a) Using the theories of crime critically examine the entry and progression of these 3 criminal figures

into the world of crime.

Raffaella D'Alterio

Raffaella's entry into the world of organized crime can be analyzed through various criminological
theories:

 Social Learning Theory: this theory posits that people emulate the behavior they observe in their
environment, especially if that behavior is reinforced in others. Raffaella's upbringing in a Mafia-
connected family exposed her to criminal behavior and values at a young age. Her father's
involvement in the Mafia most likely influenced her criminal ambitions.
 Conflict Theory: Raffaella's power struggle with her husband, Nicola Pianese, can be viewed as a
manifestation of conflict over control of criminal resources. Her eventual involvement in his murder
demonstrates the criminal organization's use of power and violence to resolve conflicts.

Pablo Escobar

 Social Structure Theory: Social structure theories suggest people's places in the socioeconomic
structure influence their chances of becoming a criminal. Poor people are more likely to commit
crimes because they are unable to achieve monetary or social success in any other way. Escobar
grew up in a poor neighborhood with few opportunities for economic advancement through legal
means. This environment most likely influenced his decision to engage in criminal activity, beginning
with petty theft.
 Rational Choice Theory: Given the high demand for cocaine in the United States, Escobar's
involvement in the cocaine trade can be viewed as a rational decision to maximize profits. He took
advantage of the economic incentives provided by the drug trade.

Vyacheslav Ivankov

 Strain Theory: this theory states that pressure derived from social factors, such as lack of income or
lack of quality education, drives individuals to commit crime. Ivankov's impoverished background
and limited opportunities most likely contributed to his involvement in criminal activities. His initial
involvement in extortion schemes can be seen as a reaction to economic stress.
 Social Disorganization Theory: this theory posits that states a person’s physical and social
environments are primarily responsible for the behavioral choices that a person makes. Ivankov's
transition from local criminal activities to international crime can be attributed to a lack of social
controls and the globalization of criminal networks, which allowed him to capitalize on opportunities
outside of his immediate surroundings.

b) What systemic factors influenced the success of these criminal figures in the expansion of their
criminal activities?

Inadequate Law Enforcement

In these regions, insufficient law enforcement resources and capabilities allowed criminal organizations
to thrive. This was evident in authorities' inability to combat organized crime effectively in Naples,
Medellin, and Moscow.

Economic Inequality and Strain

These countries' high levels of economic inequality provided a fertile ground for criminal enterprises.
Individuals facing limited economic prospects through legal means found the promise of wealth and
power in the criminal world to be a compelling alternative.

Corruption

Corruption played a significant role in all three cases. The Mafia had deep ties with politicians and law
enforcement officials in Italy, allowing Raffaella D'Alterio's criminal organization to operate with relative
impunity. Pablo Escobar's influence in Colombia extended to politicians and the police, protecting his
drug empire. Vyacheslav Ivankov's criminal activities were facilitated in Russia by corrupt officials and a
weak legal system.

Globalization

The expansion of the drug trade and the globalization of criminal networks played a significant role in
the success of these criminal figures. They were able to access international markets and take advantage
of gaps in legal and law enforcement systems across borders.

c) What criminal opportunities did they capitalize on from the perspective of state failure and
criminogenic asymmetries?

Asymmetries in Crime

During the 1980s and 1990s, Colombia experienced criminogenic asymmetry as a result of the stark
disparity between the soaring demand for cocaine in the United States and the abundant supply of
cocaine within Colombia, which was primarily orchestrated by Pablo Escobar and the Medellin Cartel.
With a massive consumer market for cocaine in the United States that far outstripped its domestic
production capabilities, the Medellin Cartel took advantage of this opportunity by establishing a vast
and efficient drug trafficking network. Using Colombia's favorable geographical conditions and control
over the cocaine trade, the cartel flooded the US market with massive amounts of cocaine, amassing
enormous wealth and power in the process, demonstrating how criminogenic asymmetries can drive
massive criminal enterprises.

Transnational Opportunities

The exploiting of transnational opportunities by Vyacheslav Ivankov was based on the stark differences
in legal systems and law enforcement capabilities between Russia and the United States. In Russia,
where the legal system was riddled with corruption and inefficiency, Ivankov discovered a relatively
hospitable environment for criminal activity. Because of his knowledge of the Russian system and
connections, he was able to operate with less risk of interference from law enforcement. The United
States, on the other hand, had a more robust and effective law enforcement apparatus, but Ivankov's
ability to navigate the asymmetry between these two systems allowed him to conduct criminal
operations on an international scale, taking advantage of disparities in legal oversight and enforcement
capacity.

State Failure

The presence of the Mafia in regions such as Naples created an environment in which state failure in the
fight against organized crime was evident. Raffaella D'Alterio took advantage of the state's failure,
seizing the opportunity to consolidate her power within the criminal organization. D'Alterio exploited
the resulting power vacuum, allowing her to assert control over the group and expand its criminal
operations with relative impunity. This glaring state failure not only aided her rise, but also
demonstrated how organized crime could thrive in an environment where governmental institutions
struggled to uphold the rule of law.