日本科学教育学会研究会研究報告 Vol. 38 No.

1（2023）

&ODULILFDWLRQRQWKH3K\VLFDODQG&KHPLFDO,PSOLFDWLRQVRIWKH)LUH7ULDQJOH

Yuko㻌 NOMURA
Disaster Education Research Institute

［$EVWUDFW］In the international science education community, due to the insufficient understanding of combustion processes,
the fire triangle (fuel, oxygen, and heat) has been utilized in a way that distorts the view of science. It is necessary to change the
interpretation of the fire triangle from an absolute theory based on only three elements to representing just some of the necessary
conditions for combustion, and to supplement it with physical and chemical “processes” undescribed in the fire triangle. This is
important to enhance students’ ability to prevent fire damage through enriching their understanding of energy concepts. To
promote fire safety science education in primary and secondary school science, the present study attempted to clarify the important
physical and chemical processes occurring in a candle flame.
［.H\ZRUGV］disaster education, energy concepts, fire safety education, elementary and secondary science, teaching material
development, context-based learning, fire triangle, combustion

Ⅰ．,1752'8&7,21
While the types of natural disasters show regional
variations, fires can occur anywhere that humans live. In the
development of effective science teaching materials through
international exchanges, fire has the potential to be an
appropriate topic in authentic contexts related to safety in
everyday life (Sibel et al., 2016; Nomura & Terada, 2021).
However, in the international science education community,
due to an insufficient understanding of combustion processes,
fire has been utilized to distort the view of science (Nomura,
2018). In TIMSS 1995, for example, chemistry item R5
required students to answer the question ”Carbon dioxide is
the active material in some fire extinguishers. How does
carbon dioxide extinguish a fire?” The correct response
examples for this item included “Carbon dioxide is heavier
than oxygen and will cover the burning materials,” while
responses mentioning that carbon dioxide cools the fire were
judged to be incorrect. However, carbon dioxide increases the
heat capacity of the gas mixture and lowers the flame
temperature to a point where the heat release rate falls below
the heat loss rate, and the flame is extinguished (Harrington &
Senecal, 2016). Although it has been suggested that this
contradiction can be resolved by advancing the interpretation
of fire from the fire triangle (fuel, oxygen, and heat) (Fig.1(a))
to the interdependent disaster triangle (matter, energy, and
motion) (Nomura, 2019b; Nomura, 2022) (Fig.1(c)), the
proposed disaster triangle is too metaphysical.
It seems that it would be better to change the interpretation
of the fire triangle from an absolute theory based on only three
elements to representing just some of the necessary conditions
for combustion, and to supplement it with physical and
chemical “processes” undescribed in the fire triangle. This
will help to enhance students’ ability to prevent fire damage
through enriching their understanding of energy concepts. To
promote fire safety science education in primary and
secondary school science, the present study attempted to
clarify the important physical and chemical processes
occurring in a candle flame.

x1
x2 x3
㻔㼍㻕㻦㻌㻲㼕㼞㼑㻌㼀㼞㼕㼍㼚㼓㼘㼑㻌 㻔㼎㻕㻦㻌㻲㼕㼞㼑㻌㼀㼑㼠㼞㼍㼔㼑㼐㼞㼛㼚㻌 㻔㼏㻕㻦㻌㻰㼕㼟㼍㼟㼠㼑㼞㻌㼀㼞㼕㼍㼚㼓㼘㼑㻌 㻔㼐㻕㻦㻌㼍㻌㼏㼛㼙㼜㼛㼡㼚㼐㻌㼏㼕㼞㼏㼡㼕㼠㻌
㻲㼕㼓㼡㼞㼑㻝㻦㻌㻯㼛㼙㼜㼍㼞㼕㼟㼛㼚㻌㼎㼑㼠㼣㼑㼑㼚㻌㻲㼕㼞㼑㻌㼀㼞㼕㼍㼚㼓㼘㼑㻘㻌㻲㼕㼞㼑㻌㼀㼑㼠㼞㼍㼔㼑㼐㼞㼛㼚㻘㻌㻰㼕㼟㼍㼟㼠㼑㼞㻌㼀㼞㼕㼍㼚㼓㼘㼑㻘㻌㼍㼚㼐㻌㼍㻌㼏㼛㼙㼜㼛㼡㼚㼐㻌㼏㼕㼞㼏㼡㼕㼠㻚㻌

― 43 ―
日本科学教育学会研究会研究報告 Vol. 38 No. 1（2023）
Ⅱ．0(7+2'
．6XUYH\RI6FLHQFH7H[WERRNV
The learning contents and scientific concepts that appeared
in the Japanese government-approved primary and secondary
school science textbooks (Nomura, 2023) were surveyed to
determine the extent to which the scientific concepts
necessary to supplement the fire triangle were available.
．'HYHORSPHQWRI&RQFHSW0DSV
In fire safety engineering history, fire extinguishment
mechanisms have been explained using the fire triangle; that
is, fire extinguishment is achieved by removing at least one
element of the fire triangle. However, the fire triangle does not
explain the fire-extinguishing mechanism of halogenated fire
suppressants. To explain the fire-extinguishing mechanism of
halogenated fire suppressants, a new element, “chain reaction,”
was added to the fire triangle, modifying it to the fire
tetrahedron, as shown in Fig. 1(b). Because neither the fire
triangle nor the fire tetrahedron describes combustion
“processes,” using them to interpret fire extinguishment
phenomena fails to capture actual fire-fighting activities. Such
interpretations should be recognized as examples of the
“mathematization of nature,” which was criticized by Husserl
(1954).
Fig. 1(d) shows an example of a three-variable compound
circuit. When one variable (concentration of a substance,
temperature in a subsystem, etc.) in the circuit system is
affected by the surroundings, all other variables in the system
are affected by the interactions between the variables, causing
the system to have complex properties. For example, if we
consider the variable “temperature in an incubator” to be the
㻲㼕㼓㼡㼞㼑㻌㻞㻦㻌㻯㼛㼚㼏㼑㼜㼠㻌㻹㼍㼜㻌㼒㼛㼞㻌㻹㼍㼠㼑㼞㼕㼍㼘㻌㻯㼕㼞㼏㼡㼘㼍㼠㼕㼛㼚㻌㼕㼚㻌㻺㼍㼠㼡㼞㼑㻌㻔㻹㼕㼚㼍㼓㼍㼣㼍㻘㻌㻞㻜㻜㻝㻕㻚㻌
― 44 ―
main variable (x1) and regard the variable “diameter of the
capsule” as a stabilizing variable (x2), and add the variable
“stabilizing the stabilizer” (x3), then the effect of “stabilizing
the stabilizer” is to render x1 less stable (Ashby, 1940).
Similarly, in the fire triangle and fire tetrahedron, if we dilute
oxygen with carbon dioxide, for example, then the
concentrations of other substances and the temperature in the
system will all be influenced by the carbon dioxide addition,
causing various effects to emerge in the system and resulting
in fire extinguishment. Therefore, to explain fire-
extinguishing mechanisms phenomenologically, it is
necessary to capture combustion as a dynamic system in
which all relevant elements influence each other, such as
material circulation in an ecosystem (Fig. 2).
To recognize combustion as a dynamic system and
understand that fire extinguishment is a type of loss of
wholeness, an analogy from life may be useful. The
relationship between life and death was described by Suzutani
(1982), who said “the phenomenon of death does not exist.
Death is phenomenologically just the vanishing of life.” This
shows similarities with the relationship between fire and fire
extinguishment, which can be described as “the phenomenon
of fire extinguishment does not exist. Fire extinguishment is
phenomenologically just the vanishing of fire.” This is why it
is difficult to estimate the time of death or fire extinguishment.
Takatsu (2016) discussed the wholeness of life using the “ring
of life” shown in Fig. 3. Death means that the ring of life
breaks (Suzutani, 1982). Following Figs. 2 and 3,
phenomenological concept maps expressing the “ring of
combustion” were developed to supplement the geometric
figures shown in Figs. 1(a) and 1(b).

㻲㼕㼓㼡㼞㼑㻌㻟㻦㻌㼀㼔㼑㻌㻾㼕㼚㼓㻌㼛㼒㻌㻸㼕㼒㼑㻌㻔㼀㼍㼗㼍㼠㼟㼡㻘㻌㻞㻜㻝㻢㻕㻚㻌
 日本科学教育学会研究会研究報告 Vol. 38 No. 1（2023）

7DEOH/LVWRIVFLHQWLILFFRQFHSWVWRVXSSOHPHQWWKHILUHWULDQJOH LQSUHSDUDWLRQ 

School
Unit
classification
Primary Combustion mechanism
school Use of electricity
Substances around us
Junior high
Chemical changes and atoms/molecules
school
Science, technology and humans
Science of light and heat
Science of substances
Motion and energy of objects
Various physical phenomena and energy Enthalpy/Entropy
High school Composition of matter
Changes in substances and their use
State of matter and equilibrium
Changes and equilibrium of matter
Properties of organic compounds
Available scientific concept Deficient scientific concept
(Concrete example) (Concrete example)
Fuel (Candle/Wood)
Oxidizer (Oxygen)
Combustion product
(Carbon dioxide)
Transport (Replacement of air)
Organic matter/Inorganic matter
Oxidation inhibitor
Flammable gas/Flammable vapor
(Nitrogen/Carbon dioxide)
Molecule/Chemical change
Burning rate/speed
Oxidation/Combustion
Transport
Exothermic/Endothermic reaction
(Diffusion/)
Polymer compound
Spontaneous transport
Metal/Plastic/Fiber
Multi step reaction
Atom's electronic configuration
Self-organization
Bond energy
Entropy production rate

 ed. Biemel Walter, Nijhoff, Den Haag.

Ⅲ．5(68/76DQG'LVFXVVLRQ
．6XUYH\RI6FLHQFH7H[WERRNV
The scientific concepts available and/or deficient in the
Japanese government-approved primary and secondary
school science textbooks, that are considered necessary to
supplement the fire triangle, are listed in Table 1 (in
preparation). The complete list will be reported in the
presentation.
The importance of the deficient concepts in relation to fire
safety will also be discussed in the presentation.
．'HYHORSPHQWRI&RQFHSW0DSV
The developed concept maps will be reported in the
presentation.
 Geoscience Union Meeting 2019, G01-P07.
$FNQRZOHGJHPHQW
This study was supported in part by JSPS Grants-in Aid for
Scientific Research JP18K02951 and JP21K02939.
 Explosion, JSSE Research Report 34(8), 9-14 (in Japanese).
5HIHUHQFHV
Ashby, W. R. (1940): Adaptiveness and Equilibrium, Journal
of Mental Science, 86, 478-483.
Harrington & Senecal (2016): Carbon Dioxide Systems. In
Hurley et al. (Eds.), SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection
Engineering, Fifth Edition, pp. 1531-1586, Springer.
Husserl, E. (1954): Die Krisis der europäischen
Wissenschaften und die transzendentale Phänomenologie,
Minagawa, J. (2001): Gainen Chizu-Hō ni Yoru Chishiki
Kakutoku Shien no Kenkyū [Study on Knowledge
Acquisition Support by Using the Concept Mapping
Method], Kazamashobo (in Japanese).
Nakamura et al. (2017): An effective safety education on fire
fighting strategy through fire extinguishment experiment
using portable powder extinguisher, Journal of
Environment and Safety, 8(3), 101-111.
Nomura, Y. (2018): Shōgakkō Rika ni Okeru Taikeiteki na
Bōka Kyōiku [Proposal for a Structured Fire Safety
Education in Elementary Science], Journal of Science
Education in Japan, 42(3), 268-270 (in Japanese).
Nomura, Y. (2019a): Fire Safety Education Materials for
Elementary Science Using the Nature of Light, JSSE
Research Report 33(4), 97-100 (in Japanese).
Nomura, Y. (2019b): Disaster Triangle – A Conceptual
Device for Implementing Comprehensive and Continuous
Disaster Education into School Science –, Japan
https://confit.atlas.jp/guide/event-img/jpgu2019/G01-P07/
public/pdf?type=in
Nomura, Y. (2020a): Development of Education Materials for
Understanding the State Change of Water and the Steam
Nomura, Y. (2020b): Development of Education Materials for
Understanding Ignition of Solid Combustibles, JSSE
Research Report 35(1), 29-32 (in Japanese).
Nomura, Y. (2022): Development of Fire Safety Education
Materials Enriching Students’ Understanding of Energy
Concept in Elementary and Secondary Science, JSSE
Research Report 37(1), 1-4.
Nomura, Y. (2023): Development of Fire Safety Education
Materials by Using Entropy in High School Chemistry,

― 45 ―
日本科学教育学会研究会研究報告 Vol. 38 No. 1（2023）

Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of Japan Society for

Science Education, 47, 705-708 (in Japanese).
Nomura et al. (2022): Netsuhōsha to Kami no Netsubunkai
no Gakushū Kyōzai Kaihatsu no Tame no Yobi Chōsa [A
Pilot Survey for the Development of Learning Materials
about the Thermal Radiation and the Thermal
Decomposition of Paper], the 72th Annual SJST
Conference 2022, Vol. 20, 1B04, p. 137 (in Japanese).
Nomura & Terada (2021): Curriculum Design for the
Development of Energy Concepts in the Context of Fire
Prevention and Response, Proceedings of the Annual
Meeting of Japan Society for Science Education, 45, 229-
230 (in Japanese).
Sibel, Er Nas, Tülay Şenel Çoruhlu, & Arzu Kirman Bilgin
(2016): The effect of fire context on the conceptual
understanding of students: “expansion-contraction”,
Educational Research and Reviews,11(21), 1973-1985.
Suzutani, T. (1982): Shi no Hantei ni Kansuru Shiken
[Personal opinion on death determination], Japan Medical
Journal, 3022, 43-49 (in Japanese).
Takatsu, A. (2016): Kenshi Handbook [Autopsy Handbook],
Revised 3rd Edition, Nanzando (in Japanese).

― 46 ―