Wok 2022

British and American life
and institutions
WIEDZA O KRAJACH ANGIELSKIEGO

OBSZARU JĘZYKOWEGO
KATARZYNA BUCZEK
TOPICS
 Geography /symbols
 Society
 Political system
 Legal system
 Religion
 Education
 Mass Media
 Culture
 Sport / holidays / festivals
ASSESSMENT
 TEST AT THE END OF THE COURSE

MARKS
 91%-100% 5
 86%-90% 4,5
 76%-85% 4
 71%-75% 3,5
 61%-70% 3
 0%-60% 2
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Bromhead. 2006. Life in Modern Britain. Longman

 Bromhead. 1991. Life in modern America. Longman.
 Crowther. (ed.) 1999. Oxford guide to British and
American culture. Oxford University Press.
 Higgins, Smith, Storey (eds.). 2010. Cambridge
Companion to Modern British Culture. CUP.
 Lipoński. 2003. Dzieje kultury brytyjskiej. PWN
 O’Driscoll. 1995. Britain. OUP
GEOGRAPHY OF GREAT BRITAIN
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern

Ireland
The UK is made up of:
 Great Britain (the formerly separate England and
Scotland, and Wales. )
 Northern Ireland
 Numerous smaller islands
No one in the UK lives more than 120 km from the sea.

A COUNTRY OF COUNTRIES
GREAT BRITAIN
THE COMMONWEALTH REALM
CROWN DEPENDENCIES
BRITISH OVERSEAS TERRITORIES
Northern St. Patrick National Coat of Motto
Ireland animal arms
There is no
official - - -
national
flag of
Northern
Ireland
GEOGRAPHY OF GREAT BRITAIN
England
 consists of lowland terrain, with
some mountainous
terrain in the north-west, north
and south-west
Scotland
 its geography is varied, with
lowlands in the south and east and
highlands in the north and west
Wales
 it’s mostly mountainous. South
Wales is less mountainous than
North and Mid Wales
Northern Ireland
 it’s mostly hilly
 the chalk cliffs of Kent [1] and
Dorset [2],
 the granite cliffs of Cornwall
[3],
 the mountains of Wales [4],
 the uplands of the Peak District
[5] and the Pennines [6],
 the lakes and mountains of
Cumbria [7],
 the Scottish lowlands [8],
highlands [9] and islands
 the fields, lakes and mountains
of Northern Ireland [10].
RIVERS
The longest river: Severn

River (354 kilometers long)
The second longest river:
Thames (332 kilometers long)
The largest Lake: Lough
Neagh
CLIMATE
Main characteristics:
Temperate, with warm summers, cold winters and
plenty rainfall
Three major features:
 Winter fog
 Rainy days
 Instability/changeability
CLIMATE PERIOD: 1981-2010
NATURAL RESOURCES
 Britain has relatively few
mineral resources; natural
gas and oil dominates the
production over construction
(clay etc.) and industrial (salt
etc.) minerals.
 In contrast, Britain has the
richest energy resources of
the EU
 Coal - mined for more than 300
years - coal production is down
to one fifth compared to its
peak at the beginning of the
20th century
MAJOR CITIES — LONDON
• the capital of England and of Great Britain
• the political center of the Commonwealth
• a major port
• one of the world's leading banking and financial centers.

LANDMARKS & SYMBOLS OF
LONDON
The palace of Westminster

Big Ben
Tower of London Buckingham Palace

MAJOR CITIES—EDINBURGH
 Capital of Scotland
 administrative, financial, legal, medical and
insurance center of Scotland
Edinburgh Castle
MAJOR CITIES—CARDIFF
 Europe's youngest capital city

 has been the capital city of Wales for around 50 years
 has recently become one of the most fashionable cities in
the United Kingdom.
Cardiff Castle Cardiff City Hall

MAJOR CITIES—BELFAST
 the second largest city
 capital of Northern Ireland
 an important historic city
City Hall
PEOPLE
Overall population: over 60 millions
Distribution:
 England: about 50 million
 Scotland: over 5 million
 Wales: around 3 million
 Northern Ireland: about 1.7million
ETHNICITY
 The majority of this population are descendents of

the Anglo-Saxons
 Most people in Wales and Scotland are
descendents of the Celtic people
 The Irish people were also Celtic in origin
 immigrants
PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL UK
POPULATION
Ethinc Groups
 White British 85.7%
 White Irish 1.2%
 White (other) 5.3%
 Mixed race 1.2%
 Indian 1.8%
 Pakistani 1.3%
 Bengali 0.5%
 Other Asian (non-Chinese) 0.4%
 Black Caribbean 1.0%
 Black African 0.8%
 Black (others) 0.2%
 Chinese 0.4%
 Other 0.4%
RELIGION
The United Kingdom has one of

the lowest levels of worship in the
world, with less than 8% of people
actually attending any form of
worship on a regular basis
The Church of England

The Church of Scotland
The Catholic Church
In the latter half of the 20th century, large scale immigration from the
Commonwealth countries has led to the introduction of other religions that are
popular amongst ethnic minorities. This has included religions such as Islam,
Hinduism and Buddhism.
THE GREAT BRITISH CLASS SURVEY
 The BBC Lab UK study measured economic

capital - income, savings, house value - and social
capital - the number and status of people someone
knows.
 The study also measured cultural capital, defined
as the extent and nature of cultural interests and
activities.
 Elite: This is the most privileged class in Great Britain who

have high levels of all three capitals. Their high amount of
economic capital sets them apart from everyone else.
 Established Middle Class: Members of this class have
high levels of all three capitals although not as high as the
Elite. They are a gregarious and culturally engaged class.
 Technical Middle Class: This is a new, small class with
high economic capital but seem less culturally engaged. They
have relatively few social contacts and so are less socially
engaged.
 New Affluent Workers: This class has medium levels of
economic capital and higher levels of cultural and social
capital. They are a young and active group.
 Emergent Service Workers: This new class has low

economic capital but has high levels of 'emerging' cultural
capital and high social capital. This group are young and
often found in urban areas.
 Traditional Working Class: This class scores low on all
forms of the three capitals although they are not the
poorest group. The average age of this class is older than
the others.
 Precariat: This is the most deprived class of all with low
levels of economic, cultural and social capital. The everyday
lives of members of this class are precarious.
POLITICAL AND
LEGISLATIVE SYSTEM OF
THE UK
The three main parts of Parliament
House of Commons House of Lords The Monarch
All of the MPs elected All of the Peers. They The King or Queen at
by UK citizens in the are unelected. They are the time. They have less
general election. nominated experts in power now but still have
Each represents their their fields. The Prime the final sign-off on
own constituency. Minister has a large say laws and on Peerages.
in who becomes a Peer.
Holding the government to
account Making and amending laws
Checking what departments are doing
Most of the draft laws going through
and how they are spending public money.
Parliament (called ‘bills’) will be
They do this by asking questions in the
government bills but everyone in
House of Commons and working on
Parliament can debate about them and
committees which run investigations
vote on them.
and make recommendations to the
government.
Roles of
Parliament
Representing UK Citizens
All MPs are voted for and it is their job to support and represent their
citizens. You can contact your MP no matter what your age. MPs will often help
with issues that people may not be able to get their local council to help with.
3
Government front bench: The Speaker: this is the person in
the Ministers in charge of Main opposition party
charge of the debate. They must front bench: the Shadow
government departments sit know all of the rules and will
here. They are chosen by the Ministers sit here. They are
discipline those who do not follow chosen by the Leader of the
Prime Minister and they make them, e.g. by banning them from
up the ‘Cabinet’. Sometimes Opposition. They have
voting. particular responsibility for
they are called ‘secretary of
state for...’. Members of the checking what the Minister
Cabinet can be chosen from the for the department they
House of Lords. shadow is doing.
Government back benches: Main opposition party

the back bench government MPs back benches: the back
sit in the benches behind. They bench main opposition
are not in charge of a party MPs sit here.
particular department.
Standing room: the

chamber is usually only full
up when there is a very
important vote which Second opposition party Second opposition party
everyone must attend or at front bench: this is for the back benches: for the
the yearly Royal State Shadow Ministers of the second opposition party back
Opening of Parliament. There opposition party with the benchers. The members of the
are more MPs than there are second biggest number of smaller opposition parties
seats so, on these occasions, votes. They are also chosen by sit behind these.
the leader of their party.
some have to stand up.
HOUSE OF COMMONS
 646 Members of Parliament +the Speaker of the House of

Commons
 THE SPEAKER:
 assisted by three Deputy Speakers – cannot speak or vote
 chosen after new Parliament is elected, by a vote after
agreement of party leaders
 must renounce party membership and stay neutral
 chairs and controls discussions
 imposes order in the house
 does not speak or take part in debates
 decides who’s going to speak next
 can ban an MP from the House
HOUSE OF COMMONS
 elected every five years

 works in annual sessions, each from mid-October –
August
 Each annual session begins with the State Opening
of Parliament by the Queen.
HOUSE OF COMMONS (Daily business)
 Prayers
 Sittings in both Houses begin with prayers. The practice of prayers is
believed to have started in about 1558.
In the Commons
 The Speaker's Chaplain usually reads the prayers. The form of the
main prayer is as follows:
"Lord, the God of righteousness and truth, grant to our Queen and her
government, to Members of Parliament and all in positions of responsibility,
the guidance of your Spirit. May they never lead the nation wrongly through
love of power, desire to please, or unworthy ideals but laying aside all
private interests and prejudices keep in mind their responsibility to seek to
improve the condition of all mankind; so may your kingdom come and your
name be hallowed. Amen."
In the Lords
 A senior Bishop (Lord Spiritual) who sits in the Lords usually reads the
prayers. Prayers are read at the beginning of each sitting.
http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld/ldcomp/ldctso58.htm
 Question Time
Question Time is an opportunity for MPs and Members of
the House of Lords to ask government ministers questions.
 Urgent Questions
If something has happened which an MP believes requires
an immediate answer from a Government Minister, they
may apply to ask an urgent question
 Ministerial statements
After Question Time (and any urgent questions that may
have been allowed) a Minister may make an oral statement
to the House.
 Main business (Debates)

The main business in both chambers often takes the
form of a debate. This includes debates on
legislation, general topics of interest or issues
selected by the major parties.
 Divisions
Members of both Houses register their vote for or
against issues by dividing into division lobbies.
Therefore, a vote is called a 'division'.
HOUSE OF LORDS
 There are no elections to the House of Lords

(hereditary chamber)
 the House of Lords Act 1999:
 presided over by Lord Speaker
 Lords Temporal - 92 hereditary peers
 Life Peers – 577
 Lords Spiritual: 2 Archbishops of the Church of
England (Canterbury and York); 24 senior bishops of
the Church of England
 Lords of Appeal in Ordinary (Law Lords) – 12
most senior judges in the land
HOUSE OF LORDS
FUNCTIONS
 discussing legislation the Lords can ONLY delay
passing a bill for six months
 cannot amend Money Bills (can delay them for
one month)
 play an essential role in improving bills, highlighting
problems and making them workable.
 The House of Lords plays an important role in
checking and challenging the decisions and actions
of the government through questions and debates.
PARLIAMENTARY BILLS
 Public Bills (Finance bills) introduced by the

government.
 Public Bills (Non finance bills) introduced
either by the government or the opposition.
 Private Members' Bills introduced by individual
MPs.
 Private Bills/Personal Bills introduced by local
authorities, a company or an individual – always
begin in the House of Lords
 Idea for an new law Laws are made in Parliament.
Before a law can be made, you must first have an idea for
a law called a ‘bill’.
 Starts in one House A bill can start in either House. It

must be discussed in both Houses before becoming a law.
 First Reading After the bill has been drafted it has its
First Reading. This is where the title of the bill is read out
in Parliament so that everyone knows about it.
 Second Reading This is where the bill is explained in
detail. Members of Parliament debate their reasons why
they might agree or disagree with it. They then vote on it
and the vote decides if it passes to the next stage.
 Committee Stage A small group of Members look at

the bill in detail and suggest changes.
 Report Stage The committee reports on the changes

they have made to the whole House.
 Third Reading The bill is read for a third time now that
changes have been made. The House votes on whether
they still want it to become a law.
 The other House The bill passes to the other House and
it goes through all of these stages again. The other House
may make changes and pass it back to the first House.
Both Houses must agree on the changes so it can pass
back and forth for up to a year.
 The Royal Assent The Queen is Head of State and must

agree to the bill. This is the final stage. The bill then
becomes an Act of Parliament.
THE UK GOVERNMENT
 The U.K. government is part of Her Majesty’s

Government in Parliament, accountable to
Parliament
 Deals with execution of policies, management of the
country
Logo and Arms of the government

FORMATION OF THE GOVERNMENT
 The monarch appoints a Prime Minister as the head

of Her Majesty's Government.
 The Prime Minister selects the other Ministers which
make up the Government and act as political heads of
the various Government Departments.
 Twenty of the most senior government ministers
make up the Cabinet.
 In total, there are about 100 ministers that comprise
the government. In accordance with constitutional
convention, all ministers within the government are
either Members of Parliament or peers in the House of
Lords.
PRIME MINISTER
 head of government – in practice the most powerful

politician in the United Kingdom
 primus inter pares (first among equals)
among Cabinet ministers
 leader of the majority party
 represents the nation in political matters
 makes recommendations for Queen’s official
appointments
 consults regularly with the monarch
 The Prime Minister is David Cameron MP
10 Downing Street 70 Whitehall
Prime minister's residence The Cabinet
CABINET
 heads of key Departments

and Ministries of the UK
government
 The Cabinet meets regularly
on Thursday mornings
THE COALITION
 The Conservative/Liberal Democrat coalition

government was formed on 10 May 2010. The
coalition agreement sets out a joint programme for
government to "rebuild the economy, unlock
social mobility, mend the political system and
give people the power to call the shots over
the decisions that affect their lives".
PARTY SYSTEM
THE CONSERVATIVE PARTY descended from the

18th-century Tories.
 gradual reforms – maintaining the existing order
 free enterprise and no government intervention in business
 lower taxes
 private ownership
 TRADITIONAL SOCIAL SUPPORT:

 upper and upper-middle classes
 property owners and businessmen
 COLOR: BLUE
PARTY SYSTEM
LABOUR PARTY - grew out of the British trade union

movement and socialist political parties at the turn of
the 19th century
 government protection irrespective of class, sex, age, color or creed
 social justice
 higher taxes
 pro-European
 policies are presented at annual conferences
TRADITIONAL SOCIAL SUPPORT:
 industry working class
 intellectuals working in public sector, education and social services
 low income people
 ethnic minorities
COLOR: RED
PARTY SYSTEM
 The Liberal Democrats - founded in 1988 as the

official alliance between the Liberal Party and The
Social Democratic Party
 strong support of the EU
 emphasis on local autonomy
 social liberalism
 TRADITIONAL SUPPORT:
 the middle ground between the Lab and Con
 Wales
 negative voting
COLOR: GOLD
What is a general election? A UK-wide vote where people vote for who they would
like to represent them in the House of Commons.
How often to they happen? Every 4-5 years.
There are no qualifications. You must be 21 years old or

Can anyone compete to over. Most candidates are members of a political party which
become an MP? has to nominate them. Some choose to stand as
independent candidates. This means they do not belong
to a political party.
How do we end up with one The UK is divided in to 650 areas called constituencies.
MP representing people Candidates from different parties compete to become the MP
from one area? for one constituency. People who live in that constituency
(called constituents) vote for the candidate they want to
represent them.
Which competing candidate The candidate with the most votes in each constituency
wins the constituency? becomes the Member of Parliament for that constituency.
This is called the first past the post system.
The party with the most candidates across the 650
How is the government wins the election. Their leader is the Prime Minister and
they choose Ministers to form the government. Most will be
formed?
chosen from the House of Commons but they can also be
chosen from the House of Lords.
LOCAL GOVERNMENT
 Members of county councils are elected for

three years at general elections. With district
council there may be an election every year, but
only one-third of the seats in each council are
filled at each annual election.
 Every local council has its presiding officer,
and this post is filled by the vote of the
whole council, for only one year at a time.
 The presiding officer of a county or district
council is called the Chairman
 All local councils work through
committees. Each council has a committee for
each of the main sections of its work.
LOCAL GOVERNMENT OF ENGLAND
29
Divisions
First level:
8 regions and Great London
Second level
Counties
Third level
Districts
Great London:
City of London
32 Boroughs
DIVISION OF ENGLAND
30
England
Eight Regions Greater London
84 Counties 34 Counties City of London 32 Boroughs
Districts
DIVISION OF SCOTLAND: UNITARY
Scotland
32
Council Areas
UNITARY AUTHORITIES OF WALES
32
Wales
22 principal areas
styled as "county", "county borough",
"city" or "city and county"
2013/10/22
DIVISION OF NORTHERN IRELAND
Northern
Ireland
22 4 6
Districts Cities Counties
2013/10/22
LEGAL SYSTEM
BRITISH CONSTITUTION
 uncodified the British Constitution does not exist as

a single document
 unitary
 flexible can be easily amended
 everyone is equal before the law
 parliamentary sovereignty
• Parliament is the highest authority in the country
• the Constitution can only be changed by Parliament
• Act of Parliament cannot be disputed in law courts
 separation of powers:
LEGISLATIVE EXECUTIVE JUDICIARY
BRITISH CONSTITUTION - SOURCES
 Statute law - Acts of Parliament

 Common law
 Conventions
 The law of the European Union
 Works of authority
Three distinct legal systems
Law of
the United Kingdom
English law Northern Ireland law

Scots law
(applies in (applies in
(applies in Scotland)
England and Wales) Northern Ireland)
English legal system
 based on common law, statute law and EU law
Scottish legal system
 similar to the continental systems
Northern Ireland legal system
 similar to the English system
The English legal system
STATUTE LAW COMMON LAW
ANCIENT
CUSTOMS
PARLIAMENT
JUDICIAL
EUROPEAN
PRECEDENTS
COMMUNITY
EQUITY LAW
Statute law and Common law
STATUTE LAW
= primary legislation
= set out in statutes voted by Parliament
= approved by the Monarch
(about 60% of Britain’s laws are EU laws)
COMMON LAW
= created by courts - in practice by the House of Lords
as the highest court of appeal
= developed through creation of precedents
there are no criminal or civil codes in Britain
COURT HIERARCHY
MAGISTRATES’ COURT
 deal with summary
cases
 96% of all criminal
matters; limited civil
matters (family
problems, divorce, road
traffic violations etc.)
 Limited powers of
punishment
-fines up to £ 5,000 for
each offence
-up to 6 months in prison
on each offense (1 year
max)
MAGISTRATES’ COURT
Justices of the Peace (JPs) District Judges (one on a case)

(usually three on a case) in metropolitan areas
 part-time judicial officials  qualified lawyers and full-time
chosen from the general public officials
 officially appointed by the Crown  appointed by the Crown on the
 no salary (only expenses); no advice of the Lord Chancellor
formal qualifications  paid by the state
 have some legal training –  sit alone to hear and decide
during court sessions advised by cases
legally-trained clerks  work mainly in large cities
 motivated by a desire to perform  deal with more serious and
a public service or by prestige difficult summary offences
 about 30,000 in England and
Wales
CROWN COURTS
 Situated in about 90
cities in England and
Wales
 Criminal offences
 Jury of 12 citizens
 the jury makes the
decision: guilty – not
guilty
COUNTY COURTS
 a local court of law

 deal with private quarrels between people
rather than with serious crimes
 90% of civil cases
 England and Wales are divided into 250 districts
with a county court for each district
 District judge sits alone when hearing cases
HIGH COURT
Main centre in London

Branches throughout England and Wales
1. THE QUEEN’S BENCH DIVISION

(contract, negligence cases)
2. CHANCERY COURT DIVISION
(commercial, financial, succession matters)
3. FAMILY DIVISION
(domestic issues: marriage, divorce, property, the
custody of children)
COURT OF APPEAL
 CRIMINAL DIVISION
 CIVIL DIVISION
 Permission granted by a lower court

 May quash the conviction, reduce the sentence,
give the heavier sentence or order a new trial
COURT SYSTEM IN SCOTLAND
COURTS OF NORTHERN IRELAND
Court49
of Judicature
(Appeals from the Court of Appeal and High Court）
Court of Appeal
（Appeals from the Crown Court, High Court,
county courts, and tribunals）
High Court
Queen's Bench Division | Family Division | Chancery
Division
County Court Crown Court

small claims court, district judges' court (Criminal cases)
and family care centres) 2013/10/22
LEGAL PROFESSION IN ENGLAND
SOLICITORS
 lower rank lawyers
 deal DIRECTLY with the client
 All solicitors in England and Wales are associated in a legal organization
called the Law Society
 Solicitors deal with:
all types of legal documentation
family matters
criminal and civil litigation
commercial cases
tax and financial affairs
representation of clients in lower courts
 Becoming a solicitor:
university degree (not necessarily in law)
passing Law Society exams
two-year apprenticeship with an established solicitor
SOLICITORS-ADVOCATE
 can represent clients in higher courts in England and
Wales and Scotland
BARRISTERS
 higher rank lawyers
 deal INDIRECTLY with the client – the client must be
introduced to a barrister by a solicitor
 perform two official functions:
give specialized advice on legal matters
act as advocates in the courts
JUDGES
 All judges are appointed by the Crown – usually from
senior barristers
 Senior judges cannot be removed from office until
retirement age of 75
 Junior judges can be dismissed for good reasons
until retirement age of 72
MONARCHY
KATARZYNA BUCZEK
 Elizabeth the Second,
by the Grace of God
of the United
Kingdom of Great
Britain and Northern
Ireland and of Her
other Realms and
Territories Queen,
Head of the
Commonwealth,
Defender of the Faith
 Head of State (of 16 countries)
 Head of the Executive
 Head of the Commonwealth – regular meetings
and visits
 Head of the Judiciary – “Fount of Justice”
 Supreme Governor of the Established Church of
England
 Commander-in Chief of the Armed Forces of the
Crown
 Duke of Normandy
 Lord of Mann
 Paramount Chief of Fiji
Monarchy
 Monarchy is the oldest form of government in

the United Kingdom.
 In a monarchy, a king or queen is Head of State.
The British monarchy is known as a constitutional
monarchy. This means that, while The Sovereign
is Head of State, the ability to make and pass
legislation resides with an elected Parliament.
 As a constitutional monarch, the Sovereign must
remain politically neutral.
 As Head of State, The Monarch undertakes
constitutional and representational duties
which have developed over one thousand years of
history.
 In addition, The Monarch has a less formal role as
'Head of Nation'.
The Sovereign acts as a focus for national
identity, unity and pride;
gives a sense of stability and continuity;
officially recognises success and excellence;
and supports the ideal of voluntary service.
Queen and Government
 As Head of State The Queen has to remain strictly

neutral with respect to political matters, unable to vote
or stand for election.
 The Queen's duties include:
opening each new session of Parliament,
dissolving Parliament before a general election,
approving Orders and Proclamations through the Privy
Council.
Queen is not allowed to enter the House of Commons
she opens the session of Parliament in the House of Lords
during a ceremony called State Opening of Parliament
with the Queen’s Speech
 Newly elected members of the: House of Commons, Scottish
Parliament, National Assembly for Wales must take an Oath of
Allegiance to the Queen:
I ..... swear by Almighty God that I will be
faithful and bear true allegiance to Her
Majesty Queen Elizabeth, her heirs and
successors, according to law. So help me God.
or a solemn affirmation
I ..... do solemnly, sincerely and truly declare
and affirm that I will be faithful and bear true
allegiance to Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth, her
heirs and successors, according to law.
The Royal Prerogative Practice
 Choice of PM (last time  Leader of the majority

Queen’s own choice in party in the COMMONS
1963) (not Lords)
 Appointment and
dismissal of government  PM’s advice (all ministers
ministers must be from Commons or
 Appointment of judges Lords)
and diplomats  Lord Chancellor and PM
 Appointment of Anglican  PM’s advice
bishops
The Royal Prerogative Practice
 Summoning Parliament  General election every 5

years
 Dissolving Parliament
 On Parliament’s consent
 Royal Assent  Not denied since 1708
 Power to make war and  Parliament’s decision
peace  Twice a year the Honours
 Awarding honors
List is prepared by the PM
 On the advice of
 Making international government and
treaties notification to Parliament
Queen and the Church of England
 The Sovereign holds the title 'Defender of the Faith

and Supreme Governor of the Church of
England'.
 Archbishops and bishops are appointed by The
Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister, who
considers the names selected by a Church
Commission.
 The connection between Church and State is also
symbolised by the fact that the 'Lords Spiritual'
(consisting of the Archbishops of Canterbury and York
and 24 diocesan bishops) sit in the House of Lords.
The Queen and the Armed Forces
 The Queen as Sovereign is Head of the Armed

Forces. She is also the wife, mother and grandmother
of individuals either having served, or are currently
serving, in the Armed Forces.
 The Queen is the only person to declare war and
peace.
 The Army and Air Force Acts require members
of the Army, Royal Air Force and Royal Marines to
take an oath of allegiance to the Monarchy as
Head of the Armed Forces.
The Royal Family serving in the
Armed Forces
 As Princess Elizabeth, The Queen joined the

Auxillary Territorial Service in 1945, becoming
the first female member of the Royal Family to be a
full-time active member of the Services.
 The Duke of Edinburgh served in the Royal Navy
from 1939 to 1952, seeing active service throughout the
Second World War.
 The Prince of Wales also served in the Royal Navy
and also trained in the Royal Air Force.
 The Duke of York served for over 20 years as an officer
in the Royal Navy before leaving the Service in 2001.
 Prince William served as a regimental officer in
the British Army before undertaking attachments
to The Royal Air Force and The Royal Navy. In
September 2008 it was announced that he would
train to become a full-time pilot with the Royal
Air Force’s Search and Rescue Force (SARF).
Military Honours and Awards
 Nominations for these awards are recommended to The

Queen via the Ministry of Defence.
 The Victoria Cross
The first British medal to be created for bravery
"for most conspicuous bravery, or some daring or pre-
eminent act of valour or self-sacrifice, or extreme devotion to
duty in the presence of the enemy."
 The George Cross
Instituted in 1940 by The Queen’s father King George VI
"for acts of the greatest heroism or of the most conspicuous
courage in circumstances of extreme danger."
 The Distinguished Service Order
Instituted in 1886, it recognises outstanding leadership
during active operations.
 Air Force Cross
The Air Force Cross is awarded "for gallantry while flying but
not on active operations against the enemy."
 The Royal Red Cross
The Royal Red Cross is only awarded to members of the
Nursing Services, and is given "for exceptional devotion and
competency in the performance of actual nursing duties.„
 The Elizabeth Cross
Instituted in 2009, and granted to the next of kin of Armed
Forces personnel killed on operations or as a result of
terrorism in a mark of national recognition for their loss.
Queen’s non-political roles
 personal embodiment of the country

 ceremonial duties
 prominence of monarchy – help to tourist industry
 powerful symbol of national unity, continuity
and national pride – the oldest secular institution
in the country
Monarchy in public life
 Royal Cypher
 Royal Mail – postage
stamps, mailboxes
 pound notes and
coinage
 Royal Charters - the
BBC; theatres such as the
Royal Opera House and
the Theatre Royal;
Britain's older
universities; professional
institutions and charities
Royal Family
Succession and precedence
 The order of succession is the sequence of

members of the Royal Family in the order in which
they stand in line to the throne.
 Precedence determines the seniority of
members of the Royal Family at official
events and is influenced by a variety of laws, and by
custom and tradition. Precedence among members
of the Royal Family at private events is a matter for
The Queen's discretion.
THE LINE OF SUCCESSION July 2013
1. The Prince of Wales 11. The Princess Royal

2. The Duke of Cambridge 12. Mr. Peter Phillips
13. Miss Savannah Phillips
3. Prince George of
14. Miss Isla Phillips
Cambridge
15. Mrs. Michael Tindall
4. Prince Henry of Wales 16. Viscount Linley
5. The Duke of York 17. The Hon. Charles
6. Princess Beatrice of York Armstrong-Jones
7. Princess Eugenie of York 18. The Hon. Margarita
8. The Earl of Wessex 19 The Lady Sarah Chatto
20. Mr. Samuel Chatto
9. Viscount Severn
21. Mr. Arthur Chatto
10. The Lady Louise 22. The Duke of Gloucester
Mountbatten-Windsor
ROYAL RESIDENCES
Maintained by the state:

 Windsor Castle, Windsor
 Buckingham Palace, London
 St James’s Palace, London
 Palace of Holyroodhouse, Edinburgh
 Kensington Palace, London
 Clarence House, London
Owned by the Queen:
 Balmoral Castle, Aberdeenshire
 Sandringham House, Norfolk
Buckingham Palace
Windsor Castle
St James's Palace
Balmoral Castle
RELIGION IN BRITAIN
 72% of the British population are nominally Christian

 No church in Britain is tied to a political party
 There are no religious (Christian) parties in the British
Parliament; there are no anti-clerical or anti-religious
party either
 72% Christian
 3% Muslim
 1% Hindu
 1% other religions
 15% no religion
 8% unknown
CHURCH OF ENGLAND
 The Church of England is organised into two

provinces; each led by an archbishop (Canterbury
for the Southern Province and York for the
Northern).
 Each province is built from dioceses.
 Each diocese is divided into parishes.
 Each parish is overseen by a parish priest (usually
called a vicar or rector).
The Church of England is the established church in
England; it is linked to the monarch and the state:
 The Queen is the Supreme Head of the Established
Church of England
 The Queen promises to maintain the Church and is a
full member of the Church of England
 The Queen bears the official title of Defender of the
Faith
 The Queen appoints bishops and archbishops of the
Church of England (on PM’s advice on the basis of lists
of candidates supplied by the Church)
 archbishops, bishops and parish priests of the Church
of England swear an oath of allegiance to the monarch.
‘I accept Your Majesty as the sole source of
ecclesiastical, spiritual and temporal power’
 bishops and archbishops may not resign without the
permission of the Queen
 the two archbishops and twenty-two senior bishops sit
in the House of Lords – they are known as Lords
Spiritual
 the British monarch opens the General Synod every
five years and gives assent to measures passed by the
Synod
Two strands of belief
Low Church (evangelicals)

(80% of church membership)
 plain services with minimum ceremony
 literal interpretation of the Bible
 conscious opposition to the papal doctrine and
Catholicism
High Church (Anglo-Catholics)
(20% of church membership)
 emphasis on church tradition

 Roman Catholic influences on practices and teaching
 more elaborate and colorful services
ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE
Two Provinces:
 Canterbury - established by the end of the 6th
century by St. Augustine - headed by the Archbishop
of Canterbury - the Primate of All England.
 York - headed by the Archbishop of York - the
Primate of England.
General Synod
is the national governing body of the Church
of England. It is an assembly consisting of:
 the House of Bishops,
 the House of Clergy
 the House of Laity
It meets 2-3 times a year and decides about
education, missions, social questions,
training of the ministry, interchurch
relations and care of church buildings.
ANGLICAN COMMUNION
 The Anglican Communion is a loose international

association of ‘particular or national churches’
throughout the world, most of them owing their
origins to the Church of England, and all in
communion with the Archbishop of
Canterbury.
Anglican Communion churches in the United Kingdom:
 Church of England
 Church in Wales
 Scottish Episcopal Church
 Church of Ireland
Anglican Communion churches worldwide:
 Anglican Church of Australia
 Anglican Church of Canada
 Church of Nigeria
 Church of North India
 Church of South India
 The Anglican Church of Southern Africa
Current questions
 disestablishment, the question whether the

Church of England should be separate from the state
 ordination of women priests
 first women ordained in the Church of England in 1994
 currently about 16% of Church of England priests are
women
 appointment of women bishops
 homosexuality of priests and bishops
CHURCH OF SCOTLAND (the Kirk)
 established by John Knox in 1560

 deriving from the Calvinist doctrine and stressing:
 finding the truth in oneself; hard work and self-sacrifice
 Presbyterian in nature, governed by elected
ministers and elders
 NO priests or bishops
 democratic structure – ministers are equal with each
other and include women
 separate from the Church of England
 The Queen promises to preserve the Church of
Scotland, but is not the Head of the Church of Scotland.
FREE CHURCHES
 non-established Protestant churches, which

broke away from the Church of England in the past
 refuse to accept bishops or hierarchical structures
 The Methodist Church the largest Free Church in
Britain
 The Baptists
 The United Reformed Church
 The Salvation Army
 The Religious Society of Friends
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH
 In Britain there are about five million Catholics, or

about one in 12 people.
 The Roman Catholic Church in the United Kingdom is
divided into:
8 provinces (4 in England, 2 in Scotland, 1 in Wales,
1 in Northern Ireland), each under the supervision of
an archbishop
 37 dioceses, each under the supervision of a bishop
 over 3,000 parishes
 The head of the Roman Catholic Church is the
Cardinal Archbishop of Westminster
HEALTH, EDUCATION
AND MEDIA
KATARZYNA BUCZEK
BRITISH ECONOMY
The United Kingdom is:

 a major trading nation and finance center
 the world’s fifth largest economy (after the USA,
Japan, Germany and China)
 the EU’s second largest economy
 the world’s second largest exporter of services
 the world’s sixth largest exporter of goods
 Primary sector (agriculture, fishing, mining):
1% of GDP, 1.4% of workforce
 Secondary sector (manufacturing and
construction): 25.6% of GDP, 18.2% of workforce
 Services: 73.4% of GDP, 80.4% of workforce
1/3 state-run industries and services
10% of British economy controlled by foreign
corporations (about 10% of workforce)
National Health Service
 NHS is directed from the centre
by the Department of Health.
 Local health bodies, known as
primary care trusts, are in
charge of providing services,
controlling the majority of the
budget. (152)
 PCTs are overseen by 10 regional
organisations called strategic
health authorities.
 GPs (General Practicioners)
have been handed control of the
purse strings by PCTs to
commission services as the NHS
tries to encourage more care to
be administered outside
hospitals.
 Over recent years funding
has been increasing by
record levels.
 Since Labour came to
power, it has more than
doubled the NHS budget
and by 2008 it tripled.
 At the time 6.8% of GDP
was spent on health
Pay
 Tony Blair's premiership has seen NHS pay rise

sharply.
 GPs, consultants and nurses have all negotiated new
contracts.
 Family doctors have benefited the most, seeing pay
more than double, and becoming among the best-
paid GPs in Europe in the process.
British Education System
Before 1870, education was voluntary and many of the existing

schools had been set up by churches
*only 40% of children aged 10 went to school regularly
 1870 – Elementary Education Act: state-funded free and
compulsory primary education (ages 5 to 10) (5 to 12 years in
1899)
 1944 Education Act stipulates that all children were given
the right to free secondary education (up to age of 15)
Introduction of a decentralized system:
central government – policy guidelines
local education authorities (LEAs) – practical control
The Education Reform Act 1988 provided for the
establishment of a National Curriculum for 5-16
year-olds and regular examinations
→brought a big change (reintroduced competition between
schools)
 The national curriculum occupies not less than 70% of
the school timetable, the rest of the time - used for subjects
of the school’s choosing.
National Curriculum
divided into Key Stages 1-4

 5–7 Key Stage 1
The Present Education System
State schools and public schools

 state schools: funded by local and central
government
 public schools: receive their funding through the
private sector, tuition rates and government
assistance
STATE SCHOOLS
 pre-school education (age 3-5) non-compulsory (e.g.

nursery schools, play groups, kindergartens)
 primary schools (age 5-11)
 secondary schools (age 11 – 16)
state comprehensive schools
grammar schools (Selective, they offer
academically oriented general education. Entrance is
based on a test of ability)
 sixth form (16-18) can be part of a secondary school or

a separate sixth form college
PUBLIC SCHOOLS
 pre-preparatory schools (age 4-8)

 preparatory schools (age 8-13)
 public schools and other independent schools (age
13 – 18)
single-sex, mostly (and historically) for boys only
originally established by English kings and queens to
offer education to the sons of aristocratic families
predominantly boarding schools
very expensive – from 10,000 to 20,000 pounds a year
criticized for being elitist, socially divisive
After 1840 first public school for girls are
introduced
 There are nine famous public schools:
Winchester, Eton, St. Paul’s, Shrewsbury,
Westminister, Merchant Taylor’s, Rugby, Harrow
and Charterhouse.
 Eton –the most famous school in the world, Britain’s
biggest boarding school and educator of its social elite
since 1440. So far the school has educated 19 Prime
Ministers. Its literary figures include Henry Fielding,
Percy Shelley, George Orwell. It was founded in 1440 by
King Henry VI. In the past, almost all the students
coming from upper class families. Now sons of accountants,
doctors or businessmen also have access to it.
 Eton is a public school for boys age 13-18. Almost all
the pupils go on to study A levels, 90% will go on to
university, a quarter to Oxford and Cambridge. The
pupil/teacher ration is 9.5 to one, while in state
secondary school the ratio is 20 to one.
EXAMS
 age of 16 → GCSE exams

The General Certificate of Secondary Education is taken
at the end of compulsory education at the age of 16. The results
often help the students and their parents to made a choice
whether they will go to college or not.
About 70% of 16 year old pupils choose to continue in full-time
education. After two-year study, three or four subjects are
taken in the examination of the General Certificate of
Education- Advanced level (GCE A level). The grades
obtained in GCE A level are the main basis whether the students
can go to college or not.
 age of 18 or 19 → A-levels exams(after 2 years in the
Sixth Form)
HIGHER EDUCATION
 universities
 independent bodies
 deciding about their own degrees, staff and admissions
 relying in large part on government money
 colleges (institutes) of higher education

since the 1970s, e.g. Royal College of Art, Royal
Academy of Dramatic Arts, etc.
Degrees awarded
 Bachelor of Arts (BA) or Bachelor of Science (BSc) –

after three years of full-time study.
 Master of Arts (MA) or Master of Science (MSc) after a
further one year full-time or two year part-time study.
 Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) – after at least three years
of original research.
Leading universities in UK
Rank University
1 University of Cambridge
2 University of Oxford
3 London School of Economics
4 School of Oriental and African Studies
5 University College, London
6 The University of York
7 Imperial College, London
8 University of Nottingham
9 University of Warwick
10 King's College, London

UNIVERSITIES
ANCIENT UNIVERSITIES
founded before the 19th century
England: Oxbridge
 University of Oxford (1167)
 University of Cambridge (1209)
Scotland:
 University of St Andrews (1413)
 University of Glasgow (1451)
 University of Aberdeen (1495)
 University of Edinburgh (1582)
Ireland:
 University of Dublin (Trinity College, Dublin) (1592)
early 19th-century English universities
 University of London (1836)
redbrick universities
civic universities chartered in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries in industrial cities of northern England
 University of Bristol
 University of Leeds
 University of Liverpool
 University of Manchester
plate glass universities
chartered in the 1960s
 University of Essex
 University of Kent
 University of Lancaster
 University of Sussex
 University of York
new universities
created after 1992 from polytechnics and colleges of higher
education through the Further and Higher Education Act
1992
Media
 print media (newspapers and magazines)

 broadcasting media (radio, terrestrial television,
cable/satellite television)
National newspapers
 mostly based in London

 available in all parts of the UK on the same day with
regional versions
 there are 12 daily national newspapers and 11
Sunday national newspapers in the UK today
 all national dailies are morning papers
 tendency to become smaller but contain more pages
 no state control or censorship
 no paper in Britain receives government funding
 no paper in Britain is an organ of a political party,
although all of them are traditionally in favor of one or
another party
British national papers
 tabloids (down-market press, popular press, small-

sheets, red-tops, gutter press)
 mid-market press
 quality press (up-market press, broadsheets, heavies)
 There are about 1,300 regional and local papers in

Britain. They do not belong to the big press empires
and their local editors decide on their editorial policy.
TABLOIDS
 small size
 enormous (‘screaming’) headlines and
illustrations
 simple style and language
 ‘human interest’ stories, sex, scandals
 down-market advertising
 much larger sales than broadsheets
Daily Mirror (est. 1903) – owned by Trinity Mirror
The Sun (est. 1964) – owned by News International
Daily Star (est. 1978) – owned by Express Newspapers
Daily Sport (est. 1991) – owned by Sport Newspapers
QUALITY PRESS
 serious articles and editorials

 more expensive than popular papers
 recently many traditional broadsheets have
become ‘compact’ or ‘tabloid’ IN FORMAT
 up-market advertising
The Times (est. 1785) - owned by News International
The Guardian (est. 1821) – owned by Guardian Newspapers
The Daily Telegraph (est. 1855) – owned by Telegraph Group
Financial Times (est. 1888) – owned by Pearson
The Independent (est. 1986) – owned by Independent Newspapers
SUNDAYS
 often sister papers of national dailies sharing the

same ownership
 entirely different editorial boards and groups
of journalists
 thicker than dailies
 larger sections on arts and literature
 color supplements
 selling more copies than dailies
Sunday Mirror (est. 1963) – owned by Trinity Mirror
Daily Star Sunday – owned by Express Newspapers
The Observer (est. 1791) – owned by Guardian Newspapers
The Sunday Times (est. 1822) – owned by News International
The Sunday Telegraph (est. 1961) – owned by Telegraph Group
British Newspapers
The Daily Telegraph (daily quality newspaper): Conservative

http://www.telegraph.co.uk
The Daily Mail (daily mid-market newspaper):
http://www.dailymail.co.uk
The Financial Times (daily quality newspaper):
http://www.ft.com
The Times (daily quality newspaper):
http://www.timesonline.co.uk
The Sunday Times (weekly quality newspaper):
http://www.sunday-times.co.uk
The Sun (daily popular newspaper):
http://www.thesun.co.uk
The Independent (daily quality newspaper):
http://www.independent.co.uk
The Daily Mirror (daily popular newspaper):
http://www.mirror.co.uk
The Guardian (daily quality newspaper): Liberal-socialist
http://www.guardian.co.uk
Periodicals and magazines
 about 8,500 periodicals and magazines all over

the UK most of them are based in London with
nationwide circulation aimed at different
professional groups or consumers
The Economist (est. 1843)
New Statesman (est. 1913)
The Spectator (est. 1828)
The Week (est. 1995)
Prospect (est. 1995)
New Scientist (1956)
Private Eye (est. 1961)
Press Complaints Commission
 financed by newspaper owners

 guards the freedom of the press
 maintains high standards of journalism
 judges complaints by the public against the press
 has adopted its own Editors’ Code of Practice
THE EDITORS' CODE
 All members of the press have a duty to maintain the

highest professional standards. The Code, which
includes this preamble and the public interest
exceptions below, sets the benchmark for those
ethical standards, protecting both the rights of the
individual and the public's right to know. It is the
cornerstone of the system of self-regulation to which
the industry has made a binding commitment.
 Accuracy
The Press must take care not to publish inaccurate, misleading
or distorted information, including pictures.
 Opportunity to reply
A fair opportunity for reply to inaccuracies must be given when
reasonably called for.
 Privacy
 Everyone is entitled to respect for his or her private and family
life, home, health and correspondence, including digital
communications.
 Editors will be expected to justify intrusions into any
individual's private life without consent. Account will be taken
of the complainant's own public disclosures of information.
 It is unacceptable to photograph individuals in private places
without their consent.
 Harassment
Journalists must not engage in intimidation,
harassment or persistent pursuit.
They must not persist in questioning, telephoning,
pursuing or photographing individuals once asked to
desist; nor remain on their property when asked to
leave and must not follow them.
 Intrusion into grief or shock
In cases involving personal grief or shock, enquiries
and approaches must be made with sympathy and
discretion and publication handled sensitively.
 Children
Young people should be free to complete their time
at school without unnecessary intrusion.
A child under 16 must not be interviewed or
photographed on issues involving their own or
another child’s welfare unless a custodial parent or
similarly responsible adult consents.
 Children in sex cases
The press must not, even if legally free to do so,
identify children under 16 who are victims or
witnesses in cases involving sex offences.
BROADCASTING
 1922 – the British Broadcasting Company is founded

 1927 – the British Broadcasting Company receives its
Royal Charter and becomes the British Broadcasting
Corporation (BBC)
 1954 – the Independent Television Authority (ITA) is
founded to supervise independent television financed by
advertising
 PUBLIC SECTOR – British Broadcasting

Corporation (BBC) – financed by the TV license fee
 INDEPENDENT SECTOR– commercial stations
and channels – financed by advertising revenue
The main channels
 BBC 1 - since 1936, general interest programmes.

 BBC 2 - minority and specialist interests.
 ITV – (Channel 3 since 1955) is approximately
33% informative and 66% light entertainment.
 Channel 4 - since 1982, 15% educational
programmes, encourages innovation and
experiment.
 Channel 5 – since 1997
The BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation)
 Six national stations.

 Broadcasts: BBC 1, 2, 4, BBC News 24, BBC Choice, BBC
Parliament.
 Radio Channels.
 No advertising.
 Worldwide television services (BBC World, BBC Prime)
 the largest broadcaster in the world
 public service broadcaster with high ideals
 reputation for impartial news reporting and high quality
programmes
 owned by the State but not controlled by the government
 independent of government and commercial interests
THE PUBLIC FUNCTIONS OF THE BBC
 sustaining citizenship and civil society;

 promoting education and learning;
 stimulating creativity and cultural excellence;
 representing the UK, its nations, regions and
communities;
 bringing the UK to the world and the world to the
UK;
 helping to deliver to the public the benefit of
emerging communications technologies and services,
and taking a leading role in the switchover to digital
television.
 Funding
 mandatory licence fee
 about 11 pounds per month per household
 free to the elderly
 sales of TV productions
 sales of Radio Times and other publications
 subscriptions and pay services
 advertising and sponsorship are NOT
permitted on the BBC

BBC WORLD SERVICE
 one of the largest international radio networks in the world

 established in 1932 as the BBC Empire Service
 currently broadcasting in 32 languages
 funded by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office – the
only BBC service to receive subsidies from the
government
 during WWII and Cold War identified with principles of
democracy and freedom of speech, broadcasting to Nazi-
and Soviet-occupied Europe
 aimed to "be the world's best-known and most-respected
voice in international broadcasting, thereby bringing
benefit to Britain"
Introduction to the USA
KATARZYNA BUCZEK
“BIG GEOGRAPHY.”
The United States is bordered by:
•CANADA to the
north.
•MEXICO to the
south.
•THE PACIFIC
OCEAN to the
west.
•THE ATLANTIC
OCEAN to the
east.
REGIONS
 Region 1 Northeast
 Division 1 New England
 Division 2 Mid-Atlantic
 Region 2 Midwest
 Division 3 East North Central
 Division 4 West North Central
 Region 3 South
 Division 5 South Atlantic
 Division 6 East South Central
 Division 7 West South Central
 Region 4 West
 Division 8 Mountain
 Division 9 Pacific
The Northeast The South
 Industrial and financial  Rich farmlands grow cotton,
centers tobacco, and citrus fruit.
 Economy: banks, investment  This region is becoming more
firms, insurance companies, urban and industrialized.
respected universities
 Atlanta metropolis has
 Rich farmland, coal, steel grown from 1 million in 1960 to
production, and fishing 4 million today.
 Most densely populated  Research Triangle in North
region in the U.S. with 40 Carolina is growing high-tech
million people area.
 Cities from Boston to  Texas Coast areas have huge oil
Washington, D.C. form a refineries and petrochemical
megalopolis, or a string of plants.
large cities that have grown
together.  Important trade centers with
Mexico and Central and South
 Cities founded in colonial era American countries. E.g., Miami
became important seaports.
The Midwest and the West
The Midwest The West

 One of the most productive  Large open spaces with major cities
farming regions in the world on the Pacific Coast
 Crops: corn, wheat, and soybeans  More than 10 percent of the
nation lives in California,
 Dairy farms in Wisconsin, where farming, technology, and
Michigan, and Minnesota entertainment are important
 Major cities are located near the industries.
Mississippi and Ohio Rivers and  Mineral resources: coal, oil, gold,
the Great Lakes because products silver, copper, and others
are easily shipped to and from
these centers.  Oregon and Washington: forestry
and fishing
 Detroit, Michigan, is the
country’s leading automobile  Seattle: Washington’s largest city
producer. with many industries.
 Chicago, Illinois, is the third  Alaska: oil, forests, and fish
largest city in the nation.
 Hawaii: pineapple, sugarcane,
and tourism
New England
 low coastal plains,

 mountain hills in the
west and fertile valleys,
 cold and windy winters.
Middle Atlantic
 the largest impact on the

economic, financial and
cultural affairs of the
country
 fertile valleys
 large mineral deposits
 farm lands
 heavily industrialized
areas are : NYC,
Philadelphia, DC,
Baltimore
The South
The South
 mild climate with plentiful
rainfall;
 frequent hurricanes from the
Caribbean.
 crude oil extraction along the
Gulf of Mexico,
 electrical power production
 tourism - mainly Florida.
 tobacco - Kentucky, North
Carolina
 rice – Arkansas
 peanuts - Georgia
 tropical fruit - Florida
The Midwest
The Midwest
 one of the richest and most
productive agricultural regions
in the world
 two characteristic areas of the
regions are the Great Plains
and Great Lakes.
 the main suppliers of food for
the country
 fertile soil, a comparatively
mild climate
 steel centers of Chicago,
Cleveland, Detroit
 chemical industry - Illinois
 car industry - Detroit
 agriculture related industry -
Iowa.
Rocky Mountain
Rocky Mountain
 1,000 peaks in the  national parks offer some

Colorado Rockies that of the most spectacular
measure upward of sights in the world
3,000m in height (Yellowstone)
 the area includes the  The Rocky Mountain
Great Salt Desert in region is rich in minerals
western Utah, and the like gold, silver, copper,
famous Death Valley lead, uranium
 population density of less  winter resort centers
than one person per (Aspen)
square mile
Pacific Coast
 the greatest fruit growing

region in North America
 California' s San Pedro -
chief fishing port
 most of the planes for the
world' s commercials
airlines are built either in
Washington or California
Southwest
 Santa Fe, New Mexico,

dating back to 1610, is
the oldest seat of
government in the
United States
 dry, ethnically mixed.
 air and space industry -
New Mexico,
 tourism - most beautiful
national parks are
located here.
National Parks
 Arches National Park -
Utah
 Everglades National
Park - Florida
 Grand Canyon National
Park - Arizona
 Olympic National Park -
Washington
 Rocky Mountain
National Park - Colorado
 Yellowstone National
Park -
Wyoming/Montana,
founded in 1872, the
first national park in the
world
The climate of the United States
East and South Interior Plains West

Northeast: Humid Most of the • West: Mostly dry
continental climate region: A • Pacific Northwest
with snowy humid coast: A wet, mild
winters and warm, continental coastal climate
humid summers climate
• Alaska: Sub-arctic
South: Humid Great Plains: and tundra climates
subtropical climate Hot and dry
summers • Hawaii: A warm,
with milder
tropical climate
winters and warm,
humid summers
Florida: Warm all
year
The United States
 9.6 million
sq km
 6.2% of world
land
 the world’s
third largest
country after
Russia and
Canada.
 50 states (48
mainland+
Alaska and
Hawaii
STATES
Have their own:  Washington D.C.

 capital (District of Columbia)
 constitution  founded 1790; federal
 government (Congress,
capital since 1800
Governor, State Supreme  run by the D.C. Council
Court) under direct power of the
 administration
U.S. Congress
 represented by a non-
 legal system
voting delegate to the
House of Representatives

Time zones
POPULATION
 317 million
 third most populated country in the world after
China and India
 One birth every 8 seconds
 One death every 12 seconds
 One international migrant every 44 seconds
 The Americans aredouble citizens: of the United
States and the state they live in.
The 10 largest cities in the United States
Population Shifts
No Ethnic Minority
Has a Majority
28
Globalization & Diversity: Rowntree, Lewis, Price,

Wyckoff
The people and culture of the
United States
Hispanic Americans Native Americans African Americans
• Many came from • most live in the • African
Mexico, Cuba, and west, Americans live in
other Latin particularly in every region, but
American Arizona and southern
countries. New Mexico. states and
many large
• Most live in the cities have a
southwestern higher
states that border percentage.
Mexico.
European Descendents Asian Americans

• About 7 out of every 10 people • Live mostly in California
CITIZENSHIP
The US citizens are:

 people born in the United States (all citizens are
both under federal and state jurisdiction)
 children of American citizens traveling
abroad, born outside of the United States.
They are only the citizens of the Union, not a
particular state.
 people born in U.S. territories (without the
right to vote).
Naturalization
 People who are born outside the United States can also
become U.S. citizens through the process of
naturalization. Naturalized citizens have the same
rights as born citizens, but they cannot candidate for
the office of President and Vice President.
Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952:
 be at least 18-years old
 have entered the US legally and are staying there legally
 be a resident of the US for five years (at least six months
in the state of residence)
 be of good moral character
 support the principles of the U.S. Constitution
NATIONAL SYMBOLS
 Great Seal of the

United States of
America
 The Secretary of State is
the official custodian of
the Great Seal of the
United States. It is only
attached to certain
documents, such as
foreign treaties and
presidential
proclamations.
 Eagle: In the center of the
seal is a bald eagle. The eagle
holds a scroll in its beak
inscribed with the Latin
motto
E pluribus Unum - which
means Out of Many, One
(one nation created from 13
colonies). The eagle grasps an
olive branch in its left talons
and a bundle of thirteen
arrows in its right. The olive
branch and arrows are
symbols for the power of
peace and war.
 Shield: A shield with thirteen
red and white stripes covers the
eagle's breast. The shield is
supported solely by the
American eagle as a symbol
that Americans rely on
their own virtue.
 The red and white stripes of the
shield represent the states
united under and supporting
the blue, which represents the
President and Congress.
The color white is a symbol of
purity and innocence; red
represents hardiness and
valor; and blue signifies
perseverance, and justice.
 Cloud: Above the eagle's
head is a cloud
surrounding a blue field
containing thirteen stars
which form a
constellation. The
constellation denotes
that a new State is taking
its place among other
nations.
 Pyramid: The seal's reverse
side contains a 13-step pyramid
with the year 1776 in Roman
numerals at the base.
 Eye: At the top of the pyramid
is the Eye of Providence with
the Latin motto Annuit
Coeptis meaning It (the Eye of
Providence) is favorable to our
undertakings or He favors our
undertakings.
 Scroll: Below the pyramid, a
scroll reads Novus Ordo
Seclorum - Latin for New
Order of the Ages. which refers
to 1776 as the beginning of the
American new era.
FLAG
The flag of the United States of

America has
 13 horizontal stripes 7 red
and 6 white-the red and
white stripes alternating
 a union which consists of
white stars on a blue field.
The number of stars equals
the number of States in the
Union.
WHITE – purity & innocence
RED – hardness & valor
BLUE –perseverance & justice
Flag Day
 the birthday of the Stars and Stripes, which came into

being on June 14, 1777. At that time, the Second
Continental Congress authorized a new flag to symbolize
the new Nation, the United States of America.
 The first national observance of Flag Day occurred June
14, 1877
 It was not until 1949 that Congress made this day a
permanent observance by resolving "That the 14th day
of June of each year is hereby designated as Flag
Day” . The measure was signed into law by President
Harry Truman.
 Flag Day is not celebrated as a Federal holiday
National anthem
 In 1814, Francis Scott Key wrote new words for a

well-known drinking song, "To Anacreon in
Heaven" to celebrate America's recent victory over
the British.
 However, only in 1931, following a twenty-year
effort during which more than forty bills and joint
resolutions were introduced in Congress, was a law
finally signed proclaiming "The Star Spangled
Banner" to be the national anthem of the United
States.
LIBERTY BELL
 Cast in London in 1752, the

original liberty bell cracked
on the very first strike in
Philadelphia after arriving
from England.
 On July 8, 1776, the Liberty
Bell summoned citizens of
Philadelphia for the
reading of the Declaration
of Independence.
The Statue of Liberty
 Dedicated in 1886, "Liberty

Enlightening the World"
(known as The Statue of
Liberty) is a gift from
France to the United States
of America to
commemorate the 100-year
anniversary of the birth of
liberty in the US. and the
end of slavery after the Civil
War. She has since become
a universal symbol of
freedom, embraced by
advocates of self-
government the world over.
 The American bald eagle
was adopted as the
official bird emblem of
the United States of
America in 1782.
 Founding father
Benjamin Franklin
wanted the wild turkey
to be adopted as the
national emblem
Benjamin Franklin in a letter to his
daughter:
 "For my own part I wish the
Bald Eagle had not been
chosen the Representative of
our Country. He is a Bird of
bad moral Character. He does
not get his Living honestly. You
may have seen him perched on
some dead Tree near the River,
where, too lazy to fish for
himself, he watches the Labour
of the Fishing Hawk; and when
that diligent Bird has at length
taken a Fish, and is bearing it
to his Nest for the Support of
his Mate and young Ones, the
Bald Eagle pursues him and
takes it from him…”
THE UNITED STATES
POLITICAL SYSTEM
KATARZYNA BUCZEK
FEDERALISM
FEDERALISM
Powers denied to the Powers denied to state

federal government governments
 taxing exports among  printing money

states  conducting their own
 changing state foreign policy
boundaries  keeping their own
military
 violating the Bill of
 taxing agencies of the
Rights
federal governments
 taxing imports or
exports
Separation of powers
 The Founders created 4 institutions of government:

 Presidency
 Supreme Court
 Senate
 House of Representatives (Senate + House=
Congress)
 Each institution:
 Has separate membership
 Is chosen by a different method
 Is chosen for a different length of time

Institution Selection Method Term
President Electoral College 4 years
Senate Elected (states) 6 years
House of Reps Elected (districts within 2 years

states)
Supreme Court Nominated by Life

President. Needs
approval of Senate.
 No person can serve in two institutions at the

same time
 In 2008 Obama and Biden were members of the Senate when
they were elected to the presidency and vice presidency
 On election to the executive branch, their seats in the Senate
became vacant
 Each branch of the government share decision-
making and also has the ability to check the
other two.
 It prevents any branch from exercising too
much power.
EXECUTIVE LEGISLATIVE JUDICIAL

BRANCH BRANCH BRANCH
FEDERAL President Congress Supreme

Court
STATE Governor State Congress State Supreme
Court
LOCAL Mayor Council city judges
(city)
Checks and Balances: Power-sharing
 The term ‘separation of powers’ is misleading

 Power holders are separated between different
institutions
 But many powers are shared between
institutions
 Better description:
‘Separated institutions sharing powers’ (Neustadt,
1960)
Checks and Balances: Power-sharing
 Shared legislative powers:

President can veto bills passed by Congress to prevent them
becoming law (e.g. George W. Bush vetoed 12 bills in his 8
years in office)
 Shared executive powers:
President appoints senior members of the executive branch
subject to Senate confirmation (e.g. 2013- John Kerry
confirmed as Secretary of State to replace Hilary Clinton)
 Shared judicial powers:
Justices and other officials, including the president can
be impeached (removed from office) in a trial conducted by
the Senate on charges drawn up the House of Representatives
Checks and Balances
 Congress checks the President [through

confirmations of appointments, approval of bills]
 Congress checks the Supreme Court
[appointments, limiting the right to appeal]
 The President checks the Supreme Court (and
lower courts) [appointment]
 The President checks Congress [veto power]
War Power
 Article 1, section 8 of the Constitution says:

‘Congress shall have the power to….Declare war…’
 The Constitution gives the president no role in
declaring war
 At the constitutional convention one delegate
proposed giving the president the power to declare
war but no seconder could be found for the proposal
and it was not put to a vote
War power in practice
 Congress has only declared 5 wars. (last time 1942)

 US involvement in wars in Korea, Vietnam, Kuwait, Iraq,
Afghanistan etc were started without a declaration of war by
Congress
 In practice, presidents start wars
 On occasions they have requested approval from Congress
(but not always)
 When President Bush senior asked for authorization of war
against Iraq in 1991 he stated that he was not required to do
this
 The war power is an example of the growth of presidential
power since the Constitution came into effect
THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED
STATES
 The U.S. Constitutions consists of:

thePREAMBLE,
seven ARTICLES
twenty-seven AMENDMENTS
Originally designed for 13 states, today it functions
well in 50 states
In comparison, the Constitution of the Republic of
Poland from 1997 consists of thirteen Chapters and 243
Articles
Chronology
 1774: First Continental Congress

 1775: Battle of Lexington, Battle of Concord, Second
Continental Congress
 1776: Declaration of Independence
 1777: Third Continental Congress, Articles of
Confederation drafted
 1781: Articles of Confederation signed
 1783: Treaty of Paris signed, ending war
 1787: Committee to revise Articles of Confederation -
Constitutional Convention
 1788: Constitution ratified
The Birth of Political Parties
Federalists Anti-Federalists
Alexander Hamilton (the founder of Thomas Jefferson (author of the
the nation's financial system) Declaration of Independence (1776)
Government and the third President of the United
States)
 Rule by rich and well
 Government
educated
 Rule by everybody
 New government should favor
merchants, manufacturers, and  New government should favor
lawyers farmers, artisans, and poor classes
 Strong central government  Weak central government,
with a strong president power given to the states to reflect
 Favored industry
individual interests
 Centralized banking and create
 Favored agriculture and farming
debt spending  Low taxes, small tariffs
 Loose interpretation of the  Strict interpretation of the
Constitution Constitution
 The North  The South
THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED
STATES
PRINCIPLES OF THE CONSTITUTION
 ALL PERSONS ARE EQUAL BEFORE THE

LAW - and are equally entitled to its protection
 ALL STATES ARE EQUAL – none receives
special treatment from the U.S. government
 PEOPLE HAVE THE RIGHT TO CHANGE
THE CONSTITUTION – by the means of
democratically elected bodies
Structure of the U.S. Constitution
THE PREAMBLE
 We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more
perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility,
provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare,
and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our
Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the
United States of America.
 a formal introduction to the text of the Constitution
that outlines the intentions of the Founding Fathers
and the philosophy of the U.S government.
Structure of the U.S. Constitution
 Articles I-III  Amendments I-X

 Bill of Rights
 Separates power into
 Amendment XI-XII
three branches of
 Organization of
government Government
 Art. I-Leg.; Art. II-  Amendment XIII-XV
Exec.; Art. III-Judic.  Civil Rights Amendments
 Slave Amendments
 Articles IV-VII
 Amendments XVI-XIX
 Power of Law
 Progressive Amendments
 Power of  Amendments XX-XXI
Constitution  New Deal Amendments
 Amendments XXII-XXVII
 Great Society Amendments
THE ARTICLES
 I. THE LEGISLATIVE ARTICLE

It defines the legislative power in the House of Representatives
(lower chamber) and the Senate (upper chamber)
The article outlines the composition, qualifications and impeachment
power of the Houses
 II. THE EXECUTIVE ARTICLE
It describes the nature and scope of presidential power in the United
States as well as individual powers and duties of the President of the
United States.
 III. THE JUDICIAL ARTICLE
It talks about judicial power, courts and judges in the United States.
The judicial power of the United States is vested in the Supreme Court
The establishment of other courts of law is left to the Congress.
THE ARTICLES
 IV. INTERSTATE RELATIONS

Article IV describes relations between states.
Laws of one state should be honored by all other states, and each
state should treat citizens of other states like their own.
It regulates admission of new states to the Union.
The article guarantees a republican form of government to
every state by the United States and protection by the United
States of each state against invasion and internal rebellion.
 V. THE AMENDING POWER
Article V discusses the procedure of amending of the United
States Constitution.
Step 1 – Must Be Proposed (happens at the national level)
Step 2 – Must Be Ratified (happens at the state level)
THE ARTICLES
 VI. THE SUPREMACY CLAUSE

Article VI establishes the Constitution of the United States as the
“Supreme Law of the Land”
Federal laws are always supreme over state laws
 VII. RATIFICATION
Article VII states that the Constitution is ratified, if nine out of
thirteen states ratify it (the New Hampshire ratification in 1788)
The First Ten Amendments
 Known as the Bill of Rights

 Unlike the Articles, which discuss mainly political
institutions and procedures, the Bill of Rights is
concerned with the rights and freedoms of all
people living in the United States.
The 1st Amendment
 Freedom of Religion
 Establishment Clause – government cannot
establish a religion
 Free Exercise Clause – government cannot
prohibit you from practicing religion
 Freedom of Speech
 Freedom of the Press
 Right to Assembly
 Right to Petition
The 2nd Amendment
 The Right to Bear Arms

 Not the Right to Bare Arms
The 3rd Amendment
 troops may not be quartered in homes in

peacetime
The 4th Amendment
 the government may not search or take a

person's property without a warrant.
The 5th Amendment
 No Double Jeopardy (Can’t be charged with the

same crime twice)
 Protection against self-incrimination
 Guarantee of Due Process of Law
The 6th Amendment
 Right to a Criminal Trial by Jury

 Trial must be speedy, public
 Must be in the state where the crime was committed
 Right to legal counsel
 Right to call witnesses favorable to the defendant
The 7th Amendment
 Right to a Civil Trial by Jury

 Civil – not criminal, typically a lawsuit for money or to
repeal a government action
The 8th Amendment
 Protection Against Cruel and Unusual

Punishment
The 9th Amendment
 Rights Retained by the People

 In other words, just because a right isn’t listed here in the
Constitution doesn’t mean that people don’t have that
right
The 10th Amendment
 Powers Reserved for the States

 All powers that are not given to the national government
are reserved for the states
OTHER AMENDMENTS (1795-1992)
 Amendment 13 (1865) – PROHIBITION OF

SLAVERY – ended slavery in the United States.
 Amendment 15 (1870) – THE RIGHT TO VOTE -
guarantees that the right to vote cannot be denied to
black people or former slaves.
 Amendment 16 (1913) – INCOME TAXES - gave
Congress the right to set up an income tax on the
money people earn.
 Amendment 18 (1919) – PROHIBITION -
declared it illegal to make or sell alcohol in the
United States.
OTHER AMENDMENTS (1795-1992)
 Amendment 19 (1920) – THE RIGHT TO VOTE FOR

WOMEN
 Amendment 21 (1933) – REPEAL OF PROHIBITION
– repealed the 18th Amendment
 Amendment 25 (1967) – PRESIDENTIAL
DISABILITY, VICE PRESIDENTIAL VACANCIES -
Established that the Vice President acts as President if
the President is disabled.
 Amendment 26 (1971) – EIGHTEEN-YEAR-OLD
VOTE - Extends the right to vote to citizens who are at
least 18 years old.
 Amendment 27 (1992) – CONGRESSIONAL
SALARIES – established fixed Congressional salaries
THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED
STATES
STATES
 both the chief of state and the head of

government
 the only officer elected by the whole people
 the national leader and the only representative of the
whole nation
 chief administrator
 chief political officer
 chief financial office
 chief law enforcer
STATES
 The President is elected by the people, through the

electoral college to a four-year term
 Each term of office begins with official Inauguration on
January 20, following the November general election
 The oath of office is traditionally administered by the
Chief Justice of The United States
 The text of the oath of office is prescribed in Article II of
the Constitution
I ... do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully
execute the office of President of the United States, and
will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend
the Constitution of the United States. So help me God.
STATES
 According to the Constitution the official

presidential qualifications are:
 natural-born American citizen
 at least 35 years old
 a resident of the United States for at least 14
years
Chief Executive
 Carry out the nation’s laws

 Issue executive orders
 Regulation from president that has power of law
(desegregation of schools)
 Appoints cabinet members, judges, and
other federal officials
Senate must approve.
 Issues pardons and grant amnesty (forgive)
Chief Diplomat; Commander in Chief
 Deals with foreign countries

 Appoints ambassadors
 Makes treaties (approved by senate)
 Executive Agreements (not approved by senate) –
ex. trade NAFTA North American Free Trade
Agreement
 President has final authority over all military matters.
 Checks and balances:
Congress declares war
President can order troops into battle
Legislative and Economic Leader
 Introduce/ Propose Laws

 Calls special sessions of Congress to consider
urgent matters
 Approves or vetoes legislation
 President deals with economic problems
(Unemployment, high taxes, rising prices)
 Plans the federal budget
Congress must approve
 President serves as a representative or symbol
of the whole nation
THE VICE PRESIDENT
 The Vice President is elected together with the

President from the same party, every four years
 He participates in the Cabinet meetings and is an
important link between the President and the Congress
 His constitutional qualifications are the same as the
President’s.
 The Vice President presides over the Senate but he can
only have a vote in the event of a tie.
 He can succeed the President if the latter dies, becomes
disabled or removed from the office by way of
impeachment.
PRESIDENTIAL ADMINISTRATION
 1.7 million civilian employees

 99% hired through competitive examination
 1% appointed by the President
 4 million active-duty military employee

 organized in more than 100 departments, agencies,
commissions and offices.
 The Executive Office of the President
 The Cabinet
The Executive Office of the President
 formed in 1939
 employs more than 2000 workers
 Organizations which advise the President
 White House Office - daily routine of the White House
 Office of Management and Budget - prepares the annual
budget
 National Security Advisor
 Office of Policy Development
THE CABINET
 The first cabinet created by George Washington

consisted only of four secretaries:
 Secretary of State,
 Secretary of the Treasury,
 Secretary of War
 Attorney General
 Today the Cabinet consists of FIFTEEN Departments
 The Secretaries are appointed and may be replaced by the
President. Their terms of office are not fixed
Departments of the U.S. Cabinet
 Department of State (1789) is the American

equivalent of a ministry of foreign affairs. Its
headquarters are located in Washington DC
Functions:
 advising the President on matters of foreign affairs
 carrying out U.S. foreign policy
 negotiation of treaties and agreements with foreign
nations
 speaking for the U.S in the United Nations and other
international organizations
 supervision of U.S embassies and consulates
 Department of the Treasury (1789) is responsible
for financial matters of the U.S government.
Functions:
 formulation and regulation of financial and tax policies
 serving as financial agent for the United States
 designing and making coins and printing notes, and
supervising the U.S. Mint.
 operating the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) which
collects income taxes
 Department of Defense (1947) exercises the
civilian control over U.S. military and is responsible
for all matters concerning the US military security.
Functions:
 directing the U.S. Army, Navy, Marine Corps,
and Air Force
 maintaining U.S. forces overseas
 flood control
 management of oil reserves
 Department of Justice (1789) headed by U.S.
Attorney General who is the country’s minister of
justice and general prosecutor.
Functions:
 representation of the U.S government in legal matters
 supervision of federal prisons and penal institutions
 advising the President and other secretaries on legal
matters
 supervision of federal law enforcement agencies such as
the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and
Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA).
 Department of the Interior (1849)
Functions:
 protection of natural environment and development of
natural resources
 management of national parks, monuments, rivers,
lakes and historic sites
 management of public land
 assisting Native Americans living on reservations
 operating:
 Bureau of Indian Affairs
 National Park Service
 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
 Department of Agriculture (1862)
 Department of Commerce (1903)
 Department of Labor (1913)
 Department of Health and Human Services
(1953)
 Department of Housing and Urban
Development (1965)
 Department of Transportation (1966)
 Department of Energy (1977)
 Department of Education (1979)
 Department of Veterans' Affairs (1989)
Functions:
 assistance to American war veterans and their
families with education, loans and medical services
 provision of compensation to disabled veterans and
their families
 Department of Homeland Security (2003)
 Its main function is protection of the USA against
threats to the homeland
INDEPENDENT REGULATORY
AGENCIES
 Independent agencies are not part of the Cabinet

departments. They deal with various matters of American
public life.
 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was established in
1947 by Harry Truman.
The CIA is responsible for coordination of intelligence
activities of government departments, and gathering and
evaluation of intelligence information.
 National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA) runs U.S. space programs.
 The Peace Corps - established by President John
Kennedy in 1961.
UNITED STATES CONGRESS
HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES
 435 Representatives (Congressmen) elected

directly by the people from single-member districts
in 50 states
 5 non-voting Delegates representing Washington
D.C., Guam, American Samoa, U.S. Virgin Islands,
Northern Mariana Islands.
 1 non-voting Resident Commissioner of Puerto
Rico
HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES
 TERM OF OFFICE: 2 years

 REPRESENTATIVE QUALIFICATIONS:
at least 25 years old
U.S. citizen for at least 7 years
resident of the state he/she is elected
from
 The House is presided over by the Speaker of the
House of Representatives
SENATE
 100 Senators elected directly by the people (until 1913

Senators were nominated by state legislatures)
 each state is represented by 2 Senators, regardless of
its size or population.
 TERM OF OFFICE: 6 years
 one-third of the Senate is changed and elected every 2
years:
 freshmen Senators who are just elected
 mid-term Senators who have been in office for 2 years
 veteran Senators who have been in office for 4 years.
SENATE
SENATOR QUALIFICATIONS:
 at least 30 years old
 U.S. citizen for at least 9 years
 resident of the state he/she is elected from.
 The Senate is presided over by the Vice President

POWERS OF CONGRESS
 to make federal laws

 to levy and collect federal taxes
 to regulate commerce with foreign countries
 and among the states
 to declare war
 to put foreign treaties into effect
 to impeach and remove federal judges
 to impeach and remove the President
 to coin money
 to establish post offices
 to set up the system of federal courts
 the power to investigate
CONGRESS AT WORK
 Most of work in the Congress is done by the House

or Senate Committees and Subcommittees.
 DEBATE:
 The rules of debate are different in both chambers of
the Congress.
 In the House of Representatives, debates and
speeches are time-limited.
 In the Senate, one of the most important
characteristics is the right to unlimited debate.
VOTING:
The House:
 218 representatives needed to pass a motion
 electronic voting cards
The Senate:
 51 senators needed to pass a motion
 the roll is called and Senators respond traditionally
YEAH or NAY
LAW-MAKING PROCEDURE
I. INTRODUCTION
 Any Congressman, Senator or the President may propose and
introduce a bill to any house. After the first reading the bill is
referred to the respective committee.
II. SUBCOMMITTEE ACTION
 Subcommittees hold hearings.
III. COMMITTEE ACTION
 Committees hold hearings. After debating the bill and offering
amendments a vote is taken and, if favorable, the bill is sent
back to the floor of the house.
IV. RULES COMMITTEE ACTION
 The second reading: the bill is debated in either house; after
offering amendments; it can be tabled (killed) or passed.
V. CONFERENCE COMMITTEE ACTION
 Mutual, from both Houses, committees are set to
reach a compromise. The compromised bill is sent
back to both Houses for approval.
VI. FLOOR ACTION
 Each House approves the compromised bill.
 ENACTMENT INTO LAW
 http://www.senate.gov/states/index.html
 http://www.whitehouse.gov
 http://www.usa.gov/index.shtml
PARTIES, ELECTIONS
AND LAW
KATARZYNA BUCZEK
POLITICAL PARTIES IN THE UNITED
STATES
 Two-party system: Democratic Party and

Republican Party
 The structure of both parties is decentralized
(national, state and local levels)
 Each party is led by a national committee (DNC
and RNC) headquartered in Washington D.C
 The national committees consist of one to two party
representatives from each state and U.S. territory
The functions of national committees include:
 planning the party’s presidential nomination
 promotion of candidates at the national level
 coordination of work of the party at all levels
 organization of congressional campaign committees
to support the candidates for Congress
Democratic Party
 The now-famous
Democratic donkey
was first associated with
Democrat Andrew
Jackson's 1828
presidential
campaign. His
opponents called him a
jackass (a donkey), and
Jackson decided to use
the image of the strong-
willed animal on his
campaign posters
Democratic Party
 During the 19th century the party supported or

tolerated slavery
 opposed civil rights reforms after the Civil War
NOW:
 a party supporting organized labour, the civil rights of
minorities, and progressive reform
 supports a strong federal government with powers to
regulate business and industry in the public interest
 federally financed social services and benefits for the
poor, the unemployed
 a strong separation of church and state
Republican Party
Republican Party
GOP (Grand Old Party)
 A political cartoonist
drew a donkey clothed in
lion's skin, scaring away
all the animals at the zoo.
One of those animals, the
elephant, was labeled
“The Republican
Vote.” That's all it took
for the elephant to
become associated with
the Republican Party.
Republican Party
 During the 19th century the Republican Party stood

against the extension of slavery to the country’s new
territories
 advocate reduced taxes as a means of stimulating the
economy
 oppose extensive government regulation of the economy,
government-funded social programs and policies aimed at
strengthening the rights of workers
 favour increased government regulation of the private,
noneconomic lives of citizens in some areas, such as
abortion
 strongly oppose gun-control legislation
Republicans and Democrats: How Do
They Compare?
They Compare?
Republicans Democrats
 are opposed to abortion.  support the right of
They call it murder of the abortion
fetus.  support homosexual
 opposed to same-sex marriages and want to
marriage legalize it
 opposed to stem cell (Barack Obama was the first
research American President to publicly
support same-sex marriage. )
 the United States should
use military force without  support stem cell
any assistance from other research
nations  the United States should
act in the international
arena with strong alliances
and broad international
support.
They Compare?
 decentralization of power  increased federalization of

 emphasize the importance power
of individual citizens and  believe that the community
tend to support individual is more significant than an
rights individual
 Promote a free market  dvocate a structured market
 oppose the idea of with minimal external
progressive taxation influence
 skeptical about global  support progressive taxation
warming (varying taxation according
to income)
 serious about global
warming (Al Gore)
They Compare?
 defend government  support the right of
monitoring privacy for the individual
 fiercely opposed gun and oppose government
control monitoring
 advocate gun control
POLITICAL INDEPENDENTS
 The number of political

independents has
continued to grow, as
both parties have lost
ground among the
public. Based on surveys
conducted this year,
38% describe themselves
as independents, up from
32% in 2008 and 30% in
2004.
 As has been the case since 2008, a plurality of
whites (38%) identify as independents. Among
the remainder, more call themselves Republicans
(32%) than Democrats (26%). Four years ago,
party identification among whites was more evenly
divided: 33% were independents, 30% Democrats
and 31% Republicans.
 African Americans continue to overwhelmingly
align with the Democratic Party (69%). But
blacks’ identification as Democrats has declined
since the mid-1980s; in 1984, nearly eight-in-ten
African Americans (78%) said they were Democrats.
 By contrast, only about a third of Hispanics (32%)
identify as Democrats while nearly half (46%)
say they are independents; just 11% of Hispanics
identify with the Republicans
 Democrats maintain an
advantage in party ID
among women. Nearly
four-in-ten women
(37%) describe
themselves as
Democrats, compared
with 33% who are
independents and 24%
who are Republicans.
 Despite electoral swings in
recent elections, the
fundamental
ideological breakdown
of the American public
has shifted little in
recent years. So far in 2012,
36% describe themselves
as politically
conservative, 22% say
they are liberal and 37%
say they are moderate.
ELECTIONS
 The 15th Amendment ensured that Americans could

not be denied the right to vote on account of race, color
or previous condition of servitude
 The 19th Amendment gave the right to vote to
American women
 The 23rd Amendment allowed residents of the federal
District of Columbia to vote for President. Washington
D.C., although not being a state, was given three electoral
votes.
 The 26th Amendment extended the right to vote to all
American citizens eighteen years of age or older.
PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS
 take place every four years

1. CHOOSING THE DELEGATES
 the fight for the Democratic or Republican
Presidential Nomination is a fight for their party’s:
DELEGATES
to their party’s NATIONAL NOMINATING
CONVENTION
Win More Than 50% of Your Party’s Delegates
And you Win Your Party’s
PRESIDENTIAL NOMINATION
 After the parties have “distributed” its delegates
to each state, the next step in the nomination
process is when each state decides what method
they are going to use to decide which candidate will
receive the delegates from their state.
 There are two basic methods used by the states to
“distribute” the delegates they have been assigned:
The Primary Election
The Presidential Caucus
Delegate Distribution Contest By Type
For The 2008 Presidential Election
(Fifty States & District of Columbia)
CAUCUS; 10;
ELECTION 20%
CAUCUS
BOTH BOTH; 4; 8%
ELECTION;
37; 72%
2. NATIONAL CONVENTIONS
 National conventions are gatherings of state delegates
from both parties (Democratic National
Convention and Republican National
Convention) held in the summer of the election year:
nominate candidates for president and vice

president, two from each party, often called the
running mates
3. CAMPAIGN
 On-the-ground campaign consisting of
candidates’ speeches, appearances and meetings
with groups of voters.
 On-the-air campaign consisting of radio and
television commercials
4. ELECTION DAY AND COUNTING VOTES
the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November.
 Two-stage process of vote calculation:
popular vote
electoral college vote (final decision as to the
election of President )
 The number of electors per state is equal to the
combined number of U.S. Representative and
Senators from that state
California has 55 electoral votes
Wyoming has 3 electoral votes
 An elector may not be a Senator, Representative or
anyone holding a US office.
 The Electoral College consists of 538 electors: 535
from the states and 3 from the District of Columbia.
 When voters choose the President and Vice
President, they are actually voting for electors
pledged to these candidates.
 In each state (with the exception of Maine and
Nebraska), the team that wins the majority of
the popular vote wins ALL of that state’s
electors.
 To be elected to the presidency, a candidate must
receive an absolute majority (270) of all the
electoral votes from the states and the D.C. (538).
 If no presidential candidate receives a majority, the
House of Representatives picks the winner
from the top three candidates (each state’s
delegation in the House casts only one vote,
regardless of its size)
LEGAL SYSTEM
 There is no single American legal system.
 There is one federal legal system which operates
in the whole country.
 There are also fifty state legal systems operating
in particular states (combination of two sources of
law: English common law and statutory law)
HIERARCHY OF LAWS
 U.S. Constitution
 international treaties
 federal legal acts
 state constitutions
 state laws
 local laws in cities, towns and counties
FEDERAL JURISDICTION
The federal jurisdiction includes the

following types of cases:
 cases arising out of the U.S. Constitution, treaties or
federal laws
 maritime cases
 cases between states or citizens of different states
 cases between individual states and other nations
The US Federal Court System
THE SUPREME COURT
Top of the Judicial

Branch in the Federal
Government.
Final say in all matters
dealing with the United
States Constitution.
 The Supreme Court is composed of nine Justices:
 Chief Justice of the United States (the
highest judge in the country)
 Eight Associate Justices
 The nine Justices of the Supreme Court reach

their decisions by majority vote on an
opinion
Chief Justice of the United States
 Appointed by George W.
Bush.
 Took his seat on High
Court on 25.09.2005.
 Graduate of Harvard and
Harvard Law
 Born 27.01.1955
COURTS OF APPEAL
 Only consider appeals from the lower district courts,

territorial courts and federal agencies.
 Each court consists of 3 to 15 judges and one
Justice of the Supreme Court
 The United States is divided into 13 judicial
circuits with one appellate court in each of them.
 Each of the 12 U.S. courts of appeals covers a particular
geographic area called a circuit.
 A thirteenth appeals court, the Court of Appeals for
the Federal Circuit, has nationwide jurisdiction.
 The judges may decide in one of three ways: uphold
(AGREE) the original decision, reverse (disagree) the
decision, or remand the case—send it back to the lower
court to be tried again.
DISTRICT COURTS
 First instance courts that consider civil and criminal

cases under federal jurisdiction
 From 1 to 27 judges in each court
 All states have at least one.
 For all federal cases, district courts have original
jurisdiction, the authority to hear the case for the first
time.
STATE JURISDICTION
 Each state has legal responsibility in its own

territory, according to the state constitution and
state laws.
 The states have the power to establish their own
system of civil and criminal laws, punishments
(including the capital punishment) prisons, and
police forces.
 Cases related to: property, family law, murder, theft,
assault, traffic offences
 The names of state courts of different instances vary
from state to state
LEGAL PROFESSION - JUDGES
 AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION (ABA)

voluntary association of American lawyers and
judges (body focused on improvement in the legal
profession )
 FEDERAL JUDGES (appointed by the President
for life or voluntary retirement)
 STATE JUDGES (in some states they are
appointed by the governors, in some they are elected
by people)
LEGAL PROFESSION - PROSECUTION
 Federal prosecution in the United States is in the

hands of the Department of Justice and 94
District Attorneys (DAs) nominated by the
President
 Solicitor General (SG) - prosecutor who
represents the US government before the Supreme
Court
Miranda warning (1966)
The rights that must be read by the police to an

accused person before he or she is arrested:
 You have the right to remain silent
 Anything you say can be used against you in
court
 You have the right to an attorney and to
have the attorney present while you are
being questioned.
 If you cannot afford an attorney, one will be
appointed for you before any questioning
begins.
LEGAL PROFESSION - JURY
 The institution adopted both in criminal and

civil cases
 Two types of jury:
grand jury (6 to 23 citizens who gather before a
trial and investigate the evidence of a crime and
decide whether or not the accused should be
prosecuted)
trial jury consisting of twelve persons present at
a trial and deciding whether the accused is
guilty of a crime. A trial jury must reach their
verdict unanimously
EDUCATION
RELIGION
KATARZYNA BUCZEK
Education in the U.S. Administration
 In America, education is a national concern,

a state responsibility, and a local function.
 There are 50 educational systems in the United
States. The U.S. Constitution mentions nothing
about education. Each state enjoys freedom to
develop a school system as extensive or as
limited as it desires.
Education in the U.S. Administration
 Local communities in turn were given substantial

freedom to select teachers and
administrators and to schedule the school year
and day to meet the standards by the states.
 There was not a federal organization for education

until the establishment of the U.S. Office of
Education in 1867. In 1953 became a branch of
the largest federal agency The Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare.
Federal educational authorities
 The role of the federal government in the American

education system is to provide encouragement,
financial aid and leadership.
 The U.S. Department of Education (est. 1979)
State educational authorities
 In each state, the state department of

education, its controlling Board of Education
and the board’s chief executive officer called the
superintendent of public instruction or state
commissioner of education exercise authority
over education in the state.
 The State Board of Education can be elected by
the people or appointed by the governor. The term of
office ranges from two to six years
The board formulates educational policies in the areas of:
 school calendar
 core curricula, standards and grading procedures
 school-leaving age (16 years of age in most states)
 allocation of school funds
 certification of teachers and administrators
 textbooks
 library services
 provision of records and educational statistics
Local educational authorities
 There are more than 15.500 local school districts in

the United States run by regularly elected local
boards of education
 Their functions include:
 collection of local taxes for financing education
 preparation of school budgets
 employment of teachers, administrators
 maintenance of school buildings
 purchasing equipment and supplies
 provision of school transportation
 choice of subjects and programs beyond the state
minimum
Education in the U.S.
 Funds for schools come from 3 sources:

 Approximately 50% is raised through local property
taxes.
 An average of from 40% -50% comes from the states.
 Only 8% - 9% from the national government.
 Different education laws for different states:

All states require young people to attend school.
to age 16
to age 18
Every child is guaranteed up to 13 years of education.
General situation
 Public schools 90%
 Private schools 10%
4 out of 5 private schools are run by churches,
synagogues or other religious groups.
Religious teachings are a part of the
curriculum.
 Education is carried out at various levels, which are

mainly divided into:
 preschool education
 elementary education
 secondary education
 higher education
 Elementary and secondary education covers 12

years from age 6 through 18, but a variety of
subdivision may be identified, with the most
popular pattern being
 ① 8-4 ( 8 years for elementary school and 4 years
for high school).
 ② 6-2-4 (6 years for primary school, 2 years for
junior high school, and 4 years for senior high
school).
 ③ 6 –3 –3 ( 6 years for elementary school, 3 years

for junior high school, and 3 years for senior high
school).
 ④ 4 – 4 – 4 ( 4 years for primary school, middle
school, and high school respectively).
 ⑤ 6– 6 ( 6 years for elementary school and
combined junior and senior high school respectively).
 Secondary education takes place in a variety of

junior and senior high schools. There are
several different kinds of high schools with
somewhat different missions.
 Vocational and technical high schools
generally provide for a variety of occupations and
vocations, some of them specialize in a single
vocational or technical area such as aviation,
electronic , and automotive trades.
 Academic high schools emphasize their schooling

in academic and intellectual disciplines.
 core subjects (obligatory) and elective
(optional) subjects. Core subjects usually include:
English, science, mathematics, social studies, physical
education
Students can choose their elective subjects in the areas
of: foreign languages, fine arts, vocational training
Grading and testing
 Secondary school students in the United States are

usually graded from A (excellent) to F (failing) in
all their courses.
 At least twice a year American students receive the so-
called report cards with records of their progress in
study.
 On their completion of high school students who wish
to continue their education at a higher level take one of
two nationally administered and standardized tests:
Scholastic Achievement Test (SAT), American
College Testing (ACT)
HIGHER EDUCATION
 The system of higher education in the United States

is even more decentralized than the elementary and
secondary levels.
 Currently there are more than 4,200 institutions
of higher education
 Institutions of higher education in the United States
can be:
public (receiving government support)
private (no government support)
affiliated with religious groups
FOUR CATEGORIES OF INSTITUTIONS
University which may contain:

 several colleges for undergraduate students seeking a
bachelor’s (4 year) degree
 one or more graduate schools for those continuing
specialized studies beyond the bachelor's degree to
obtain a master's or a doctoral degree.
 college, a four-year undergraduate
institution offering a bachelor’s degree in arts or
science, most of which are not part of a university
 post-secondary technical ‘specialty’ schools,
at which high school graduates may take courses
ranging from six months to four years in
duration and learn a wide variety of technical skills.
 two-year, junior or community college, from
which students may enter many professions or may
transfer to four-year colleges or universities
Major colleges and universities
 private universities are more expensive and more

prestigious that public universities
 about one-fifth of U.S. students study in the private
sector
Ivy League
 The Ivy League is a collegiate athletic conference

composed of sports teams from eight private institutions
of higher education in the Northeastern United States.
The conference name is also commonly used to refer to
those eight schools as a group.[2] The eight institutions
are Brown University, Columbia University,
Cornell University, Dartmouth College, Harvard
University, Princeton University, the University
of Pennsylvania, and Yale University.
 The term Ivy League also has connotations of academic
excellence, selectivity in admissions, and social elitism.
OTHER PRIVATE UNIVERSITIES
 Stanford University, California

 Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)
 California Institute of Technology (Caltech)
 Georgetown University, Washington D.C.
 John Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
NATIONAL MILITARY ACADEMIES
 United States Military Academy, West Point, New

York
 United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland
 United States Air Force Academy, Colorado Springs,
Colorado
 National Defense University, Washington D.C.
 Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island
 U.S. Army War College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania
 Air War College, Montgomery, Alabama
RELIGION
 Religion plays a tremendous role in the United States

society. America has always been a land of
religious diversity.
 Church attendance is the highest in the South and
the lowest in the West
 The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution
guarantees state and church separation and
freedom of religion
 Religious instruction is not taught in the public
school system, and prayer has not been practiced in
state supported schools.
STATE AND CHURCH SEPARATION
 In God We Trust – national motto since 1956

on all coins and notes in the United States
 So help me God – optional words at the end of the
Presidential oath of office. The Oath itself is taken
by newly elected presidents on the Bible.
 One Nation Under God – in the text of the Pledge
of Allegiance to the United States
 Each session of Congress begins with a prayer
 Each American President has expressed openly his
religious affiliation
STATISTICS
 c. 15% of Americans have no religious affiliation

 Christian: (78%)
 Protestant (51%)
 Roman Catholic (24%)
 Mormon (1%)
 other Christian (1.6%)
 Jewish (2%)
 Buddhist (0.7%)
 Muslim (0.6%) (2002 est.)
 other or unspecified (2.5%)
Churches
AMERICAN MASS MEDIA
 Freedom of the press is one of the oldest rights of

people in the United States.
 If it were left to me to decide whether we should have
a government without a free press or a free press
without a government, I would prefer the latter.
Thomas Jefferson
 Freedom of the press, as well as other media, is
guaranteed by the 1st Amendment to the U.S.
Constitution, which grants that the press cannot be
influenced by the government or any public
institutions
Freedom of Information Act 1966
 grants access to federal records available to

anyone, provided they are not classified
 The FOIA is a law that gives you the right to access
information from the federal government.
 the vast majority of all types of U.S. media are
privately owned, closely tied to commerce,
advertising and sponsorship and sales of copyright
productions
The Federal Communications
Commission
 established by the Communications Act of 1934

is the regulatory independent federal agency in the
United States. It grants licenses to radio and TV
stations, has no executive power, but it can send
cases to the court. The FCC does not control
reception of broadcast – there are no licence fees in
the United States.
THE PRESS
 The daily press in the United States is dominated by

local newspapers
 about 1,400 daily newspapers nationwide
 about 900 Sunday papers
 about 7,000 weekly and monthly newspapers
 there are no national newspapers with

considerable circulation as in Britain (but for USA
Today)
 Some local papers, however, e.g. New York Times or
Washington Post have gained nation-wide
popularity.
Major American newspapers:
 USA Today (1982), McLean Virginia, 2.3 million

copies
 The Wall Street Journal (1889), New York, 2 million
copies
 The New York Times (1851), 1 million copies
 Los Angeles Times (1881), 0.7 million copies
 Daily News (1919), New York, 0.7 million copies
 New York Post (1801), 0.7 million copies
 The Washington Post (1877), 0.6 million copies
 International Herald Tribune (1887)
 The Washington Times
Magazines
 over 11,000 magazines

 Reader’s Digest (1922)
 National Geographic (1888)
 National Enquirer (1926)
 Playboy (1953)
 Cosmopolitan (1886)
 Vogue
 Village Voice
 Harper’s Magazine (1850)
 Vanity Fair
Newsmagazines:
 Time (1923)
 Newsweek (1933)
 US News and World Report (1933)
Radio
There is no one national radio station in the

United States
commercial radio stations
 about 11,000 radio stations all over the
country – most of them are commercial (10% are
talk radios )
public radio stations
 public (non-commercial) radio stations are run
as part of the National Public Radio (NPR)
network (est. 1970)
non-profit, no advertising broadcasting news
Television
 the dominant medium in the United States.

 After World War II it replaced radio as the main
source of information.
 decentralized and market-oriented
 1,200 television channels
 1,000 stations are affiliated with five major
networks: NBC, ABC, CBS, FOX, and PBS
 more than 60% of American households subscribe to
cable television.
NATIONAL (COMMERCIAL)
TELEVISION
 called “broadcast” or “over-the-air” television

- freely available
 advertisements are the major source of income
 most commercial stations are associated with six
major national broadcast networks
 Big Three TV networks (NBC, CBS, ABC)
NBC (National Broadcasting Company) (est. 1926)
CBS (Columbia Broadcasting Service) (est. 1928)
ABC (American Broadcasting Company) (est. 1943)
CABLE AND SATELLITE TELEVISION
 started in the 1980s

 financed from advertising and subscription fee
 Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. (often
abbreviated TBS Networks or TBS, Inc.) manages a
number of cable networks such as CNN (Cable
News Network) ,TNT (Turner Network
Television), Cartoon Network, Boomerang,
TCM (Turner Classic Movies).
 MTV (est. 1981)
 Discovery Networks (est. 1985)
 The Inspiration Network (INSP) – religious
 HBO (Home Box Office) (est. 1972)
 MSNBC (Microsoft NBC) – business, news
 CNBC (Consumer News and Business Channel)
Differences
Broadcast Media
 Essentially a headline service
 fewer topics
 little depth of coverage
 more audience/viewers
 Source of info for 80% of American adults
Print Media
 Not a source for the majority
 Audience are nation’s elites
 Leading papers set the reporting agenda
 In-depth coverage and better analysis
RELIGIOUS BROADCASTING
 financed by viewer contributions, e.g. Trinity

Broadcasting Network Daystar Television
Network, The Word Network, Total Christian
Television.

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British and American life

WIEDZA O KRAJACH ANGIELSKIEGO

 TEST AT THE END OF THE COURSE

 Bromhead. 2006. Life in Modern Britain. Longman

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern

No one in the UK lives more than 120 km from the sea.

The longest river: Severn

• the capital of England and of Great Britain

• the political center of the Commonwealth

• one of the world's leading banking and financial centers.

The palace of Westminster

Tower of London Buckingham Palace

 Europe's youngest capital city

Cardiff Castle Cardiff City Hall

 the second largest city

 capital of Northern Ireland

 an important historic city

Overall population: over 60 millions

 The majority of this population are descendents of

The United Kingdom has one of

The Church of England

 The BBC Lab UK study measured economic

 Elite: This is the most privileged class in Great Britain who

 Emergent Service Workers: This new class has low

House of Commons House of Lords The Monarch

Government back benches: Main opposition party

Standing room: the

 646 Members of Parliament +the Speaker of the House of

 elected every five years

 Main business (Debates)

 There are no elections to the House of Lords

 Public Bills (Finance bills) introduced by the

 Starts in one House A bill can start in either House. It

 Committee Stage A small group of Members look at

 Report Stage The committee reports on the changes

 The Royal Assent The Queen is Head of State and must

 The U.K. government is part of Her Majesty’s

Logo and Arms of the government

 The monarch appoints a Prime Minister as the head

 head of government – in practice the most powerful

 heads of key Departments

 The Conservative/Liberal Democrat coalition

THE CONSERVATIVE PARTY descended from the

 TRADITIONAL SOCIAL SUPPORT:

LABOUR PARTY - grew out of the British trade union

 The Liberal Democrats - founded in 1988 as the

How often to they happen? Every 4-5 years.

There are no qualifications. You must be 21 years old or

 Members of county councils are elected for

Eight Regions Greater London

84 Counties 34 Counties City of London 32 Boroughs

 uncodified the British Constitution does not exist as

 Statute law - Acts of Parliament

English law Northern Ireland law

STATUTE LAW COMMON LAW

Justices of the Peace (JPs) District Judges (one on a case)

 a local court of law

Main centre in London

1. THE QUEEN’S BENCH DIVISION

 Permission granted by a lower court

County Court Crown Court

 Monarchy is the oldest form of government in

 As Head of State The Queen has to remain strictly