Muslims’ military
tactics were also advanced which made it difficult for the Christians to defend against their attacks and ambushes.
Having lost so many men so early on in the crusade as a result of Conrad III’s early actions also did not serve to re -
solve this issue, as the Christians who were not as skilled or modern in their military tactics would need significant
amounts of manpower in order to stand a chance at defeating the Muslim army. This again amplifies the effect
that Zengi’s leadership had on the crusade as a whole, rendering the Christian armies previously successful
methods ineffective and forcing them to either go about the crusade differently or fail whilst sticking to their tried -
and-tested methods, the latter being the actual result.
In conclusion, the failure of the second crusade was credited to Zengi’s leadership of the Muslim army. He was able
to undermine the crusader army by predicting their actions and springing on them using new military tactics, and
perhaps more importantly, he was able to unite Muslims against the crusaders in order to prevent the Christians
being able to take advantage of the disunity as they had done before. The lack of re -fined and effective Christian
leadership may not have been such a significant issue had the Muslim army been experiencing the issues they had
in the first crusade. Also, the lack of a common goal amongst the crusaders right from the offset of the second
crusade would have placed the Christians in a similar position to that of the Muslims during the first crusade,
where they had a complete lack of direction. These changes were brought about as a result of Zengi, who
ultimately altered the crusade and how it would be fought through his changing of the Muslim ideas of the time.
Crusades Page 76
Rise of Zengi
Imad-al-Din Zengi was military governor (Atabeg) of the cities of Mosul and Alepp.
In theory Zengi owed his allegiance to the Seljuk Sultan and the Abbasid Caliph in
Iraq but in practice Zengi was an independent ruler. Zengi had a consistent policy of
expansion. He spent much of his career attempting to expand his area of authority
in Northern Syria and spent much of his later years warring against other Muslim
powers; notably the city of Damascus but it is his capture of the Crusader state of
Edessa for which he is best known in Europe.
Jihad:
A religious duty prescribed by God and his prophet whose aim is to enlarge the
reign of the religion. The Muslim faithful must devote themselves to the Jihad just
as Christendom the Mink devotes himself to God's service. The Jihad is a collective
duty which is forced first on a besieged city the inhabitants of the areas near
enemies. The duty of Jihad continues until Islam has spread all over the world and
must protect Islam against aggression.
After the capture of Jerusalem in a099 the first manifestation of the Jihad came
from the treatise written in 1105 by al-Sulami, a faqib, a specialist in Muslim law.
Al-Sulami defined the rules of a Holy war.
Zengi was the first sovereign to understand what benefits he might reap from Jihad
propaganda which began in 1137 on the occasion of an expedition against the
Franks. Developed by three poets of Zengi's court the themes of this propaganda
were not very original; religious antagonism between Muslims and Franks, Muslim
brotherhood and the duty of Jihad for every faithful person.
Historians disagree about Zengi's motives, however it may be that Jihad was not the
sole or even the main aim of his policy. His aim was to found a kingdom stretching
from Armenia in the north to Egypt in the South.
Zengi was a powerful ruler, who was later able to use his power to begin a counter-
crusade against the Frank. However, his authority had limits and he faced a number
of rivals who restricted his influence. These included the following:
• The Damascene Turks: Damascus was under the control of a powerful atabeg
called Muin al-Din Unur. In 1140 Unur's power was strengthened through an
alliance with the Franks against Zengi.
• The Artuqid Turks of Diyr Bakr: they limited Zengi's control of the territory
surrounding his principal cities of Aleppo and Mosul. He attempted to defeat
them in 1134 when he launched an attack on the ruler of Hisn Kayfa, but
failed to secure the region.
• The Seljuk Turks of Anatolia: they were a block to the spread of his influence
to the north-west of his territories.
• The Franks: Zengi was threatened by the Christians, usually from Tripoli, on a
number of occasions. E.g. Count Bertrand of Tripoli's unsuccessful attack in
the mis-1130s
• The Byzantines: in April 1138 the Byzantine Emperor John Comnenus
attacked Shaizar and almost succeeded in its capture
A brief timeline:
1122 - Zengi became an official overseeing the Iraqi towns of Wasit and Basra
1127 - Zengi appointed a senior official at Baghdad and then posted to Mosul as
Atabeg. Made a military truce with Joscelin of Edessa so that he could concentrate
on attacking the Ortoqid Muslims
1128 - Inhabitants of Aleppo invited Zengi to take control of their city, as Emir,
driving out the Ortoqids. He had united Mosul and Aleppo
1129 - Baldwin II launched an ambitious attack against Damascus - an independent
Muslim held city. The attack failed but showed Zengi Damascus was weak.
1130 - After the capture of Hamah's ruler Zengi takes possession of the city
1135 - failed to secure Damascus
1138-1143 - Zengi put pressure on Damascus and ruler allied with Fulk against him.
1137 - Zengi attacked Tripoli and besieged Fulk at Montferrand. Fulk surrendered to
Zengi and Zengi released him.
1137 - John II Comnenus wanted to capture Antioch and city was surrendered to
him by Raymond
1138 - Zengi captured Homs
1139 - failed to secure Damascus
1143 - death of Fulk and Emperor John II
1144 - Zengi launched surprise attack on Edessa. Joseclin was absent. Raymond of
Antioch refused to help Count of Edessa
1145 - Zengi returned to Mosul to subdue a revolt there
1146 - Campaigning against a minor Muslim ruler he was murdered by one of his
slaves; a Frank
After his death his territories were divided and his son Nureddin became the
governor of Aleppo.
- The Crusaders crossed Anatolia
Why was the 2nd Crusade such a failure?
1. Lack of clear strategic aims
a. Crossing Anatolia separately severs their manpower which could of been used in the Levant
b. One of the criticisms was that the Second Crusade had no clear aim
c. The poor decision making in the Council at Acre
d. Raymond said to attack Allepo and gave up Edessa as it was destroyed due to Zenghi & Nur -
ed-din's efforts. However Raymond does not want to conquer Edessa due to his poor
relations with Joscelin the Count of Edessa and wants to conquer Allepo as it was the
greatest Muslim threat due to it being held by Nur-ed-din.
e. Louis also did not want to conquer Edessa due to it being a former Byzantine city and his
hatred towards the Byzantines and the fact he had close ties with the Sicilians. Louis seems
far more interested in fulfilling his crusading duties by visiting Jerusalem than helping
Raymond and the Second Crusade
f. Blaming of Eleanor of Aquitane as she is used as a scapegoat to hide Louis's bad decisions
and lack of leadership and military prowess
2. Poor leadership of Louis VII & Conrad III
a. Conrad travelled before Louis VIII, they travelled in two separate contingents
b. General Crusader disuinity, dropped morale not militarily optimised
c. Conrad was said to be forced to retreat as he wanted to preserve his weaker soldiers &
pilgrims and believed that he could of forced a counter attack, but this belief is rather
optimistic
d. Conrad and Louis decide to walk along the coast, Conrad falls sick and retreats back to help
due to the Byzantines
e. Louis hands over the leadership of the Second Crusade to the Knights of Templars
f. Louis blames the everyone and the Byzantine emperor for treachery for allowing the Turks
to 'ambush' him which they could not of been part of, highlighting his inexperience in
leadership
3. Bad relations/ mistrust between Crusaders & Byzantines
a. Louis writes about the Byzantines betraying them
b. Conrad however owes his life to Manuel (Byzantines)
c. Byzantines did set Conrad off without waiting for Louis, which could arguably brought more
archers to counter the Turks, more men. This resulted in Conrad's forces getting massacred
4. Logistical problems
5. Muslim unity & military effectiveness
a. Before during the 1st Crusade, Muslim disunity between the Seljuk Turks and the Fatamids,
Kilij of Arsalan was fighting the Danishmenids
b. Turkish troops focused themselves on archers and light cavalry while Crusaders had heavy
cavalry, Crusaders were underprepared
6. Poor relations/ lack of co-ordination b/ween Crusaders & the Frankish states of Outremer
Finally, the lack of aid from the Byzantine Empire is also a contributing factor the failure of the second
crusade. Upon the launch of the second crusade, the Byzantine emperor Manuel Comnemnus promised
guides, and supplies to the crusaders that would arrive in Constantinople to then depart on expedition into
the middle east. However upon arrival the crusading forces were met with the problem, that the guides had
not been supplied, and that the supplies and markets which they had received were exceedingly minimal, and
were certainly not enough for the crusaders to survive on, during their travels in the Middle East, and towards
Jerusalem, Damascus and Edessa. It then fell to Louis VII of France to provide the supplies which were needed
by the crusaders, and even then he did not have the resources available himself to sustain the huge forces
which had amassed. The weakening affect this had on the crusading forces was clear at Damascus, where the
crusaders had no food or water during their siege of the city, made worse by Louis decision to move the army.
Eventually the lack of supplies, and inability to sustain the army lead to the withdrawal of the army from the
siege, and the failure of the seconds crusade. Overall, while the failure of the Byzantines was a contributing
factor the failure of the crusade, it was by no means the most important factor, and may not have played even
such a minimal role if Louis VII had not relocated his forced to an area without a water supply
Why did the Siege of Damascus fail?
- The 22nd July 1148 the Crusader's switched sides to the poorly supplied side of the city
- William of Tyre says 'treachery' where Muslims inside the city were in cahoots with Crusaders outside the
city. They convinced the Crusaders to switch to the wrong
○ However William of Tyre's comments are deemed unreliable as none of the Muslim sources says they
were on the verge of defeat after their progress early on in the Siege
○ Phillips and Asbridge disagree with this view as they view William of Tyre to make excuses for the
Crusader loss and not tell it how it is
○ William of Tyre fails to mention how heavily & well defended Damascus was by the Muslims
○ Ibn Al-Athir acknowledges the progress made in the first day of the siege but reinforces the Muslim
strength in defence.
○ William of Tyre does not mention that there was long negotiations (not just short negotiations) and
when they failed to take Damascus quickly it was that or not at all, as the Muslim relief forces would
come in
▪ Not treachery or bribery of negotiations as William of Tyre says
○ In short the siege of Damasus failed because of treachery and bribery in accordance to William of
Tyre. However, this is not the case due to the Muslim forces overwhelming the Crusades even on the
early period of the siege.
TABLE - Circumstances in Outremer
Thursday, 30 March 2023 3:25 pm

Key events and divisions - 1130s
- Count of Hugh of Jaffa - 1134
→ In 1134 Count Hugh of Jaffa started a rebellion against Fulk which revealed internal
divisions in the kingdom
→ This no doubt caused some weakness within the kingdom
→ Fulk's civil war with Hugh of Jaffa, perhaps caused by tensions between Fulk's new
nobility and the established Jerusalem nobility loyal to Melisende, according to Orderic
Vitalis.
- Fulk 1130s
→ During the 1130s Fulk brought in outsiders from France into the Jerusalem government
which caused tensions with the Crusaders which can be another cause of the weakening
of the kingdom
- Death of Leaders
→ Bohemond II slain in a raid into Cilicia in 1130; Baldwin II dies in 1131 from illness
alongside Joscelin of Courtenay, count of Edessa.
- Situation with Byzantium
→ 1137 John II Comnenus marched into Syria to reassert Byzantine control over the
province, partly in fury that he had not been consulted in Constance's marriage to
Raymond of Poitiers in 1136.
→ Raymond swore homage to John, but their joint offensive on Shaizar ends in failure.
→ 1142 John returns in an effort to restore direct rule of Antioch under his son Manuel, but
John died in a hunting accident in 1143.
- Antioch
→ 1136 Raymond of Poitiers, Duke of Aquitaine, married Constance of Antioch, bringing
new wealth and manpower to Antioch.
Key events and divisions 1140s
- In 1143 Fulk passed away leaving Jerusalem in unstable state
→ Defence of the kingdom was left to Melisende and her young son Baldwin who was not yet of age to take
up the throne
→ Therefore, Melisende had to act as a regent
- Battle of Inab 1149
→ Nureddin invaded Antioch in 1149 and besieged the fortress of Inab with the help of Unur of Damascus
→ Raymond had no Frankish allies but had the Assassin's support, and was greatly outnumbered by
Nureddin's forces
→ Nureddin was able to lure Raymond into a poor position in during the night, forcing him to charge in the
morning, which resulted in Raymond and the commander of the Assassin Troops being dead and the
combined army destroyed
→ This greatly weakened the position of the Franks in the North
- Dismantling Edessa (1149-1150)
→ Joscelin II of Edessa sued for a peace deal before the Battle of Inab, understanding the threat Nureddin
posed, although he accepted, Nureddin broke this, capturing Joscelin and imprisoned him
→ This meant from 1149-1150, both Antioch and Edessa had fell, leaving the Franks without any defences in
the North
- Rise of Nureddin and Zengi in Syria and Egypt
→ Succession in Edessa 1146
▪ Nureddin was highly powerful, succeeding Zengi in Edessa in 1146, which marked the first of the
Frankish settlements to be taken by Nureddin, with Zengi, his father, besieging Edessa in 1144 as
well
▪ Nureddin was able to unite the Muslim force through alliances, with the Unur of Damascus, which
resulted in the Crusaders withdrawing their siege on Damascus
▪ However, there were still Muslim-Frankish alliances, with Raymond of Tripoli making an alliance
with Nureddin and Unur to fight his Frankish Cousin, allowing them to capture Bertram and his
fortress, so there was still possibilities for Frankish-Muslim alliances
→ Role with Damascus in 1149
□ By blockading Damascus in 1149, he caused the locals to question their support for Abaq, forcing
him to flee the citadel and Nureddin was able to take control of the city unopposed, making him the
leader of Aleppo, Edessa and Damascus

- 1144 Siege of Edessa

→ Zengi Besieged Edessa in 1144 since Jerusalem had an alliance with the Muslim Damascus that meant
neither could be attacked or provoked, so he chose Edessa instead
→ Zengi was able to inspire people to fight for him through his use of Jihad, and the idea of people taking up
arms in the name of Islam, similar to what the Frank's had been doing, but also due to his personal
actions, such as ensuring the women left behind during long-campaigns were well looked after.
→ Zengi knew that Joscelin and Raymond of Antioch had fallen out, which meant that Antioch wouldn't help
Edessa if it were besieged
→ He gathered a large army and siege engines to surround the walls, eventually tunnelling underneath them
and collapsing them on the 24th December 1144, capturing Edessa

- Castles
→ 1142 - Fulk of Anjou sets up Kerak, which becomes the major administrative centre for the region
→ 1144 - Hospitallers - Have control over Krak des Chevaliers, which was a key defence between Antioch
and Tripoli, but also key for trade and administration

Crusades Page 77
TABLE - Rise of Zengi
Thursday, 30 March 2023 3:30 pm
Origins of Jihad
Zengi's aims and motives
Reasons for Zengi's success
Achievements of Zengi
Crusades Page 78
- The origins of Jihad:
→ After the capture of Jerusalem in 1099 the first manifestation of Jihad came from the treatise written in 1105 by al-Sulami, a faqib, a specialist in
Muslim law. Al-Sulami defined the rules of Holy war.
- Zengi in regards to Jihad:
→ Zengi was the first sovereign to understand what benefits he might reap from Jihad propaganda which began in 1137 on the occasion of an
expedition against the Franks.
→ Developed by three poets of Zengi's court the themes of this propaganda were not very original; religious antagonism between Muslims and
Franks, Muslim brotherhood and the duty of Jihad for every faithful person.
- Zengi's aims and motives
→ Historians disagree about Zengi's motives, however it may be that Jihad was not the sole or even the main aim of his policy.
→ His aim was to found a kingdom stretching from Armenia in the north to Egypt in the South.
→ Zengi was a powerful ruler, who was later able to use his power to begin a counter-crusade against the Frank.
- Military Prowess:
→ Managed to compel the Turks to assist the siege of Edessa showing his value as a military tactician
→ 1128: the death of Tughtegin of Damascus led to Zengi, atabeg of Mosul (since 1127) to seize control of Aleppo.
→ With the men of Khurasan and Aleppo Zengi ordered for the timbers holding up the walls of Edessa to be burnt down
▪ This demonstrates his military prowess as this act allowed for the capture of the city
→ Throughout the 1130s Zengi was more focused on absorbing Damascus than on the crusaders, leading to his siege of Damascus in 1139/40
which drove Unur, the Turcoman military commander serving the Burid dynasty to seek an alliance with Fulk, who for the price of 20000 gold
pieces/month and the return of Banyas agreed to relieve Damascus.
- Divisions amongst Franks:
→ There was division between Prince Raymond of Antioch and Count Joscelin of Edessa meaning that Antioch did not send forces toprotect
Edessa
→ Prince of Antioch refused to send aid
→ 1124-1138 papal schism prevented effective papal support for crusading, as did internal rivalry between the Hohenstaufen and Welfsin
Germany and the civil war in England.
→ 1129 Baldwin's appeal for another crusade against Damascus in 1129, largely preached by Hugh of Payns, master of the Templars, without papal
support, ended in fiasco.
→ 1134 crisis between Fulk and Count Hugh of Jaffa resulted in civil war. Hugh made a treaty with Ascalon and Fulk marched south to besiege
Jaffa. Hugh came to terms and was exiled, but was stabbed before he could leave.
- Weakness of defending forces:
→ The safekeeping of the city was only entrusted to mercenaries who did not have good motivation as they were not paid on time
→ This meant that despite the effective defences in place in Edessa it was left relatively undefended due to the lack of men
→ 1122 - Zengi became the official overseer of the Iraqi towns of Wasit and Basra
→ 1127 - Zengi appointed a senior official at Baghdad and then posted to Mosul as Atabeg.
→ Same year made a military truce with Joscelin of Edessa so that he could concentrate on attacking the Ortoqid Muslims
→ 1128 - Zengi took control of Aleppo after being invited by its inhabitants to take control of the city, this dove out the Ortoqids.
→ This was signficant achievement as he had achieved a degree of Muslim unity by uniting Mosul and Allepo
→ 1130 - Zengi also acquired the city of Hamah after the capture of its ruler
→ Counter point to success: 1135 Zengi failed to secure Damascus
→ 1138 - Zengi captured the city of Homs
→ Counter points to success: 1139 Zengi failed to secure Damascus
→ 1144 - Zengi managed to capture Edessa
→ 1145 - Zengi subdued a revolt in Mosul
TABLE - Taking of Edessa
Thursday, 30 March 2023 3:31 pm

Tactics - Zengi was able to inspire people to fight for him through his use of Jihad, and the idea of people taking up arms in the name of Islam, similar to what
the Frank's had been doing, but also due to his personal actions, such as ensuring the women left behind during long -campaigns were well looked
after.

- Zengi knew that Joscelin and Raymond of Antioch had fallen out, which meant that Antioch wouldn't help Edessa if it were besi eged

- He gathered a large army and siege engines to surround the walls, eventually tunnelling underneath them and collapsing them o n the 24th
December 1144, capturing Edessa

- With the men of Khurasan and Aleppo Zengi ordered for the timbers holding up the walls of Edessa to be burnt down. This cause d the walls
surrounding Edessa to collapse - This led to the fall of the city on Christmas Eve 1444
Finance
Morale of Edessa
Support from Byzantium

Crusades Page 79
TABLE - Bernard Clairvaux Importance in Preaching
Thursday, 30 March 2023 3:32 pm

Role of Bernard Role of Pope Role of Rudolf

Crusades Page 80
TABLE - Events before Damascus seriously weakened the 2nd Crusader
Thursday, 30 March 2023 3:33 pm

Crusade against the Wends Siege of Lisbon Arrival at Constantinople Events in Antioch Council of Acre

Crusades Page 81
TABLE - Reasons for Failure of 2nd Crusade
Thursday, 30 March 2023 3:34 pm

Lack of a clear goal Muslim unity Weak Crusader Leadership Divisions within the Crusader force Crusader armies moving during the siege

Crusades Page 82
TABLE - Consequences of 2nd Crusade on Crusading movement
Thursday, 30 March 2023 3:35 pm

Loss of faith in the crusading ideal Gave the Muslim world confidence Brought an end to earlier advances by the Damaged reputation of European Monarchs Edessa and Damascus not taken French knights lost their enthusiasm for another Divisions between European rulers resurfaces
Crusaders crusade

Crusades Page 83
 NOTES - Long
Monday, 17 April 2023 11:15 am

Second Crusade (1147-9): broad overview

• Launched 1st Dec 1145 – Pope Eugenius III – Papal Bull Quantum
praedecessores: response to fall of Edessa (Christmas 1144) to forces of
Turkish warlord, Zengi, and subsequent desperate appeals from Franks of
Near East for help V this threat to the Latin Kingdoms of Outremer.
• Easter 1146 - Bernard of Clairvaux preached @ Vezelay – attended by K Louis
VII of France.
• Christmas 1146 – Bernard of Clairvaux preached @ Speyer…Conrad III of
Germany ‘took the Cross’.
• May 1147 – Conrad III departed from Nuremburg: army big (30, 000+, but
many were not really soldiers) arrived Constantinople, Sept 1147.
• June 1147 – Louis VII departed from Metz: army (many thousands, including
100 Templars who had joined in April ’47 – big boost!) arrived
Constantinople, Oct, 1147.
• NB Both took land route to Constantinople (Conrad had always planned to;
not Louis, but political problems forced change on him) – “staggered” start
(month apart) deliberate (conserve local food sources for foraging en
route), but this had negative consequences later (Asia Minor) – divided
force!
• Oct, 1147 – Conrad’s army harassed by Turks/ denuded/ forced to retreat
from Dorylaeum area. Humiliating retreat to Nicaea. Conrad seriously
wounded.
• Jan 1148 – Louis’ army defeated around/ on Mt Cadmus – another serious
setback.
• Early 1148 – strategic rethink…move against Syria, led by Louis March 1148…
• June, 1148 – conference at Acre – new focus = Damascus!
• July, 1148 – disastrous defeat at Damascus: Conrad withdrew to Germany,
Sept 1148…Louis to France, April, 1149.
• NB 2nd Crusade = “Holy War” on 3 fronts, not just in Near East. First time
major European rulers participated. Others fought against “Wends”
(pagans) in Baltic, & V Moors in Iberia, where an English led naval force
enjoyed some successes.
• The campaign in the Near East was beset by problems – e.g. huge cost;
difficulty of co-ordinating forces; logistical difficulties; tricky relations with
Byzantine Emperor Manuel; Turkish reactions under Zengi far more
coherent than Muslim reactions during 1st Crusade; lack of clear strategic
purpose – by the time Crusade actually got to Near East, Edessa itself had
been utterly destroyed!
How and why did the 2nd Crusade come about?

Crusades Page 84
1. Muslim disunity ensured that by 1140s the 4 Crusader States seemed pretty
secure.
2. But rise of ZENGI (Imad ad-Din Zengi), a ruthlessly effective Turkish warlord,
and his shockingly unexpected CAPTURE OF EDESSA, Christmas Eve, 1144,
changed everything.
3. Zengi - born circa 1084 – 1120s gained patronage of Seljuk Sultan of
Baghdad – 1127 became Governor of Mosul (+1128 captured Aleppo) in Syria.
4. Usama ibn Munqidh (who worked at Zengi’s court) describes Zengi’s
terrifyingly brutal ferocity: Zengi possibly insane.
5. 1140s – Zengi’s focus = extending his territory into South Syria & Iraq: not
particularly interested in the Franks per se.
6. 1143 – Zengi Campaigning in Northern Iraq against local warlords, one of
whom was allied with Joscelin II, Frankish ruler of Edessa. Autumn 1144 –
Zengi’s spies informed him that Edessa was weakly defended, so in
November he launched an opportunistic attack: used sophisticated siege
warfare techniques/ tactics (siege towers, mining etc), which hitherto Turks
had not been keen on, preferring light manoeuvre warfare – big shock to
Franks! Edessa’s walls breached – Dec 26th Edessa under Zengi’s control.
Indigenous Christians spared; Franks massacred – women & children
enslaved; churches destroyed. (By 1146/7 city of Edessa had been
destroyed.)
7. Franks horrified – implications for other Frankish states? William of Tyre –
“an ominous disaster”. Desperate appeal to West – Papal Bull – preaching –
Second Crusade launched.
8. Started full of high purpose/ ideals; ended in defeat & humiliation of 2 of the
most powerful rulers in Christendom.
Why was the 2nd Crusade such a failure?
1. Lack of clear strategic aims
2. Poor leadership of Louis VII & Conrad III
3. Bad relations/ mistrust between Crusaders & Byzantines
4. Logistical problems
5. Muslim unity & military effectiveness
6. Poor relations/ lack of co-ordination b/ween Crusaders & the Frankish
states of Outremer
Pope Eugenius III/ preaching & preparation (Dec 1145-May 1147)
1. Nov 1145 – envoys from Antioch & Jerusalem arrived in Italy requesting help.
(news of Edessa’s fall probably reached Rome early Summer 1145)
2. Eugenius III – new Pope. Heard appeal – researched situation carefully –
drafted Papal Bull Quantum praedecessores, 1st Dec 1145.
3. Emphasises key points: Christian suffering in East; precedent of 1st Crusade,
which had set a high standard; Divine Authority of the Papacy.
4. Challenged Christians to “Take the Cross” – guaranteed safeguarding of
familial property/ interests; exemption from interest on loans & debts;
Crusades Page 85
 familial property/ interests; exemption from interest on loans & debts;
remission of sins. Carefully drafted to reassure and incentivise potential
crusaders.
5. The Bull was, however, flawed in 2 ways: did not limit non-combatant
participation (because, strictly speaking, any expedition to Near East was a
“pilgrimage” – open to all Christians). Nor did it state clearly an overarching
strategic aim – only called rather generally to protect Jerusalem, and imitate
the deeds of predecessors.
6. Consequences of these flaws were profound: 2nd Crusade had too many
“hangers-on”, and there were continual arguments between leaders re
what exactly they were striving to do!

Louis VII of France

1. Louis VII could be impulsive. Eager to assert own authority over realms –
France still very much a “patchwork” of different territorial/ feudal & noble
interests – not a well-defined unitary state under full control of king.
2. Early 1140s Louis engaged in vexatious and bitter disputes not only with the
Papacy (e.g. Vitry atrocity, 1143 – Louis’ troops burned down a church/ killed
many), but also with Count of Champagne.
3. By mid 1140s, however, tensions were easing: Louis regretted Vitry incident;
possibly wanted to make amends…a pilgrimage would be good for him/ his
standing (in France, & with Papacy), and might be a unifier of his nobility/
realm.
4. Louis was probably intent on leading a force to Near East by Christmas
1145 – before the Papal Bull had reached his Winter court in Bourges, to
which a considerably larger number of nobles than was customary had been
invited (suggests Louis had something notable in mind – a great undertaking
for which he would need their support).
5. Louis’ plan to help the Christians of Outremer presented to nobility –
response less than
enthusiastic. Agreed, however, to reconsider at Easter after running it
past Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux, leading French churchman – very
influential figure in Christendom.
6. Pope Eugenius reissued his Bull, 1st March 1146, by which time he and Louis
had planned a recruiting drive centred on Burgundian abbey of Vezelay.
7. Easter Sunday – Louis in attendance – huge audience – Louis & Bernard
delivered sermons & speeches to mass audience. Crowds so big they did so
from a wooden platform outside the abbey church. Massive popular
response.
Conrad III of Germany
1. Bernard’s success at Vezelay – widening of call for crusade – preachers sent
all over France, & letters to other leaders – England, North Italy, Brittany.
2. Autumn 1146 – Bernard undertook 7 month preaching tour – N France,
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2. Autumn 1146 – Bernard undertook 7 month preaching tour – N France,
Flanders, Germany.
3. Nov 1146 – Frankfurt - Conrad III’s court in session…
4. Conrad had already visited Jerusalem, 1124. Ally of Papacy against Sicilian
Norman aggression in Italy.
5. Conrad had a chance to reinforce his reputation for piety, & enhance his
reputation throughout Christendom. But Conrad had troubles close to
home – his own nobles were fractious, & King of Hungary a concern. Initially
reluctant to leave German lands because he feared for security of his realm.
6. Bernard made a deal with Welf IV of Bavaria – Conrad’s main security
concern – when Welf agreed to join crusade, Conrad felt happier to commit
himself to the cause.
7. 24th Dec – Bernard at Conrad’s Christmas court at Speyer. Dramatic sermon
by Bernard appealing directly/ personally to Conrad a “game changer”; by
end Dec 1146 Conrad was on-side.

Early 1147 – things get moving…

1. Eugenius now had 2 strong monarchs committed – widened the call –
broadened the target range!
2. Supported King Alfonso VII of Castile in his on-going attempts to retake
Almeira from Moors, & encouraged expeditions against Lisbon.
3. March 1147 – received a delegation of Germans requesting Papal support/
blessing for campaign against pagan Wends of the Baltic coastal zone.
Bernard & Eugenius very keen.
4. 3 Front War developing – weakened strategic focus.
5. Initially, Conrad & Louis seemed to be co-operating well (representatives
liaised between them), but each had “issues” to address before leaving
Europe:
6. Who would govern in their absence?
7. Funding?
8. Regents appointed – France (Abbot Suger of St Denis, Louis’ old tutor);
Germany (Conrad’s 10 year old son, Henry, designated heir; Abbot Wibald of
Corvey to be regent).
9. Both taxed towns & churches rather than general populations – poor
harvests of 1140s meant common folk were already suffering enough.
10. Initially, a lot of cash raised, but sustainability of money supplies a big
concern.
11. Also, limited likelihood of active/ sustained co-operation from King Roger II
of Sicily, nor Byzantine Emperor Manuel I, both of whom needed to be on-
side if logistical/ travel difficulties were to be handled successfully. Not very
auspicious!
12. Roger of Sicily in conflict with Papacy and Byzantines over his on-going
expansion into
South Italy! Unlikely to support allies of Papacy & Byzantines, e.g.
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 South Italy! Unlikely to support allies of Papacy & Byzantines, e.g.
Conrad III!
13. Manuel I – suspicious of Louis because he was friendly with Roger of Sicily!
14. Manuel gave Louis an impression of friendship (envoys sent early 1147), but
this was probably a diplomatic smokescreen to mask his real feelings/
intentions.
15. Due to such complications, the decision was taken that both forces should
follow entirely overland routes via the Balkans/ Constantinople to Holy Land.
16. French & German forces therefore moved in 2 waves (to limit demands on
food supplies in lands through which they had to pass), a month apart,
which would subsequently prove catastrophic to unity of their enterprise.
17. Even worse, there was no significant liaison with the Franks in Outremer!
Probably because they intended heading straight for Edessa, but also
possibly because Louis & Conrad were simply too arrogant to bother
consulting with such “minor” rulers!
18. Manuel clearly worried: a successful crusade would strengthen Frankish
power in Northern Syria. Conrad’s absence from Europe would strengthen/
embolden Roger, his enemy, in Southern Italy. Afraid that some French
might join Roger to attack Byzantine territories. Consequently, Manuel
made a truce with the Seljuk Turks – perceived as treachery by
crusaders.

Conrad III – Arrival Constantinople – Asia Minor – disaster at Dorylaeum

• Conrad’s force was hobbled from the outset by including too many “non-
professionals”.
• By the time it reached Byzantine territory there were already big supply
problems, especially food! (poor leadership, poor preparation & planning,
dreadful logistical/ supply management)
• Fractious relations with locals – drunken riots/ fights etc. (poor leadership,
command & control, indiscipline)
• Before getting to Constantinople the Germans suffered a major setback –
poor reconnaissance/ local information led them to encamp on a river flood
plain – flash flood killed many men & horses, destroyed much kit.(all of the
above + outright military incompetence)
• 10th Sept arrived at Constantinople – Manuel I less than helpful – kept
Germans out of city – communicated with Conrad in writing (calculated
insult?!) (poor leadership, intelligence, diplomacy etc)
• Manuel expedited German move away from city over Bosporus asap (ships
& guides supplied).
• Conrad then decided to proceed without waiting for Louis’ French force.
Major error/ communication breakdown. Strategically stupid, & contrary to
what the 2 kings had previously agreed. C demonstrated poor judgement &
impetuosity. Very poor leadersip/ decision making!
• Conrad took direct route to Antioch via Dorylaeum & Iconium – i.e. route of
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• Conrad took direct route to Antioch via Dorylaeum & Iconium – i.e. route of
1st Crusade.
• Turks ready/ watching/ able easily to track the Germans! Massive tactical
error which assumed the Turks would be as complacent/ unprepared as they
had been in 1097.
• Conrad put brother, Otto von Freising, i/c the non-combatants with orders
to lead them along the less direct/ “safer” coastal route.
• Germans left Nicaea, 25th Oct, but within less than a fortnight were running
out of supplies!
• Approaching Dorylaeum (arid area with limited food supplies, water
sources) the exhausted Germans came under sustained attacks from fast
moving Turkish mounted archers who were able to manoeuvre rapidly out
of their own adjacent safe territory.
• The Germans had no answer to this rapid manoeuvre, missile firing, raiding
tactic, and were eventually forced into a humiliating retreat back to Nicaea,
under fire all the way! Nightmare. Conrad sustained a serious head wound,
and when they reached the safety of Dorylaeum, many of his troops
deserted to head home.
Louis VII – Constantinople – Asia Minor – Mt Cadmus
• Louis’ army left France June 1147 – splendid farewells overseen personally by
Pope Eugenius III.
• Metz onwards followed same route as Conrad’s force. Odo of Deuil, Louis’
chaplain, notes how Louis tried to impose discipline, but problems with
money & logistics were soon evident – indiscipline/ problems with local
suppliers en route.
• Arrived Constantinople early Oct 1147 after a 4 month journey; diplomatic
difficulties/ mistrust – French found out about Manuel’s Turkish truce; some
French crusaders loathed Byzantines Louis rebuffed calls from some to join
Roger of Sicily to attack Byzantines.
• Manuel treated French courteously; provided food & supplies etc, but it was
soon clear Manuel wanted them to move on asap. Provided transport for
crossing Bosporus + guides to help them through Asia Minor, & promises of
help with food supplies etc. – his local officials would fix things for them
once they were in Asia Minor.
• French then joined German stragglers & headed for Ephesus, where it was
soon obvious that the supply chain had broken down – local Greek officials
not helpful – not facilitating things as Manuel had promised they would!
• Conrad unable to proceed – Manuel offered him a safe haven back in
Constantinople to recuperate from his wounds.
• Dec – weather turning bad (heavy rain & then snow), but L decided to press
on inland via mountain passes to the port of Adalia!
• French struggled – very cold, & subject to continual Turkish raiding. At Mt
Cadmus they were decimated: force strung out over almost impassable
mountain trails – formation/ march discipline broken – easy targets for Turks
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 mountain trails – formation/ march discipline broken – easy targets for Turks
hiding in the rough terrain. Louis personally very courageous, but this could
not hide the reality that he had led his force into a death trap.
• Louis handed control to Templars, who managed to lead the much
depleted/ demoralised force to Ephesus, 20th Jan 1148. Louis’ authority/
credibility now much undermined. Nobles then persuaded Louis that best
move was to evacuate to Syria. Wounded & non-combatants left in Ephesus
for their own safety, under Byzantine protection – most subsequently
slaughtered by Turks!
• Louis reached Antioch, March 1148. Conrad (now recovered) arrived Acre
around same time.

The Syrian Debacle, March- July 1148.

• Prince Raymond of Antioch (uncle-in-law of Louis VII) welcomed the French;
force included Louis’ wife, Raymond’s niece, Eleanor of Aquitaine.
• Raymond had his own agenda: Edessa now lay in ruins, and Raymond hated
Joscelin of Edessa anyway! Raymond wanted French support to capture
Muslim cities of Aleppo & Shaizar, which would improve the security of
Antioch.
• + a N Syrian campaign would weaken Byzantine influence in the area;
territory Manuel & Co maintained was theirs.
• May 1148 – Raymond held an assembly, but Louis rejected his masterplan.
• Why was Louis so negative?
1. Personally committed to Jerusalem/ “pilgrimage” etc
2. Obligation to Conrad/ Germans – recently arrived Acre to the South.
3. Army not equipped/ configured for siege warfare – short of foot soldiers,
requisite specialists etc
4. On-going financial difficulties – money very short/ siege warfare very
expensive.
5. Could open a “can of worms” with Byzantines – even if successful, what if
Manuel then asserted his (possibly legitimate) claim to North Syrian
territory. Diplomatically very problematic!
Early Summer 1148: Conrad & Louis finally actually linked-up in the Levant,
and were actually talking with the local Frankish rulers!
• Grand Council, 24th June 1148: attended by all, including young King Baldwin
III of Jerusalem & his mother Melisende.
• Conrad & Lewis decided to attack Damascus, one of the most important
cities in Islam: possibly strategic insanity!
• Why?
1. Unur of Damascus had (since 1140) been allied with Jerusalem to ward off
Zengi!
2. Zengi murdered by rivals, 1146.

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2. Zengi murdered by rivals, 1146.
3. Unur realigned with Zengi’s son, the more reasonable (sane?!) Nur ad-Din,
&recently had sealed this new alliance by marrying his daughter to Nur ad-
Din.
4. This new Muslim alliance represented a clear & present danger to Outremer/
Jerusalem.
• So, although a “big ask”, an attack on Damascus probably seemed the best
strategy for countering a new threat that would have been pressing on the
minds of the Franks of Outremer, especially Baldwin III & Melisende of
Jerusalem.
• Seems likely, however, that Conrad & Louis, who had not hitherto
demonstrated great military capability, did not really appreciate the
enormity of the task they were setting themselves!
Damascus
• Damascus – walled, strong citadel, great mosque etc – was surrounded by a
belt (often 5 miles wide) of irrigated, walled orchards overlooked by
watchtowers.
• Formidable “defensive belt” – almost impassable to horse/ heavily
armoured forces. Complex network of narrow paths b/ween high walls &
water channels: nightmare for attackers, especially if short of well-trained/
experienced infantry.
• Assault launched 24th July 1148: eventually got through the “outer belt”, but
only at very heavy cost. Franks then attacked Damascus properly.
• Desperate situation for defenders – all seemed lost… but Unur proved very
capable:
1. Invocation of faith – gathered people in Great Mosque – symbolic
significance of its’ sacred treasure The Qu’ran of Uthman (the 3rd Caliph/
personal friend of the Prophet) – mass prayer for Allah’s help/ symbolic
sprinkling on heads of ashes – ready to die for faith etc.
2. Personal leadership – immense/ vigorous/ relentless.
3. Streets barricaded – last ditch defences readied. Sent to Nur ad-Din for
urgent assistance.
4. Misinformation/ psychological warfare – sent messages to former allies
Baldwin & Jerusalem Franks – Conrad & Louis only wanted Damascus for
themselves…cleverly engendered disputes among Franks about who
exactly should have Damascus if/ when it fell.
• Frankish War council, 27th July: made another bad decision – move focus of
assault to East of city, but this was away from the forage rich/ well-watered
West; an arid area, and contrary to reports, the defences were no weaker.
This took the impetus out of the assault, & again highlighted the poor
leadership & intelligence of Frankish commanders. Unur had wrong footed
them.
• Fearful of the imminent arrival of Nur ad-Din’s relief force – danger of being
crushed against Damascus’ walls – running out of food & water etc, Conrad

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 crushed against Damascus’ walls – running out of food & water etc, Conrad
& Louis had no option but to withdraw rapidly. Utter humiliation.
Who was to blame?
• Conrad III – letter to Regent Wibald (Autumn 1148) – blamed King Baldwin &
Jerusalem nobility. Believed they had treacherously misled Western forces
outside Damascus because they didn’t like the way things were going.
Blame shifting – away from himself?
• But, Louis & Conrad had promised Count Thierry of Flanders custodianship
of Damascus – not sensible – a promise that was bound to antagonise the
Franks of Outremer, especially King Baldwin, & Jerusalem nobles! Very poor
diplomatically/ showed scant regard for legitimate concerns of Franks of
Outremer.
• Manuel I had never been on-side, but then the leadership of Louis & Conrad
had been less than confidence inspiring/ competent, & possibly he had good
reason to mistrust them!
• Pope Eugenius III & Bernard of Clairvaux had also been unhelpful – had too
readily diluted the strategic focus of the whole enterprise from the outset.
• Bottom line: Muslims were simply too strong… Seljuk responses far more
coherent/ disciplined/ focused than they had been in 1097. Turks played to
their strengths/ outmanoeuvred Westerners at every turn.
• Attacking Damascus (one of holiest cities of Islam) had been foolhardy –
Muslims, especially well led Muslims, were bound to rally in its defence, and
Louis and Conrad’s assault had quite simply provided a focus for many which
hitherto had been lacking. This presaged a Muslim revival of “lesser jihad”
which would in years to come put increasing pressure on the Latin
Kingdoms.

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NOTES - Outremer Situation and Rise of Zengi
29 March 2023 20:40

- Circumstances in Outremer in 1130s and 1140s

○ Situation of Jerusalem
○ Count of Hugh of Jaffa
□ In 1134 Count Hugh of Jaffa started a rebellion against Fulk which
revealed internal divisions in the kingdom
□ This no doubt caused some weakness within the kingdom
○ During the 1130s Fulk brought in outsiders from France into the Jerusalem
government which caused tensions with the Crusaders which can be another
cause of the weakening of the kingdom
○ In 1143 Fulk passed away leaving Jerusalem in unstable state
□ Defence of the kingdom was left to Melisende and her young son
Baldwin who was not yet of age to take up the throne
□ Therefore, Melisende had to act as a regent
○ Situation between Antioch and Edessa
○ By the 1140s, there was great rivalry between Prince Raymond of Antioch and
Count Joscelin of Edessa
○ This was so much so that when Edessa was being sieged Raymond refused to
send aid
○ Therefore, one can see that there were divisions between Crusader States
which weakened Outremer
○ Relations to Byzantium
○ Relations between the Latin East and Byzantium had turned sour after
Raymond of Toulouse refused to give over control of Antioch to the
Byzantines
□ Although by the time of the Second Crusade Antioch had become a
vassal state of the Empire, it gave little aid
○ The Byzantines had an alliance with the Seljuk Turks and it is rumoured that
Manuel ordered the Turks to prevent the Crusaders from campaigning in
northern Syria to protect his interests

- The rise of Zengi

○ The origins of Jihad
○ Jihad is a religious duty prescribed by God and his prophet whose aim is to
enlarge the reign of the religion The Muslim faithful must devote themselves
to the Jihad just as Christendom the Mink devotes himself to God's service
○ The Jihad is a collective duty which is forced first on a besieged city of
inhabitants of the areas near enemies
○ The duty of Jihad continues until Islam has spread all over the world and must
protect Islam against aggression
○ The origins of Jihad: after the capture of Jerusalem in 1099 the first
manifestation of Jihad came from the treatise written in 1105 by al-Sulami, a
faqib, a specialist in Muslim law. Al-Sulami defined the rules of Holy war.
○ Zengi in regards to Jihad: Zengi was the first sovereign to understand what
benefits he might reap from Jihad propaganda which began in 1137 on the
occasion of an expedition against the Franks.
□ Developed by three poets of Zengi's court the themes of this
propaganda were not very original; religious antagonism between
Muslims and Franks, Muslim brotherhood and the duty of Jihad for
every faithful person.
○ Zengi's aims and motives
○ Historians disagree about Zengi's motives, however it may be that Jihad was
not the sole or even the main aim of his policy.
○ His aim was to found a kingdom stretching from Armenia in the north to
Egypt in the South.
○ Zengi was a powerful ruler, who was later able to use his power to begin a
counter-crusade against the Frank.
○ Reasons for Zengi's success
○ Reasons for Success at Edessa
□ Military Prowess:
 Managed to compel the Turks to assist the siege of Edessa
showing his value as a military tactician
 With the men of Khurasan and Aleppo Zengi ordered for the
timbers holding up the walls of Edessa to be burnt down
◊ This demonstrates his military prowess as this act allowed
for the capture of the city
□ Divisions amongst Franks:
 There was division between Prince Raymond of Antioch and Count
Josecyln of Edessa meaning that Antioch did not send forces to
protect Edessa
 Prince of Antioch refused to send aid
□ Weakness of defending forces:
 The safekeeping of the city was only entrusted to mercenaries
who did not have good motivation as they were not paid on time
 This meant that despite the effective defences in place in Edessa it
was left relatively undefended due to the lack of men
○ Achievements of Zengi
○ 1122 - Zengi became the official overseer of the Iraqi towns of Wasit and
Basra
○ 1127 - Zengi appointed a senior official at Baghdad and then posted to Mosul
as Atabeg.
□ Same year made a military truce with Joscelin of Edessa so that he could
concentrate on attacking the Ortoqid Muslims
○ 1128 - Zengi took control of Allepo after being invited by its inhabitants to
take control of teh city, this dove out the Ortoqids.

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 take control of teh city, this dove out the Ortoqids.
□ This was signficant achievement as he had achieved a degree of Muslim
unity by uniting Mosul and Allepo
○ 1130 - Zengi also acquired the city of Hamah after the capture of its ruler
○ Counter point to success: 1135 Zengi failed to secure Damascus
○ 1138 - Zengi captured the city of Homs
○ Counter points to success: 1139 Zengi failed to secure Damascus
○ 1144 - Zengi managed to capture Edessa
○ 1145 - Zengi subdued a revolt in Mosul

Similarities:
• Both sources agree on the fact that Zengi mustered up a
large army
• Both sources agree that Zengi burnt down the timbers
holding the walls of Edessa
• Both sources agree that the Muslims took the city by sword
and any survivors fled the town

Differences:
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 Differences:
• More brutality described by William of Tyre, Muslim source
would have been unlikely to describe the brutality as to not
play down their victory
• Tyre seems quick to put the blame on the Prince of Antioch
without acknowledging the fact that it was also Edessa's
fault for the fall of the city

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NOTES - Taking of Edessa
29 March 2023 21:30

- Tactics
◊ With the men of Khurasan and Aleppo Zengi ordered for the timbers holding up the
walls of Edessa to be burnt down. This caused the walls surrounding Edessa to collapse
▪ This led to the fall of the city on Christmas Eve 1444
- Finance
◊ By 1144 Edessa had fallen upon times of economic hardship
◊ This meant that they were unable to pay the mercenaries guarding the city on time
leading to there being a general lack of motivation amongst the troops
- Morale of Edessa
◊ The leader of Edessa, Count Joscelin following negotiating another treaty wit the new
Artuqid lord of Hisn Kayfa, left Edessa with a small garrison in order to spend Christmas
at Turbessel
▪ This left Edessa without its centralised true leader which meant that defence of
the city became more difficult
▪ This also led to lower morale
◊ Lack of motivation amongst mercanries who were not paid on time led to poor morale
amongst the troops guarding Edessa
- Support from Byzantium
◊ Support from Byzantium was negligible by 1144 the Byzantine Empire had virtually cut
ties with teh Frankish East due to disagreement over Antioch
▪ The Byzantine Empire desired Antioch to be re-incorporated back into the Empire
as promised during the First Crusade

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NOTES - Motives of the Second Crusade
29 March 2023 21:51

- How important was Bernard of Clairveux in the launching of the Second

Crusade?
○ Role of Bernard
• Preached at the recruitment drive in Vezelay, which was so successful
they ran out of the cloth crosses they had brought and the wooden
preaching platform had collapsed due to the receptiveness of their
preaching
• Recruited a team of preachers to spread the word of the crusade
throughout France
• Went on a 7 month preaching tour through France, Flanders and
Germany, reaching Conrad III in Frankfurt
• Convinced Conrad III's main rival Welf Vi of Bavaria to take up the cross,
which in turn convinced Conrad III
□ Due to Bernard, the two most powerful rulers in Europe had now
taken up the cross
• Bernard encouraged crusaders to help take Lisbon, Iberia and the Baltic
coast, widening the scope of the crusade
• Asbridge says that Bernard is the primary force behind the preaching of
the 2nd Crusade
○ Role of the Pope Eugenius III
• Released the papal bull known as the Quantum praedecessores
• The bull challenged people to take the cross by emphasising important
themes:
□ the suffering of the Christians in the East
□ the need to live up to the achievements of the First Crusade
□ the divine authority of Eugenius III
□ The bull also offered Crusaders remission of all sins, protection for
their families and property while they were away and exemption
from payments on loans and debts.
 How it motivated Crusaders: This would have allowed
remission of sins even if dying on expeditions which would
have been a concern for some after seeing the events of the
First Crusade
 The reassurance that their families would be taken care of
also remove some risks
□ Motivation for Crusaders: The pope set out legal protection offered
by the Church to crusading families and their property, while
interest debts owed by the crusaders was suspended as well
• This bull Eugenius III motivated many to take up arms and join the
Second Crusade.
○ Role of Rudolf
• He was an unauthorised preacher
• He reignited anti-Semitic feeling within the Rhineland which occurred
during the first crusade
• He incited anti-Semitic attacks in the Rhineland
• Had some importance in launching the Crusade, however, relativeyl
insignificant in comparison to Bernard of Clarveux and Pope Eugenius III

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Crusades Page 98
NOTES - The Course of the Second Crusade
29 March 2023 22:16

- The
○ Journey to Constantinople
▪ Conrad set off first with his German army ahead of the French through Hungary and into
the Byzantine Empire
▪ Here Conrad engaged in a series of skirmishes with the Greek troops
□ Conrad's forces only suffered minimal casualties but as they neared Constantinople a
flash of flood hit the army
□ Losses of men and equipment were substantial and this marked a severe setback in
the German effort
□ Conrad was n fairly amicable terms with the Emperor Manuel a Conrad was related
to Manuel's wife, Bertha of Sulzbach in Bavaria
□ However, Manuel was eager to usher out the German forces towards Asia Minor as
soon as possible
▪ The French contingent arrived, they were also more disciplined and smaller
□ However, a small faction of the army attempted to persuade the Crusaders to attack
the city
□ This plan was rejected as it was impractical
▪ The Crusaders were wary of Manuel due to the treaty that the Byzantines had with the
Seljuk Turks
○ Conrad's journey through Anatolia
▪ Conrad chose the post direct route across Asia Minor
▪ This was a poor decision as the harsh landscape of the semi-arid steppe of the Anatolian
plateue yielded little forage and the Germans failed to carry sufficient supplies to cope
with any delays
▪ Turkish mounted archers who harassed the crusaders and the foot soldiers took
particularly heavy casualties
▪ Within days the nobles realised the futility of their efforts and the decision was made to
turn around and try to regroup rather than risk a pointless defeat
▪ Conrad himself was wounded by arrow fire as his forces struggled back to Nicaea
▪ Many of the poor and non combatants left the army at this point
▪ Conrad joined up briefly with a socked King Louis who believed that the Germans were
enjoying great success and left back to Constantinople to covalce or the winter
○ Louis's Travels to Anatalia
▪ Odo of Deuil wrote that Louis was heading towards Antioch
▪ This coupled with evidence from a letter written from Constantinople by Conrad in late
February 1148, in which the king stated that he was awaiting re-enforcements so that he
could proceed to Edessa, seems to suggest that the crusade was originally planned to
campaign in norther Syria
▪ Because this could damage the interests of the Byzantine Empire by promoting
Antiochene independence, Manuel may have been inclined to be unhelepful to the
westerners and even encourage the Seljuk Turks to cause difficulty for the Second
Crusaders
▪ Louis progressed via Ephesus and along the Maeander valley
▪ In late December 1147, the French army scored a clear victory over the Turks and, to
emphasise God's hand in their triumph, the presence of a white-clad knight was reported

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 emphasise God's hand in their triumph, the presence of a white-clad knight was reported
▪ Military success point: The French had coped with teh usual Turkish tactics of fast attack
s and feigned retreats and then managed to deliver an effective calvary charge against
the enemy
□ This shows that the ,ain armies of the Second Crusade were not so ineffectual that
they could not, if managed properly, achieved victory
▪ On 7 January 1148, however, crossing the Cadmus mountains, the crusdare forces
became too stretched out
□ The vanguard lost contact with the remainder of the army and seeing such disorder
the Turks struck
□ Losses of men, horses and materials were substantial - breaking the strength and
spirit of Louis' s crusading army
□ The survivors regroups and belatedly acted to ensure that discipline was preserved in
future
□ The Templars were give control of the march and the crusaders organised into
confraternities - temporary associations bound together by oath - to keep a proper
structure
 This was an interesting development because it showed how seriously the
Templars were regarded only two decades after their approval as a religious
military order
 The effectiveness of this arrangement can be demonstrated by the fact that the
crusaders recorded several victories and they reached the southern coast of
Asia minor with few further losses
 Louis failure point: This shows the shortcomings of King Louis as a leader as he
relinquished control of his own army to a third party - the Templars - showing
that he did not even trust his own judgement to see the safety of his men
through
○ Louis in Antioch and post Antioch
▪ Louis arrived in Antioch in March 1148
▪ Initially he was greeted by great enthusiasm by Prince Raymond who hoped to sue hid
close ties with Queen Eleanour to persuade him to fight in northern Syria
▪ However, they fell out and Louis marched southwards
□ There was rumours that Elenour was becoming too intimate with Raymond, although
no one knows the true reason for this falling out
▪ There were other reasons for Louis deciding against campagining north
□ Louis's forces had been decimated in Asia Minor and he needed time to regroup and
tyo join up with the other crusaders who had arrived by sea
□ More significantly though, he may have felt disinclined to fight alongside the
Antiochenes, who ,since 1145 when Raymond had been obliged to travel in person
to Constaniple and sumbit to Manuel's authority, were technically subject to Greek
suzerainty
□ Louis did not want to help the Antiochenes which would beenfit their Byzantine
overlords, the very peoplewho appeared to be the cause of much of his losses in Asia
Minor
○ The Assembly at Palmarea
▪ In June 1148, a great assembly was held at Palmarea near Acre
□ Conrad, Louis, Melisende and Baldwin III, and the nobility of Jerusalem debated the
crusader's next move
□ With Raymond's non-co-operation, military activity in the north was nw unliely
□ In any case a second Muslim attack on Edessa in 1146 destroyed much f the city and
while the Franks still held some terriotry in the area it may well havebeen pointless
trying ot reconquer it
□ In the south the choice lay between Ascalon and Damscus
□ The former remained the sole port of the Levantine coast still in Muslim hands
□ The latter had been the target of earlier Frankish attacks, including the crusade of
1129
□ It was also the major Muslim power closest to Jerusalem and had recently become
hostile to the settlers after a period of truce

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 hostile to the settlers after a period of truce
□ Furthermore, an attack on Damscus would suit Louis's agenda of not helping
Raymond while still achieving something worthwhile
 The Frankish nobility would benefit rom reducing a possible threat and keeping
Jerusalem safe
 Conrad was keen - in fact Phillips asserts that he had made up his mind to attack
Damascus before the council, because this would not help Raymond to gain
Aleppo and hurt his new friend Manuel
□ The principal reason for this growing, inf uneasy rapproachement between the
Damascenes and Nur ad-Din of Aleppo; a union that the capture of Damascus would
prevent
○ The Siege of Damascus
▪ On 24 July 1148 the Christian armies reached the city
▪ After strong early progress through the dense orchards on the west and south-west of the
city, some (Franksih) sources indicate that the Christians moved to the other, weaker,
side of Damscus to try to make a breakthrough, but on finding little water they were
forced to withdraw only four days after the siege had begun
▪ Following the hopes, expense and suffering of the crusade, to fail so quickly cut deep

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NOTES - The Failure of the Second Crusade
29 March 2023 22:36

Why the Second Crusade fail:

• Failure of Conrad's initial expedition into Anatolia
○ Crossing Anatolia was an extremely difficult task, it meant leading a large army with
limited water and limited supply to cross across desert.
○ Part of the reason for the failure of the German army could have been Greek guides
leading them astray
○ Furthermore, it was theorised that Maneul may have encouraged Seljuk Turk attacks in
order to prevent the Crusaders from campaigning in northern Syria
○ Following the casualties many of the poor and non-combatants left the army which
weakened it
○ This is signficant as it shows how weakened the German forces were by the time they
reached Damascus and Acre

• Failures of Conrad's journey towards Acre

○ One theory could've been that Louis VII was an incompetent military leader.
○ Louis's army was experiencing heavy casualties due to Seljuk attacks in the Cadmus
mountains
▪ He did not have any proper strategy to deal with this and instead handed over
control of the army to the Templars
▪ This is unusual for a medieval military ruler suggesting that Louis may not have
been prepared to have led a military campaign at the time
○ Similar to Conrad this left the French forces relatively weaker by the time of the Siege
of Damscus
• Failure of the Siege of Damascus
○ Ibn al-Qalanisi, who was in Damascus at the time of the siege, claimed that the
Crusaders experienced great success in the first few days of the expedition, this is
cooberated by western sources
▪ It is documented that two important holy men from Damscus died
○ One must take into account the religios zeal of the Muslim defenders, Damscus was a
site of great religious importance to Islam and hence Damascenes were intent on its
defence
▪ Another subject to consider is that the Damascenes had appealed for help and a
steady stream of reinforcements had began to arrive
▪ Most improtantly Nur ad-Din had reached Homs (150 kilometres) north where he
was joined by troops from Mosul
▪ Muslim chroniclers such as Ibn al-Athir claim that Unir, the ruler of Damascus, told
the nobles of Jeruslaem that he would hand over the city to tehse forces unless
they retreated, he offered control of Banyas as a swetener
○ News of the approach of such fordimable relief forces meant thte crusaders needed to
try for a quick victory on the other side of the city and when this proved unfeasible, they
decided to retreat rather than face being trapped outside Damascus by the norther
Syrian armies
○ At this point hte Muslims may have handed over money t encourage the Franks to leave
and this payment was the basis for the allegations of duplicity
• General reasons for failure
○ There were clashes between different leaders as often egos did not mesh well together
○ Furthermore, it was hard to organise a united force of men who spoke different
languages, some spoke Occitane, some German dialects and others French

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NOTES - Reasons for the Failure of the Second Crusade
30 March 2023 13:19

Why the Second Crusade fail:

• Failure of Conrad's initial expedition into Anatolia
○ Crossing Anatolia was an extremely difficult task, it meant leading a large army with
limited water and limited supply to cross across desert.
○ Part of the reason for the failure of the German army could have been Greek guides
leading them astray
○ Furthermore, it was theorised that Maneul may have encouraged Seljuk Turk attacks in
order to prevent the Crusaders from campaigning in northern Syria
○ Following the casualties many of the poor and non-combatants left the army which
weakened it
○ This is signficant as it shows how weakened the German forces were by the time they
reached Damascus and Acre

• Failures of Conrad's journey towards Acre

○ One theory could've been that Louis VII was an incompetent military leader.
○ Louis's army was experiencing heavy casualties due to Seljuk attacks in the Cadmus
mountains
▪ He did not have any proper strategy to deal with this and instead handed over
control of the army to the Templars
▪ This is unusual for a medieval military ruler suggesting that Louis may not have
been prepared to have led a military campaign at the time
○ Similar to Conrad this left the French forces relatively weaker by the time of the Siege
of Damscus
• Failure of the Siege of Damascus
○ Ibn al-Qalanisi, who was in Damascus at the time of the siege, claimed that the
Crusaders experienced great success in the first few days of the expedition, this is coo
berated by western sources
▪ It is documented that two important holy men from Damscus died
○ One must take into account the religious zeal of the Muslim defenders, Damscus was a
site of great religious importance to Islam and hence Damascenes were intent on its
defence
▪ Another subject to consider is that the Damascenes had appealed for help and a
steady stream of reinforcements had began to arrive
▪ Most importantly Nur ad-Din had reached Homs (150 kilometres) north where he
was joined by troops from Mosul
▪ Muslim chroniclers such as Ibn al-Athir claim that Unir, the ruler of Damascus, told
the nobles of Jeruslaem that he would hand over the city to these forces unless
they retreated, he offered control of Banyas as a sweetener
○ News of the approach of such formidable relief forces meant the crusaders needed to
try for a quick victory on the other side of the city and when this proved unfeasible, they
decided to retreat rather than face being trapped outside Damascus by the norther
Syrian armies
○ At this point hte Muslims may have handed over money t encourage the Franks to leave
and this payment was the basis for the allegations of duplicity
• General reasons for failure
○ There were clashes between different leaders as often egos did not mesh well together
○ Furthermore, it was hard to organise a united force of men who spoke different
languages, some spoke Occitane, some German dialects and others French

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NOTES - Impact of the Failure of the Second Crusade
30 March 2023 12:11

What were the impacts of the Second Crusade?

- Impact of the Second Crusade on the Western World
○ Conrad left for Constantinople and met with his new ally, Manuel
○ He was also on good terms with teh pope
○ One of his lieutenants, Frederick of Swabia, would attempt to return to the Holy
Land some forty years later as the leader of a strong German contingent
○ Frederick Barbarossa forged his reputation on the Second Crusade
○ Despite his lack of gains on this crusade, Louis returned with this reputation intact
and it may have even increased his reputation ofr piety
○ He and Eleanor would divorce on the grounds of consanguinity in 1152
▪ The stories of Antioch still circulated but the reality was that Elenour could not
deliver Louis a boy, while she found to Louis to be unsatisfactory as a husband
▪ Eight weeks after the divorce she married Henry, Duke of Normandy who
would become King of England in 1154
▪ This naturally caused friction between the French and English monarchs
○ Bernard of Clairvaux was deeply affected by the failure of the crusade
○ He had done so much to launch it and had promised a success that never came
○ He blamed the sins of humanity and said the outcome was the judgement of God
○ His reputation barely survived
○ There was insufficient will among the leaders of Europe for an immediate response

- Impact of the Second Crusade upon Outremer

○ The failure to take Damscus led to a plan to attack Ascalon but only Conrad took this
seriously and few mustered at the agreed point
○ He left for Constantinople on 8 September 1184
○ The most significant impact of the failure of the second Crusade was the resulting
doubt about the worth of this kind of expedition
▪ The idea of a holy war was beginning to be questioned by some: there would
not be another full blown crusade until Frederick set out in 1189
▪ The Second Crusade put a stop to crusading for two generations
○ Furthermore, the relationship between Melisende and her son, Baldwin,
disintegrated into civil war
▪ Melisende was unwilling to relinquish the regency of the kingdom of
Jerusalem to Baldwin
▪ This would break out into open conflict and civil war in the early years of the
1150s
▪ They were both in attendance at the Council of Palamrea and Baldwin
certainly agreed to attack on Damscus
▪ The lack of any positive result in teh second Crusade left his kingdom without
western help
- Impact of the Second Crusade upon the Islamic world
○ The train of events put in motion by Zengi's capture of Edessa in 1144 did much to
boost the morale of the Syrian Muslims as well as firmly establish the jihad
○ Furthermore, Zengi's defeat ushered in one of Islam's greatest warriors, his son
Nureddin
○ Nureddin's rise would start after the Second Crusade as he began to draw Damascus
into his sphere of influence
○ The attack on Damascus by the crusaders and Franks placed Unur of Damscus firmly
in Nureddin's camp and while he would nto sumbit the city to him, as ruler, he
would ally himself with his co-religionist first
○ The loss of Edessa to Zengi (and by inheritance, Nureddin) signalled a shift in the
power balance in Northern Syria
▪ Edessa was a useful suffer zone for the Franks, and its loss meant that the

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 ▪ Edessa was a useful suffer zone for the Franks, and its loss meant that the
buffer zone would shift to Antioch
- Impact of the Second Crusade upon the Byzantine Empire
○ Conrad headed home having left the Byzantine emperor on good terms
○ They had agreed a mutually beneficial alliance against Roger of Sicily and both were
pleased about this
○ What would have troubled Manuel was the action of his vassal in Antioch, Raymond
▪ Raymond had tried to direct the crusade against Aleppo which would have
delivered Antioch into Manuel's hands
▪ However, Raymond had plans to use Aleppo's wealth to keep Antioch as well
▪ How much of this Manuel knew is difficult to ascertain but the failure of the
crusade to achieve anything positive would have been a blow to Byzantine
ambition just as much as it was a blow to teh crusading and Frankish standing

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3rd Crusade
Thursday, 2 March 2023 11:45 am

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NOTES - The Preaching and Preparing for the Third Crusade
Wednesday, 22 March 2023 12:59 pm

The Motives of Pope Gregory VIII

- Context
→ The Fall of Jerusalem in 1187 hastened the death of Pope Urban III, who died on hearing
the news Saladin had taken over after Hattin, paving the way for Gregory VIII
→ Although dying just 2 months later, in December 1187, he is still key to the 3rd Crusade
- Papal Bull Audita Tremendi
→ After coming into power, Gregory issues this papal bull which appeals to people using
similar themes to previous papal bulls, telling stories of Muslim atrocities in Jerusalem,
using biblical allegory to strengthen the spirit, made listeners question their existence
whilst Jerusalem wasn't in their hands and provided a guarantee for the remission of
sins
→ However, he would die two months later in Pisa, December 1187
- 2 Key Achievements before death (December 1187)
1) Healed the rift between Genoa and Pisa
▪ This is important since Genoa helped bring supplies at the start of the siege of
Jerusalem but also helped Baldwin I capture much new territory whilst Outremer
was being established, helping at Acre (1101), Arsuf (1104) and Caesarea (1101)
▪ Both Genoa and Pisa were key trading partners as well, and up until Jerusalem fell
they were financial secure due to their trading capabilities
2) Placed the papacy on good terms with the Holy Roman Empire (key ally)
▪ Gregory had a good relationship with Frederick Barbarossa, meaning that the
German Emperor and his vast resources took to the cross without hesitation,
making him the leader of the crusade
- Pope Clement III
→ He was Gregory VIII's successor, and dealt with much of the preaching and planning of
the expedition, being key to pushing Henry II of England and Phillip II of France to take
the cross

The Siege of Acre

- Context
→ Between Hattin in July 1187, and the fall of Jerusalem in October 1187 - Conrad of
Montferrat (William of Montferrat's younger brother) and his companions arrived at the
port of Tyre, providing support in Outremer
→ Saladin had not taken Tyre during his reconquest of Outremer, meaning Conrad's arrival
boosted moral and provided leadership
→ Tyre held out against Saladin's attacks since Franks fled to Tyre, allowing Conrad to
command them
- Saladin's Actions toward Guy May 1188
→ After Saladin's reconquest of Outremer ended in early 1188, Saladin chose to release
Guy de Lusignan after capturing him at Hattin back in July, on the conditions he would
leave his kingdoms and return to overseas
→ Guy interpreted this interestingly, sailing to the island of Ruad only 2 miles away from
where he was released, saying he fulfilled his oath
→ Guy was refused entry to Tyre by Conrad, causing him to muster together an army of
knights to attack Acre and gain his own kingdom
- Why Acre?
→ Guy wanted to prove his military worthiness after the loss at Hattin and Jerusalem was
largely blamed on him as he was their leader
→ Guy also needed a port on the coast to re-establish his position, allowing for trade and
resources
- Siege of Acre August 1189 - July 1191
→ The siege lasted nearly two years, costing 2,500 men in total and a victory that went to

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 → The siege lasted nearly two years, costing 2,500 men in total and a victory that went to
the Franks and Crusaders, a huge blow for Saladin
→ This crucially would not have been done without the help of the two kings when they
arrived

Preparations of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa

- Context on Frederick
→ Frederick was just 26, and Europe's most powerful ruler - He had accompanied Conrad III
on the 2nd Crusade and proved himself as capable on the battlefield
→ When Conrad died in 1152, Frederick was voted to be ruler of the HRE in favour of
Conrad's son, spending much of his reign subjugating the Italians under German rule,
gaining a fierce reputation in battle and politics - He strained relations between himself
and Urban III who refused to crown Frederick's son as co-emperor, resulting in Frederick
risking excommunication under Urban III
- Motives
→ Frederick was keen to fight in the east again but during Urban III's reign, he was
prevented from doing so due to the poor relationship with the papacy and the lack of
German/HRE influence in Outremer
→ Frederick had Italian supporters from the house of Montferrat, who would go on to
control Tyre and be crucial to the 3rd Crusade - he also had a better relationship with
Gregory VIII, giving him two crucial areas to take up the cross - Connection to those
calling the crusade and connections to those in Outremer, which previously didn't exist
- Council of Mainz 1188
→ This is where Gregory VIII convinced Frederick to take the cross, causing him to make
preparation hastily, organise supplies and finances, whilst negotiating safe passage to
Outremer
→ Frederick, at the Council of Mainz, put together a series of measures to protect Jews,
which became crucial as he went to use the Jewish community to borrow money from
→ The Archbishop of Cologne and Frederick's bitter relationship was also improved, which
was crucial due to the power of the Archbishop of Cologne
- Frederick's Reconciliations
→ Archbishop of Cologne, Philip von Heinsberg
▪ Frederick sought to be reconciled with his enemies, in particular, the Archbishop
of Cologne, and Henry the Lion (former Duke of Saxony)
▪ Archbishop of Cologne was one of Frederick's most powerful nobles and was
expanding his territory in the 1170s, threatening Frederick and by 1180 their
relationship had turned sour
▪ Archbishop of Cologne aligned himself with Pope Urban II after the breakup of the
Duchy of Saxony in 1184, and their rivalry wasn't reconciled until the Council of
Mainz 1188
▪ Impact of the reconciliation with the Archbishop of Cologne
□ Whilst Frederick was on crusade, Cologne accompanied Frederick's son
Henry in his fight to control Henry the Lion, giving 2,000 marks toward the
Crusade finances
→ Henry the Lion
▪ Henry was in a dispute with Frederick after Frederick was stripped of his titles,
deprived of land, and placed in exile
▪ This resulted in Frederick being unsure if Henry would cause trouble in his
absence - So Frederick offered three choices: restoration to some of his lands in
return for relinquishment of the rest, participate in the crusade at Frederick's
expense and then be fully restored of his lands, or enter a three-year exile - He
chose the exile and spent it with Henry II of England
→ 'Land Peace'
▪ Frederick issued this to regulate and limit feuds occurring in his absence
▪ Henry was accepted as co-emperor and would rule in his place, which meant
Frederick was keen to not leave his lands in chaos whilst on crusade
- Frederick's Diplomacy
→ Land Route to Outremer

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 → Land Route to Outremer
▪ Frederick chose the land route to Jerusalem, which needed diplomatic moves to
ensure safe passage through hostile Byzantium and Anatolia
▪ Envoys were sent to Hungary and Constantinople to secure supplies and routes
▪ Byzantium
□ Return envoys from Isaac II of Byzantium went to Germany, and
negotiations lasted from 1188-89 but nothing came of it and Byzantium
would not help for 3 reasons
1. Isaac had an existing agreement with Saladin to hinder Frederick's
progress
2. Isaac was worried Frederick would pursue land in the unstable Balkans
3. Isaac feared Frederick would attack Constantinople and take the
empire over
▪ Anatolia
□ Frederick sent envoys to the Anatolian Sultan Kilij Arslan II asking for safe
passage through Asia Minor in 1188
□ This may have failed, and they came to no existing agreement, which
resulted in Frederick fighting through Anatolia, but this could've been due to
Kilij Arslan II having loose control over Asia Minor
▪ Impact of the failed diplomacy
□ Frederick thus has to fight his way across Christian-held lands to reach
Anatolia, and once in Anatolia he had to fight further due to his failed
diplomacy with Kilij Arslan II
- Frederick's finances
→ Frederick had large incomes from his own lands and the crusaders would pick up booty
as they fought along the route
→ Bernard of Clairvaux's highly successful preaching encouraged pilgrim's and non-
combatants to join the 2nd Crusade, highly hindering it's progress - So Frederick ordered
participants who were joining to be prepared for a 2-year fighting expedition, with the
rank and file requiring 3 marks reach, and knights carrying a mark per month plus their
own equipment
→ Archbishop of Cologne also donated 2,000 marks, furthering the conditions
→ Assessment of Frederick's Preparation
▪ He was thus well financed and well planned, he did his upmost to deal with
business that would occur in his absence, and gathered around a well prepared,
well financed team of nobles and churchmen, meaning if he made it to Outremer,
the Crusade could have been highly successful

Preparations of King Phillip of France and King Richard of England

- Context
→ The Crusade of Philip and Richard is best described with conflict and mistrust
→ Richard was one of the first Western rulers to take the cross in the autumn of 1187, at
the Cathedral in Tours
→ Richard should've asked his father, Henry II, and his liege-lord Philip of France for
permission to crusade but asked neither, leaving Henry stunned but angering Philip of
France
- Why did Richard of England crusade?
→ Great-Grandfather Fulk took the cross 60 years earlier, becoming King of Jerusalem
→ Richard joined willingly, his military ability was top-notch
→ Richard also knew the kind of reputation a successful crusader earns, notably due to his
grand-father Fulk, meaning he wanted to cement his place in history
→ He also wanted the remission of sins, with the Crusade combining the ability to gain
glory and be forgiven for sins being attractive
- Why did Philip and Henry go on Crusade?
→ They were slower to go on crusade - They met in January 1188 in Gisors after Richard
took the throne
→ Archbishop of Tyre delivered a sermon at Gisors, with both Philip and Henry taking the
cross after this

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 cross after this
→ Animosity
▪ Shortly after this, the three men were in conflict
▪ Philip sided with Richard against Henry - Richard was angry that Henry would not
proclaim him as his heir, instead favouring his younger brother
▪ However, Henry II died after finding out his favourite son John had been siding
with Richard, dying at Chinon castle in July 1189 - Meant that Philip and Richard
could start preparations in peace
- Philip and Richard's finances
→ They had both introduced a tax on non-participants known as the Saladin Tithe, a 10%
tax on income and movable property (animals)
→ Richard was more zealous in this tax, even selling his offices, lordships, earldoms,
castles, towns, and land after his coronation to fund for his crusade
→ Philip couldn't thoroughly collect the tithe due to disputes and a lack of control, making
Richard the far more wealthy of the two
- Philip and Richard's Route
→ They both agreed to take the overland route, which would have the benefit (like
Frederick's stipulation to force people to carry money) of leaving poor non-combatants
behind, with the only non-combatants allowed being washerwomen of good repute
→ They both agreed to split earnings 50-50, showing the financial aspect drew them both
and like previous crusades the spiritual and financial gain was a huge pull - This led to
future trouble
- Philip and Richard's Reconciliations
→ Philip and Richard themselves made the largest reconciliation, whilst Henry was alive,
they teamed up to limit his power and take his land - However, after Henry II died, there
was no common ground for them to team up with making this harder
→ They disagreed on the betrothal of Philip's sister, Alice, to Richard - This was an issue
since Henry II negotiated this due to Alice's dowry of Vexin, France (key area between
the lands of Henry and Philip II)
→ Alice was said to have fathered a child of Henry II, making the marriage odd and
impossible - Richard also wanted his own wife
→ Richard would agree to marry Alice in 1189, pacifying Philip for the moment
- Philip and Richard's Diplomacy
→ Philip
▪ Philip settled his affairs in France by delegating power to his mother, Adela, and
his Uncle, William - This was known as Philip's Testament, and includes a provision
for the citizens of Paris to participate in their own government
▪ These met Philip's needs in his absence, although not gone for as long as Richard
▪ Another key issue, was that when Philip did return in 1191, Richard was on high
alert for any trouble his brother John, and Philip would conspire
→ Richard
▪ Richard endowed his brother John with land in England - However naïve this move
was, it shows Richard was more concerned with his Southern Lands in Gascony
▪ Richard was recently crowned king of England, which was a well-rganised
kingdom, meaning Richard believed placing his brother John in England meant he
could be watched over, limiting the damage his could do
▪ Richard organised a council to make decisions in England
→ Assessment
▪ Thus all three crusade leaders were highly prepared, with high finances, kingdoms
left in capable hands, and provisions made for troublesome nobles and relatives
that could cause harm

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NOTES - The Course of the Third Crusade
Wednesday, 22 March 2023 12:59 pm

Frederick's Crusade
- Overland to Byzantium
→ May 1189 - German Crusaders leave Regensburg, choosing the land route and reached Byzantium before July 1189 - They
had around 30,000 men - about as large as Conrad's or Louis' in the 2nd Crusade and larger than any individual
contingent in the 1st Crusade
→ Hostility
▪ He faced hostility from Isaac II of Byzantium, due to his weak position as emperor and limited hold on his
provinces - He feared he would lose his position to the Germans
▪ Frederick faced attacks from locals, who attacked the weaker members of the army rather than fighting head on,
something Isaac couldn't stop them from doing
▪ Frederick thus decided to make alliances with chief leaders in loosely held Byzantium areas, and then sent envoys
to Isaac asking for safe passage and food
→ Failed Diplomacy with Isaac II
▪ After reaching Philippopolis and sending envoys to Isaac II, he decided to imprison the envoys, resulting in more
hostility
▪ Frederick decided to take Didymotichum and sent word to his son Henry VI to organise a fleet against Byzantium
and get Clement III to get a blessing for a Greek crusade
▪ Isaac II was scared by this aggression, offering food and safe passage across the Dardanelles, in the Winter of 1189,
with Frederick crossing in March 1190
→ Disaster in Anatolia
▪ Battle for Iconium, May 1190
□ Once in Anatolia, Frederick was attacked by the Turks, which was an issue since the Germans were short of
food following there being no more Byzantium support as they had left
□ They reached Iconium, the Seljuk capital by May 1190, where battle ensued and Frederick was successful,
subduing Kilij Arslan II, whilst giving his army time to rest and negotiate supplies
▪ Christian Armenia
□ Germans pushed on to Christian Armenia, which was territory close to where Saladin controlled, who began
to bolster his power in Syria and Baghdad through recruiting more men
□ He also redeployed men from the Siege of Acre to Christian Armenia to deal with the potential threat from
Frederick
▪ River Saleph
□ Frederick drowned crossing the river Saleph, with his body found on the river bank, and preserved in hopes
of being buried in Jerusalem
□ This had a major impact, with morale plummeting and some knights choosing to just go hoe, whilst others
sailed to Tyre
□ Frederick's son, Frederick Duke of Swabia, chose to lead the remaining troops to Antioch where most would
die from plague
□ Frederick, Duke of Swabia did make it to Acre in January 1191, before dying and leaving Duke Leopold of
Austria in charge of the small remaining Germans

Leadership and Internal Rivalries

- Philip and Richard's departure to Outremer
→ Philip and Richard met at Vezelay in July 1190, with Frederick dead for a month and the Siege of Acre raging for almost a
year (August 1189)
→ They marched through France, separating at Lyon
▪ Philip headed toward Italy and Genoa, where he hired a fleet to take him to Sicily
▪ Richard went to Marseilles to await the arrival of his fleet, who were busy looting the Iberian coast - He would join
Philip in Genoa
→ Once in Genoa together, Philip fell sick and negotiated the loan of five galleys (boats), with Richard offering just three,
marking the start of internal rivalries
→ Richard went down the Italian coast, periodically going on shore until he heard news his fleet of more than 100 ships left
Marseilles for Sicily, giving him the push he needed to set sail for Messina, arriving in late September 1190
→ Philip arrived in Messina a week before, tried to leave for the Holy Land but was blown back and forced to wait
- Sicily
→ William II's role and death/crisis
▪ King William II of Sicily promised to allow Sicily to be used as a launchpad for the crusade, sending a substantial
fleet to bolster the remaining Frankish towns ahead of the main crusaders' arrival
▪ However, William II's death in November 1189 robbed the Franks of a crucial ally, leaving a succession crisis as he
had no heir - His natural successor was his aunt who married to Henry VI of Germany, and Sicily didn't want to be in
the German Empire

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 the German Empire
▪ Furthermore, Richard's sister was married to William II, but her dower wasn't paid on William's death, with Richard
insisting it should be
→ Tancred of Lecce
▪ Power ended up with Tancred of Lecce, the illegitimate cousin of William II, who released Joan from her
confinement but Richard wanted the dower paid, taking an island off the coast of Sicily and placing Joan in the
monastery there
→ Richard takes Messina
▪ Richard, alarmed at the high prices of food charged to his men and growing animosity between the Greeks,
Tancred, and Richard, decided to hold a meeting
▪ Disputes occurred outside the tents and Richard seized the opportunity, telling his men to arm themselves quickly
defeating Tancred and the Greeks, raising his standard above Messina
▪ Tancred paid the dower, and an amount was settled and paid to Richard in return for a promise to help against any
Sicilian invader
→ Impact of the scuffle at Messina
1) It shows Richard's military prowess
- Forged in France and honed on Crusade, he continued to prove his ability to win against odds in incredible
positions, like in Messina
2) Shows Rivalry between Richard and Philip
- Philip, taking no part in Messina, insisted on his share of the spoils, with a compromise, less than 50/50
amount agreed - This goes against the initial agreement
3) Richard chose this moment to inform Philip he wouldn't marry Alice
- Richard, having agreed to marry Philip's sister Alice, thus stabilising the region next to Philip's land, decided
to go against his word
- He shipped in his new bride from Navarre
→ Route's after Sicily
▪ Philip left Sicily in March 1191, going to Acre
▪ Richard left in April 1191, going to Cyprus with his bride-to-be Berengaria, and his sister Joan
- Richard in Cyprus
→ Strength
▪ The fleet leaving Sicily was counted at 219 Vessels, with around 17,000 men - Poor weather meant they split up and
in some cases arrived shipwrecked on the Cypriot coast
→ Isaac Comnenus
▪ Isaac Ducas Comnenus ruled Cyprus and since 1184 was at odds with Isaac II, meaning he did not want an invading
army on his island
▪ Isaac decided to capture the first arrivals, including Richard's sister and bride, angering him causing him to capture
Isaac once he arrived and chain him in silver
▪ Richard thus took control of Cyprus, which was good as Cyprus was strategically important, being the only perfect
springboard to the Holy Land and acted as a safe-haven for Crusaders
→ Whilst in Cyprus, Richard married Berengaria, received Guy de Lusignan, his brother Geoffrey and a contingent of the
Templars
→ Richard then sailed to Outremer, arriving in Tyre in June 1191 but was refused entry so went to Acre, where he sunk a
Muslim ship with supplies for the Garrison at Acre, arriving in on the 8th June 1191
- Conclusion of the Siege of Acre
→ Conrad de Montferrat
▪ His claim to be King of Jerusalem was growing
▪ His arrival at the Siege of Acre boosted the forces, but Phillip's arrival gave Conrad a rich and useful ally
▪ Conrad also married Sibylla's step-sister, meaning the only other rival with a claim to the throne was in Conrad's
family
▪ Sibylla then died in the winter of 1190 from plague in Acre, which meant Conrad was firmly in position to be King,
with the only thing standing in his way was Guy and his lord, Richard
→ Richard's arrival
▪ He arrived in Acre on the 8th June 1191, he arrived with siege engines and supplies for Acre
▪ The men were trying to break the walls in front of them, but getting ready for an attack from Saladin behind,
making them stretched on two fronts - An issue since after arriving Richard and Philip were bedridden with illness
→ Final stages of the Siege
▪ Once the arrival of Conrad, Philip, and Richard, the siege was clearly going the way of the Crusaders, who sought
terms with Saladin but Saladin refused to do so
▪ The Garrison at Acre though had had enough, offering the crusaders terms and surrendered to Conrad on 12th July
1191, with the banners of Jerusalem, France, and England raised above the city, with Austria's banner raised and
then removed from Richard's orders, causing Leopold to leave
→ Philip's departure
▪ Richard sailed home on 31st July 1191, illness being the main reason but he also needed to return to stake his claim
in Flanders as the Count of Flanders died in Acre
▪ Once Leopold and Philip left, Richard was essentially in charge of the Crusade but this was sort of a loss as well, as
his main European rival, Philip was headed back home

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 his main European rival, Philip was headed back home
▪ Philip promised not to attack Richard's lands whilst on crusade, whilst the Church also promised to protect lands of
Crusaders - But this wasn't kept, and Richard was frequently preoccupied with what was going on in Europe
- The Slaughter at Acre
→ Richard's Leadership
▪ After settling that Guy would keep the crown until his death, Richard had to make his first decision as Crusader
leader
▪ He had 3,000 prisoners in Acre, and under the terms of the surrender, these Muslim prisoners needed guarding and
feeding until release by Saladin in return for the Relic of the True Holy Cross
▪ Whilst there were jobs to do in Acre, such as rebuilding defences, there was sufficient manpower to guard the
prisoners - but as time went on Richard wanted to march to Jerusalem but was weighed down by 3,000 prisoners
▪ Richard thought Saladin was stalling as he no longer had the cross
→ August 1191 Council
▪ After a month of no sign of Saladin, money, Ture Cross, or Christian Prisoners in return for the Muslim prisoners,
Richard called a council and the decision was made to slaughter the prisoners in the jails of Acre, where they were
beheaded
▪ This was done so that Richard could march to Jerusalem, instead of leaving 3,000 prisoners ready to revolt and take
control of Acre
▪ Richard then marched to Jerusalem on the 22nd of August, aiming to reclaim it as his

Military Success
- Richard's Crusade
→ Strength
▪ Richard's Crusaders after leaving Acre included French, German, and Anglo-Norman men, which was supplemented
by Templars and Hospitallers
→ March to Jerusalem
▪ It was arduous as Muslims were using simple and effective tactics to wear down to the Crusaders, where horsed
archers would harass knights by firing arrows from a safe distance, hoping they would charge
▪ Once charging, the Knights would be surrounded and killed, with the Crusader's best defence being discipline which
comes from good leadership
→ Crusader Discipline
▪ They marched in good order, kept to the coast, and under Richard's instructions were escorted by ships sailing
alongside with supplies and the injured
▪ The men marched in close-knit formation, with infantry marching on the outside to protect the knights and their
horses
▪ Infantry closest to the sea rotated with those facing the enemy, allowing for respite from the arrows coming from
the Muslims
- The Battle of Arsuf
→ Saladin
▪ Saladin needed to stop the march to Jerusalem before it got too far, aiming to stop it North of Arsuf in a forest
which would keep the crusaders in the dark about what lay ahead
→ Battle
▪ Richard was surprised by Saladin but kept excellent control of his men, waiting for a chance to time a charge
against Saladin that wouldn't be fatal
▪ Crusaders had to endure was Saladin gave them until Richard saw the right opportunity
→ Charge on Saladin
▪ Two knights fell out of order and moved out of position, creating a chain reaction where men started to charge
▪ Richard decided to go with it, instructing all to charge with full power, scattering Saladin's forces
▪ Richard was in the thick of the fighting, with his leadership and personal bravery inspiring victory
→ Impact of the Battle of Arsuf
▪ Saladin now suffered two defeats at the hands of Richard, and his image crumbled, allowing the Crusaders to reach
Jaffa in just three days, placing them 40 miles East of Jerusalem
- Jaffa to Jerusalem
→ Breakdown in Richard's Leadership
▪ An attack on Ascalon, which would've paved the way to Egypt made sense, Richard and the Military Orders knew
this
▪ However, the main forces didn't understand or care for this, wanting to go straight for Jerusalem, forcing Richard to
succumb to their demands
→ Lack of Western Aid
▪ Richard sent letters to the West asking for money and men, as well as trying to negotiate Genoa and Pisa to send
both their fleets if Egypt becomes a target - All in an attempt to strengthen his position
▪ However, Conrad was becoming an issue to Richard, as Conrad was strengthening his position in Tyre through a
treaty with Saladin - Richard thought Conrad and Saladin would thus attack Acre
▪ Richard then opened up negotiations with Saladin's brother, il-Adil
→ Failed negotiations with Saladin, Autumn 1191
▪ Negotiations between Richard and Al-Adil showed another side to the crusading king

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 ▪ Negotiations between Richard and Al-Adil showed another side to the crusading king
▪ Since Saladin could not accept a negotiated loss of Jerusalem before the Franks make a military attempt, Richard
decided to offer his sister's hand in marriage to al-Adil, suggesting him and Richard become co-rulers
▪ However, Saladin saw this as stalling, and used it to gather his men and supplies for an attack
▪ Saladin nevertheless agreed, on the condition al-Adil remained Muslim, and Joan would convert, which Richard
objected to and thus began to move supplies to Ramla for an attack
→ Focus on Jerusalem, December/January 1191/2
▪ Despite horrible weather in November and December which caused food to rot and armour to rust, crusader spirits
were high as they were entirely focused on Jerusalem
▪ By January, troops moved to Beit Nuba, 12 miles from Jerusalem
→ Military Order's Influence
▪ By the 6th of January, Richard was persuaded by the Military Orders that an attack would be foolish as his army
would come under attack from the defenders as well as by a relieving Saladin army (similar to Antioch in the 1st
Crusade and Acre a few months before)
▪ Richard took their advice and returned to Ramla by 13th January
▪ No attempt was made to take Jerusalem, reducing the morale
▪ The French, led by Hugh of Burgundy, went to Acre and Tyre
▪ Richard went to Ascalon and reached the destroyed city by 21st January 1192
- Jerusalem to Jaffa
→ Mounting problems for Richard, March 1192
▪ John, his brother, was making trouble in England and Conrad was attacking Guy, so Richard had no French Army.
▪ Richard left for Acre to mediate between the factions of Genoa/Conrad and Pisa/Guy, resulting in Conrad fleeing
but the French didn't return to Richard, so Richard had to negotiate with al-Adil again
→ Council on who would rule Jerusalem
▪ Despite this issue being 'solved' before Philip left, with Guy holding it until his death before Conrad takes over,
Richard help another council to settle this forever, as a result of the Guy v Conrad dispute in March at Acre
▪ The Council chose Conrad since Guy had no respect from local Barons - Richard took the council's decisions and
instead offered Guy the island of Cyprus (which was initially sold to Templars but they didn't pay him)
→ Death of Conrad
▪ The crown couldn't fall on Conrad's head anyway since he was attacked by assassins and murdered, with Richard
being heavily implicated, meaning he wanted to dispose of Conrad to settle the dispute and take Jerusalem for
himself
▪ Phillip, who was Conrad's ally, heard of these rumours, breaking his promise of not attacking and thus began to
create conflict in France against Richard's lands
→ Issues with Phillip, May 1192
▪ After Guy moved to Cyprus, Richard was informed that Philip and John were conspiring against him, forcing him to
withdraw to Ascalon to consider the next move
▪ He decided to advance upon Jerusalem again
→ Move to Jerusalem June 1192
▪ Richard began to march to Jerusalem from Ascalon in May 1192
▪ By June 6th, he reached Blanchegarde castle - By June 9th, Latrun
▪ He called another Council to decide the next move, with representatives of the Templars, Hospitallers, French, and
his own forces, they decided Egypt was the right target (again) - All except the French were in agreement with this
decision
→ Egyptian Relief Army
▪ Richard then learnt that an Egyptian army was moving North toward his position to help Saladin and protect their
own position due to Richard's strength
▪ Richard marched at night, catching them by surprise and decimating them, gaining much booty and dispersing a key
relief force
▪ This meant Saladin had no reinforcements, but meant the Crusaders had to choose: Go to Egypt for an easy victory,
or Jerusalem to fight Saladin who had no relief forces apart from his own army
→ Frankish Indecision July 1192
▪ Saladin's advisors were worried at Richard's strength, advising him to leave the city on the 3rd of July, but they
didn't need to worry as the crusader camp was indecisive
▪ Richard wanted to go to Egypt, which was militarily most sensible
▪ However, once again, the rank and file wanted to fulfil their vows and capture Jerusalem, forcing Richard to
promise a move to Jerusalem
▪ However, once again, Richard withdrew after getting close, leaving the French furious and thus deserted, leaving
Richard without men and in negotiations with al-Adil again
→ Ascalon
▪ Both Saladin and Richard were exhausted and sick, wanting a conclusion
▪ The only issue was Ascalon, which Saladin destroyed, and Richard rebuilt - But it's location was vital to Egypt's
security, which meant as long as Ascalon could be in Frankish hands, Saladin couldn't submit
▪ Richard thus went to Acre, possibly wanting to strike Saladin in the North but was countered by Saladin with a
lightening attack on Jaffa, hoping to regain the port and split Christian held lands whilst restoring his prestige
→ Battle for Jaffa July 1192

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→ Battle for Jaffa July 1192
▪ Initial attack and capture 28th-31st July
- Attack began on the 28th of July, and Saladin captured it on the 31st, except for the citadel which held out in
the hopes of reinforcements
- Richard left Acre by sea with Pisans and Genoese, whilst Henry VII took the land route with Templars and
Hospitallers, but was held up at Caesarea
▪ Richard and Henry's reinforcements 1st August
- Richard arrived during the night of 31st-1st of July/August 1191
- Saladin wasn't worried as he had enough men on the beach to prevent the landing and his men filled the city,
about to take the citadel
- Richard thought the Citadel was lost, but once he learnt it wasn't, he removed his armour and waded ashore
with his men
- A crossbow assault cleared room for the men on the beach, fighting the Muslims with Richard in the thick of
it, retaking the town as Saladin's men were looting and not prepared for an attack
▪ Saladin's Counter-attack 4th August
- Saladin knew he had more men than Richard, so he counter-attacked
- Richard drew his men in formation, with his few knights and archers protected by thin rows of infantry who
used spears to stop Saladin's horses from charging
- As the horses returned, Saladin's charging men were left vulnerable and shot at by Richard's archers, causing
panic and Saladin lost control of his men, saving Jaffa
▪ Post-Battle negotiations
- Richard fell ill and opened negotiations with Saladin, who no longer commanded his army who left to return
to their home lands
- Thus, Richard and Saladin just wanted to go home, since Saladin had no army and Richard knew John and
Philip were plotting against him
▪ 1st September 1192, Truce
- Christians and Muslims enjoyed free passage through each other's lands, Ascalon was to be destroyed, and
there were trading provisions for access to markets and revenues
- Jerusalem was opened to Christian pilgrims (technically succeeding?)
→ Conclusion
▪ Richard left Acre on 9th October 1192
▪ He failed to recapture Jerusalem but challenged Saladin's power and won back ports to allow for Outremer to
survive

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TABLE - Why was the preaching of the 3rd Crusade met with
enthusiasm
Saturday, 15 April 2023 7:41 pm

Factor Examples
The Fall of Jerusalem The Motives of Pope Gregory VIII
- Context
→ The Fall of Jerusalem in 1187 hastened the death of Pope Urban III, who
died on hearing the news Saladin had taken over after Hattin, paving the
way for Gregory VIII
→ Although dying just 2 months later, in December 1187, he is still key to the
3rd Crusade
- Papal Bull Audita Tremendi
→ After coming into power, Gregory issues this papal bull which appeals to
people using similar themes to previous papal bulls, telling stories of
Muslim atrocities in Jerusalem, using biblical allegory to strengthen the
spirit, made listeners question their existence whilst Jerusalem wasn't in
their hands and provided a guarantee for the remission of sins
→ However, he would die two months later in Pisa, December 1187
Issuing of the Papal Bull Papal Bull Audita Tremendi
→ After coming into power, Gregory issues this papal bull which appeals to people
using similar themes to previous papal bulls, telling stories of Muslim atrocities in
Jerusalem, using biblical allegory to strengthen the spirit, made listeners
question their existence whilst Jerusalem wasn't in their hands and provided a
guarantee for the remission of sins

Council of Mainz 1188

→ This is where Gregory VIII convinced Frederick to take the cross, causing him to
make preparation hastily, organise supplies and finances, whilst negotiating safe
passage to Outremer
→ Frederick, at the Council of Mainz, put together a series of measures to protect
Jews, which became crucial as he went to use the Jewish community to borrow
money from
→ The Archbishop of Cologne and Frederick's bitter relationship was also improved,
which was crucial due to the power of the Archbishop of Cologne
Use of Local Churchmen
Propaganda Papal Bull Audita Tremendi
→ After coming into power, Gregory issues this papal bull which appeals to people
using similar themes to previous papal bulls, telling stories of Muslim atrocities in
Jerusalem, using biblical allegory to strengthen the spirit, made listeners
question their existence whilst Jerusalem wasn't in their hands and provided a
guarantee for the remission of sins
Support of the 2 Key Achievements before Gregory VIII's death(December 1187)
Monarchs 1) Healed the rift between Genoa and Pisa
▪ This is important since Genoa helped bring supplies at the start of the siege
of Jerusalem but also helped Baldwin I capture much new territory whilst
Outremer was being established, helping at Acre (1101), Arsuf (1104) and
Caesarea (1101)
▪ Both Genoa and Pisa were key trading partners as well, and up until
Jerusalem fell they were financial secure due to their trading capabilities
2) Placed the papacy on good terms with the Holy Roman Empire (key ally)

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 2) Placed the papacy on good terms with the Holy Roman Empire (key ally)
▪ Gregory had a good relationship with Frederick Barbarossa, meaning that
the German Emperor and his vast resources took to the cross without
hesitation, making him the leader of the crusade

Pope Clement III

→ He was Gregory VIII's successor, and dealt with much of the preaching and
planning of the expedition, being key to pushing Henry II of England and Phillip II
of France to take the cross

Stories from Returning Why did Richard of England crusade?

Crusaders → Great-Grandfather Fulk took the cross 60 years earlier, becoming King of
Jerusalem
→ Richard joined willingly, his military ability was top-notch
→ Richard also knew the kind of reputation a successful crusader earns, notably
due to his grand-father Fulk, meaning he wanted to cement his place in history
→ He also wanted the remission of sins, with the Crusade combining the ability to
gain glory and be forgiven for sins being attractive

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TABLE - How important were individuals in the outcome of
the 3rd Crusade
Saturday, 15 April 2023 7:41 pm

Leader Examples For Examples Against

Frederick Council of Mainz 1188 (Diplomacy and Finance) Land Route to Outremer
Barbarossa → This is where Gregory VIII convinced Frederick to take the cross, causing him to make preparation hastily, organise supplies and ▪ Frederick chose the land route to Jerusalem, which needed diplomatic moves to ensure safe passage through hostile Byzantium and Anatolia
finances, whilst negotiating safe passage to Outremer ▪ Envoys were sent to Hungary and Constantinople to secure supplies and routes
→ Frederick, at the Council of Mainz, put together a series of measures to protect Jews, which became crucial as he went to use the ▪ Byzantium
Jewish community to borrow money from □ Return envoys from Isaac II of Byzantium went to Germany, and negotiations lasted from 1188-89 but nothing came of it and Byzantium
→ The Archbishop of Cologne and Frederick's bitter relationship was also improved, which was crucial due to the power of the would not help for 3 reasons
Archbishop of Cologne 1. Isaac had an existing agreement with Saladin to hinder Frederick's progress
2. Isaac was worried Frederick would pursue land in the unstable Balkans
Large Fighting Force 3. Isaac feared Frederick would attack Constantinople and take the empire over
→ May 1189 - German Crusaders leave Regensburg, choosing the land route and reached Byzantium before July 1189 - They had ▪ Anatolia
around 30,000 men - about as large as Conrad's or Louis' in the 2nd Crusade and larger than any individual contingent in the 1st □ Frederick sent envoys to the Anatolian Sultan Kilij Arslan II asking for safe passage through Asia Minor in 1188
Crusade □ This may have failed, and they came to no existing agreement, which resulted in Frederick fighting through Anatolia, but this could've been
due to Kilij Arslan II having loose control over Asia Minor
▪ Impact of the failed diplomacy
Provided Key Finance □ Frederick thus has to fight his way across Christian-held lands to reach Anatolia, and once in Anatolia he had to fight further due to his failed
Frederick's Reconciliations (Finance) diplomacy with Kilij Arslan II
→ Frederick had large incomes from his own lands and the crusaders would pick up booty as they fought along the route
→ Only Allowed Well-Trained Men - Bernard of Clairvaux's highly successful preaching encouraged pilgrim's and non -combatants Disaster in Anatolia June 1190
to join the 2nd Crusade, highly hindering it's progress - So Frederick ordered participants who were joining to be prepared for a ▪ River Saleph
2-year fighting expedition, with the rank and file requiring 3 marks reach, and knights carrying a mark per month plus their ow n □ Frederick drowned crossing the river Saleph, with his body found on the river bank, and preserved in hopes of being buried in Jerusalem
equipment □ This had a major impact, with morale plummeting and some knights choosing to just go hoe, whilst others sailed to Tyre
→ Reconciliation with Cologne due to Council of Mainz 1188 - Archbishop of Cologne also donated 2,000 marks, furthering the □ Frederick's son, Frederick Duke of Swabia, chose to lead the remaining troops to Antioch where most would die from plague
conditions □ Frederick, Duke of Swabia did make it to Acre in January 1191, before dying and leaving Duke Leopold of Austria in charge of the small
remaining Germans
Neutralising Kilij Arslan
▪ Battle for Iconium, May 1190
□ Once in Anatolia, Frederick was attacked by the Turks, which was an issue since the Germans were short of food following
there being no more Byzantium support as they had left
□ They reached Iconium, the Seljuk capital by May 1190, where battle ensued and Frederick was successful, subduing Kilij Arslan
II, whilst giving his army time to rest and negotiate supplies
▪ Christian Armenia
□ Germans pushed on to Christian Armenia, which was territory close to where Saladin controlled, who began to bolster his
power in Syria and Baghdad through recruiting more men
□ He also redeployed men from the Siege of Acre to Christian Armenia to deal with the potential threat from Frederick

Conclusion of the Siege of Acre

→ Richard's arrival
▪ He arrived in Acre on the 8th June 1191, he arrived with siege engines and supplies for Acre
▪ The men were trying to break the walls in front of them, but getting ready for an attack from Saladin behind, making them
stretched on two fronts - An issue since after arriving Richard and Philip were bedridden with illness
→ Final stages of the Siege
▪ Once the arrival of Conrad, Philip, and Richard, the siege was clearly going the way of the Crusaders, who sought terms with
Saladin but Saladin refused to do so
▪ The Garrison at Acre though had had enough, offering the crusaders terms and surrendered to Conrad on 12th July 1191, with
the banners of Jerusalem, France, and England raised above the city, with Austria's banner raised and then removed from
Richard's orders, causing Leopold to leave

Philip Augustus of Siege of Acre August 1189 - July 1191
France → The siege lasted nearly two years, costing 2,500 men in total and a victory that went to the Franks and Crusaders, a huge blow for
Saladin
→ This crucially would not have been done without the help of the two kings when they arrived
Philip and Richard's Route
→ They both agreed to take the overland route, which would have the benefit (like Frederick's stipulation to force people to carry
money) of leaving poor non-combatants behind, with the only non-combatants allowed being washerwomen of good repute
→ They both agreed to split earnings 50-50, showing the financial aspect drew them both and like previous crusades the spiritual and
financial gain was a huge pull - This led to future trouble
Philip and Richard's finances
→ They had both introduced a tax on non-participants known as the Saladin Tithe, a 10% tax on income and movable property (animals)
→ Philip couldn't thoroughly collect the tithe due to disputes and a lack of control, making Richard the far more wealthy of the two
Philip's Return
▪ Another key issue, was that when Philip did return in 1191, Richard was on high alert for any trouble his brother John, and Philip would conspire
▪ Philip's departure
▪ Richard sailed home on 31st July 1191, illness being the main reason but he also needed to return to stake his claim in Flanders as the Count
of Flanders died in Acre
▪ Once Leopold and Philip left, Richard was essentially in charge of the Crusade but this was sort of a loss as well, as his main European rival,
Philip was headed back home
▪ Philip promised not to attack Richard's lands whilst on crusade, whilst the Church also promised to protect lands of Crusaders - But this
wasn't kept, and Richard was frequently preoccupied with what was going on in Europe

Richard I Siege of Acre August 1189 - July 1191 Conclusion of the Siege of Acre
→ The siege lasted nearly two years, costing 2,500 men in total and a victory that went to the Franks and Crusaders, a huge blow for → Final stages of the Siege
Saladin ▪ The Garrison at Acre though had had enough, offering the crusaders terms and surrendered to Conrad on 12th July 1191, with the banners of
→ This crucially would not have been done without the help of the two kings when they arrived Jerusalem, France, and England raised above the city, with Austria's banner raised and then removed from Richard's orders, causing Leopold
→ He arrived in Acre on the 8th June 1191, he arrived with siege engines and supplies for Acre to leave
→ The men were trying to break the walls in front of them, but getting ready for an attack from Saladin behind, making them stretched
on two fronts - An issue since after arriving Richard and Philip were bedridden with illness Jaffa to Jerusalem
Final stages of the Siege → Breakdown in Richard's Leadership
→ Once the arrival of Conrad, Philip, and Richard, the siege was clearly going the way of the Crusaders, who sought terms with Saladin ▪ An attack on Ascalon, which would've paved the way to Egypt made sense, Richard and the Military Orders knew this
but Saladin refused to do so ▪ However, the main forces didn't understand or care for this, wanting to go straight for Jerusalem, forcing Richard to succumb to their
→ The Garrison at Acre though had had enough, offering the crusaders terms and surrendered to Conrad on 12th July 1191, with the demands
banners of Jerusalem, France, and England raised above the city, with Austria's banner raised and then removed from Richard's → Lack of Western Aid
orders, causing Leopold to leave ▪ Richard sent letters to the West asking for money and men, as well as trying to negotiate Genoa and Pisa to send both their fleets if Egypt
becomes a target - All in an attempt to strengthen his position
▪ However, Conrad was becoming an issue to Richard, as Conrad was strengthening his position in Tyre through a treaty with Saladin - Richard
Philip and Richard's finances thought Conrad and Saladin would thus attack Acre
→ Both Richard and Philip introduced a tax on non-participants known as the Saladin Tithe, a 10% tax on income and movable property ▪ Richard then opened up negotiations with Saladin's brother, il-Adil
(animals) → Failed negotiations with Saladin, Autumn 1191
→ Richard was more zealous in this tax, even selling his offices, lordships, earldoms, castles, towns, and land after his coronation to ▪ Negotiations between Richard and Al-Adil showed another side to the crusading king
fund for his crusade ▪ Since Saladin could not accept a negotiated loss of Jerusalem before the Franks make a military attempt, Richard decided to offer his sister's
hand in marriage to al-Adil, suggesting him and Richard become co-rulers
Philip and Richard's Route ▪ However, Saladin saw this as stalling, and used it to gather his men and supplies for an attack
→ They both agreed to take the overland route, which would have the benefit (like Frederick's stipulation to force people to carry ▪ Saladin nevertheless agreed, on the condition al-Adil remained Muslim, and Joan would convert, which Richard objected to and thus began to
money) of leaving poor non-combatants behind, with the only non-combatants allowed being washerwomen of good repute move supplies to Ramla for an attack
→ They both agreed to split earnings 50-50, showing the financial aspect drew them both and like previous crusades the spiritual and → Focus on Jerusalem, December/January 1191/2
financial gain was a huge pull - This led to future trouble ▪ Despite horrible weather in November and December which caused food to rot and armour to rust, crusader spirits were high as they were
entirely focused on Jerusalem
Philip and Richard's Reconciliations ▪ By January, troops moved to Beit Nuba, 12 miles from Jerusalem
→ Philip and Richard themselves made the largest reconciliation, whilst Henry was alive, they teamed up to limit his power and take his → Military Order's Influence
land - However, after Henry II died, there was no common ground for them to team up with making this harder ▪ By the 6th of January, Richard was persuaded by the Military Orders that an attack would be foolish as his army would come under attack
→ They disagreed on the betrothal of Philip's sister, Alice, to Richard - This was an issue since Henry II negotiated this due to Alice's from the defenders as well as by a relieving Saladin army (similar to Antioch in the 1st Crusade and Acre a few months before)
dowry of Vexin, France (key area between the lands of Henry and Philip II) ▪ Richard took their advice and returned to Ramla by 13th January
→ Alice was said to have fathered a child of Henry II, making the marriage odd and impossible - Richard also wanted his own wife ▪ No attempt was made to take Jerusalem, reducing the morale
→ Richard would agree to marry Alice in 1189, pacifying Philip for the moment ▪ The French, led by Hugh of Burgundy, went to Acre and Tyre
▪ Richard went to Ascalon and reached the destroyed city by 21st January 1192
Richard in Sicily
→ Richard takes Messina Mounting problems for Richard, March 1192
▪ Richard, alarmed at the high prices of food charged to his men and growing animosity between the Greeks, Tancred, and ▪ John, his brother, was making trouble in England and Conrad was attacking Guy, so Richard had no French Army.
Richard, decided to hold a meeting ▪ Richard left for Acre to mediate between the factions of Genoa/Conrad and Pisa/Guy, resulting in Conrad fleeing but the French didn't return to
▪ Disputes occurred outside the tents and Richard seized the opportunity, telling his men to arm themselves quickly defeating Richard, so Richard had to negotiate with al-Adil again
Tancred and the Greeks, raising his standard above Messina Council on who would rule Jerusalem
▪ Tancred paid the dower, and an amount was settled and paid to Richard in return for a promise to help against any Sicilian ▪ Despite this issue being 'solved' before Philip left, with Guy holding it until his death before Conrad takes over, Richard help another council to
invader settle this forever, as a result of the Guy v Conrad dispute in March at Acre
→ Impact of the scuffle at Messina ▪ The Council chose Conrad since Guy had no respect from local Barons - Richard took the council's decisions and instead offered Guy the island of
1) It shows Richard's military prowess Cyprus (which was initially sold to Templars but they didn't pay him)
- Forged in France and honed on Crusade, he continued to prove his ability to win against odds in incredible positions, like Death of Conrad
in Messina ▪ The crown couldn't fall on Conrad's head anyway since he was attacked by assassins and murdered, with Richard being heavily implicated, meaning
2) Shows Rivalry between Richard and Philip he wanted to dispose of Conrad to settle the dispute and take Jerusalem for himself
- Philip, taking no part in Messina, insisted on his share of the spoils, with a compromise, less than 50/50 amount agreed - ▪ Phillip, who was Conrad's ally, heard of these rumours, breaking his promise of not attacking and thus began to create conflict in France against
This goes against the initial agreement Richard's lands
3) Richard chose this moment to inform Philip he wouldn't marry Alice Issues with Phillip, May 1192
- Richard, having agreed to marry Philip's sister Alice, thus stabilising the region next to Philip's land, decided to go against ▪ After Guy moved to Cyprus, Richard was informed that Philip and John were conspiring against him, forcing him to withdraw to Ascalon to consider
his word the next move
- He shipped in his new bride from Navarre ▪ He decided to advance upon Jerusalem again

Richard in Cyprus Frankish Indecision July 1192

→ Strength ▪ Saladin's advisors were worried at Richard's strength, advising him to leave the city on the 3rd of July, but they didn't need to worry as the crusader
▪ The fleet leaving Sicily was counted at 219 Vessels, with around 17,000 men - Poor weather meant they split up and in some camp was indecisive
cases arrived shipwrecked on the Cypriot coast ▪ Richard wanted to go to Egypt, which was militarily most sensible
→ Isaac Comnenus ▪ However, once again, the rank and file wanted to fulfil their vows and capture Jerusalem, forcing Richard to promise a move to Jerusalem
▪ Isaac Ducas Comnenus ruled Cyprus and since 1184 was at odds with Isaac II, meaning he did not want an invading army on his ▪ However, once again, Richard withdrew after getting close, leaving the French furious and thus deserted, leaving Richard without men and in
island negotiations with al-Adil again
▪ Isaac decided to capture the first arrivals, including Richard's sister and bride, angering him causing him to capture Isaac once Ascalon
he arrived and chain him in silver ▪ Both Saladin and Richard were exhausted and sick, wanting a conclusion
▪ Richard thus took control of Cyprus, which was good as Cyprus was strategically important, being the only perfect springboard ▪ The only issue was Ascalon, which Saladin destroyed, and Richard rebuilt - But it's location was vital to Egypt's security, which meant as long as
to the Holy Land and acted as a safe -haven for Crusaders Ascalon could be in Frankish hands, Saladin couldn't submit
→ Richard then sailed to Outremer, arriving in Tyre in June 1191 but was refused entry so went to Acre, where he sunk a Muslim ship ▪ Richard thus went to Acre, possibly wanting to strike Saladin in the North but was countered by Saladin with a lightening attack on Jaffa, hoping to
with supplies for the Garrison at Acre, arriving in on the 8th June 1191 regain the port and split Christian held lands whilst restoring his prestige

Crusades Page 118

 The Slaughter at Acre
→ Richard's Leadership
▪ After settling that Guy would keep the crown until his death, Richard had to make his first decision as Crusader leader
▪ He had 3,000 prisoners in Acre, and under the terms of the surrender, these Muslim prisoners needed guarding and feeding
until release by Saladin in return for the Relic of the True Holy Cross
▪ Whilst there were jobs to do in Acre, such as rebuilding defences, there was sufficient manpower to guard the prisoners - but
as time went on Richard wanted to march to Jerusalem but was weighed down by 3,000 prisoners
▪ Richard thought Saladin was stalling as he no longer had the cross
→ August 1191 Council
▪ After a month of no sign of Saladin, money, Ture Cross, or Christian Prisoners in return for the Muslim prisoners, Richard ca lled
a council and the decision was made to slaughter the prisoners in the jails of Acre, where they were beheaded
▪ This was done so that Richard could march to Jerusalem, instead of leaving 3,000 prisoners ready to revolt and take control o f
Acre
▪ Richard then marched to Jerusalem on the 22nd of August, aiming to reclaim it as his

Richard's Crusade Post Acre

→ Strength
▪ Richard's Crusaders after leaving Acre included French, German, and Anglo -Norman men, which was supplemented by
Templars and Hospitallers
→ March to Jerusalem
▪ It was arduous as Muslims were using simple and effective tactics to wear down to the Crusaders, where horsed archers would
harass knights by firing arrows from a safe distance, hoping they would charge
▪ Once charging, the Knights would be surrounded and killed, with the Crusader's best defence being discipline which comes
from good leadership
→ Crusader Discipline
▪ They marched in good order, kept to the coast, and under Richard's instructions were escorted by ships sailing alongside with
supplies and the injured
▪ The men marched in close -knit formation, with infantry marching on the outside to protect the knights and their horses
▪ Infantry closest to the sea rotated with those facing the enemy, allowing for respite from the arrows coming from the Muslims

The Battle of Arsuf September 1191

→ Saladin
▪ Saladin needed to stop the march to Jerusalem before it got too far, aiming to stop it North of Arsuf in a forest which would
keep the crusaders in the dark about what lay ahead
→ Battle
▪ Richard was surprised by Saladin but kept excellent control of his men, waiting for a chance to time a charge against Saladin
that wouldn't be fatal
▪ Crusaders had to endure was Saladin gave them until Richard saw the right opportunity
→ Charge on Saladin
▪ Two knights fell out of order and moved out of position, creating a chain reaction where men started to charge
▪ Richard decided to go with it, instructing all to charge with full power, scattering Saladin's forces
▪ Richard was in the thick of the fighting, with his leadership and personal bravery inspiring victory
→ Impact of the Battle of Arsuf
▪ Saladin now suffered two defeats at the hands of Richard, and his image crumbled, allowing the Crusaders to reach Jaffa in ju st
three days, placing them 40 miles East of Jerusalem

Post Battle of Arsuf

→ Focus on Jerusalem, December/January 1191/2
▪ Despite horrible weather in November and December which caused food to rot and armour to rust, crusader spirits were high
as they were entirely focused on Jerusalem
▪ By January, troops moved to Beit Nuba, 12 miles from Jerusalem
→ Military Order's Influence
▪ By the 6th of January, Richard was persuaded by the Military Orders that an attack would be foolish as his army would come
under attack from the defenders as well as by a relieving Saladin army (similar to Antioch in the 1st Crusade and Acre a few
months before)
▪ Richard took their advice and returned to Ramla by 13th January
▪ No attempt was made to take Jerusalem, reducing the morale
▪ The French, led by Hugh of Burgundy, went to Acre and Tyre
▪ Richard went to Ascalon and reached the destroyed city by 21st January 1192

Move to Jerusalem June 1192

▪ Richard began to march to Jerusalem from Ascalon in May 1192
▪ By June 6th, he reached Blanchegarde castle - By June 9th, Latrun
▪ He called another Council to decide the next move, with representatives of the Templars, Hospitallers, French, and his own forces,
they decided Egypt was the right target (again) - All except the French were in agreement with this decision

Egyptian Relief Army July 1192

▪ Richard then learnt that an Egyptian army was moving North toward his position to help Saladin and protect their own position due
to Richard's strength
▪ Richard marched at night, catching them by surprise and decimating them, gaining much booty and dispersing a key relief force
▪ This meant Saladin had no reinforcements, but meant the Crusaders had to choose: Go to Egypt for an easy victory, or Jerusalem to
fight Saladin who had no relief forces apart from his own army

Frankish Indecision July 1192

▪ Saladin's advisors were worried at Richard's strength, advising him to leave the city on the 3rd of July, but they didn't need to worry
as the crusader camp was indecisive
▪ Richard wanted to go to Egypt, which was militarily most sensible
▪ However, once again, the rank and file wanted to fulfil their vows and capture Jerusalem, forcing Richard to promise a move to
Jerusalem
▪ However, once again, Richard withdrew after getting close, leaving the French furious and thus deserted, leaving Richard without
men and in negotiations with al-Adil again

Battle for Jaffa July 1192

▪ Initial attack and capture 28th-31st July
- Attack began on the 28th of July, and Saladin captured it on the 31st, except for the citadel which held out in the hopes of
reinforcements
- Richard left Acre by sea with Pisans and Genoese, whilst Henry VII took the land route with Templars and Hospitallers, but wa s
held up at Caesarea
▪ Richard and Henry's reinforcements 1st August
- Richard arrived during the night of 31st -1st of July/August 1191
- Saladin wasn't worried as he had enough men on the beach to prevent the landing and his men filled the city, about to take th e
citadel
- Richard thought the Citadel was lost, but once he learnt it wasn't, he removed his armour and waded ashore with his men
- A crossbow assault cleared room for the men on the beach, fighting the Muslims with Richard in the thick of it, retaking the
town as Saladin's men were looting and not prepared for an attack
▪ Saladin's Counter-attack 4th August
- Saladin knew he had more men than Richard, so he counter -attacked
- Richard drew his men in formation, with his few knights and archers protected by thin rows of infantry who used spears to sto p
Saladin's horses from charging
- As the horses returned, Saladin's charging men were left vulnerable and shot at by Richard's archers, causing panic and Salad in
lost control of his men, saving Jaffa
▪ Post-Battle negotiations
- Richard fell ill and opened negotiations with Saladin, who no longer commanded his army who left to return to their home
lands
- Thus, Richard and Saladin just wanted to go home, since Saladin had no army and Richard knew John and Philip were plotting
against him
▪ 1st September 1192, Truce
- Christians and Muslims enjoyed free passage through each other's lands, Ascalon was to be destroyed, and there were trading
provisions for access to markets and revenues
- Jerusalem was opened to Christian pilgrims (technically succeeding?)
Conclusion
▪ Richard left Acre on 9th October 1192
▪ He failed to recapture Jerusalem but challenged Saladin's power and won back ports to allow for Outremer to survive

Saladin Philip and Richard's finances (Saladin Created a Zeal to go on Crusade) Siege of Acre August 1189 - July 1191
→ Both Richard and Philip introduced a tax on non-participants known as the Saladin Tithe, a 10% tax on income and movable property → The siege lasted nearly two years, costing 2,500 men in total and a victory that went to the Franks and Crusaders, a huge blow for Saladin
(animals) → This crucially would not have been done without the help of the two kings when they arrived
→ Richard was more zealous in this tax, even selling his offices, lordships, earldoms, castles, towns, and land after his coronation to
fund for his crusade The Battle of Arsuf September 1191
→ Philip couldn't thoroughly collect the tithe due to disputes and a lack of control, making Richard the far more wealthy of the two → Saladin
▪ Saladin needed to stop the march to Jerusalem before it got too far, aiming to stop it North of Arsuf in a forest which would keep the
Failed negotiations with Saladin, Autumn 1191 crusaders in the dark about what lay ahead
▪ Negotiations between Richard and Al-Adil showed another side to the crusading king → Battle
▪ Since Saladin could not accept a negotiated loss of Jerusalem before the Franks make a military attempt, Richard decided to offer his ▪ Richard was surprised by Saladin but kept excellent control of his men, waiting for a chance to time a charge against Saladin that wouldn't be
sister's hand in marriage to al-Adil, suggesting him and Richard become co-rulers fatal
▪ However, Saladin saw this as stalling, and used it to gather his men and supplies for an attack ▪ Crusaders had to endure was Saladin gave them until Richard saw the right opportunity
▪ Saladin nevertheless agreed, on the condition al-Adil remained Muslim, and Joan would convert, which Richard objected to and thus → Charge on Saladin
began to move supplies to Ramla for an attack ▪ Two knights fell out of order and moved out of position, creating a chain reaction where men started to charge
Focus on Jerusalem, December/January 1191/2 ▪ Richard decided to go with it, instructing all to charge with full power, scattering Saladin's forces
▪ Despite horrible weather in November and December which caused food to rot and armour to rust, crusader spirits were high as they ▪ Richard was in the thick of the fighting, with his leadership and personal bravery inspiring victory
were entirely focused on Jerusalem → Impact of the Battle of Arsuf
▪ By January, troops moved to Beit Nuba, 12 miles from Jerusalem ▪ Saladin now suffered two defeats at the hands of Richard, and his image crumbled, allowing the Crusaders to reach Jaffa in just three days,
Military Order's Influence placing them 40 miles East of Jerusalem
▪ By the 6th of January, Richard was persuaded by the Military Orders that an attack would be foolish as his army would come under
attack from the defenders as well as by a relieving Saladin army (similar to Antioch in the 1st Crusade and Acre a few months before) Egyptian Relief Army July 1192
▪ Richard took their advice and returned to Ramla by 13th January ▪ Richard then learnt that an Egyptian army was moving North toward his position to help Saladin and protect their own position due to Richard's
▪ No attempt was made to take Jerusalem, reducing the morale strength
▪ The French, led by Hugh of Burgundy, went to Acre and Tyre ▪ Richard marched at night, catching them by surprise and decimating them, gaining much booty and dispersing a key relief force
▪ Richard went to Ascalon and reached the destroyed city by 21st January 1192 ▪ This meant Saladin had no reinforcements, but meant the Crusaders had to choose: Go to Egypt for an easy victory, or Jerusalem to fight Saladin
who had no relief forces apart from his own army
Ascalon

Crusades Page 119

Ascalon
▪ Both Saladin and Richard were exhausted and sick, wanting a conclusion Battle for Jaffa July 1192
▪ The only issue was Ascalon, which Saladin destroyed, and Richard rebuilt - But it's location was vital to Egypt's security, which meant ▪ Initial attack and capture 28th-31st July
as long as Ascalon could be in Frankish hands, Saladin couldn't submit - Attack began on the 28th of July, and Saladin captured it on the 31st, except for the citadel which held out in the hopes of reinforcements
▪ Richard thus went to Acre, possibly wanting to strike Saladin in the North but was countered by Saladin with a lightening attack on - Richard left Acre by sea with Pisans and Genoese, whilst Henry VII took the land route with Templars and Hospitallers, but was held up at
Jaffa, hoping to regain the port and split Christian held lands whilst restoring his prestige Caesarea
▪ Richard and Henry's reinforcements 1st August
- Richard arrived during the night of 31st-1st of July/August 1191
- Saladin wasn't worried as he had enough men on the beach to prevent the landing and his men filled the city, about to take the citadel
- Richard thought the Citadel was lost, but once he learnt it wasn't, he removed his armour and waded ashore with his men
- A crossbow assault cleared room for the men on the beach, fighting the Muslims with Richard in the thick of it, retaking the town as Saladin's
men were looting and not prepared for an attack
▪ Saladin's Counter-attack 4th August
- Saladin knew he had more men than Richard, so he counter-attacked
- Richard drew his men in formation, with his few knights and archers protected by thin rows of infantry who used spears to stop Saladin's
horses from charging
- As the horses returned, Saladin's charging men were left vulnerable and shot at by Richard's archers, causing panic and Saladin lost control of
his men, saving Jaffa
▪ Post-Battle negotiations
- Richard fell ill and opened negotiations with Saladin, who no longer commanded his army who left to return to their home lands
- Thus, Richard and Saladin just wanted to go home, since Saladin had no army and Richard knew John and Philip were plotting against him
▪ 1st September 1192, Truce
- Christians and Muslims enjoyed free passage through each other's lands, Ascalon was to be destroyed, and there were trading provisions for
access to markets and revenues
- Jerusalem was opened to Christian pilgrims (technically succeeding?)
Conclusion
▪ Richard left Acre on 9th October 1192
▪ He failed to recapture Jerusalem but challenged Saladin's power and won back ports to allow for Outremer to survive

Crusades Page 120

TABLE - Richard's Leadership
Saturday, 15 April 2023 7:42 pm

Factor Examples For Examples Against

Able to capture Acre Siege of Acre August 1189 - July 1191 Conclusion of the Siege of Acre
→ The siege lasted nearly two years, costing 2,500 men in total and a victory that went to the Franks and → Final stages of the Siege
Crusaders, a huge blow for Saladin ▪ The Garrison at Acre though had had enough, offering the crusaders terms and surrendered to Conrad on 12th
→ This crucially would not have been done without the help of the two kings when they arrived July 1191, with the banners of Jerusalem, France, and England raised above the city, with Austria's banner raised
→ He arrived in Acre on the 8th June 1191, he arrived with siege engines and supplies for Acre and then removed from Richard's orders, causing Leopold to leave
→ The men were trying to break the walls in front of them, but getting ready for an attack from Saladin
behind, making them stretched on two fronts - An issue since after arriving Richard and Philip were
bedridden with illness
Final stages of the Siege
→ Once the arrival of Conrad, Philip, and Richard, the siege was clearly going the way of the Crusaders, who
sought terms with Saladin but Saladin refused to do so
→ The Garrison at Acre though had had enough, offering the crusaders terms and surrendered to Conrad on
12th July 1191, with the banners of Jerusalem, France, and England raised above the city, with Austria's
banner raised and then removed from Richard's orders, causing Leopold to leave

The Slaughter at Acre

→ Richard's Leadership
▪ After settling that Guy would keep the crown until his death, Richard had to make his first decision
as Crusader leader
▪ He had 3,000 prisoners in Acre, and under the terms of the surrender, these Muslim prisoners
needed guarding and feeding until release by Saladin in return for the Relic of the True Holy Cross
▪ Whilst there were jobs to do in Acre, such as rebuilding defences, there was sufficient manpower
to guard the prisoners - but as time went on Richard wanted to march to Jerusalem but was
weighed down by 3,000 prisoners
▪ Richard thought Saladin was stalling as he no longer had the cross
→ August 1191 Council
▪ After a month of no sign of Saladin, money, Ture Cross, or Christian Prisoners in return for the
Muslim prisoners, Richard called a council and the decision was made to slaughter the prisoners in
the jails of Acre, where they were beheaded
▪ This was done so that Richard could march to Jerusalem, instead of leaving 3,000 prisoners ready
to revolt and take control of Acre
▪ Richard then marched to Jerusalem on the 22nd of August, aiming to reclaim it as his

Richard's Crusade Post Acre

→ Strength
▪ Richard's Crusaders after leaving Acre included French, German, and Anglo-Norman men, which
was supplemented by Templars and Hospitallers
→ March to Jerusalem
▪ It was arduous as Muslims were using simple and effective tactics to wear down to the Crusaders,
where horsed archers would harass knights by firing arrows from a safe distance, hoping they
would charge
▪ Once charging, the Knights would be surrounded and killed, with the Crusader's best defence being
discipline which comes from good leadership
→ Crusader Discipline
▪ They marched in good order, kept to the coast, and under Richard's instructions were escorted by
ships sailing alongside with supplies and the injured
▪ The men marched in close-knit formation, with infantry marching on the outside to protect the
knights and their horses
▪ Infantry closest to the sea rotated with those facing the enemy, allowing for respite from the
arrows coming from the Muslims

Rivalry with Philip II Philip and Richard's Route
→ They both agreed to take the overland route, which would have the benefit (like Frederick's stipulation to
force people to carry money) of leaving poor non-combatants behind, with the only non-combatants
allowed being washerwomen of good repute
→ They both agreed to split earnings 50-50, showing the financial aspect drew them both and like previous
crusades the spiritual and financial gain was a huge pull - This led to future trouble
Mounting problems for Richard, March 1192
▪ John, his brother, was making trouble in England and Conrad was attacking Guy, so Richard had no
French Army.
▪ Richard left for Acre to mediate between the factions of Genoa/Conrad and Pisa/Guy, resulting in Conrad
fleeing but the French didn't return to Richard, so Richard had to negotiate with al -Adil again
▪ French didn't return to Richard, so Richard had to negotiate with al -Adil again
Council on who would rule Jerusalem
▪ Despite this issue being 'solved' before Philip left, with Guy holding it until his death before Conrad takes
over, Richard help another council to settle this forever, as a result of the Guy v Conrad dispute in March
at Acre
▪ The Council chose Conrad since Guy had no respect from local Barons - Richard took the council's
decisions and instead offered Guy the island of Cyprus (which was initially sold to Templars but they
didn't pay him)
Death of Conrad
▪ The crown couldn't fall on Conrad's head anyway since he was attacked by assassins and murdered, with
Richard being heavily implicated, meaning he wanted to dispose of Conrad to settle the dispute and take Siege of Acre August 1189 - July 1191
Jerusalem for himself
▪ Phillip, who was Conrad's ally, heard of these rumours, breaking his promise of not attacking and thus
began to create conflict in France against Richard's lands
Issues with Phillip, May 1192
▪ After Guy moved to Cyprus, Richard was informed that Philip and John were conspiring against him,
forcing him to withdraw to Ascalon to consider the next move
▪ He decided to advance upon Jerusalem again
Richard in Sicily
→ Richard takes Messina
▪ Richard, alarmed at the high prices of food charged to his men and growing animosity between the
Greeks, Tancred, and Richard, decided to hold a meeting
▪ Disputes occurred outside the tents and Richard seized the opportunity, telling his men to arm
themselves quickly defeating Tancred and the Greeks, raising his standard above Messina
▪ Tancred paid the dower, and an amount was settled and paid to Richard in return for a promise to
help against any Sicilian invader
→ Impact of the scuffle at Messina
1) It shows Richard's military prowess
- Forged in France and honed on Crusade, he continued to prove his ability to win against odds
in incredible positions, like in Messina
2) Shows Rivalry between Richard and Philip
- Philip, taking no part in Messina, insisted on his share of the spoils, with a compromise, less
than 50/50 amount agreed - This goes against the initial agreement
3) Richard chose this moment to inform Philip he wouldn't marry Alice
- Richard, having agreed to marry Philip's sister Alice, thus stabilising the region next to Philip's
land, decided to go against his word
- He shipped in his new bride from Navarre
Philip and Richard's finances
→ Both Richard and Philip introduced a tax on non-participants known as the Saladin Tithe, a 10% tax on income and
movable property (animals)
→ Richard was more zealous in this tax, even selling his offices, lordships, earldoms, castles, towns, and land after his
coronation to fund for his crusade
Philip and Richard's Route
→ They both agreed to take the overland route, which would have the benefit (like Frederick's stipulation to force people
to carry money) of leaving poor non-combatants behind, with the only non-combatants allowed being washerwomen
of good repute
→ They both agreed to split earnings 50-50, showing the financial aspect drew them both and like previous crusades the
spiritual and financial gain was a huge pull - This led to future trouble
Philip and Richard's Reconciliations
→ Philip and Richard themselves made the largest reconciliation, whilst Henry was alive, they teamed up to limit his
power and take his land - However, after Henry II died, there was no common ground for them to team up with making
this harder
→ They disagreed on the betrothal of Philip's sister, Alice, to Richard - This was an issue since Henry II negotiated this due
to Alice's dowry of Vexin, France (key area between the lands of Henry and Philip II)
→ Alice was said to have fathered a child of Henry II, making the marriage odd and impossible - Richard also wanted his
own wife
→ Richard would agree to marry Alice in 1189, pacifying Philip for the moment
→ The siege lasted nearly two years, costing 2,500 men in total and a victory that went to the Franks and Crusaders, a
huge blow for Saladin
→ This crucially would not have been done without the help of the two kings when they arrived
→ He arrived in Acre on the 8th June 1191, he arrived with siege engines and supplies for Acre
→ The men were trying to break the walls in front of them, but getting ready for an attack from Saladin behind, making
them stretched on two fronts - An issue since after arriving Richard and Philip were bedridden with illness
Final stages of the Siege
→ Once the arrival of Conrad, Philip, and Richard, the siege was clearly going the way of the Crusaders, who sought terms
with Saladin but Saladin refused to do so
→ The Garrison at Acre though had had enough, offering the crusaders terms and surrendered to Conrad on 12th July
1191, with the banners of Jerusalem, France, and England raised above the city, with Austria's banner raised and then
removed from Richard's orders, causing Leopold to leave

Leadership at Jaffa Battle for Jaffa July 1192

▪ Initial attack and capture 28th-31st July
- Attack began on the 28th of July, and Saladin captured it on the 31st, except for the citadel which
held out in the hopes of reinforcements
- Richard left Acre by sea with Pisans and Genoese, whilst Henry VII took the land route with
Templars and Hospitallers, but was held up at Caesarea
▪ Richard and Henry's reinforcements 1st August
- Richard arrived during the night of 31st-1st of July/August 1191
- Saladin wasn't worried as he had enough men on the beach to prevent the landing and his men
filled the city, about to take the citadel

Crusades Page 121

 filled the city, about to take the citadel
- Richard thought the Citadel was lost, but once he learnt it wasn't, he removed his armour and
waded ashore with his men
- A crossbow assault cleared room for the men on the beach, fighting the Muslims with Richard in
the thick of it, retaking the town as Saladin's men were looting and not prepared for an attack
▪ Saladin's Counter-attack 4th August
- Saladin knew he had more men than Richard, so he counter-attacked
- Richard drew his men in formation, with his few knights and archers protected by thin rows of
infantry who used spears to stop Saladin's horses from charging
- As the horses returned, Saladin's charging men were left vulnerable and shot at by Richard's
archers, causing panic and Saladin lost control of his men, saving Jaffa
▪ Post-Battle negotiations
- Richard fell ill and opened negotiations with Saladin, who no longer commanded his army who left
to return to their home lands
- Thus, Richard and Saladin just wanted to go home, since Saladin had no army and Richard knew
John and Philip were plotting against him
▪ 1st September 1192, Truce
- Christians and Muslims enjoyed free passage through each other's lands, Ascalon was to be
destroyed, and there were trading provisions for access to markets and revenues
- Jerusalem was opened to Christian pilgrims (technically succeeding?)
Conclusion
▪ Richard left Acre on 9th October 1192
▪ He failed to recapture Jerusalem but challenged Saladin's power and won back ports to allow for
Outremer to survive
Failure to Capture Jaffa to Jerusalem 1st September 1192, Truce in Jaffa
Jerusalem → Breakdown in Richard's Leadership - Christians and Muslims enjoyed free passage through each other's lands, Ascalon was to be destroyed, and there were
▪ An attack on Ascalon, which would've paved the way to Egypt made sense, Richard and the Military trading provisions for access to markets and revenues
Orders knew this - Jerusalem was opened to Christian pilgrims (technically succeeding?)
▪ However, the main forces didn't understand or care for this, wanting to go straight for Jerusalem,
forcing Richard to succumb to their demands
→ Lack of Western Aid
▪ Richard sent letters to the West asking for money and men, as well as trying to negotiate Genoa
and Pisa to send both their fleets if Egypt becomes a target - All in an attempt to strengthen his
position
▪ However, Conrad was becoming an issue to Richard, as Conrad was strengthening his position in
Tyre through a treaty with Saladin - Richard thought Conrad and Saladin would thus attack Acre
▪ Richard then opened up negotiations with Saladin's brother, il-Adil
→ Failed negotiations with Saladin, Autumn 1191
▪ Negotiations between Richard and Al-Adil showed another side to the crusading king
▪ Since Saladin could not accept a negotiated loss of Jerusalem before the Franks make a military
attempt, Richard decided to offer his sister's hand in marriage to al-Adil, suggesting him and
Richard become co-rulers
▪ However, Saladin saw this as stalling, and used it to gather his men and supplies for an attack
▪ Saladin nevertheless agreed, on the condition al-Adil remained Muslim, and Joan would convert,
which Richard objected to and thus began to move supplies to Ramla for an attack
→ Focus on Jerusalem, December/January 1191/2
▪ Despite horrible weather in November and December which caused food to rot and armour to rust,
crusader spirits were high as they were entirely focused on Jerusalem
▪ By January, troops moved to Beit Nuba, 12 miles from Jerusalem
→ Military Order's Influence
▪ By the 6th of January, Richard was persuaded by the Military Orders that an attack would be foolish
as his army would come under attack from the defenders as well as by a relieving Saladin army
(similar to Antioch in the 1st Crusade and Acre a few months before)
▪ Richard took their advice and returned to Ramla by 13th January
▪ No attempt was made to take Jerusalem, reducing the morale
▪ The French, led by Hugh of Burgundy, went to Acre and Tyre
▪ Richard went to Ascalon and reached the destroyed city by 21st January 1192

The Battle of Arsuf September 1191

→ Saladin
▪ Saladin needed to stop the march to Jerusalem before it got too far, aiming to stop it North of Arsuf
in a forest which would keep the crusaders in the dark about what lay ahead
→ Battle
▪ Richard was surprised by Saladin but kept excellent control of his men, waiting for a chance to time
a charge against Saladin that wouldn't be fatal
▪ Crusaders had to endure was Saladin gave them until Richard saw the right opportunity
→ Charge on Saladin
▪ Two knights fell out of order and moved out of position, creating a chain reaction where men
started to charge
▪ Richard decided to go with it, instructing all to charge with full power, scattering Saladin's forces
▪ Richard was in the thick of the fighting, with his leadership and personal bravery inspiring victory
→ Impact of the Battle of Arsuf
▪ Saladin now suffered two defeats at the hands of Richard, and his image crumbled, allowing the
Crusaders to reach Jaffa in just three days, placing them 40 miles East of Jerusalem

Post Battle of Arsuf

→ Focus on Jerusalem, December/January 1191/2
▪ Despite horrible weather in November and December which caused food to rot and armour to rust,
crusader spirits were high as they were entirely focused on Jerusalem
▪ By January, troops moved to Beit Nuba, 12 miles from Jerusalem
→ Military Order's Influence
▪ By the 6th of January, Richard was persuaded by the Military Orders that an attack would be foolish
as his army would come under attack from the defenders as well as by a relieving Saladin army
(similar to Antioch in the 1st Crusade and Acre a few months before)
▪ Richard took their advice and returned to Ramla by 13th January
▪ No attempt was made to take Jerusalem, reducing the morale
▪ The French, led by Hugh of Burgundy, went to Acre and Tyre
▪ Richard went to Ascalon and reached the destroyed city by 21st January 1192

Move to Jerusalem June 1192

▪ Richard began to march to Jerusalem from Ascalon in May 1192
▪ By June 6th, he reached Blanchegarde castle - By June 9th, Latrun
▪ He called another Council to decide the next move, with representatives of the Templars, Hospitallers,
French, and his own forces, they decided Egypt was the right target (again) - All except the French were in
agreement with this decision

Egyptian Relief Army

▪ Richard then learnt that an Egyptian army was moving North toward his position to help Saladin and
protect their own position due to Richard's strength
▪ Richard marched at night, catching them by surprise and decimating them, gaining much booty and
dispersing a key relief force
▪ This meant Saladin had no reinforcements, but meant the Crusaders had to choose: Go to Egypt for an
easy victory, or Jerusalem to fight Saladin who had no relief forces apart from his own army
Frankish Indecision July 1192
▪ Saladin's advisors were worried at Richard's strength, advising him to leave the city on the 3rd of July, but
they didn't need to worry as the crusader camp was indecisive
▪ Richard wanted to go to Egypt, which was militarily most sensible
▪ However, once again, the rank and file wanted to fulfil their vows and capture Jerusalem, forcing Richard
to promise a move to Jerusalem
▪ However, once again, Richard withdrew after getting close, leaving the French furious and thus deserted,
leaving Richard without men and in negotiations with al-Adil again

Ascalon
▪ Both Saladin and Richard were exhausted and sick, wanting a conclusion
▪ The only issue was Ascalon, which Saladin destroyed, and Richard rebuilt - But it's location was vital to
Egypt's security, which meant as long as Ascalon could be in Frankish hands, Saladin couldn't submit
▪ Richard thus went to Acre, possibly wanting to strike Saladin in the North but was countered by Saladin
with a lightening attack on Jaffa, hoping to regain the port and split Christian held lands whilst restoring
his prestige

Crusades Page 122

Crusades Page 123
TABLE - Main Reason for the Limited Success
Saturday, 15 April 2023 7:43 pm
Factor Examples For
Rivalry between Philip and Richard's Route Philip and Richard's finances
Richard I and Philip II → They both agreed to take the overland route, which would have the benefit (like Frederick's stipulation to force people
to carry money) of leaving poor non-combatants behind, with the only non-combatants allowed being washerwomen of
good repute
→ They both agreed to split earnings 50-50, showing the financial aspect drew them both and like previous crusades the
spiritual and financial gain was a huge pull - This led to future trouble
Philip and Richard's Route
Mounting problems for Richard, March 1192
▪ John, his brother, was making trouble in England and Conrad was attacking Guy, so Richard had no French Army.
▪ Richard left for Acre to mediate between the factions of Genoa/Conrad and Pisa/Guy, resulting in Conrad fleeing but
the French didn't return to Richard, so Richard had to negotiate with al-Adil again
▪ French didn't return to Richard, so Richard had to negotiate with al-Adil again
Council on who would rule Jerusalem
▪ Despite this issue being 'solved' before Philip left, with Guy holding it until his death before Conrad takes over, Richard
help another council to settle this forever, as a result of the Guy v Conrad dispute in March at Acre
▪ The Council chose Conrad since Guy had no respect from local Barons - Richard took the council's decisions and instead
offered Guy the island of Cyprus (which was initially sold to Templars but they didn't pay him)
Death of Conrad
▪ The crown couldn't fall on Conrad's head anyway since he was attacked by assassins and murdered, with Richard being
heavily implicated, meaning he wanted to dispose of Conrad to settle the dispute and take Jerusalem for himself
▪ Phillip, who was Conrad's ally, heard of these rumours, breaking his promise of not attacking and thus began to create
conflict in France against Richard's lands
Issues with Phillip, May 1192
▪ After Guy moved to Cyprus, Richard was informed that Philip and John were conspiring against him, forcing him to
withdraw to Ascalon to consider the next move
▪ He decided to advance upon Jerusalem again
Richard in Sicily
→ Richard takes Messina
▪ Richard, alarmed at the high prices of food charged to his men and growing animosity between the Greeks,
Tancred, and Richard, decided to hold a meeting
▪ Disputes occurred outside the tents and Richard seized the opportunity, telling his men to arm themselves quickly
defeating Tancred and the Greeks, raising his standard above Messina
▪ Tancred paid the dower, and an amount was settled and paid to Richard in return for a promise to help against
any Sicilian invader
→ Impact of the scuffle at Messina
1) It shows Richard's military prowess
- Forged in France and honed on Crusade, he continued to prove his ability to win against odds in incredible
positions, like in Messina
2) Shows Rivalry between Richard and Philip
- Philip, taking no part in Messina, insisted on his share of the spoils, with a compromise, less than 50/50
amount agreed - This goes against the initial agreement
3) Richard chose this moment to inform Philip he wouldn't marry Alice
- Richard, having agreed to marry Philip's sister Alice, thus stabilising the region next to Philip's land, decided
to go against his word
- He shipped in his new bride from Navarre
Actions of Saladin Philip and Richard's finances (Saladin Created a Zeal to go on Crusade)
→ Both Richard and Philip introduced a tax on non-participants known as the Saladin Tithe, a 10% tax on income and
movable property (animals)
→ Richard was more zealous in this tax, even selling his offices, lordships, earldoms, castles, towns, and land after his
coronation to fund for his crusade
→ Philip couldn't thoroughly collect the tithe due to disputes and a lack of control, making Richard the far more wealthy of The Battle of Arsuf September 1191
the two
Failed negotiations with Saladin, Autumn 1191
▪ Negotiations between Richard and Al-Adil showed another side to the crusading king
▪ Since Saladin could not accept a negotiated loss of Jerusalem before the Franks make a military attempt, Richard
decided to offer his sister's hand in marriage to al-Adil, suggesting him and Richard become co-rulers
▪ However, Saladin saw this as stalling, and used it to gather his men and supplies for an attack
▪ Saladin nevertheless agreed, on the condition al-Adil remained Muslim, and Joan would convert, which Richard
objected to and thus began to move supplies to Ramla for an attack
Focus on Jerusalem, December/January 1191/2
▪ Despite horrible weather in November and December which caused food to rot and armour to rust, crusader spirits
were high as they were entirely focused on Jerusalem
▪ By January, troops moved to Beit Nuba, 12 miles from Jerusalem
Military Order's Influence
▪ By the 6th of January, Richard was persuaded by the Military Orders that an attack would be foolish as his army would
come under attack from the defenders as well as by a relieving Saladin army (similar to Antioch in the 1st Crusade and
Acre a few months before)
▪ Richard took their advice and returned to Ramla by 13th January
▪ No attempt was made to take Jerusalem, reducing the morale
▪ The French, led by Hugh of Burgundy, went to Acre and Tyre
▪ Richard went to Ascalon and reached the destroyed city by 21st January 1192
Ascalon
▪ Both Saladin and Richard were exhausted and sick, wanting a conclusion
▪ The only issue was Ascalon, which Saladin destroyed, and Richard rebuilt - But it's location was vital to Egypt's security, Battle for Jaffa July 1192
which meant as long as Ascalon could be in Frankish hands, Saladin couldn't submit
▪ Richard thus went to Acre, possibly wanting to strike Saladin in the North but was countered by Saladin with a
lightening attack on Jaffa, hoping to regain the port and split Christian held lands whilst restoring his prestige
Richard and Leopold Final stages of the Siege of Acre Richard's Crusade with the remaining Germans was still disciplined
▪ Once the arrival of Conrad, Philip, and Richard, the siege was clearly going the way of the Crusaders, who sought terms → Strength
with Saladin but Saladin refused to do so
▪ The Garrison at Acre though had had enough, offering the crusaders terms and surrendered to Conrad on 12th July
1191, with the banners of Jerusalem, France, and England raised above the city, with Austria's banner raised and then → March to Jerusalem
Crusades Page 124
Examples Against
→ Both Richard and Philip introduced a tax on non-participants known as the Saladin Tithe, a 10% tax on income and
movable property (animals)
→ Richard was more zealous in this tax, even selling his offices, lordships, earldoms, castles, towns, and land after his
coronation to fund for his crusade
→ They both agreed to take the overland route, which would have the benefit (like Frederick's stipulation to force
people to carry money) of leaving poor non-combatants behind, with the only non-combatants allowed being
washerwomen of good repute
→ They both agreed to split earnings 50-50, showing the financial aspect drew them both and like previous crusades
the spiritual and financial gain was a huge pull - This led to future trouble
Philip and Richard's Reconciliations
→ Philip and Richard themselves made the largest reconciliation, whilst Henry was alive, they teamed up to limit his
power and take his land - However, after Henry II died, there was no common ground for them to team up with
making this harder
→ They disagreed on the betrothal of Philip's sister, Alice, to Richard - This was an issue since Henry II negotiated this
due to Alice's dowry of Vexin, France (key area between the lands of Henry and Philip II)
→ Alice was said to have fathered a child of Henry II, making the marriage odd and impossible - Richard also wanted
his own wife
→ Richard would agree to marry Alice in 1189, pacifying Philip for the moment
Siege of Acre August 1189 - July 1191
→ The siege lasted nearly two years, costing 2,500 men in total and a victory that went to the Franks and Crusaders,
a huge blow for Saladin
→ This crucially would not have been done without the help of the two kings when they arrived
→ He arrived in Acre on the 8th June 1191, he arrived with siege engines and supplies for Acre
→ The men were trying to break the walls in front of them, but getting ready for an attack from Saladin behind,
making them stretched on two fronts - An issue since after arriving Richard and Philip were bedridden with illness
Final stages of the Siege
→ Once the arrival of Conrad, Philip, and Richard, the siege was clearly going the way of the Crusaders, who sought
terms with Saladin but Saladin refused to do so
→ The Garrison at Acre though had had enough, offering the crusaders terms and surrendered to Conrad on 12th
July 1191, with the banners of Jerusalem, France, and England raised above the city, with Austria's banner raised
and then removed from Richard's orders, causing Leopold to leave
Siege of Acre August 1189 - July 1191
→ The siege lasted nearly two years, costing 2,500 men in total and a victory that went to the Franks and Crusaders,
a huge blow for Saladin
→ This crucially would not have been done without the help of the two kings when they arrived
→ Saladin
▪ Saladin needed to stop the march to Jerusalem before it got too far, aiming to stop it North of Arsuf in a
forest which would keep the crusaders in the dark about what lay ahead
→ Battle
▪ Richard was surprised by Saladin but kept excellent control of his men, waiting for a chance to time a charge
against Saladin that wouldn't be fatal
▪ Crusaders had to endure was Saladin gave them until Richard saw the right opportunity
→ Charge on Saladin
▪ Two knights fell out of order and moved out of position, creating a chain reaction where men started to
charge
▪ Richard decided to go with it, instructing all to charge with full power, scattering Saladin's forces
▪ Richard was in the thick of the fighting, with his leadership and personal bravery inspiring victory
→ Impact of the Battle of Arsuf
▪ Saladin now suffered two defeats at the hands of Richard, and his image crumbled, allowing the Crusaders
to reach Jaffa in just three days, placing them 40 miles East of Jerusalem
Egyptian Relief Army July 1192
▪ Richard then learnt that an Egyptian army was moving North toward his position to help Saladin and protect their
own position due to Richard's strength
▪ Richard marched at night, catching them by surprise and decimating them, gaining much booty and dispersing a
key relief force
▪ This meant Saladin had no reinforcements, but meant the Crusaders had to choose: Go to Egypt for an easy
victory, or Jerusalem to fight Saladin who had no relief forces apart from his own army
▪ Initial attack and capture 28th-31st July
- Attack began on the 28th of July, and Saladin captured it on the 31st, except for the citadel which held out
in the hopes of reinforcements
- Richard left Acre by sea with Pisans and Genoese, whilst Henry VII took the land route with Templars and
Hospitallers, but was held up at Caesarea
▪ Richard and Henry's reinforcements 1st August
- Richard arrived during the night of 31st-1st of July/August 1191
- Saladin wasn't worried as he had enough men on the beach to prevent the landing and his men filled the
city, about to take the citadel
- Richard thought the Citadel was lost, but once he learnt it wasn't, he removed his armour and waded ashore
with his men
- A crossbow assault cleared room for the men on the beach, fighting the Muslims with Richard in the thick of
it, retaking the town as Saladin's men were looting and not prepared for an attack
▪ Saladin's Counter-attack 4th August
- Saladin knew he had more men than Richard, so he counter-attacked
- Richard drew his men in formation, with his few knights and archers protected by thin rows of infantry who
used spears to stop Saladin's horses from charging
- As the horses returned, Saladin's charging men were left vulnerable and shot at by Richard's archers,
causing panic and Saladin lost control of his men, saving Jaffa
▪ Post-Battle negotiations
- Richard fell ill and opened negotiations with Saladin, who no longer commanded his army who left to return
to their home lands
- Thus, Richard and Saladin just wanted to go home, since Saladin had no army and Richard knew John and
Philip were plotting against him
▪ 1st September 1192, Truce
- Christians and Muslims enjoyed free passage through each other's lands, Ascalon was to be destroyed, and
there were trading provisions for access to markets and revenues
- Jerusalem was opened to Christian pilgrims (technically succeeding?)
Conclusion
▪ Richard left Acre on 9th October 1192
▪ He failed to recapture Jerusalem but challenged Saladin's power and won back ports to allow for Outremer to
survive
▪ Richard's Crusaders after leaving Acre included French, German, and Anglo-Norman men, which was
supplemented by Templars and Hospitallers
 1191, with the banners of Jerusalem, France, and England raised above the city, with Austria's banner raised and then → March to Jerusalem
removed from Richard's orders, causing Leopold to leave ▪ It was arduous as Muslims were using simple and effective tactics to wear down to the Crusaders, where
Philip's departure horsed archers would harass knights by firing arrows from a safe distance, hoping they would charge
▪ Richard sailed home on 31st July 1191, illness being the main reason but he also needed to return to stake his claim in ▪ Once charging, the Knights would be surrounded and killed, with the Crusader's best defence being
Flanders as the Count of Flanders died in Acre discipline which comes from good leadership
▪ Once Leopold and Philip left, Richard was essentially in charge of the Crusade but this was sort of a loss as well, as his → Crusader Discipline
main European rival, Philip was headed back home ▪ They marched in good order, kept to the coast, and under Richard's instructions were escorted by ships
▪ Philip promised not to attack Richard's lands whilst on crusade, whilst the Church also promised to protect lands of sailing alongside with supplies and the injured
Crusaders - But this wasn't kept, and Richard was frequently preoccupied with what was going on in Europe ▪ The men marched in close-knit formation, with infantry marching on the outside to protect the knights and
their horses
Jaffa to Jerusalem ▪ Infantry closest to the sea rotated with those facing the enemy, allowing for respite from the arrows coming
→ Breakdown in Richard's Leadership from the Muslims
▪ An attack on Ascalon, which would've paved the way to Egypt made sense, Richard and the Military Orders knew
this
▪ However, the main forces didn't understand or care for this, wanting to go straight for Jerusalem, forcing Richard
to succumb to their demands

Murder of Conrad Death of Conrad Jaffa to Jerusalem

▪ The crown couldn't fall on Conrad's head anyway since he was attacked by assassins and murdered, with Richard being → Breakdown in Richard's Leadership
heavily implicated, meaning he wanted to dispose of Conrad to settle the dispute and take Jerusalem for himself ▪ An attack on Ascalon, which would've paved the way to Egypt made sense, Richard and the Military Orders
▪ Phillip, who was Conrad's ally, heard of these rumours, breaking his promise of not attacking and thus began to create knew this
conflict in France against Richard's lands ▪ However, the main forces didn't understand or care for this, wanting to go straight for Jerusalem, forcing
Issues with Phillip, May 1192 Richard to succumb to their demands
▪ After Guy moved to Cyprus, Richard was informed that Philip and John were conspiring against him, forcing him to → Lack of Western Aid
withdraw to Ascalon to consider the next move ▪ Richard sent letters to the West asking for money and men, as well as trying to negotiate Genoa and Pisa to
▪ He decided to advance upon Jerusalem again send both their fleets if Egypt becomes a target - All in an attempt to strengthen his position
▪ However, Conrad was becoming an issue to Richard, as Conrad was strengthening his position in Tyre
Ascalon through a treaty with Saladin - Richard thought Conrad and Saladin would thus attack Acre
▪ Both Saladin and Richard were exhausted and sick, wanting a conclusion ▪ Richard then opened up negotiations with Saladin's brother, il-Adil
▪ The only issue was Ascalon, which Saladin destroyed, and Richard rebuilt - But it's location was vital to Egypt's security,
which meant as long as Ascalon could be in Frankish hands, Saladin couldn't submit Mounting problems for Richard, March 1192
▪ Richard thus went to Acre, possibly wanting to strike Saladin in the North but was countered by Saladin with a ▪ John, his brother, was making trouble in England and Conrad was attacking Guy, so Richard had no French Army.
lightening attack on Jaffa, hoping to regain the port and split Christian held lands whilst restoring his prestige ▪ Richard left for Acre to mediate between the factions of Genoa/Conrad and Pisa/Guy, resulting in Conrad fleeing
Battle for Jaffa July 1192 but the French didn't return to Richard, so Richard had to negotiate with al -Adil again
▪ Initial attack and capture 28th-31st July Council on who would rule Jerusalem
- Attack began on the 28th of July, and Saladin captured it on the 31st, except for the citadel which held out in the ▪ Despite this issue being 'solved' before Philip left, with Guy holding it until his death before Conrad takes over,
hopes of reinforcements Richard help another council to settle this forever, as a result of the Guy v Conrad dispute in March at Acre
- Richard left Acre by sea with Pisans and Genoese, whilst Henry VII took the land route with Templars and ▪ The Council chose Conrad since Guy had no respect from local Barons - Richard took the council's decisions and
Hospitallers, but was held up at Caesarea instead offered Guy the island of Cyprus (which was initially sold to Templars but they didn't pay him)
▪ Richard and Henry's reinforcements 1st August
- Richard arrived during the night of 31st-1st of July/August 1191
- Saladin wasn't worried as he had enough men on the beach to prevent the landing and his men filled the city,
about to take the citadel
- Richard thought the Citadel was lost, but once he learnt it wasn't, he removed his armour and waded ashore with
his men
- A crossbow assault cleared room for the men on the beach, fighting the Muslims with Richard in the thick of it,
retaking the town as Saladin's men were looting and not prepared for an attack
▪ Saladin's Counter-attack 4th August
- Saladin knew he had more men than Richard, so he counter-attacked
- Richard drew his men in formation, with his few knights and archers protected by thin rows of infantry who used
spears to stop Saladin's horses from charging
- As the horses returned, Saladin's charging men were left vulnerable and shot at by Richard's archers, causing
panic and Saladin lost control of his men, saving Jaffa
▪ Post-Battle negotiations
- Richard fell ill and opened negotiations with Saladin, who no longer commanded his army who left to return to
their home lands
- Thus, Richard and Saladin just wanted to go home, since Saladin had no army and Richard knew John and Philip
were plotting against him
▪ 1st September 1192, Truce
- Christians and Muslims enjoyed free passage through each other's lands, Ascalon was to be destroyed, and there
were trading provisions for access to markets and revenues
- Jerusalem was opened to Christian pilgrims (technically succeeding?)
Conclusion
▪ Richard left Acre on 9th October 1192
▪ He failed to recapture Jerusalem but challenged Saladin's power and won back ports to allow for Outremer to survive

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TABLE - Achievements of the 3rd Crusade were limited HFDYA
Saturday, 15 April 2023 7:43 pm

Factor Examples For Examples Against

Failure to Capture The Battle of Arsuf September 1191 1st September 1192, Truce in Jaffa
Jerusalem → Saladin - Christians and Muslims enjoyed free passage through each other's lands, Ascalon was to be
▪ Saladin needed to stop the march to Jerusalem before it got too far, aiming destroyed, and there were trading provisions for access to markets and revenues
to stop it North of Arsuf in a forest which would keep the crusaders in the - Jerusalem was opened to Christian pilgrims (technically succeeding?)
dark about what lay ahead
→ Battle Conclusion
▪ Richard was surprised by Saladin but kept excellent control of his men, ▪ Richard left Acre on 9th October 1192
waiting for a chance to time a charge against Saladin that wouldn't be fatal ▪ He failed to recapture Jerusalem but challenged Saladin's power and won back ports to allow
▪ Crusaders had to endure was Saladin gave them until Richard saw the right for Outremer to survive
opportunity
→ Charge on Saladin
▪ Two knights fell out of order and moved out of position, creating a chain
reaction where men started to charge
▪ Richard decided to go with it, instructing all to charge with full power,
scattering Saladin's forces
▪ Richard was in the thick of the fighting, with his leadership and personal
bravery inspiring victory
→ Impact of the Battle of Arsuf
▪ Saladin now suffered two defeats at the hands of Richard, and his image
crumbled, allowing the Crusaders to reach Jaffa in just three days, placing
them 40 miles East of Jerusalem

Post Battle of Arsuf

→ Focus on Jerusalem, December/January 1191/2
▪ Despite horrible weather in November and December which caused food to
rot and armour to rust, crusader spirits were high as they were entirely
focused on Jerusalem
▪ By January, troops moved to Beit Nuba, 12 miles from Jerusalem
→ Military Order's Influence
▪ By the 6th of January, Richard was persuaded by the Military Orders that an
attack would be foolish as his army would come under attack from the
defenders as well as by a relieving Saladin army (similar to Antioch in the
1st Crusade and Acre a few months before)
▪ Richard took their advice and returned to Ramla by 13th January
▪ No attempt was made to take Jerusalem, reducing the morale
▪ The French, led by Hugh of Burgundy, went to Acre and Tyre
▪ Richard went to Ascalon and reached the destroyed city by 21st January
1192

Move to Jerusalem June 1192

▪ Richard began to march to Jerusalem from Ascalon in May 1192
▪ By June 6th, he reached Blanchegarde castle - By June 9th, Latrun
▪ He called another Council to decide the next move, with representatives of the
Templars, Hospitallers, French, and his own forces, they decided Egypt was the
right target (again) - All except the French were in agreement with this decision
Failure to convince Egyptian Relief Army
crusaders to attack ▪ Richard then learnt that an Egyptian army was moving North toward his position
Egypt to help Saladin and protect their own position due to Richard's strength
▪ Richard marched at night, catching them by surprise and decimating them,
gaining much booty and dispersing a key relief force
▪ This meant Saladin had no reinforcements, but meant the Crusaders had to
choose: Go to Egypt for an easy victory, or Jerusalem to fight Saladin who had no
relief forces apart from his own army

Frankish Indecision July 1192

▪ Saladin's advisors were worried at Richard's strength, advising him to leave the
city on the 3rd of July, but they didn't need to worry as the crusader camp was
indecisive
▪ Richard wanted to go to Egypt, which was militarily most sensible
▪ However, once again, the rank and file wanted to fulfil their vows and capture
Jerusalem, forcing Richard to promise a move to Jerusalem
▪ However, once again, Richard withdrew after getting close, leaving the French
furious and thus deserted, leaving Richard without men and in negotiations with
al-Adil again

Jaffa to Jerusalem
→ Breakdown in Richard's Leadership
▪ An attack on Ascalon, which would've paved the way to Egypt made sense,
Richard and the Military Orders knew this
▪ However, the main forces didn't understand or care for this, wanting to go
straight for Jerusalem, forcing Richard to succumb to their demands
→ Lack of Western Aid
▪ Richard sent letters to the West asking for money and men, as well as trying
to negotiate Genoa and Pisa to send both their fleets if Egypt becomes a
target - All in an attempt to strengthen his position
▪ However, Conrad was becoming an issue to Richard, as Conrad was
strengthening his position in Tyre through a treaty with Saladin - Richard
thought Conrad and Saladin would thus attack Acre
▪ Richard then opened up negotiations with Saladin's brother, il-Adil
→ Failed negotiations with Saladin, Autumn 1191
▪ Negotiations between Richard and Al-Adil showed another side to the
crusading king
▪ Since Saladin could not accept a negotiated loss of Jerusalem before the
Franks make a military attempt, Richard decided to offer his sister's hand in
marriage to al-Adil, suggesting him and Richard become co-rulers
▪ However, Saladin saw this as stalling, and used it to gather his men and
supplies for an attack
▪ Saladin nevertheless agreed, on the condition al-Adil remained Muslim, and
Joan would convert, which Richard objected to and thus began to move
supplies to Ramla for an attack
→ Focus on Jerusalem, December/January 1191/2

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 → Focus on Jerusalem, December/January 1191/2
▪ Despite horrible weather in November and December which caused food to
rot and armour to rust, crusader spirits were high as they were entirely
focused on Jerusalem
▪ By January, troops moved to Beit Nuba, 12 miles from Jerusalem
→ Military Order's Influence
▪ By the 6th of January, Richard was persuaded by the Military Orders that an
attack would be foolish as his army would come under attack from the
defenders as well as by a relieving Saladin army (similar to Antioch in the
1st Crusade and Acre a few months before)
▪ Richard took their advice and returned to Ramla by 13th January
▪ No attempt was made to take Jerusalem, reducing the morale
▪ The French, led by Hugh of Burgundy, went to Acre and Tyre
▪ Richard went to Ascalon and reached the destroyed city by 21st January
1192
Securing the coastal Richard in Sicily Battle for Jaffa July 1192
areas/Acre → Richard takes Messina ▪ Initial attack and capture 28th-31st July
▪ Richard, alarmed at the high prices of food charged to his men and growing - Attack began on the 28th of July, and Saladin captured it on the 31st, except for the
animosity between the Greeks, Tancred, and Richard, decided to hold a citadel which held out in the hopes of reinforcements
meeting - Richard left Acre by sea with Pisans and Genoese, whilst Henry VII took the land route
▪ Disputes occurred outside the tents and Richard seized the opportunity, with Templars and Hospitallers, but was held up at Caesarea
telling his men to arm themselves quickly defeating Tancred and the ▪ Richard and Henry's reinforcements 1st August
Greeks, raising his standard above Messina - Richard arrived during the night of 31st-1st of July/August 1191
▪ Tancred paid the dower, and an amount was settled and paid to Richard in - Saladin wasn't worried as he had enough men on the beach to prevent the landing and
return for a promise to help against any Sicilian invader his men filled the city, about to take the citadel
→ Impact of the scuffle at Messina - Richard thought the Citadel was lost, but once he learnt it wasn't, he removed his
1) It shows Richard's military prowess armour and waded ashore with his men
- Forged in France and honed on Crusade, he continued to prove his - A crossbow assault cleared room for the men on the beach, fighting the Muslims with
ability to win against odds in incredible positions, like in Messina Richard in the thick of it, retaking the town as Saladin's men were looting and not
2) Shows Rivalry between Richard and Philip prepared for an attack
- Philip, taking no part in Messina, insisted on his share of the spoils, ▪ Saladin's Counter-attack 4th August
with a compromise, less than 50/50 amount agreed - This goes - Saladin knew he had more men than Richard, so he counter-attacked
against the initial agreement - Richard drew his men in formation, with his few knights and archers protected by thin
3) Richard chose this moment to inform Philip he wouldn't marry Alice rows of infantry who used spears to stop Saladin's horses from charging
- Richard, having agreed to marry Philip's sister Alice, thus stabilising - As the horses returned, Saladin's charging men were left vulnerable and shot at by
the region next to Philip's land, decided to go against his word Richard's archers, causing panic and Saladin lost control of his men, saving Jaffa
- He shipped in his new bride from Navarre ▪ Post-Battle negotiations
- Richard fell ill and opened negotiations with Saladin, who no longer commanded his
Richard in Cyprus army who left to return to their home lands
→ Strength - Thus, Richard and Saladin just wanted to go home, since Saladin had no army and
▪ The fleet leaving Sicily was counted at 219 Vessels, with around 17,000 Richard knew John and Philip were plotting against him
men - Poor weather meant they split up and in some cases arrived ▪ 1st September 1192, Truce
shipwrecked on the Cypriot coast - Christians and Muslims enjoyed free passage through each other's lands, Ascalon was
→ Isaac Comnenus to be destroyed, and there were trading provisions for access to markets and revenues
▪ Isaac Ducas Comnenus ruled Cyprus and since 1184 was at odds with Isaac - Jerusalem was opened to Christian pilgrims (technically succeeding?)
II, meaning he did not want an invading army on his island
▪ Isaac decided to capture the first arrivals, including Richard's sister and
bride, angering him causing him to capture Isaac once he arrived and chain
him in silver
▪ Richard thus took control of Cyprus, which was good as Cyprus was
strategically important, being the only perfect springboard to the Holy Land
and acted as a safe-haven for Crusaders
→ Richard then sailed to Outremer, arriving in Tyre in June 1191 but was refused
entry so went to Acre, where he sunk a Muslim ship with supplies for the Garrison
at Acre, arriving in on the 8th June 1191

Siege of Acre August 1189 - July 1191

→ The siege lasted nearly two years, costing 2,500 men in total and a victory that
went to the Franks and Crusaders, a huge blow for Saladin
→ This crucially would not have been done without the help of the two kings when
they arrived
→ He arrived in Acre on the 8th June 1191, he arrived with siege engines and
supplies for Acre
→ The men were trying to break the walls in front of them, but getting ready for an
attack from Saladin behind, making them stretched on two fronts - An issue since
after arriving Richard and Philip were bedridden with illness
Final stages of the Siege
→ Once the arrival of Conrad, Philip, and Richard, the siege was clearly going the
way of the Crusaders, who sought terms with Saladin but Saladin refused to do so
→ The Garrison at Acre though had had enough, offering the crusaders terms and
surrendered to Conrad on 12th July 1191, with the banners of Jerusalem, France,
and England raised above the city, with Austria's banner raised and then removed
from Richard's orders, causing Leopold to leave

Military Order's Influence

▪ By the 6th of January, Richard was persuaded by the Military Orders that an
attack would be foolish as his army would come under attack from the defenders
as well as by a relieving Saladin army (similar to Antioch in the 1st Crusade and
Acre a few months before)
▪ Richard took their advice and returned to Ramla by 13th January
▪ No attempt was made to take Jerusalem, reducing the morale
▪ The French, led by Hugh of Burgundy, went to Acre and Tyre
▪ Richard went to Ascalon and reached the destroyed city by 21st January 1192

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