COMMUNICATION SKILLS

SCHEME OF LESSONS

UNIT I
Lesson 1 Business Communication
Lesson 2 Barriers to Communication
UNIT II
Lesson 3 Non-verbal and Intercultural Communication
UNITIII
Lesson 4 Listening
Lesson 5 Oral Communication
Lesson 6 Presentation Skills
UNIT IV
Lesson 7 Business Correspondence
Lesson 8 Letters of Application and Resume
UNIT V
Lesson 9 Business Proposals
Lesson 10 Reports

REFERENCES:
1. Technical Communication Principles and Practices Third Edition; Meeanakshi Raman,
Sangeetha Sharma
2. Advanced Technical Communication Kavita Tyagi Padma Misra
3. Business Communication JP. Parikh, Anshu Surve, Swarnabharati, Asma Bahrainwala
 UNIT I

LESSON 1 – BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

CONTENTS
Learning Objectives
Overview
1.1 Systems Approach
1.2 Forms of Business Communication
1.3 Functions and Principles of Communication
1.4 Management and Communication
1.5 Communication Patterns
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 Study about the importance of effective communication
 Learn Systems approach
 Find out the functions and principles of business communication
 How management and communication are interconnected
 Define various communication patterns
OVERVIEW
We need to communicate in our personal lives to cope with a variety of activities, relationships,
worries, and difficulties that arise on a regular basis. Communication is also important in our
working lives, as it aids in the development of healthy relationships and trustworthiness with
coworkers.
Communication is the process through which different strata of society, as well as different levels of
the workforce in any company, are linked together. There are many different types of
communication that not only represent an individual's knowledge and skills, but also serve as the
public face of organizations, displaying their policies and successes.
Communication is defined as the exchange of information between two or more people. The
sender's and receiver's shared meaning is derived from the sender's and receiver's experiences,
cultures, education, and training. Similarities in this make communication between people simpler.
When one joins a member of any group, one must communicate properly. No company can function
without communication. The stronger our communication abilities, the better our prospects of
making rapid progress. No matter how skilled you are in other areas such as job, information,
thinking, and organization, they are useless without effective communication.
For example, even if you have a great academic record, you may not be successful in an interview if
you are unable to convey your views effectively to people on the other side of the table. It has been
noticed that persons who are successful in their jobs typically have good communication skills.
Communication can take place in many forms. Whatever form we choose, getting the message
across is what communication is all about.
1.1 Systems approach
Systems approaches to business communication is communication as a fundamental element of the
entire business. It is not an approach to separate communication processes into a separate division.
Communication is managed at the system level to ensure that everyone sends consistent message
and consistent is aligned. It is an important philosophy for organizations that wish to ensure that
their audiences receive the same messages, at the right time and through the appropriate
communication channels.
Key concepts in systems approach are:
 Independence
 Holism
 Goal seeking
 Inputs and outputs
Independence
According to system approach many forms of organizational communication inside and outside of
the organization are interconnected and independent. For example, a communication from the CEO
at a company-wide meeting could have several forms of independent channels of communication
like an item in the company’s newsletter, a post on the company’s website, and even an interview
with the local media. This interdependence allows organizations to plan better and structure their
business communications to account for all potential channels.
So, for example, a company may wish to schedule its communications to communicate first with
internal audiences, then with key customer audiences and ultimately with consumer audiences in
general. Careful timing and distribution of messages will ensure that the right audiences receive the
right messages at the right times.
Holism
Holism is an approach that considers the totality of various activities rather than the individual
contributions of the approach's individual elements. This is quite common in the advertising world,
where marketers recognize that messages delivered via multiple channels have a multiplicative
impact that is greater than the sum of the parts. The same is true when organizations consider
adopting a systems-based approach to corporate communications. A single message sent through
multiple channels will have a greater impact than the sum of the impacts of each individual message.
Goal seeking
Systems approaches to communication recognize that there is some desired, intended outcome that
will make the communication successful. The main purpose of organizational communication
should be pointed toward a desired outcome, which will improve employee engagement, customer
satisfaction. It should increase the organization’s awareness of organizational initiative.
Inputs and outputs
Organizational communication approaches that take a systems approach recognize that
communication will involve both inputs and outputs. Organizations that communicate effectively
understand that they must be prepared to receive messages as well as send them to key audiences.
The feedback received from various audiences can be used to guide future activities and provide
indicators of how well objectives are being met. Today's social media platforms offer a diverse
range of options for two-way communication.
1.2 FORMS OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Business communication takes place at different hierarchical levels. As we have learnt, it is
extremely necessary for the sustenance of any organization. Since large number of employees are
involved in several different activities, the need to communicate efficiently becomes greater in an
organization. With proper networking system, communication in an organization is possible even
without directly contacting the employees.
Organizational communication can be divided in to the following:
 Internal – operational: All communication that occurs within an organization.
 External – operational: the work-related communication that an organization has with
people outside the organization.
 Personal: All communication in an organization other than that for business or official
Mass communication: mass communication is meant for large audiences and requires a medium
to transmit information. There are several mass media such as journals, books, television, and
Newpapers. The audience are varied in nature, and thus the approach is impersonal. Press
interviews given by the chairman of a large firm, advertisements for a particular product or service,
that take place through mass media. This type of communication is more encouraging in nature than
any other form, and requires a lot of care on the part of the sender while encoding the messages.
Oral communication through mass media requires equipment such as microphones, amplifiers, etc.,
and the written form needs print or visual media.
The characteristics of mass communication are as follows:
 Large reach Mass communication has the capacity to reach audience scattered over a wide
geographical area.
 Mass communication is largely impersonal as the participants are Unkown to each other.
A moderator is necessary to convey the message from a sender to receiver this gate keeper or
moderator could be a person or an organized group person, active in transferring or sending
information from the source to the target audience through a mass medium.
In a newspaper the editor decides which news makes it to the hands of the reader. The editors
therefore the moderator in this mass communications process.
Process of communication
The process of communication is defined as the transmission and interchange of ideas, facts,
sentiments, or courses of action. Communication is a process that is dynamic, continuous,
irreversible but at the same time, it is reciprocal in nature. It is an ongoing process.
Communication occurs in five distinct phases and contains the following components:
1. Idea
2. Sender/Encoder
3. Encoding
4. Message
5. Channel and Medium
6. Receiver
7. Decoding
8. Feedback
Let us discuss in detail;
Phase I
Idea: Any message, whether spoken or written, begins with an idea that emerges in the sender's
head. Every thought is rooted in a certain situation. The sender and receiver have a common frame
of reference when communicating.
Sender/encoder: The encoder is the one who begins the communication process. The sender starts
the communication process by expressing the need to communicate. He or she may wish to inform,
convince, influence, or force the receiver to perform a specific action.
The sender must have a clear picture in his or her mind of what he or she wants to communicate,
and then choose symbols, phrases, images, and other media that best express his or her ideas to the
receiver.
Phase II
Encoding: Encoding occurs when the sender converts his or her concept into a message that can be
sent to the recipient using a set of symbols, which can be verbal, nonverbal, written, or spoken. The
sender should encode the message with the intended goal in mind, and use words or symbols that
will assist the recipient comprehend the message correctly and provide the desired reply.
Communication will fail unless both the sender and the recipient assign the same interpretation to
the symbols or words. As a result, correct encoding is critical for effective communication.
The sender must first identify his or her intended audience and then craft the message in such a
manner that the recipient comprehends and interprets it in the same context.
Message: The message is the idea/concept/information that has been encoded. A message is a
thought that has been put into words. Depending on the subject, goal, audience, personal style, and
cultural background of the sender, it can be communicated in a variety of ways. Only until it is
well-formulated, clear, and complete in itself can it be successfully conveyed.
Phase II
Transmitting
Channel and Medium
The channel is the proper medium for sending the message. It is the vehicle that allows the sender
to communicate with the recipient. A channel is a mechanism for transmitting a message, and a
medium is one of the forms/types that can be utilized inside that system. Oral communication, for
example, is a channel, whereas telephone conversations are a medium. There are three major routes
of communication, each with its own set of media.
Channel Medium
Oral Direct conversation, telephone, etc.,
Written Letters, memos, reports, notices, circulars
etc.,
Audio- visual Television, video conference, etc.,

The terms "channel" and "medium" are not interchangeable. To deliver the message, the sender
should select the most appropriate channel and media. The type of the communication, the urgency
of the message, the number of recipients, the cost factor, and the relationship between the sender
and the receiver will all impact the channel/medium chosen.
Phase IV
Receiving
Receiver/Decoder: The decoder is the one who receives the encoded message. He or she is the
message's intended recipient. The recipient might be an individual or a group of people. Because
communication is a two-way interaction, the recipient of the message is just as essential as the
sender.
Communicacion will not be complete in the following situations:
 Without the receiver
 If the message does not reach the intended receiver
 If the receiver does not understand the message
A message's recipient might be a listener, a reader, or a viewer. He or she not only receives the
message, but also attempts to analyze, interpret, and perceive the communication's complete
meaning, as intended by the sender, and provides feedback.
Decoding: This is the process through which the receiver decodes the message and converts it into
useful data. The message's meaning is the sum of the words' meanings, as well as the sender's tone
and attitude, as expressed in his or her choice of words and the message's structure.
The receiver's decoding is considered to be fidelity of communication if it is the same as or
comparable to the sender's intended message. If communication is to be effective, noise should not
impact encoding and decoding.
Phase V
Responding
Feedback: Feedback is the response given by the receiver of the message to the sender of the
message. When the encoder receives feedback, he/she know that communication has been
accomplished.
Types of feedback:
 Immediate – in face-to-face communication
 Delayed – in the case of written communication
Importance of feedback
 It ensures the receiver has understood the message
 Helps senders to modify the message based on feedback
Case study:
A student who lives in a hostel, wants some money. He writes a letter to his father asking him to
send some money. The father sends money along with a letter cautioning him to be careful while
spending it
In this scenario:
Encoder: the student
Message: needs money
Channel: written communication
Medium: a letter
Decoder: the father
Feedback: sends money along with a letter cautioning him to be careful while spending money

1.3FUNCTIONS AND PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION

As we have developed a better understanding of communication process, let us now study the
various levels of communication: The levels of communication are:
 Extrapersonal
  Intrapersonal
 Interpersonal
 Mass
 Organizational
Extrapersonal: Communication between human beings and non-human entities is extrapersonal.
Example:
 Dog comes to you wagging tail as soon as you return home from work
 Parrot responding to your greeting
This type of communication requires perfect coordination and understanding between the sender
and the receiver.
Intrapersonal communication: This kind of communication pertains to thinking. It takes place
within an individual. It is the basis of information processing. Without these internal dialogues one
cannot proceed to further levels of communication.
Example:
When you feel hot, this information is sent to the brain and you may decide to turn on the cooler. In
this case the relevant organ is the sender and the brain is the receiver
Interpersonal communication: At this level, communication refers to people sharing information
with one another. Interpersonal communication varies from other types of communication in that it
involves a small number of people who are in close proximity to one another, uses a variety of
sensory channels, and provides rapid response. In addition, the transmitter and receiver roles
alternate.
This kind of communication is useful since it allows for direct and rapid feedback. If a doubt arises,
it can be quickly resolved.
Interpersonal communication can be formal or informal.
Example, your interaction with sales clerk in a store is different from that with your family
members.
Furthermore, most interpersonal conversations are influenced by a number of elements, including
the psychology of the two individuals engaged, their connection, the circumstances of the
communication, the surrounding environment, and, lastly, the culture in context.
Flow of communication
In an organization, information flows both formally and informally. Formal communication is
defined as communication that follows a formal hierarchy and is necessary to do one's job. In other
words, it travels through official channels, which are the major routes of communication inside an
organization.
In reality, formal channels handle the majority of the communication that a business need for its
operations. Formal communication occurs when a management educates a subordinate on a topic or
when an employee brings a problem to the notice of a supervisor.
Similarly, formal communication occurs when two personnel communicate to discuss a customer's
order. Formal communication is information of different types that flows through formal channels,
such as policy or procedural changes, directives, instructions, and secret reports. As illustrated in the
diagram, formal communication flows in a variety of directions: vertical, lateral, and diagonal.
In an organization, communication flows in 5 main directions-
Downward
Upward
Lateral
Diagonal
External
Downward communication: Downward communication is communication that goes from a higher
level in an organization to a lower level. In a chain of command, communication from superiors to
subordinates is referred to as downward communication.
Managers utilize this communication route to provide work-related information to lower-level
workers. Employees require this knowledge in order to execute their tasks and satisfy their bosses'
expectations. The communication flows downward when supervisors inform, instruct, advise, or
request their subordinates.
Downward communication is used by the managers for the following purposes -
 Giving performance report on sub ordinates
 Giving job related instructions
 Pass on company’s mission and goal to the employees.
 Highlighting the important areas of attention
Examples of downward flow of communication:
 Business publication
 Circulars
 Memos
 Group Meetings
Objectives of downward flow of communication:
We should ensure that the message passed is:
 Accurate
 Specific
 Unambiguous
 Has appropriate technique (written or oral)
Upward Flow of Communication
Upward communication refers to communication that goes from a lower level of an organization to
a higher level. It gives information on how well the organization is running. Upward
communication is used by subordinates to communicate their issues and performance to their
superiors.
Upward communication is also used by subordinates to determine how well they have grasped
downward communication. Employees may also utilize it to express their thoughts and ideas and
participate in the decision-making process.
Because employees are given the opportunity to raise and address discontent concerns to higher
levels, upward communication leads to a more engaged and loyal workforce in a business.
Managers learn about their workers' attitudes regarding their jobs, colleagues, supervisors, and the
organization as a whole. Managers can then take appropriate steps to improve problems.
Examples of download flow of communication:
 Grievance Redressal Systems,
 Complaint and Suggestion Boxes,
 Performance appraisal Surveys,
 Letters from workers
 Department reports to the higher-level management

Lateral flow of communication

Lateral communication refers to communication that occurs at the same level of hierarchy in an
organization, such as between peers, managers at the same level, or any horizontally comparable
organizational member.
The following are some of the benefits of horizontal communication:
 Effective ways of information sharing
 Solving inter departmental conflicts and problems
 Combined task force
 Team sprit among colleagues
 Provides immediate result
Diagonal communication
Diagonal communication refers to communication between a management and employees from
various workgroups. It doesn't usually show up on a company's organizational chart. For example,
in order to develop a training module, a training manager speaks with a member of the Operations
team to inquire about how they carry out their duties.
External communication
Communication between a management and external parties like as suppliers, vendors, banks, and
financial institutions, among others. For example, if the Managing Director needed to obtain cash,
he would meet with the Bank Manager.

1.4 MANAGEMENT AND COMMUNICATION

Role of Communication in business
Communication is essential in every circumstance, whether it is a corporation, an industry as a
whole, or an academic institution. Communication is involved in all managerial or administrative
operations, whether they are planning, organizing, recruiting, coordinating, or decision-making.
Communication acts as a tool for measuring an organization's performance or growth.
Despite the fact that most professionals understand the significance of communication, many do not
practice it effectively in their line of work. The more individuals who participate in the
communication process, the better their abilities in gathering information, assessing and evaluating
facts, distinguishing between facts and inferences, and communicating effectively grow.
We can better understand others if we communicate with them. Inability to communicate can cause
a lot of personal and professional issues. Imagine a day without being able to communicate! We can
immediately sense the emptiness that would result. Communication is both beneficial and necessary
for social beings.
According to R.Ludlow, ‘Business communication is a process of transfer of information and
understanding between different parts and people of a business organization’
Business communication is defined as communication carried out by a business organization with
the intention of attaining certain goals. As a result, business communication is a specific form of
communication that is carried out to satisfy the demands of a company. Management principles
such as involvement and motivation.
Understanding that without communication, human activity will come to a halt and that all human
interactions are only possible via communication, good communications may be fairly stated to be
the life-blood of every corporate organization. In today's corporate world, good communication
skills have become a need. Effective communication is critical to every organization's success and
survival, particularly in today's global market economy.
People who are strong communicators are in high demand in the business world. The requirement
applies to all aspects of the business, including managerial, technical, clerical, and social functions.
Strong management communication is based on both the sender's and receiver's abilities. Improved
communication skills strengthen a company's chances of success, and good communication leads to
success and wealth.
As a result, business communication is not only necessary but also vital for a company's success. It
is the force that holds the entire organizational system together and keeps it in place.
Communication, it may be argued, is a means to an aim rather than an end in itself.
Objectives of business communication
No human action is done without any purpose. Even our simplest and most natural action of
breathing has a purpose-to keep us alive. Communication is also always carried out with some
purpose. They are:
Business communication's major goal is to share information with both internal and external
stakeholders. Orders, instructions, ideas, views, and other forms of internal communication are used
within the company. Let us discuss the objectives in detail:
Building strategy: The plan is the roadmap for future actions. The roadmap must be created in
order to achieve the organization's objectives. Management requires information in order to build a
strategy. The goal of communication in this case is to provide the necessary information to the
involved management.
Action: It is necessary to put a plan into action after it has been created. A plan's implementation
necessitates timely communication with all stakeholders involved. As a result, communication seeks
to disseminate a strategy throughout the company in order for it to be implemented successfully.
Regulation: Regulations provide as guidance for carrying out organizational tasks. Standing
decisions to recurrent situations are also referred to as policies. Every business must establish a set
of policies to govern its operations. Policy preparation also necessitates the gathering of data from
diverse sources. As a result, the goal of communication is to gather the essential data for policy
formulation.
Goal: The efforts of both management and employees must be pooled in order to achieve
organizational objectives. Communication synchronizes and organizes the activities of workers at
all levels to meet the organization's stated goals.
Organizing resources: Human resources, material resources, financial resources, and other types
of resources are all accessible to an organization. The managers face a significant difficulty in
arranging these resources in a way that is both effective and efficient. The key to overcoming this
problem is communication.
Coordination: Coordination is an essential managerial skill. It entails connecting huge businesses'
different functional departments. It is hard to fulfil organizational goals without adequate and timely
coordination. As a result, communication's purpose is to bring together the operations of many
departments in order to achieve organizational goals quickly.
Carry out responsibilities: A manager's role is to ensure that others do their tasks. Management
must lead, guide, and control workers in order to get things done. Effective communication with
subordinates is critical to the success of these managerial responsibilities.
Formal and Informal Communication
Colleen Hoover, the author of the popular novel It Ends with Us, once said, “Sometimes not
speaking says more than all the words in the world.” The quote sums up the crucial role
communication plays in our lives.
Workplace conversations are mostly formal—from team meetings and email trails to client
conferences and more. Yet the importance of informal communication can’t be ignored. In fact,
during the recent lockdown, we all have had to be a part of formal as well as informal
communication, even professionally.
Formal communication is, typically, conveyed from the top leadership to various departments and
employees. Usually, every organization follows a procedure for formal conversation. Think about
the annual meetings or even team meetings that your manager calls for.
However, there is no predetermined structure for informal communication in any organization. So,
what is informal communication all about? To start with, it helps create and maintain a relationship
among colleagues.
For instance, consider those chats with your coworkers about the latest movies over a cup of coffee.
Informal communication can also play a much larger role than just generating friendly chatter. This
form of communication can be very useful in resolving a conflict between the employees and the
management.
Differences Between Formal and Informal Communication
Both formal and informal communication are crucial for maintaining a clear and cordial work
culture. But what makes casual conversation different from official meetings?
As we know it, formal communication is also called official communication. Formal
communication often follows a specific structure or channels such as emails to the clients, whereas
informal communication can often flow freely in any direction.
Formal meets must maintain secrecy for the messages shared. But when you are having a casual
chat, maintaining confidentiality gets tough. In fact, it will be safe to say that most rumors or gossip
start through the route of informal communication.
Formal communication is time-consuming. On the other hand, informal communication is usually
quick and easy to navigate.
Formal communication is more reliable, as it follows a pattern set by the organization. In contrast,
informal communication takes off on its own and sets its own course.
Let us look at the types of formal and informal communication now.
Types Of Formal Communication:
Vertical
Here, the communication is held between different organizational levels. So, the message is either
transferred from the juniors to the team leads to the manager or vice-versa.
Horizontal Or Lateral
This is the communication that happens between peers from different departments.
Crosswise Or Diagonal
As the name suggests, here the conversation takes place between two employees working at
different levels in different departments. For example, a website developer discussing a project with
a sales manager can be categorized as crosswise or diagonal communication.
Types Of Informal Communication:
Single Strand Chain
This is the type of communication where A shares an idea or information with B, who then passes it
to C, and so on.
Cluster Chain
Have you ever noticed how a social media challenge becomes viral? People start something unique
and tag, say, three friends for the challenge. They complete the challenge and tag three more people
each, and so on. That’s how a cluster chain communication is formed and continues.
Gossip Chain
Think of the college canteen conversations, where one person vividly describes her recent
adventures to a group of friends gathered around the table to listen. That’s how the gossip chain
works. One person initiates the conversation and shares information with a group of people, who
then pass on the information to more people.
Nowadays, most organizations attempt to efficiently blend formal and informal communication
channels. The result is improved efficiency, productivity, and trust among the employees. Effective
communication skills play a crucial role in advancing anyone’s career, from a fresher to a team
leader to a manager.
So, start developing and honing your formal and informal communication skills now. One way to
do that is by joining Harappa’s Speaking Effectively and Writing Proficiently courses. These
courses will help you learn the PREP model and Aristotle’s Appeals of simple yet effective
communication, among others.
The PREP method has four stages:
P or point or stating the main point briefly;
R or Reason or providing reasons to substantiate the point;
E or Example or Evidence or providing examples to validate the reasons, and
P or point or adding a concluding point while re-emphasizing the main point.
The Greek philosopher Aristotle’s three appeals of Logos, Ethos, and Pathos hold the secret to being
a persuasive speaker and get the right message across.
Logos or appealing to the listener’s logic, Ethos, or the appeal of the speaker’s credibility, and
Pathos, or emotional appeal, help one to be an effective speaker.
Add the Active Listening course to the bouquet and you will be set. So, make the most of this
work-from-home period and master the skills of effective communication.
Explore blogs on topics such as business communication, the communication flow, and the types of
business communication in our Harappa Diaries section and learn how to deliver information
effectively.
Grapevine chain
Grapevine is an informal channel of business communication. It is called so because it stretches
throughout the organization in all directions irrespective of the authority levels. Man, as we know is
a social animal. Despite existence of formal channels in an organization, the informal channels tend
to develop when he interacts with other people in organization. It exists more at lower levels of
organization.
Grapevine generally develops due to various reasons. One of them is that when an organization is
facing recession, the employees sense uncertainty. Also, at times employees do not have self-
confidence due to which they form unions. Sometimes the managers show preferential treatment
and favor some employees giving a segregated feeling to other employees. Thus, when employees
sense a need to exchange their views, they go for grapevine network as they cannot use the formal
channel of communication in that case. Generally during breaks in cafeteria, the subordinates talk
about their superior’s attitude and behavior and exchange views with their peers. They discuss
rumors about promotion and transfer of other employees. Thus, grapevine spreads like fire and it is
not easy to trace the cause of such communication at times.
Examples of Grapevine Network of Communication
Suppose the profit amount of a company is known. Rumor is spread that this much profit is there
and, on that basis, bonus is declared. CEO may be in relation to the Production Manager. They may
have friendly relations with each other.
Advantages of Grapevine Communication
Grapevine channels carry information rapidly. As soon as an employee gets to know some
confidential information, he becomes inquisitive and passes the details then to his closest friend
who in turn passes it to other. Thus, it spreads hastily.
The managers get to know the reactions of their subordinates on their policies. Thus, the feedback
obtained is quick compared to formal channel of communication.
The grapevine creates a sense of unity among the employees who share and discuss their views with
each other. Thus, grapevine helps in developing group cohesiveness.
The grapevine serves as an emotional supportive value.
The grapevine is a supplement in those cases where formal communication does not work.
Disadvantages of Grapevine Communication
The grapevine carries partial information at times as it is more based on rumors. Thus, it does not
clearly show the complete state of affairs.
The grapevine is not trustworthy always as it does not follow official path of communication and is
spread more by gossips and unconfirmed report.
The productivity of employees may be decreased as they spend more time talking rather than
working.
The grapevine leads to making hostility against the executives.
The grapevine may hamper the goodwill of the organization as it may carry false negative
information about the high-level people of the organization.
A smart manager should take care of all the disadvantages of the grapevine and try to minimize
them. At the same time, he should make best possible use of advantages of grapevine.

1.5 COMMUNICATION PATTERNS

Types of communication patterns
Business Communication is a transfer of information among individuals and groups. It is classified
into verbal, non-verbal and written. It also has different forms: intrapersonal, interpersonal, group
and mass communication. In the same way communication patters shows how information flows
within a group. It is nothing but a group communication.
The Leavitt Experiment
Communication patterns and its types were described by Harold J. Leavitt in 1950 which is
considered to be the most common categorization. It is also known as the Leavitt Experiment,
where the experiment included 5 people who had to play a game similar to clue.
Here, every person had five symbols with them and had to find out which symbol they had in
common. If all the information could be gathered, the puzzle could be solved. Five people were
placed in cubicles with slots 6 switches to exchange information.
The cubicles were placed in different shapes: star (wheel), Y, chain (line) and circle. People had
slots in which they could write messages and send according to these patterns.
It was done to find out which pattern could be better to communicate effectively and quickly.
These are the important patterns of communication to study:
 Circle
 Chain
 Y
 Wheel
All communication patterns will have certain merits and demerits. In circle, Chain and Y patterns
all group members can’t directly communicate with the group leader. They can communicate to
leader only through group members. In Wheel, all the group members can communicate directly
with the group leader.
Circle
In circle communication pattern, there is a leader and hierarchies in the group members. Here, the
leader can only communicate to the members who are next to him/her like their direct subordinates.
He/she cannot talk with any other members too, like the lowest level of workers.
Similarly, if an office assistant has to talk to the leader about anything, he/she has to send the
message to their seniors, which finally reaches to the boss or leader.
All group members can only communicate to the people who are above them or below them in the
chain of command. The message flows in one direction or way.
All group members cannot communicate with the leader in circle communication pattern which is a
disadvantage of this communication pattern. They can only do it through other group members
senior to them.
In this communication pattern, lower-level staffs do not get a chance to criticize anything to the
upper level. They do not have a role in decision making too. If any person sends any message, it
travels through all members of the group.
The process of sending the message also takes a lot of time as it must travel from people to people
to reach the desired recipient.
Chain
Chain pattern of communication has similar problems as circle pattern as it also follows a certain
chain of command.
In the circle, a person can send a message that reaches all members of the group whereas, in the
chain, it is either top to bottom level staffs or bottom to top level staffs. It is a one-way flow of
communication.
In chain communication pattern, all members cannot communicate with the leader of the group like
in a circle.
So, the members might not get the exact message sent by the leader but an altered version of it. The
leader won’t even be aware what distorted message others lower in the command got. Feedbacks
can also be distorted.
Wheel (star)
In wheel pattern, there is a leader at the center of all communication. All others are members that
stand at the same level in the structure. Here, all members can communicate with the leader and
vice versa. But members cannot interact with each other. Sometimes, members do not even know of
the existence of other members of the same group. This pattern is taken as the best pattern of
communication for any organization as a leader can have direct contact with all.
Benefits:
 Communication problems are less and the method is quick.
 There is no distortion of information by other members of the group while passing the
message.
 Prompt and simultaneous feedback is also encouraged in the communication pattern.
Y
Y pattern of communication is more complicated as there are different sub-groups within a group.
In the center is a leader who manages these sub-groups. According to this pattern given by Leavitt,
there are 3 subgroups being controlled by a single leader. There are 3 members in each sub-group.
Here, like mentioned in circle and chain communication patterns, there is a chain of command
within the sub-group. The lowest level of each sub-group communicates with the members senior to
them. They communicate it with their seniors. Then, that member communicates it with the leader.
The message sent by the leader also communicates from top-to-bottom approach. The sub-groups
cannot communicate with each other. They need to pass the information through the leader to send
any message to other sub-groups.
Network
Bureaucratic organization communications structures are taken as network pattern of
communication as it is a non-symmetric network of people with social relations. Their job roles are
interlinked. Communication in networks can be prescriptive, like rules given from leader to other
members or descriptive like case reports given by members to leaders. The network is a
communication pattern in which anyone can communicate with anyone else as per their needs and
requirements. In a network, communication differs due to physical proximity and organizational
structures too.
SUMMARY
 Communication is defined as the exchange of information between two or more people. The
sender's and receiver's shared meaning is derived from the sender's and receiver's
experiences, cultures, education, and training. Similarities in this make communication
between people simpler.
 Systems approaches to business communication is communication as a fundamental element
of the entire business. It is not an approach to separate communication processes into a
separate division.
 Key concepts in systems approach are Independence, Holism, Goal seeking, Inputs and
outputs.
  Business communication takes place at different hierarchical levels.
 Organizational communication can be divided in to internal external personal and mass
communication.
 The process of communication is defined as the transmission and interchange of ideas, facts,
sentiments, or courses of action.
 Communication is a process that is dynamic, continuous, irreversible but at the same time, it
is reciprocal in nature. It is an ongoing process.
 Communication occurs in five distinct phases and contains the following components idea,
sender/encoder, message, channel and medium, receiver, decoding, feedback.
 Various levels of communication are extra-personal, intrapersonal, interpersonal, mass and
organizational.
 In an organization, information flows both formally and informally
 In an organization, communication flows in 5 main directions: Downward, Upward, Lateral,
Diagonal and External
 Communication is involved in all managerial or administrative operations, whether they are
planning, organizing, recruiting, coordinating, or decision-making. Communication acts as a
tool for measuring an organization's performance or growth.
 Communications can be formal or informal.
 Grapevine is an informal channel of business communication.
 Communication patterns and its types were described by Harold J. Leavitt in 1950 which is
considered to be the most common categorization.
 These are the important patterns of communication to study they are circle, chain, y, wheel.
KEYWORDS
Communication
Coordination
Interpersonal
Decoder
Decoding
Encoder
Encoding
Feedback
Noise
Productivity
Transmission
SELF ASSESMENT QUESTIONS
1. Define Systems approach.
2. Define communication.
3. What are the features and objectives of communication?
4. Explain the process of communication?
5. What is message? What stages does it pass through in the process of communication?
6. How feedback help effective presentation?
7. What are the different models of communication?
8. Define patterns in communication.
9. What are the advantages and disadvantages of grapevine pattern of communication?
FURTHER READINGS
Effective Business Communication by Herta Murphy McGraw Hill Education, (2017)
Business Communication Today by Courtland L.Bovee, John V. Thill, Roshan Lal Raina, Pearson
Art and Science of Business Communication by Chaturvedi by Pearson
LESSON 2 - BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
CONTENTS
Overview
2.1 Categorization of Barriers
2.2 Technical Aspects of communication Barriers
2.3 Interpersonal Perception
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Further Readings
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 Analyze failure in communication
 What are the barriers of communication
 Identify technical aspects of barriers
 Strategies to overcome communication barriers
 Explain the interpersonal communication perception
 Explain Johari window and transactional analysis
OVERVIEW
There are a number of communication barriers that we face that make things difficult for us. It is
critical for a leader to c
Communicate with others in a clear and effective manner. "It's not what you're saying, but how
you're saying it," goes a popular adage. The manner in which a good manager communicates
distinguishes him from a bad one. Effective communication is the first step toward good leadership,
and you will face various communication barriers throughout your career. The concept of good
communication arose from the need to overcome communication barriers.
Good communication between the management and the staff helps to reduce misunderstandings and
fosters a positive working atmosphere. All tasks will run easily if you have great communication
with your team. You will also find the meeting sessions to be quite beneficial.
Aside from professional communication between employees and management, every company has
some form of communication disruption. This obstruction in communication is known as a
communication barrier. We'll go through each of these communication barriers in depth, as well as
strategies to make you aware of how to reduce them in your organization. We can classify barriers
according to the process of message formation and delivery;
2.1 CATEGORIZATION OF BARRIERS
The Barriers to effective communication could be of many types like:
1. Physical barrier
2. Semantic barrier
3. Organizational barrier
 4. Psychological barrier
5. Personal barrier
6. Attitudinal barrier
7. Cultural barrier
8. Perception barrier
Physical barriers
Internal structure of the organization and layout of office machines and equipment creates physical
barriers in communication. Geographic distance between transmitter and recipient is one example
of a physical barrier to communication (s). Communication across shorter distances is typically
easier since more communication channels are accessible and less technology is required. Although
contemporary technology frequently assists to mitigate the impact of physical barriers, the benefits
and drawbacks of each communication channel should be recognized so that an appropriate channel
may be utilized to overcome the physical obstacles.
Noise: – it is from external sources and affects the communication process. Noise negatively affects
the accuracy. Noise is defined as any unplanned interference in the communication environment,
which affects the transmission of message. Noise here does not mean sound, but a break or
disturbance in the communication. Communication channel noise are distortion due to faulty
background, noise in telephone lines. Semantic noises are ambiguous sentence structure, faulty
grammar, misspellings, and incorrect punctuation.
Semantic Barrier
The term semantic refers to a person's understanding of words. Every word has hundreds of
different meanings. Every interpretation is employed in accordance with the context or taking into
consideration the scenario in which the term is likely to be used. A semantic barrier develops when
the word is employed with meanings other than the desired one. This distraction occurs either
purposefully or unintentionally. Sometimes the sender's words and numbers are misunderstood,
causing communication to break down. The following are the most common language-related
disruptions:
If the words chosen by the sender are inappropriate or irrelevant, they are followed by the incorrect
sequence of words and phrases, resulting in linguistic confusion.
When a specific word is misunderstood by the receiver, communication becomes meaningless.
When a manager interprets a message based on his intellectual level, which is incomprehensible to
his subordinates and colleagues, it results in poor communication.
Sometimes the sender believes that the message he is expressing is simple. He does not translate the
message's core and just addresses the main issue, which is correct, but the receiver does not
understand the basics of that unique message, which causes distraction in the dialogue.
Individuals who work in an organization are usually associated with one or more technical groups
of organizations. These technical organizations transmit messages in difficult-to-understand
technical jargon. As a result, a barrier is formed.
Organizational Barrier
The organizational structure influences not just the personnel, but also the modes of communication.
Any error made at the organizational level may result in subsequent communication disruptions.
Organizations develop policies based on the nature of their job. If an organization has made it a
policy to transmit messages in writing, that policy should be followed; otherwise, the company's
communication will suffer.
The organization's policies may limit communication. There will be some messages remaining that
are specified for oral transmission, in spite of the organization's guideline the message should be
transmitted in written form.
The organization's levels may be the source of the communication barrier. Lower-level employees
will be afraid of conveying their message effectively to higher-level supervisors. This will cause a
hiccup in their communication.
The higher the level of the organization, the more restricted communication is. The message is
changed as it passes through various layers. As a result, these levels constitute the source of the
obstacles.
Personal Barriers
Personal barriers are those in which both the sender and the recipient are personally involved.
Personal obstacles to communication impact communication in the following ways:
Those at higher levels believe that employees at lower levels are less capable. As a result, they
purposefully ignore communications sent by lower-level staff. Employees' self-confidence suffers
as a result, as does their performance.
Every employee wishes to advance in the organization. Some employees do not share their ideas for
this purpose because they are afraid of losing their jobs. This is also seen as a communication
obstacle.
One of a manager's responsibilities is to monitor the organization's communication levels, whether
they are held within the company or outside of it. He should implement policies to reduce such
communication obstacles. This will help the organizationmaintain its position and enhance its
production.
Psychological Barriers
The receiver's psychological condition will impact how the message is received. For example, if
someone is worried and has personal issues, they may be concerned with those concerns and not as
attentive to the message as if they were not stressed. Stress management is a vital personal skill that
has an impact on our interpersonal interactions. Another example of a psychological barrier to
communication is anger. When we are furious, it is simple to say things we would later regret, as
well as misinterpret what others are saying. People with poor self-esteem may be less forceful and,
as a result, may not feel comfortable talking - they may be hesitant.
Attitudinal barriers
Attitudinal barriers are actions or attitudes that make it difficult for people to communicate
successfully. Personality conflicts, bad management, reluctance to change, or a lack of drive can all
result in attitudinal obstacles to communication. To enhance effective communication, effective
message recipients should try to overcome their own attitudinal obstacles.
Cultural Barriers
All socially transmitted and shared behaviors, manners, traditions, rituals, beliefs, ideas, arts,
knowledge, values, morals, and ideals that are learnt in a group of the same nationality, religion, or
race are considered culture. It is passed down from generation to generation, gradually developing
and introducing a variety of subcultures in the process.
Communication may be challenging due to cultural differences, especially in the workplace, where
a misunderstanding can led to significant difficulties. Several variables might create obstacles when
people from various cultures collaborate. We'll look at these factors first, and then discuss how to
overcome them as a global team. The following are cultural barriers to communication:
Language
If you do not speak the particular language well enough this may lead to misunderstanding. This is
the most important obstacle to cross-cultural communication
Although verbal communication is essential in all situations, the meaning of words can actually be
lost in translation. If one person does not know the actual meaning of a term, the other person may
misunderstand or misinterpret it, resulting in a clash of ideas.
Stereotypes and Prejudices
Stereotypes are often negative impressions or preconceived beliefs about a certain community,
group, or culture. Stereotyping can be based on a variety of factors, the most frequent of which are
nationality, gender, ethnicity, religion, or age.
Popular stereotypes, for example, are that all Germans are punctual and very direct, or that all
Asians are good at math.
This creates bias among people of various cultures, resulting in judgmental attitudes against one
another. People see other cultures as "bad," "difficult to work with," or "incomprehensible," and
treat them with scorn and disrespect. Working together successfully amongst individuals who
dislike and disdain one other may become incredibly challenging if things reach this far on a team
or in a corporation.
Signs and Symbols
Nonverbal communication, such as signs and symbols, varies from culture to culture and, as a result,
cannot be depended on in conversation. In Bangladesh, for example, the “thumbs up,” which is used
as a symbol of favor in the Western world, is considered an insult.
While not as easily misinterpreted in a team context as the other variables, it can nevertheless lead
to cultural faux pas that may take time to smooth out and should have been prevented in the first
place.
Behaviors and Belief
Body language, gestures, attitudes, communication, etiquette, and customs are all affected by
cultural variations, which can lead to misunderstanding. Eye contact, for example, is highly valued
in certain cultures but considered impolite and insulting in others.
Religious or spiritual views can also cause conflict and cross-cultural obstacles.
Different cultures have different understandings of time. Some countries, such as Germany, the
Netherlands, Scandinavia, Switzerland, and the United States, have a linear perspective of time.
Time is money, and timeliness has a high monetary value. Things are usually done one at a time to
allow for attention and completion of the work within a set time period.
Other nations, such as several in Southern Europe, such as Spain and Italy, view time as multi-
active, which implies that the more activities people do at the same time, the happier and more
content they feel. Schedules and timeliness are less essential and appreciated than current reality
and, in particular, human interactions.

2.2 TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF COMMUNICATION BARRIER

Overcoming cultural barriers

Successful and effective cross-cultural management may be a difficult undertaking, especially for
teams with individuals from all over the world. People who engage with each other face-to-face for
eight hours a day will bond and discover common ground faster than those who exclusively interact
with each other online at specific times. As a global leader you not only have to be aware of the
cultural barriers within your team, but actively strive to overcome them.
Embrace diversity and accommodate cultural differences
As a global leader, you must encourage your team members and employees that culturally diverse
teams create more inventive and creative solutions than homogeneous organizations. As a result,
rather than creating obstacles, cultural differences should be embraced, openly addressed, and used
to assist one another. You want a team to function effectively because of its diversity, not despite
them.
Make it a point for your staff to learn about their coworkers' opinions and ways of life in order to
foster open-mindedness and appreciation. Concentrate on the qualities that each culture brings to
the table and how these strengths may be incorporated into the way your team works together.
Promote open communication
Open communication is the only way for culturally diverse teams to work through and overcome
their differences and collaborate effectively. As a global leader, it is your responsibility to foster an
open communication culture inside your organization or team.
Adress resentment, conflicts, or misunderstandings among team members as soon as they emerge
and provide all parties with the chance to express and debate their concerns in a safe and open
atmosphere.
Listen carefully to what your team members or employees have to say if their concerns are with you.
Thank them for their openness, and work together to find a good solution or compromise that
everyone can agree on.
A company culture of open communication is grown from the top down. As global leader, you must
lead by example and value everyone’s opinion equally to ensure openness and honesty between
your team members.
Global Leadership
It is your obligation as a global leader to guarantee that your team members or employees work
together despite their cultural differences. Be aware of any stereotypes or prejudices you may have
and work to overcome them consciously. Recognize the differences your team members face and
promote an open communication culture in the workplace.
However, leading your team or company across cultural divides is only one of the obstacles that a
global leader tackles on a daily basis.
Lead open discussions about team norms and shared company culture
When your team members have different cultural backgrounds, you can bring them together by
building a new shared culture for your firm or team.
This will not happen in a top-down strategy, unlike leading by example to foster open
communication. A company or team culture must be developed collaboratively and with the
participation of all members. As the team leader, it's critical to set aside time for the team to talk
about their differences and complaints, identify common ground, and decide how to go together.
2.3 INTERPERSONAL PERCEPTION
SWOT ANALYSIS
SWOT Analysis is the most widely used method for auditing and analyzing a company's overall
strategic position and its environment. Its primary goal is to establish techniques for developing a
firm-specific business model that best fits an organization's resources and competencies with the
needs of the environment in which it works.
In other words, it provides as a framework for evaluating internal potential and constraints, as well
as potential/likely external opportunities and threats. It takes into account all positive and negative
factors that influence the firm's success, both inside and outside the company. A continuous
examination of the environment in which the company operates aids in forecasting/predicting
emerging trends and incorporating them into the organization's decision-making process.
A SWOT analysis is a tool for taking a realistic, fact-based, data-driven look at the strengths and
weaknesses of a company. The organization must maintain the study's accuracy by avoiding
preconceived conceptions or grey zones and focusing instead on real-world circumstances.
Businesses should treat it as a suggestion rather than a prescription.
An overview of the four factors (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) is given below-
Strengths:
Strengths are the characteristics that enable us to carry out the mission of the organization. These
are the foundations for achieving and maintaining long-term success.
The strengths of a person can be both tangible and intangible. These are the areas in which you are
well-versed or have expertise, the qualities and attributes that your staff (individually and as a team)
possess, and the unique features that give your organization its consistency.
People competencies, process skills, financial resources, products and services, consumer goodwill,
and brand loyalty are all examples of strengths. Large financial resources, a wide product line, no
debt, dedicated people, and so on are examples of organizational strengths.
Weakness
Weaknesses are qualities that prevent us from achieving our goals and reaching our full potential.
These shortcomings have a negative impact on the success and growth of the organization.
Weaknesses are elements that do not meet the standards we believe they should.
Weaknesses in an organization can include deteriorating machinery, insufficient R&D resources, a
limited product line, poor decision-making, and so on. Weaknesses are surmountable. They must be
diminished and, ultimately, removed. For example, new machinery can be purchased to replace
obsolete machinery.
Other examples of organizational weaknesses are huge debts, high employee turnover, complex
decision-making process, narrow product range, large wastage of raw materials, etc.
Opportunities
Businesses can gain a competitive advantage by capitalizing on opportunities. Organizations must
exercise caution, recognize opportunities, and seize them when they arise. It is difficult to choose
the goals that would best serve the clients while reaching the desired results.
Opportunities may exist in the market, competition, industry/government, and technology. Increased
telecommunications demand, along with deregulation, creates a great potential for new businesses
to enter the telecom sector and compete for income with existing businesses.
Threats
Threats arise when external factors have an impact on the dependability and profitability of an
organization's operations. When people attach to defects, they increase their sensitivity. Threats are
invincible. When a threat develops, the community's stability and survival may be challenged.
Employee unhappiness is a risk, as is continually changing technology; increased competition,
which leads to excess capacity, price wars, and decreasing industry profits; and so on.
Advantages of SWOT analysis
 SWOT Analysis is useful in strategy development and selection.
 It is a powerful tool, but it has a high subjective component.
 It is best used as a recommendation rather than a prescription.
 Successful firms build on their strengths, address their deficiencies, and protect themselves
from internal and external dangers.
They also keep an eye on their general business environment and identify and capitalize on new
chances faster than their competitors.
SWOT Analysis helps in strategic planning in following manner-
 It is a source of information for strategic planning.
 Builds organization’s strengths.
 Reverse its weaknesses.
 Maximize its response to opportunities.
 Overcome organization’s threats.
 It helps in identifying core competencies of the firm.
 It helps in setting of objectives for strategic planning.
 It helps in knowing past, present and future so that by using past and current data, future
plans can be chalked out.
SWOT Analysis provide information that helps in synchronizing the firm’s resources and
capabilities with the competitive environment in which the firm operates.
What Are Threats in a SWOT?
Threats are external elements that can have a negative impact on a company's success. They include
rivals' competitive advantages, uncontrolled effects such as natural disasters, governmental
regulations, and other factors. Identifying dangers can assist in exposing roadblocks to success and
positioning businesses to develop plans to overcome them.
What Are Strengths in a SWOT Analysis?
A company's strengths in a SWOT analysis are its favorable internal activities, procedures, and
behaviors (what a company does well). These are the elements that contribute to the company's and
its brand's success. Strengths such as excellent customer service and efficient supply chain
management assist businesses in maintaining and enhancing their competitive advantage.
SWOT does not account for the differences in weight. Therefore, a deeper analysis is needed, using
another planning technique.

Johari Window

Definition: The Johari Window is the psychological model developed by Joseph Luft and
Harrington Ingham, that talks about the relationship and mutual understanding between the group
members. In other words, a psychological tool that helps an individual to understand his
relationship with himself and with other group members is called as a Johari Window.
The objective behind the creation of a Johari window is to enable an individual to develop trust with
others by disclosing information about himself and also to know what others feels about himself
through feedback.
The Johari Window model is made up of four quadrants that explain the overall relationship of an
individual with himself and with other group members.
These are as follows:
Open Self: This quadrant depicts an individual's conduct, goals, attitudes, and knowledge abilities,
which he is aware of and willing to communicate with others. The open self is defined as a state in
which an individual is open and honest with himself and others about what he is doing, how he is
doing it, and what his motivations are.
Blind Self: The blind self-shows the state of an individual known to others but not known to him. It
usually happens, when an individual or a subject copy the behavior of some significant personalities
unconsciously since his childhood.
Hidden Self: This quadrant of the Johari window shows the state of an individual known to him but
not known to the others. This is generally seen in the individuals who are introvert and do not like
to share their private lives with anyone. The individual keeps his feelings, ideas or thoughts to
himself and do not disclose it in front of the others.
Unknown Self: The unknown self is the mysterious state of an individual neither known to him,
nor others know about it. Often the feelings, thoughts or ideas go so deep down the individual that it
becomes difficult for the individual as well for the other people to understand it.
The ultimate need is to enlarge the open self quadrant with the intent to establish a fruitful
relationship with the self as well with others such that the work can be performed efficiently when
working as a team.
TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS
Transactional Analysis, founded in the 1970s by the late Dr. Eric Berne, is a highly effective and
widely used psychological theory. Understanding Transactional Analysis (commonly known as TA)
is advantageous to everyone. You may be a professional with a regular job, an entrepreneur, a
student, or an ordinary person.
You could be anyone who wants to better their communication with themselves and others by
employing the Transactional Analysis approach. Transactional Analysis raises your consciousness
while elevating your thinking to a higher level, allowing you to comprehend your own problematic
and dysfunctional behaviors and communication patterns in order to establish deeper connections
with yourself and the world.
What is transactional analysis
Late Dr. Eric Berne developed a robust theory that can assist you comprehend your own
communication methods. According to the International Transactional Analysis Association, TA is
"a theory of personality and a systematic psychotherapy for personal growth and personal change."
 This is a personality theory that explains in detail why people behave the way they do.
 Thus, Transactional Analysis directs your attention to yourself.
 How you communicate with the world while also being conscious of how others
communicate with you.
 Transactional Analysis theory is also useful in the treatment of psychological disorders, is an
important part of counselling, and coaching.

What are the Key Concepts of Transactional Analysis?

Transactional Analysis has its base on the Ego States or the Parent-Adult-Child (PAC) model.
1) Ego States or the Parent-Adult-Child (PAC) Model
Let’s understand with an example.
Muhil is a high school student and is often demanding at home. He is also known to throw tantrum
when things don’t go in his way. Muhil’s parent cannot understand his behavior and has quietly put
up with his tantrums. This greatly affected his relationship with his parents.
Muhil, here does not operate her thinking as an Adult, displays behaviors learned in his childhood
to make things go his way.
Three ego states of PAC Model:
a) Parent Ego State
There are moments when you behave in your current state just the way your Parents would do. The
Parent Ego-State is about the behaviors and feelings that were copied from your parents or from
your early caregivers
In the case of Muhil, he would probably be copying his dominant behavior and using it without
consideration towards his parents.

Parents, when in their role, are quite critical in their behavior towards the child.
They give us a set of instructions which may often sound like -
“Don’t do this…”
“Always do this…”
“Be this…”
“Stop doing this…”
Their non-verbal communication may tend to be protective (gestures) or nurturing (hugs).
A person in this Ego-State as an adult may tend to be highly critical, judgmental, often deciding for
others, protective, nurturing, etc.
Adult ego state
When a person is in the Adult Ego-State, he or she exhibitsbehaviors that are intimately tied to the
present moment. The individual is free to respond as they see fit, unaffected by any other Ego-State.
He or she will seek solutions in the most effective and rational manner possible, without becoming
overly upset about an issue.
A person in the Adult Ego-State is often straightforward in their approach, is interested in the
conversation without being judgmental, and will know how to use logic in conflicting situations.
A person in this Ego-State questions several aspects of a scenario, such as what and why, where,
and what he or she observes vs what opinions they hold.
Child ego state
A person in this Ego-State exhibits behaviors, sentiments, or may think about situations while being
influenced by their early thoughts. Muhil's sulking would be affected by his Child Ego-State, whilst
her reaction would be impacted by emotions triggered by prior behaviors.
If you had to ask Muhil, "Does this situation remind you of anything from your childhood?" Muhil
would have replied, "Yes, I used to hurl my toys and sulk whenever I sought my mother's attention."
In this Ego-State, a person may exhibit rebellion, delight, complaining, sulking, terror, fear, or even
a lot of laughter.
The Three Ego-States are never consciously recognized by a person. To ground their
communication in the present situation, everyone re-experiences a portion of the Parent Ego-State
or the Child Ego-State.
If Muhil had used her Adult Ego-State, he may have said, "Oh! I must resist the urge to become
enraged and instead focus on finding a solution. But what is it that actually irritates me?”
Eric Berne discusses the Three Ego-States and their existence in everyday life. These come Parent
Ego-State is extremely advantageous in life. The Child Ego-State is excellent for maintaining one's
creativity and intuitive abilities.
An Adult Ego-State helps one to make decisions based in the present moment to resolve problems
with greater accuracy without displaying any influenced behaviors from other Ego States.
Definition of Ego-States by Eric Berne:
A consistent pattern of feeling and experience directly related to a corresponding consistent pattern
of behavior.
Life positions
Eric Berne stated that a person's life and its outcomes are predetermined based on the first five years
of a person's life. You may be wondering how a person can base their entire story on something that
happened when they were young
Thus, Life Positions is an exciting theory that focuses on our psychological patterns of thinking,
feeling, and behaving. We base our decisions on the comments we obtain from parents or parental
figures. Convictions about oneself and the world are formed as a result of this. A youngster tends to
make this decision early on depending on cues acquired during the early years, which might be
verbal or nonverbal.
However, Life Positions are not permanent and can be altered through counselling or therapy,
helping a person free themselves from self-limiting beliefs to embrace a new life story for
themselves.
The Life Convictions formed are as follows:
I am OK
I’m not OK
You’re OK
You’re not OK
Berne combined these to form 4 Life Positions as follows:
a) I’m Ok, you’re Ok
This is frequently referred to as a winning Life Script. A child is at ease with himself and his
surroundings when he or she is in this state. He or she understands that they are lovable and that
they will grow up to trust people and have long-lasting meaningful relationships. They have a
positive mindset and trust both give and receive.
I’m not Ok, you’re Ok
A child here frequently believes that they are on the losing end. They are adamant about this and
fabricate life stories that add to their anguish. When a person feels violated, he or she feels
compelled to please others. They frequently exhibit more support for other people's strengths rather
than their own.
I’m ok, you’re not ok
An infant grows up believing he or she is superior than others. Such a child grows into an adult who
is obsessed with his own "wants" while ignoring others. This adult may have a tendency to blame
others for their troubles. This type of person always makes others feel inadequate while feeling
'fine' about themselves.
I’m not Ok, you’re not Ok
When a youngster chooses on a Life Position, he or she experiences an internal conflict with
himself or herself as well as with the rest of the world. They end up creating a life of suffering by
not believing in themselves and making decisions that place them in the position of a victim. A
person is dissatisfied and despondent. A person like this may retreat or perhaps damage himself.
These positions describe a specific attitude taken by an individual regarding how he or she
perceives himself or herself and others.
The Philosophy of Transactional Analysis mentions:
 People are OK.
 Everyone has the capacity to think.
 People decide their own destiny, and these decisions can be changed.
Life script
According to Transactional Analysis, each individual has already written their life story or
screenplay based on various factors such as Life Positions. Berne emphasizes that this begins the
moment a person is born. Every person has a beginning, a middle, and an end, much like a movie
plot. You are the Director and the Scriptwriter in this scenario, and you define your finale without
even realizing it.
First developed by Eric Berne and then worked upon by Claude Steiner, a Life Script is a plan that
is influenced by the people one grows up with. A child observes and prepares this Life Plan based
on external influences as well as what happens internally. A parent gives messages to a child such as,
“The world is not safe.” A child grows up thinking, “I shouldn’t trust anybody.” It’s important to
note how two children may interpret the same messages through their own understanding.
An infant or a child interprets certain parental messages in their own way. Being ignored by a
mother in the early age may lead to the infant growing up to distrust women or people in general. A
person may decide, “I am a loser” after being put down frequently by his class teacher.
Learning Transactional Analysis works to change your core limiting beliefs to modify and create a
winning Life Script.
Transactions and Strokes
Eric Berne referred to transactions as the ‘basic unit of social discourse.’
Transactions are of many types.
For example, you greet a colleague with a ‘hello’ and get a ‘how are you’ as a response. When you
continue a conversation, you receive a series of transactions. Transactions can be complementary,
crossed, ulterior, and angular ulterior. They can occur between different Ego-states.
An individual can notice difficulties in their transactions by observing their communication, which
includes verbal, nonverbal gestures, and body language. A Transactional Analyst can correct and
improve a client's communication style in order to get better results in life.
Berne defined Strokes as a ‘unit of recognition.’ You exchange a stroke when you say a friendly
greeting and receive one in response. However, a person who does not receive a stroke in return
may feel deprived as mentioned by Berne. A person’s hunger for Strokes begins at an early age. For
example, a baby longs to be held and in physical contact with their parents. However, a baby
deprived of the same will grow up to experience emotional difficulties and problems.
Strokes are defined as:
 Verbal or non-verbal
 Positive or negative
 Conditional or unconditional
A simple example would be the constant need of sharing updates and selfies on social media. A
person expects “Likes” which are nothing but seeking positive strokes from their friends and family.
A child may often be made to experience he/she does not need strokes creating a hunger for strokes
within.
However, strokes are available in plenty, and it’s advisable to indulge in self-stroking in moderate
ways to feel better about yourself.
Games
Games are defined as an ongoing series of ulterior transactions that lead to a predictable outcome. If
you’ve felt like a victim in life and find yourself saying, “Why does this happen to me?” welcome
to the psychological Games that we play with ourselves and the world. Transactional Analysis
outlines a collection of Games that people play. These are often out of unconscious behavior.
For example, a person may think he is not good at communication. He applies for many jobs, gets
selected, but he often declines the interview process. A friend says, “You should join classes to
improve communication and get over your fear.” He says, “Oh, no, I don’t have the time.” The
friend says, “You can manage your time better.” He says, “Yes, but I have to manage my house.”
The person has managed to avoid all the friend’s suggestions.
This game is labelled as “Yes, But…” A Game analysis helps to understand the Games people play.
 Transactional Analysis outlines Games to have certain features -
 These are repetitive - a person display same patterns and creates same results
 They are played without the adult awareness
 A person always ends up experiencing racket feelings
 There is an exchange of ulterior transactions
 They always include feelings of being surprised or complete confusion
Examples of Games:
a) I’m only trying to help you -
Game: A person offers help but desires to control behavior.
b) Blemish - a person finds faults in people.
Game: The actual game is to create a distraction from self and avoid looking at one’s own mistakes.
c) Courtroom - a person proves how often they are right while others are wrong.
Game: They seek support and sympathy from people.
d) Poor me- a person often displays themselves as completely helpless.
Games: They want to seek sympathy.
A deeper study of Transactional Analysis helps to understand Games while being aware of the
patterns we display.
Transactional Analysis also includes the study of Functional Analysis of Ego-States, Time
Structuring, Script Messages, Injunctions, Drivers, Discounting, Frame of Reference, Symbiosis,
Rackets, Stamps, and much more.
Benefits of Transactional Analysis?
 Self-reliance - capable of taking their own decisions in life
 Identifying areas of improvement in communication with self and others
 Knowing where to modify behaviors
 Understand messages that influenced behavior, remove limiting beliefs
 Develop a better understanding of people
 Raise self-awareness towards situations, respond before reacting
 Develop the capacity to view situations from adult state
 Work upon own Life Script, make the changes to achieve goals
 Personal Development - it creates people who are highly self-aware and responsible in life,
brings focus on personal and professional goals
  Jobs - TA is beneficial at work as you learn techniques to manager interpersonal
communications, encourage team building, and more.
 Business - A businessperson learns to manage situations through self-awareness, make
decisions based on the here-and-now.
 Transactional Analysis is also useful for any industry - medicine, coaching, education, media,
art, and more.
 Transactional analysis is beneficial for effective communication, as a person understands
their communication with self while identifying the personality of another.
 A deeper understanding of personality and behaviors allows one to improve communication
that is designed to create the best outcomes.
Goals of Transactional Analysis Theory
 Be a highly self-aware individual
 Understand own behavior, modify patterns
 Examine own thoughts, behaviors, actions
 Be present in the Adult Ego-State

SUMMARY

 Aside from professional communication between employees and management, every

company has some form of communication disruption.
 We can classify barriers according to the process of message formation and delivery;
 Communication may be challenging due to cultural differences, especially in the workplace,
 Stereotypes are often negative impressions or preconceived beliefs about a certain
community,
 Successful and effective cross-cultural management may be a difficult undertaking,
especially for teams with individuals from all over the world
 SWOT Analysis is the most widely used method for auditing and analyzing a company's
overall strategic position and its environment
 A SWOT analysis is a tool for taking a realistic, fact-based, data-driven look at an
organization's, initiative's, or industry's strengths and weaknesses.
 The Johari Window is the psychological model developed by Joseph Luft and Harrington
Ingham, that talks about the relationship and mutual understanding between the group
members.
 The Johari Window model is made up of four quadrants that explain the overall relationship
of an individual with himself and with other group members.
 Transactional Analysis, founded in the 1970s by the late Dr. Eric Berne, is a highly effective
and widely used psychological theory.
 Understanding Transactional Analysis (commonly known as TA) is advantageous to
everyone.
 Transactional Analysis has its base on the Ego States or the Parent-Adult-Child (PAC)
model.
 Eric Berne stated that a person's life and its outcomes are predetermined based on the first
five years of a person's life.
 Transactional Analysis is also useful for any industry - medicine, coaching, education, media,
art, and more.
  A change with awareness of ego-state is useful to transact in a healthy way. This leads to
impactful communication if you choose to transact with awareness.
KEYTERMS
 Coordination
 Interpersonal communication
 Decoder
 Encoder
 Decoding
 Encoding
 Feedback
 Idea
 Message
 Noise
 Productivity
 Transmission
 Transactional
 Ego
 Behavior
 PAC
 Life positions
 Life script
 Games
SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. Classify barriers of communication
2. what are intercultural barriers?
3. What are ways to avoid cultural barriers?
4. What is the role of a global leader?
5. What is SWOT analysis?
6. what are the four factors of swot analysis?
7. Discuss the advantages of swot analysis?
8. What Are Threats in a SWOT?
9. What Are Strengths in a SWOT Analysis?
10. What is Johari window?
11. What are the objectives of Johari window?
12. what are the four quadrants of Johari window?
13. what is transactional analysis?
14. What is transactional analysis used for?
15. What is the role of transactional analysis in business communication?
16. How Transactional analysis is beneficial for effective communication?
17. What are the Key Concepts of Transactional Analysis?
18. How does Transactional Analysis help an individual?
19. what are the goals of transactional analysis?
20. How Transactional analysis is beneficial for effective communication?
21. What are the 3 ego states?
  Observe particular instance of communication in a group that you are part of, Do you think
it was effective? Illustrate your views.
 Indicate the critical difference between effective and ineffective communication with
examples.

FURTHER READINGS
Business Communication: Concepts, Cases and Application Chaturvedi P. D and Chaturvedi
Mukesh (2007) Pearson
Basic Business Communication Raymond V .Lasikar and Marie E. Flately, (2007) Tata McGraw
Hill
Art and Science of Business Communication by Chaturvedi Pearson