1/16/2018

HELP! He said PHYSICS!!!

BIO-WHAT?
WHY VETS?
and some basics

PHYSICS

▪ PHYSICS (ancient Greek: φύσις physis "nature") is a natural science that involves
the study of matter and its motion through space-time, as well as all applicable
concepts, including energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of
nature, from elementary particles (such as quarks, neutrinos and electrons) to the
largest super-clusters of galaxies conducted in order to understand how the
Universe behaves
▪ BIOPHYSICS is an interdisciplinary science that uses the methods of physics and
physical chemistry to study biological systems. Studies included under the
branches of biophysics span all levels of biological organization, from the
molecular scale to whole organisms and ecosystems. Biophysical research shares
significant overlap with biochemistry, nanotechnology, bioengineering, agro-
physics and systems biology

What is a… UNIVERSE

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The physical domain

▪ condensed matter physics is the field of physics that deals with the
macroscopic physical properties of matter
▪ atomic, molecular, and optical physics is the study of matter-matter
and light-matter interactions on the scale from single to few atoms
▪ high energy / particle physics is the study of the elementary
constituents of matter and energy, and the interactions between
them, plus Higgs of course
▪ astrophysics applies the theories and methods of physics to the study
of stellar structure, stellar evolution, the origin of the solar system,
and related problems of cosmology

The scientific method

▪ tests the validity of a physical theory, with the use of a methodical

approach to compare the implications of the theory in question with
the associated conclusions drawn from experiments and
observations conducted to test it

▪ theories which are very well supported by data and have never failed
any competent empirical test are often called scientific laws, or
natural laws

Theory and experiment

▪ theorists develop mathematical models that both agree with existing

experiments and successfully predict future results

▪ experimentalists devise and perform experiments to test theoretical

predictions and find what was wrong with them

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Why do we need experimentalists

Professor
Smith,
I think there is
a flaw in your
theory.

EXAMPLE

▪ a key feature of quantum mechanics is that the state of every particle

can be described by a wave-function used to calculate the probability
that the particle is found to be in a certain state of motion

▪ according to this interpretation, the act of measurement causes the

calculated set of probabilities to "collapse" to the value defined by
the measurement
▪ in other words until the act of measurement the particle can reside
both states of probability simultaneously

Schrödinger's cat recipe

▪ Take one cat, one flask containing a poison, a spinning electron and a spin detector
▪ Place in a sealed, isolated box and stir!
▪ If electron is spinning clockwise, the flask is shattered, releasing the poison that kills
the cat. If electron is spinning anticlockwise, the cat is alive

ë-

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Schrödinger's cat recipe

▪ Quantum mechanics implies that after a while, the cat is simultaneously

alive and dead since the electron has the equal probability to be in both spin
states: anticlockwise (live cat) and clockwise (dead cat).

▪ Based on this theory it is the fact of observation that determines the

quantum state of an atom and the fate of the cat!
▪ Or is it?

Schrödinger's cat recipe

▪ Albert Einstein, in a letter to Schrödinger

▪ dated to 1950, wrote:

▪ …You are the only contemporary physicist, who sees that one cannot
get around the assumption of reality, if only one is honest. Most
simply do not see what sort of risky game they are playing with
reality – reality as something independent of what is experimentally
established...

Schroedinger’s cat photographed

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Theory and experiment (Take 2)

▪ theorists develop mathematical models that both agree with existing

experiments and successfully predict future results

▪ experimentalists devise and perform experiments to test theoretical

predictions and find what was wrong with them

▪ a slight dose of good down-to-earth reason is sometimes required

▪ or a brilliant revolutionary idea

Fundaments of Physics

▪ a set of UNIVERSAL LAWS governing the known UNIVERSE

▪ gravity
– a mutual attraction of all the objects of any mass

▪ mass ???
– an asymmetry in the Higgs field

▪ Higgs field ???

Quarks

▪ electric charge (+ / -) = flavour

▪ colour charge (RGB)
▪ mass
▪ spin, or part of spin

▪ up & down
proton
▪ charm & strange consisting
of 3 quarks

▪top & bottom of different

colours

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The mysterious Higgs field

▪ mass is hypothesized to be created by the Higgs boson (force carrier)

through spontaneous breaking of the local symmetry

tq

uq

Conservation laws

▪ a particular measurable property of an isolated physical system does not

change as the system evolves

▪ conservation of mass: the mass of a closed system (in the sense of a

completely isolated system) will remain constant over time
▪ conservation of linear momentum (Newton's second law of motion): the
total momentum of a closed system of objects (which has no interactions
with external agents) is constant
▪ conservation of energy (first law of thermodynamics): the total amount of
energy in an isolated system remains constant over time

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E = mc2 and other equations

SI UNITS

▪ Système Internationale d'Unités from year 1960 international decimal

system of weights and measures derived from and extending the
metric system of units

▪ consists of seven basic units, from which other units are derived

SI UNITS

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SI UNITS

▪ LENGTH – the metre (m), defined as the distance travelled by light in

a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 second or a length of an iron slab kept in the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Sèvres, France

▪ MASS – the kilogram (kg), which equals 1000 grams as defined by the
slab of platinum-iridium (international prototype kilogram) in the
keeping of the IBWM in Sèvres, France

▪ TIME – the second (s), the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of

radiation associated with a specified transition of the cesium-133
atom, or 1/60 of a minute, 1/3600 of an hour

SI Units

▪ ELECTRIC CURRENT – the ampere (A), which is the current that, if

maintained in two wires placed one metre apart in a vacuum, would
produce a force of 2 × 10−7 newton per metre of length

▪ LUMINOUS INTENSITY – the candela (cd), defined as the intensity in a

given direction of a source emitting radiation of frequency 540 ×1012 Hz and
that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian

SI UNITS

▪ AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE – the mole (M), defined as containing as

many elementary entities of a substance as there are atoms in 12 g of
carbon-12

▪ THERMODYNAMIC TEMPERATURE – the kelvin (K), defined as

100/
27,316 of the triple point (equilibrium among the solid, liquid, and
gaseous phases) of pure water

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Other units – space and time

▪ Hour – the 24th part of a mean solar day

▪ Day – an average time required for Earth to turn once on its axis
▪ Month – a measure of time nearly corresponding to the length of time
required by the Moon to “revolve” once around the Earth

▪ Year – a measure of time corresponding to the length of time required by the

Earth to revolve once around the Sun

▪ Light-year – distance travelled by light moving in a vacuum in the course of

one year (9.46053 × 1012 km or 63,240 astronomical units)

Force, work, power & current

▪ Newton (N) – the absolute unit of force. It is defined as the force

necessary to provide a mass of one kilogram with an acceleration of
one m/s2

▪ Joule (J) – unit of work or energy, one Joule equals the amount of
work done by a force of one newton acting through one metre

▪ Watt (W) – unit of power in equal to one joule of work performed per
second

Force, work, power & current

▪ Volt (V) – unit of electrical potential equal to the difference in potential

between two points in a conductor carrying one ampere current when the
power dissipated between the points is one watt

▪ Horsepower (HP) – unit of power defined to compare the output of steam

engines with the power of draft horses, it is the power necessary to lift a total
mass of 33,000 pounds one foot in one minute;
3 HP equal the amount of power equivalent to the work of 3 horses working
in 3 subsequent 8-hour shifts

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Luminosity

▪ Lumen (lm) is the SI unit of luminous flux, a measure of the power of light
perceived by the human eye, luminous flux differs from radiant flux, the
measure of the total power of light emitted, in that luminous flux is adjusted
to reflect the varying sensitivity of the human eye to different wavelengths
of light

▪ Lux (lx) the SI unit of illumination, one lux is the amount of illumination
provided when one lumen is evenly distributed over an area of one square
metre, also equivalent to the illumination that would exist on a surface all
points of which are one metre from a point source of one candela

Temperature

▪ Celsius (oC) – 1/100 of a scale based on 0° for the freezing point of

water and 100° for the boiling point of water, invented in 1742 by the
Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius

▪ Fahrenheit (oF) – 1/180 of a scale based on 32° for the freezing point of
water and 212° for the boiling point of water, devised by the 18th-
century German physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
▪ He originally took as the zero of his scale the temperature of an equal
ice-salt mixture and selected the values of 30° and 90° for the
freezing point of water and normal body temperature, respectively;
these later were revised to 32° and 98.6°

Absolute zero

▪ −273.15° on the Celsius scale and −459.67° on the Fahrenheit scale

▪ the theoretical temperature at which the molecules of a substance

have the lowest (no) kinetic energy (are motionless)

▪ absolutely the lowest temperature

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Other significant units

▪ Pint (pt) – unit of capacity, one-eighth of a gallon, one pint is described as a

volume easily lifted to the average height of one foot, tilted and drank
within one minute
▪ Calorie (cal) – unit of energy or heat variously defined, originally described
as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of water from
14 to 15°C at a pressure of 1 standard atmosphere, approximately the
amount of energy consumed in 1/2000 of the Bacon-Deluxe-Triple-Burger,
or (by definition of Garfield) the international unit of taste
▪ Bit or binary digit (b) – the basic unit of information in computing and
telecommunications that can be stored by physical system that exists only
in two distinct states (0 or 1), in other words, the amount of information
sufficient to kill Schrödinger's cat

In physical world nearly all is relative

Prefix Symbol 10n Decimal Short scale Long scale

Tera T 1012 1000 000 000 000 Trillion Billion

Giga G 109 1000 000 000 Billion Milliard

Mega M 106 1000 000 Million

Kilo k 103 1000 Thousand

Hecto ha 102 100 Hundred

Deka da 101 10 Ten

100 1 One

deci d 10-1 0.1 Tenth

centi c 10-2 0.01 Hundredth

mili m 10-3 0.001 Thousandth

micro µ 10-6 0.000 001 Millionth

nano n 10-9 0.000 000 001 Billionth Milliardth

pico p 10-12 0.000 000 000 001 Trillionth Billionth

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Measurement theory

▪ measurement is the process of assigning the numerical value to

physical objects and phenomena

▪ measurement apprehends the kinds of things that can be measured,

how different measures relate to each other, and the problem of error
in the measurement process

▪ range – explains the difference between the largest value and the smallest
value, it is the simplest measure of variability in the data, the range is
determined by only the two extreme data values

▪ physiological range – describes the ideal boundaries for biological processes

such as growth and development, and is usually characteristic of a species or
a population

▪ population mean – average and limits of physiological process or parameter

characteristic for certain population, obtained during screening study within
this population

▪ personal range – average and limits of physiological process or parameter

established for certain organism during period of its life

Normal (Gaussian) distribution

the most common distribution function for independent, randomly generated

variables, it is characterized by two parameters: the mean which is the
maximum of the graph and about which the graph is always symmetric; and
the standard deviation, which determines the amount of dispersion away from
the mean.
Low SD = steep graph, high SD = flat graph.

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Gaussian spread in biology

Gaussian spread in biology

12 12 12

10 10 10

8 8 8

6 6 6

4 4 4

2 2 2

0 0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

speciation

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Transport of mass and

electric charge
from diffusion to filtration
membrane transport
protein folding
dynamic proteins

On atoms

▪ atom - smallest unit into which matter can be divided without

the release of electrically charged particles; the smallest unit of
matter that has the characteristic properties of a chemical
element; elementary particle in chemistry

▪ nucleus – positively charged centre of atom that contains most

of its mass; consists of subatomic particles: positively-charged
protons (P) and neutral neutrons (N)
▪ electrons (ē) – negatively charged subatomic particles that
move about the nucleus in an orderly arrangement of orbitals /
electron shells

Diffusion

▪ process resulting from random motion of molecules by which

there is a net flow of matter from a region of high
concentration to a region of low concentration
▪ transport down a concentration gradient
▪ Slow! Unreliable over long distances

▪ O2 and CO2
▪ lemmings

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Principles of diffusion

▪ Brownian motion – a dissolved molecule or a small particle suspended in a

fluid is constantly struck at random by molecules of the fluid in its
neighbourhood, as a result of which it wanders erratically

▪ Fick's law – states that the random wandering causes an average drift of
particles from regions where they are denser to regions where they are
rarer, and that the mean drift rate is proportional to the gradient of density
and invertly proportional to the distance over which the diffusion occurs.

▪ i.e. kids leaving the school diffusion gradient

FAST SLOW

Brownian motion

Biological membrane

▪ very thin boundary that separates living cell from, and links the cell
with the environment, and permits cellular function by regulating
transport, flow of information, nutrients and metabolites
▪ consists of a mosaic of proteins embedded in the semipermeable
(selectively-permeable) lipid bilayer

nonpolar
polar polar
hydrophobic

hydrophilic hydrophilic

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Polar and nonpolar substances

Polar and nonpolar substances

▪ when atoms share electrons the covalent bound is formed
and two atoms form a substance
▪ when both nuclei have equal affinity to electrons they are
distributed equally and resulting substance has no charge
(nonpolar substance)
▪ when one nucleus has higher affinity to electrons than
another the electrons are distributed unequally in the
substance creating polarity
▪ polar substances have positively and negatively-charged
domains

Solution

▪ ionic (charged) substances are attracted by oppositely-charged

domains of polar substance (electrostatic interaction)

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transmembrane proteins

channels

surface proteins

RECEPTOR RAFTS

Membrane transport

▪ passive transport
– diffusion
– osmosis
– dialysis

▪ facilitated transport (membrane channels)

– uniport
– symport
– antiport

▪ active transport

Osmosis

▪ the spontaneous passage or diffusion of water or other solvents

through a semipermeable membrane (one that blocks the
passage of dissolved substances)

▪ oncotic pressure, or colloid

osmotic pressure, is a form
of osmotic pressure exerted
by proteins

OSMOTIC PRESSURE

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Biological consequences

Dialysis

▪ separation of suspended colloidal particles from dissolved ions or

molecules of small dimensions by means of their unequal rates of
diffusion through the pores of semipermeable membranes
(part of the glomerular filtration)

Filtration

▪ dialysis under pressure

▪ Pf = Ph – (Po + Pt) Δφ = 1 ≡ Ph
φ=2 φ=1

Pf – filtration pressure
Ph – hydrostatic pressure in the glomerular capilaries 9.30 kPa
Po – oncotic pressure in the glomerular capilaries 3.99 kPa
Pt – hydrostatic pressure in the Bowman’s space 1.33 kPa
Pf = 3.98 kPa

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Uniport
CELL
▪ transport down a concentration gradient

▪ aquaporin, potassium channels (PORES)

▪ voltage-dependent – regulated by the difference in voltage across the

membrane (neurons)
▪ stress-dependent – regulated by physical pressure on the transporter
(sensory epithelium in the cochlea of the ear)
▪ ligand-regulated – regulated by the binding of a ligand to channel either on
the intracellular or extracellular side of the cell (endocrine system,
synapses)

Symport (co-transport)
CELL
▪ transport down a concentration gradient
▪ two substrates, generally an ion and another molecule or ion,
must bind simultaneously to the same side of the transporter
before its conformational change and conductivity; both
substrates are transported together

▪ sugars and amino acids are absorbed by the enterocytes by co-

transport with sodium ions

Antiport (counterport)
CELL
▪ transport down a concentration gradient
▪ two substrates, generally an ion and another molecule or
ion, must bind simultaneously to the opposite sides of the
transporter before its conformational change and
conductivity; one substrate is absorbed while another
secreted

▪ sodium-proton exchanger in proximal tubule (kidneys)

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Facilitated transport

Active transport

▪ this is usually concerned with accumulating high

concentrations of molecules that the cell needs, such as ions
▪ transport against a concentration gradient

▪ primary active transport – directly utilises chemical energy from high-

energy phosphate bounds i.e. ATP (Na – K ion pump)
▪ secondary active transport – involves the use of an electrochemical
gradient (a spatial variation of both electrical potential and chemical
concentration across a membrane resulting in a type of potential energy
available for work in a cell) → symport and antiport

Dynamics of the active transport

▪ from interaction with other substance(s) sufficient

amount of energy is acquired for a change of shape and/or
structure

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Protein folding

▪ proteins (and other molecules) tend to maintain the lowest possible (most
relaxed) energy state

▪ energy shaping the structure of the protein comes from interactions

between its components (from subunits to amino-acids to atoms)
and interactions with surrounding water molecules
▪ these include: force, geometry and elasticity of the atomic bonds
▪ structure, geometry, volume, hydrophobicity and composition of amino-
acids
▪ interactions between the neighbouring amino-acids, peptides, domains
and polypeptides

How do proteins work?

▪ proteins work by changing structural

organisation or shape of their subunits

▪ proteins that have alterable structure

are called dynamic proteins (i.e.
enzymes, motor proteins or
membrane channels)

▪ proteins that remain “stable” are

called structural proteins (actin
filaments, microtubules or
β-keratin); they provide scaffolding
for other molecules

Pore selectivity

K+ channel

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Bulk transport

▪ reshaping of cell
membrane
– remodelling of
intracellular filaments
– anchoring proteins
– vesicle-shaping
proteins
– transfer of the
package is tubulin-
dependent
clathrins

Swimming in nanoscale
Sir George Stokes Osborne Reynolds

▪ Reynolds number
VACUUM
▪ viscosity
▪ density
▪ speed
▪ SIZE

Pływanie w skali nano

Sir George Stokes Osborne Reynolds

FICK LAW VACUUM

?
BROWNIAN
INERTIA
MOTION

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Bioelectricity
electricity of the cell
Nernst equation and potential
bioelectrical measurements

Electricity

▪ (ēlectricus, "amber-like“); phenomenon associated with

presence or flow of electric charges
▪ electric charge – a property of subatomic particle, which
determines its behaviour in the electromagnetic field

▪ stationary charge – static electricity – build up of electric

charge on the surface of objects

▪ moving charge – current – the flow of electric charge

along electrical conductor as a consequence
of electrostatic discharge

Electric force
▪ described by Charles Augustin de Coulomb

▪ Coulomb's law – describes magnitude of the electrostatic force

between two electric charges


▪ F=k – scalar form

F – electric force
Q1,2 – electric charge
r – distance
k – Coulomb constant

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Coulombs law – vector form

Electric field

▪ introduced by Michael Faraday

▪ surrounds electrically charged particles and time-
varying magnetic fields
▪ exerts a force on other electrically charged objects


▪ E= F – electric force Q – electric charge


Electromagnetic field

▪ property of space caused by the motion of an electric charge

▪ I – current flow F – electric field B – magnetic field

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Resistive Ohm

▪ Ohm's law: current passing through a conductor between two points

is directly proportional to the potential difference across this two
points

▪ Ohm [Ω] – unit of resistivity; resistance between two points of a

conductor (separated from any electromagnetic interactions) when a
constant potential difference of 1 volt, applied to these points,
produces in the conductor a current of 1 ampere

▪ electrical resistance is the opposition to the passage of an electric

current; the inverse quantity is electrical conductance, the ease at
which an electric current passes

Water and solutions

▪ pure water is a good isolator (high resistivity)

▪ it is due to the ions diluted in water that it acquires conducting properties

▪ charge in solution can travel both ways – towards (+) and (-) electrode

▪ strong conductors: small charged ions i.e. inorganic salts

▪ weak conductors: large charged particles i.e. organic acids, peptides, etc.

Water and solutions

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Cell capacitors

▪ capacitor – device for storing electrical energy

▪ consists of two conductors in close proximity and insulated from each other

 
σ= E=
 

σ = capacitance E = electric field

Q = charge V = applied current
A = area d = distance

Leyden jar

▪ battery of four Leyden jars in

Museum Boerhaave, Leiden,
The Netherlands

▪ originally, the amount of

capacitance was measured in
number of 'jars' of a given size

On anodes and cathodes

 ANODE  CATHODE

▪ electrode ▪ electrode
attractive for attractive for
negative ions positive ions
(anions) / (cations)
repulses
positive ions

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Charged particle

▪ a particle with an electric charge

▪ subatomic particle (proton or electron)

▪ ion

▪ a group of charged particles = PLASMA

Nernst equation

▪ equation that can be used to determine the equilibrium reduction

potential of a half-cell in an electrochemical cell

▪ relates the numerical values

of the concentration gradient of
solution to the electric gradient that
balances it

K+
K+

Nernst potential

▪ a physiological application of Nernst equation; potential of an ion of

charge across a biological membrane, the reversal potential

▪ the reversal potential of an ion is the membrane potential at which there

is no net flow of that particular ion from one side of the membrane to the
other

▪ APPLIES ONLY TO THE STATIC SITUATIONS !!!

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Goldman equation

▪ To overcome limitations of Nernst equation in cell membrane physiology

the Goldman–Hodgkin–Katz voltage equation is used to determine the
reversal (equilibrium) potential across a cell's membrane, taking into
account all of the ions that permeate through that membrane.

Equilibrium potential

effective concentration [mM/kg H2O] equilibrium

potential
ECF ICF
K+ 4.5 160 -95 mV
Na+ 144 7 +80 mV
H+ 4*10-5 (pH 7.4) 10-4 (pH 7.0) -24 mV
Cl- 114 7 -80 mV
HCO3- 28 10 -27 mV

Driving force

▪ refers to the difference between the actual membrane potential and an

ion's equilibrium potential
▪ ionic current (Iion) is equal to the ion's conductance (gion) multiplied
by the driving force, the difference between the membrane potential (Vm)
and the ion's equilibrium potential (Eion)

▪ ionic current will be zero if the membrane is impermeable to the ion

(gion = 0), regardless of the size of the driving force

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Ionic current

OUT
ion equilibrium membrane
potential potential
K+ (ICF) - 95 mV
- 80 mV
Na+ (ECF) + 80 mV

IN

Neuron as an electric conduit

Cathode, anode and action potential

NEURON

-80 mV

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Cathode potential

NEURON

-50 mV
– +

Cathode potential

NEURON

-50 mV
– +

Anode potential

NEURON

-110 mV

e
– +
e

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Anode potential

NEURON

-50 mV
– +

Closing and opening potentials

▪ cathode potential = closing potential

▪ anode potential = opening potential

Why is voltage constant in a wire?

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Bioelectricity

▪ electrical, magnetic or electromagnetic fields produced by living

cells, tissues or organisms

Bodily Conductors

▪ neurons
▪ Na+, K+, Cl-

▪ skeletal and cardiac muscles

▪ Ca2+

▪ smooth muscles
▪ Ca2+

Sharks and sixth sense

▪ ampullae of Lorenzini
▪ detect electric fields in the water (the difference between the voltage
at the skin pore and the voltage at the base of the electroreceptor
cell)
▪ threshold of sensitivity as low as 5 nV/cm
ampulla

nerve
fiber

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Depolarisation of the cell

++++++++++++++++++++++
++++++

++++++
----------------------------
- -
----------------------------
++++++++++++++++++++++

typical muscle cell

Depolarisation of the cell

- ------------------------------- -
- -
- - +- -+-+- +- +
- -+- +- -+-+- +- -+-+- +- -+-+- +- -+-+- +- -+- -
- -+ +- -
- - +- -+-+- +- +
- -+- +- -+-+- +- -+-+- +- -+-+- +- -+-+- +- -+- -
-------------------------------

typical muscle cell

Electricity as a weapon

▪ specially modified muscle cells

▪ stacked in functional groups

▪ joined in serial or parallel

circuits
-----------

▪ electric current (A) ++++++++++++

▪ electric potential (V)

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Electrocyte

Talkative aba

▪ (Gymnarchus niloticus)

Talkative aba

▪ (Gymnarchus niloticus)

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Talkative aba

▪ (Gymnarchus niloticus)

Shocking eel

▪ (Electrophorus electricus)

▪ 500-1000 V, 16-20A

Deadly Torpedo

▪ (Torpedo torpedo)

▪ 200V, 50A

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Electrocardiogram

▪ transthoracic interpretation of the electrical activity of the

heart over time acquired from electrodes attached to the
skin

Electrocardiogram

Electricity of the brain

▪ the mass of nerve tissue

▪ 15–33 billion (1012) neurons

▪ 100 trillion (1017) synapses

▪ absorbs109 bits of information /

s

▪ sends 107 bits of information / s

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Hans Berger (1873-1941)

One of the first recordings 1924

Electroencephalogram

▪ record of electrical activity of the

brain recorded by 8 to 16 pairs of
electrodes attached to the scalp

Electrophoresis

-COO-

-COO-

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Energy and motion

Sir Newton
standing upright
energy in motion
air, water and land

Newtons first law

A cat will remain at its current state of

motion unless it is acted upon by an
external force (a mouse)

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Newtons second law

The momentum of a cat is equal to the

product of its mass, its velocity, a magnitude
and direction of the force imposed on it…
…and, of course, the direction chosen by its
prey

Newtons third Law

When two bodies interact, they apply

forces to one another that are equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction…
OUCH…

Action-reaction law in cats

When two bodies interact, they scratch

each-other and jump in opposite
direction… At least a cat does…
MEeeEOooOWW =^u^=

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Newton laws of motion

▪ define the relations between the forces acting on a body and the motion
of the body

▪ Newton's first law states that a body will remain at its current state of
motion unless it is acted upon by an external force
▪ Newton's second law states that the momentum of a body is equal to the
product of its mass, its velocity and a magnitude and direction of the
force imposed on it
▪ Newton's third law states that when two bodies interact, they apply
forces to one another that are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction – the law of action and reaction

Newton Laws and…

Can you Blow your own sail?

Gravity
▪ a force acting between two masses, making
them attract one another

▪ Earth’s average gravity = 9.81 N/kg

▪ centrifugal force!

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“Newtonian” Energy

POTENTIAL KINETIC

▪ a set of forces that act on a ▪ energy of an object, that

body in a way that depend only results from its motion
on the body's position in space

Weight and scale

▪ weight is mass in gravitational field
▪ w = mg

▪ support of the weight

▪ inertia

Rigidity

▪ stiffness, the property of a solid body to resist deformation

▪ bending force
▪ compression force

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Spine

▪ rigidity

▪ flexibility

▪ energy recovery

Joints

▪ allow movement to occur within the skeletal junctions – flexibility

▪ fixed: sutures in the skull

– fibrous or cartilage

▪ semiflexible: backbone joints

▪ flexible: majority of joints

Joints

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Gliding plane

▪ bone

▪ cartilage

▪ synovial fluid

▪ ligaments

▪ tendons and muscles

Gliding plane

How much water you need to displace to achieve

negative buoyancy of 1 tonne mammoth?
How much for positive buoyancy?

?
? ?
?

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Spring, lever and latch

▪ spring = elasticity
▪ material that quickly regains its
shape after a force has acted upon it

Spring, lever and latch

▪ lever
▪ simple machine used to magnify applied LATCH
force

Muscles and tendons

▪ components
contracting element

elastic element
parallel

serial elastic
element

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Energy in motion

Energy in motion

Stored Energy (latch)

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Static and dynamic posture

Static dynamicS?

Air, water and land SOLID

LIQUID

VAPOR

▪ energy state of the  thawing

atoms  sublimation
 evaporation

▪ fluid vs. solid  condensation

 crystallisation

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Moving in fluid

Moving in fluid

Bernoulli’s principle

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Archimedes

▪ Archimedes principle: any body completely or partially

submerged in a fluid (gas or liquid) is acted upon by an
upward force the magnitude of which is equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by the body

▪ buoyant force = “less gravitational pull”

▪ more concentrated fluid (water) supports submerged

bodies much better than less concentrated one (air)

How much water you need to displace to achieve

negative buoyancy of 1 tonne mammoth?
How much for positive buoyancy?

Divers and buoyancy

▪ full / part tank divers

▪ empty-tank divers

▪ swimming bladder

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XXXL

▪ scaling up

▪ volume-to-surface ratio
▪ reach

2w ~ r2

w – weight
r – diameter of the
supports

Physics of size

▪ Why not bigger?

Titans of the animal kingdom

▪ est. 90-110 T, 30–35 m, the largest land animal known

▪ 180-200 T, ~33 m, the largest animal that ever existed

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Dynamics of blood-flow
Physical aspects of circulation
Mechanics of fluid flow
Vessels

Blood – a liquid?

▪ plasma ▪ liquid

▪ blood cells ▪ solid

(but elastic and/or vigorous)

▪ PROTEINS ▪ thickener

Circulation in vertebrates

a) birds and mammals

b) fish
c) air-breathing fish
d) lungfish
e) amphibians
f) reptiles
g) crocodiles

simplification and
separation

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Simplified view of mammalian circulation

Circulation in vertebrates2

 Open or closed system?

▪ physiology ▪ physics
▪ described ▪ OPEN!!!
as closed

Physics of circulation
Hydrostatics Hydrodynamics
▪ pressure ▪ FLOW
▪ buoyancy ▪ viscosity
▪ surface ▪ friction
tension
▪ velocity
▪ diameter
▪ driving
pressure
▪ tension

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Pressure

▪ force exacted by the weight of matter over surface [Pa; atm; psi; b]
▪ ambient pressure on an object is the pressure of the surrounding
medium, such as a gas or liquid, which comes into contact with the
object

▪ 1 atm = 100 kPa = 15 psi = 1 b

Hydrostatic pressure
▪ hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by a column of fluid at
equilibrium due to the force of gravity

▪ a fluid cannot remain at rest under the presence of a shear stress →

Pascal’s principle

Pascal’s principle
▪ pressure exerted anywhere in a confined incompressible fluid is transmitted
equally in all directions throughout the fluid such that the pressure ratio
remains same

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Capillary action

▪ in liquids contained in vessels surface tension effect leads to the

formation of meniscus

capillary attraction capillary repulsion

▪ drop – a small column of liquid, bounded completely or almost

completely by free surfaces, held together by surface tension –
aerodynamics!

Physics of circulation
Hydrostatics Hydrodynamics
▪ pressure ▪ FLOW
▪ buoyancy ▪ viscosity
▪ surface ▪ friction
tension
▪ velocity
▪ diameter
▪ volume
▪ driving
pressure
▪ tension

Flow

▪ movement of fluid due to applied force

▪ compressible and incompressible fluids

▪ all fluids (including liquids) are compressible to some extent (sound!)

▪ changes in pressure or temperature will result in the changes of density
▪ in liquids such changes are small or localised, so their flow
can be modelled as an incompressible flow (a flow proportional
to applied force)

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Density

fresh vs. salt water

Viscosity

▪ resistance of a fluid (liquid or gas) to a change in shape

▪ describes movement of neighbouring fluid portions
relative to one another
▪ “thickness” for liquids

▪ Newtonian fluid (a flow proportional to applied force)


▪ v = = const

v – viscosity F – shearing stress

A – deformation ratio

Laminar and turbulent flow

▪ laminar flow (Stokes flow), is dominated by viscous forces

and is characterised by smooth, constant fluid motion

▪ turbulent flow is dominated by inertial forces, which tend to produce

chaotic eddies, vortices and other flow instabilities

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Friction

▪ force, dependent on viscosity, that resists

the sliding or rolling of one object over another due
i.e. to the Van der Vaals force

R
R
R
R

Poiseuille’s Law

▪ describes the flow of Newtonian fluid though

pipe of constant diameter, which is smaller
than the length of the pipe


▪ R=
S  R arteries veins

▪ R – friction on a given length

L – length of the pipe
r – diameter of the pipe
r

Velocity

▪ speed at which fluid flows

v R
V
v R

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Plasma vs. blood cells

quick transport slow transport

minimal diffusion enhanced diffusion
major vessels minor vessels

Volume & diameter

▪ at any given time in the closed circuit the volume of travelling fluid is
constant

▪ the volume of the flow is directly proportional to the diameter of the

vessel and applied pressure, and reversely proportional to viscosity
and friction

▪ for Newtonian fluids a decrease of pipe diameter

results in the increase in flow velocity

Bernoulli’s principle

▪ for an inviscid flow, an increase in the speed of the fluid occurs

simultaneously with a decrease in dynamic (transmural)
pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy
▪ inviscid flow = flow of a nonviscous fluid

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Powered flight

Laplace equation

▪ tension in the wall of a hollow cylinder is directly proportional to

the cylinder's radius and the pressure across the wall caused by
the flow inside (driving pressure)

▪ T = Pr

T – tension
P – driving pressure
r – vessel radius

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Solubility

▪ Henry’s law – gases will dissolve in liquids

to an extent that is determined by the equilibrium
between the undissolved gas and the gas that has
dissolved in the liquid

▪ at a constant temperature, the amount of a gas

dissolved in a given volume of liquid is directly
proportional to the partial pressure of that gas

Solubility

▪ solubility – the ability of one compound to dissolve in another

compound

▪ saturated solution – a solution of a substance can dissolve no more

of that substance; a point of maximum concentration of dissolved
substance

Gases in liquid

▪ solubility is dependant on the substance, solvent, pressure and

temperature

T (oC) fresh water sea water

0 10 ml O2/l 8 ml O2/l
10 8 ml O2/l 6 ml O2/l
30 5.5 ml O2/l 4.5 ml O2/l

▪ supersaturated solution – solution in which the amount

of dissolved substance excides the maximal solubility
for this substance

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Decompression

▪ the release of pressure from solution

▪ effervescence – escape (sometimes explosive) of gas from an
aqueous solution and the foaming that results from a release of
the gas

▪ students
▪ divers – caisson disease

Circulation in vertebrates3

Pump ’n pipe

▪ pump – a device that expends energy in order to raise, transport,

or compress fluids

▪ pipe – a device that separates fluid from its surroundings

▪ according to Red Army manual: a column of air that was covered

by molten iron, which was then solidified

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An array of piston pumps

Peristaltic Centrifugal

Pressure gradient

100 mmHg = 0.13 atm

50 mmHg = 0.06 atm

260 mmHg = 0.34 atm

100 mmHg = 0.13 atm

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Giraffe challenges

Blood vessels

Capillaries

▪ packets of blood cells

▪ low pressure
▪ very slow flow

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Valve

▪ a device governing directional flow of fluid

ventricular
contraction

Gauge
▪ arterial (high-pressure)
baroreceptors

▪ low-pressure baroreceptors
in systemic veins

Pacinian
corpuscle

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Thermodynamics
The flow of energy
Laws of thermodynamics
Exo- and endogenic processes

What is energy

▪ the ability to do work, to produce movement or activity

▪ energy can change from one form into another, but the total amount
of energy in the Universe (smallest known isolated system) never
changes

Types of energy

▪ mechanical
▪ chemical
▪ electrical
▪ electromagnetic
▪ heat
▪ nuclear

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Transducers

▪ a transducer is a device that converts one kind of energy into another

in a very predictable way

▪ biological example of transducers are receptors

▪ receptor is a specialised cell that responds to a variable feature of animal’s

internal or external environment (stimulus) by shift of its membrane
potential

▪ group of receptors specialised in detection of one sensory modality

with adjoining non-sensory tissues form a sense organ

Receptors

▪ receptors convert physical energy into electric current

and encode it from analogue into digital signal

▪ VAIO

force of the stimulus

graded potential receptor dendrite

receptor
nerve impulse
potential
series of action potentials
analogue digital
encoding encoding

Thermodynamics

▪ study of the behaviour of heat and energy and the ways

that different forms of energy change into heat

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Laws of thermodynamics

▪ first law – one of fundamental laws of physics – energy can neither be created
nor destroyed, only transferred from one system to another and converted
from one form of energy to another
▪ second law – differences in temperature, pressure, and chemical potential
tend to equilibrate in an isolated physical system
▪ third law – entropy of a system approaches zero as its temperature
approaches absolute zero

▪ zeroth law – if two bodies are each in thermal equilibrium with a third body,
they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other

First law of thermodynamics

energy can neither be created nor

destroyed, only transferred from one
system to another and converted from
one form of energy to another

Energy changes

▪ electromagnetic
▪ chemical
▪ chemical and heat
▪ kinetic
▪ heat and chemical
▪ potential*
▪ chemical

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Enthalpy

▪ a measure of the energy content of a system

▪ every system has a quantity called the internal energy,

which is a function of volume, pressure, and temperature

▪ internal energy depends only on the values of those variables

and not on how changes between them are made

▪ H = U + PV H – enthalpy U – internal energy

P – pressure V – volume

▪ H = U + WORK

Isobaric vs. isochoric

▪ constant pressure ▪ constant volume

▪ ∆H = ∆U + P∆V ▪ ∆H = ∆U + ∆PV

▪ ∆P = 0 (P ≠ 0) ▪ ∆V = 0 (V ≠ 0)

▪ change of enthalpy equals ▪ change of enthalpy equals

change in internal energy change in internal energy
and work done on surroundings and pressure exerted
on surroundings

Kinetic theory

▪ properties of gas depend on the motion of its atoms or molecules

▪ when particles collide with each-other or the walls of the container they
create pressure
▪ if gas contains heat energy, its molecules move faster increasing the gas
temperature and collide more often increasing pressure
▪ if the volume of gas is increased its molecules collide less often resulting
in the decrease of gas temperature and reduction of pressure

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▪ Boyle's law: for a fixed amount of an ideal gas kept at a fixed

temperature, pressure and volume are inversely proportional
(while one doubles, the other halves)

▪ Charles's law (the law of volumes): at constant pressure,

the volume of a given mass of an ideal gas increases
or decreases proportionally to the changes in absolute
temperature of gas

▪ pressure law: in a mixture of ideal gases, each gas

has a partial pressure which is the pressure which the gas He
would have if it alone occupied the volume; the total Ar
pressure of a gas mixture is the sum of the partial pressures
of each individual gas in the mixture

Second law of thermodynamics

differences in temperature, pressure,

and chemical potential tend to equilibrate
in an isolated physical system

Carnot engine

▪ ideal heat engine, concept

created by French engineer Sadi
Carnot to determine how much
work can be produced
in the steam engine

▪ sets an upper limit

to the efficiency
of any real engine

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Carnot cycle

▪ AB – isothermal expansion
▪ BC – adiabatic expansion
▪ CD – isothermal compression
▪ DA – adiabatic compression

▪ adiabatic – no heat is given to

or taken from the gas

Adiabatics

▪ processes that take place without the loss or gain of heat

▪ thermally insulated system

▪ rapid process, leaving no time for heat to enter or disperse

▪ because adiabatic changes occur without the transfer of heat, any change
in pressure or volume involved in the process must be accompanied by
a change in temperature

▪ HEAT & TEMPERATURE ???

Temperature

▪ a physical property that quantitatively expresses the statistical distribution

and the mean value of kinetic energy, of particles of matter

TEMPERATURE ≠ HEAT

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Reversible engine
▪ the same amount of work is performed whether cycles are performed foreword
or backwards
▪ at backward process the heat taken up (or rejected) is exactly equal to the heat
rejected (or taken up) in the forward process

▪ efficiency = 100%
▪ complete absence of frictional forces causing dissipation of mechanical work
▪ no conduction of heat to the environment
▪ pressure differences between the working substance and the external atmosphere
shall always be small
▪ etc… …so they do not exist…

Heat pumps

▪ an engine that transfer heat from hot object to a heat sink

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Heat Engines
▪ drawing heat from a hot
body (such as a furnace)
and rejecting it to a colder
body (such as a condenser)

Entropy

▪ All natural processes are irreversible!

▪ any system will tend naturally towards a state of highest

probability and greatest disorder

▪ natural processes operate in one direction – towards ever

increasing disorder

▪ NATURE ???

Entropy and the Universe

▪ when entropy increases in a system, there is a simultaneous loss

of available energy

▪ all processes of radiation, convection, conduction, and so on,

that involve an increase in the entropy of the Universe also involve
a loss of available energy in the Universe

▪ dark matter
▪ dark energy

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Third law of thermodynamics

entropy of a system approaches zero

as its temperature approaches absolute
zero

Lord Kelvin's ZERO

▪ ABSOLUTE ZERO ASTRONOMICAL

THERMAL
▪ particles have no kinetic energy CAPACITY
▪ molecules, atoms and electrons are nearly motionless
▪ matter has no temperature

▪ lowest temperature ever achieved was 0.000007 K (7x10-6)

▪ cryogenics – study of materials at very low temperatures

Zeroth law of thermodynamics

if two bodies are each in thermal

equilibrium with a third body,
they are also in thermal equilibrium
with each other

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Transfer of heat energy

▪ radiation  convection ▪ conduction

▪ electromagnetic  involves bulk ▪ transfer of heat

waves movement of energy through
atoms or increase in kinetic
▪ transferred energy without
molecules
through bulk movement
“transparent”  occurs in fluids
of atoms or
media molecules
▪ the only type of ▪ occurs in solids
heat transfer that
can occur
through vacuum

Convection

▪ when a fluid is heated, it expands, becoming less dense and rises

relative to the cooler and more dense surrounding, the cooler fluid
flows into the space left by the heated fluid creating convection
current

Conduction

▪ flow of heat through a body, without any obvious transfer

of matter

 conductors – substances with free electrons (not involved

in creation of bonds) i.e. metals; free electrons drift
through the metal lattice carrying energy between atoms;
dense materials
 isolators – substances where all electrons are involved
in creation of bonds, loose substances (i.e. wood or plastic)

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Radiation

▪ bright star vs. dim star

▪ good absorbers are also the best emitters of heat
▪ black-body radiation

▪ greenhouse effect
▪ snowball Earth

Chemical energy

▪ energy possessed by elements and compounds that can be released during

chemical reactions

▪ it is a form of potential energy and its total quantity is not measurable;

it is the energy change in any given reaction that are of importance

▪ exothermic and endothermic processes

▪ combustion – process in which oxygen is

combined with materials releasing heat
and (often) light

Hess’s law

▪ the law of heat summation: the total amount of energy gained

or lost by a system in any chemical reaction does not depend
on the reaction mechanism, but only on the initial reactants
and the final products

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Free energy

▪ amount of work (energy) that can be extracted from a system

▪ ∆G = ∆H-T∆S (Gibbs fundamental equation)

▪ G – free energy H – enthalpy T – temperature S – entropy

▪ G > 0 exothermic reaction, Universe has to absorb energy

▪ G = 0 system in equilibrium
▪ G < 0 endothermic reaction, Universe has to provide energy

▪ coupled reactions

E=mc2

▪ mass is a form of energy!

▪ mass may be “lost” in the Universe but any “lost” mass is converted
into energy that can be converted back into mass again

▪ conservation laws:
▪ CONSERVATION OF MASS AND ENERGY

Nuclear physics

▪ fission ▪ fusion

▪ splitting up ▪ joining together

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HEAT
heating up
transporting, conserving and expending heat
on turtles and hares
heat in medicine

CAT ON A HOT TIN ROOF

 radiation

 conduction

 convection

HEAT CAPACITY
 characterizes the amount of heat required to change a body's temperature by
a given amount [joules per kelvin]

 molar heat capacity is the heat capacity per mole of a pure substance; specific
heat capacity is the heat capacity per unit mass of a body

 these are "intensive quantities“ not dependent on amount of material, but

directly reflected on the type of material
and the conditions of heating

 as the temperature approaches absolute zero,

the specific heat capacity of a system
also approaches zero

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THERMAL CAPACITANCE
 ability of a body to store heat

 thermal mass (body) will absorb heat when surroundings are hotter than the
mass and give heat back when surroundings are colder

 a large thermal mass can "flatten out" the daily temperature fluctuations

 insulation reduces thermal conductivity, allowing mass to be heated or cooled

relatively separate from the environment and to retain the body heat longer
→ insulative value; heat conductors and insulators

HEATING UP
 passive  active

WASTE HEAT
 solar
THERMOGENESIS

BASKING

WASTE HEAT
 efficiency of biological processes  ATP synthesis
seldom approaches 20%
 ATP breakdown

80% lost?

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EFFICIENCY
 amount of energy converted into work

 skeletal muscles = up to 20%

 ATP creation = 5-20%

 thinking = 15-20%

 REST → HEAT

INTERNAL COMBUSTION
 cell furnace

 slowing down energy release from the substrate

 binding chemical energy in high-energy phosphorus bonds
 heating-up the cell

SOLAR-POWERED ARMOUR

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COOLING DOWN
 passive  forced

 radiation  sweating
 convection  wind factor
 conduction

PASSIVE HEAT DISSIPATION

 RT 20oC  30oC  40oC

 radiation 60%  radiation 46%  radiation 0%

 convection 26%  convection 27%  convection 0%

 evaporation 13%  evaporation 27%  evaporation 100%

 conduction 1%  conduction 0%  conduction 0%

ACTIVE HEAT DISSIPATION

 sweating  wind factor

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VEINS HOW GIRAFFE GOT ITS SPOTS

 surface veins
 deep veins

ANIMAL’S HEAT ENGINE

 reach to all nooks and crannies of the

organism

 good thermal conductivity

 high heat capacity

 heat exchange with the environment

CONSERVING HEAT
 heat exchangers

 GRADIENT!

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INSULATION
 skin appendices (fur, feathers)

 fat and blubber

 behaviour

ANTARCTIC “HOT”-SPOT

- 40oC

- 2oC

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FROZEN CRITTERS
 overcooled fish

 frozen newt

WATER, ICE AND ANTIFREEZE

 etanol
 glycerol
 sugars
 glycoproteins

DEALING WITH OVERHEATING

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SIZE MATTERS
 surface-to-volume ratio

 small is cute  but expensive

 huge is neat  retains heat well, but faces other limitations

IN COLD BLOOD
 majority of animals

 body temperature fluctuates according to the surroundings

 behavioural strategies: basking, extracting heat from stones, colour

changing

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THERMODYNAMICS IN MEDICINE
 zeroth law of thermodynamics

 second law of thermodynamics

 heat and cold

STERILISATION
 a term referring to any process  “dry and wet” heat
that eliminates (removes) or  chemicals
kills all forms of life
 heat + pressure
 filtration
 denaturation of proteins
 UHT
 implosion of cells
 irradiation

 dissolving of cell membranes

 DNA and lipid oxidation

HEAT IN SURGERY
 cauterisation (electric scalpel) –
used to stop bleeding from small
vessels or for cutting through soft
tissue

 wound sterilisation

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LOCALISED HEATING
 induces localised increase in
temperature via radiation, conduction
or local inflammatory reaction,
increase in blood flow, enzyme
activity, induction of immune
responses

 heat vs. poison

 direct heat application

 irritants (bees and nettles)

CRYOTHERAPY
 general use of low temperatures in medical therapy

 cryosurgery
 hilotherapy
 ice pack therapy
 cryogenics

CRYOSURGERY
 application of extreme cold (liquid
nitrogen) to destroy abnormal or
diseased tissue

 cryoablation occurs in tissue that

has been frozen by at least three
mechanisms: (1) formation of ice
crystals within cells; (2) coagulation
of blood thereby causing ischemia
and cell death; and (3) induction of
apoptosis

 oncology, cosmetics, eye and skin

surgery

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HILOTHERAPY ICEPACK THERAPY

 controlled application of cooling
to selected areas of the body
 between 10°C and 20°C
 absorbs heat of a closed traumatic
or oedematous injury, decrease of
the muscle spindle fibre activity
and slower nerve conduction

 immediate vasoconstriction
with reflexive vasodilation,
decreased local metabolism and
enzymatic activity, and
decreased oxygen demand

COLD IN TRANSPLANTOLOGY
 slows metabolism in isolated tissues,
prolonging ischaemic storage period

 slows down metabolic processes,

heart beat and breathing in patients
prepared for heart transplantations

CRYOGENICS
 time travel of
Walt Disney and Lyuba

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Shine a light
light as a corpuscle
light as a wave
properties of light
interactions with matter

Light topic
▪ visible part of electromagnetic
spectrum from 380 nm to about
780 nm

▪ UV? IR?

▪ in physics, “light” refers to

electromagnetic radiation of any
wavelength, whether visible or not
(remember Candela?)

Electromagnetic spectrum
▪ the range of all possible frequencies of electromagnetic radiation

▪ spectrum is infinite and continuous

▪ the top limit is the size of the Universe, the short limit is the Planck
length: (1.62×10−35 m) the length at which the structure of space-time
becomes dominated by quantum effects

▪ electromagnetic spectrum of an object is the distribution of

electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by that particular object
→ spectrometry

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Electromagnetic spectrum

Particle theory

▪ Pierre Gassendi, French atomist, proposed a particle

theory of light which was published after his death in
the 1660s

▪ Isaac Newton stated that light was composed of

corpuscles which were emitted in all directions from
a source, with a finite velocity and kinetic energy –
Hypothesis of Light (1675)

▪ Max Planck in 1900 in his quantum theory explained

radiation of a black body through “quanta” – discrete
bundles of electromagnetic energy, he defined a
light particle – photon

Light as a particle

▪ photoelectric effect: electrons are emitted from matter as

a consequence of absorption of energy from quants of the
electromagnetic radiation of very short wavelengths, such
as visible or ultraviolet light

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Wave theory
 Robert Hooke published a first wave theory of light in
1660s

 Francesco Grimaldi observed the phenomenon of the

diffraction of light – Physicomathesis de lumine,
coloribus, et iride, aliisque annexis (1665)

 Christiaan Huygens published his own wave theory of

light in 1690 (Treatise on light), proposing that light was
emitted in all directions as a series of waves in a
medium called the luminiferous ether.

 Thomas Young predicted around 1800 that light waves

could interfere with each other like sound waves

Light as a wave

▪ Thomas Young's sketch of ▪ two oscillating components

the two-slit experiment
showing the diffraction and
interference of light
of light are an electric field
and a magnetic field
perpendicular to each
other and to the direction
of motion

So who was right?

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Dual Nature of light

▪ consists of portions of ▪ exhibits wave properties

light are called photons of diffraction, refraction
and interference

!!!WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY!!!

 energy of a photon is proportional to its wave frequency

 Einstein received the Nobel Prize in 1921 for his work with the wave–
particle duality on photons

Wave-particle duality?

What is a Wave?

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Wavelength and frequency

▪ wavelength is the ▪ frequency is the

distance measured number of oscilations
between any two per unit time,
points of the wave temporal resolution of
with the same phase events
→ spectrum

▪ since speed of light is

constant, the
frequency of light is
directly related to the
wavelength and
energy

Light as a wave

▪ refraction ▪ diffraction  interference

Dispersion and refraction

▪ dispersion: separation of ▪ refraction: bending of light

different wavelengths while passing through medium
comprised in a ray of light boundary due to the variation is
speed
→ refractive index

▪ wavelength is decreased in the

medium with higher refractive
index

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Mirror, Mirror on the wall…

▪ an object with at least one reflective surface

α α

β β

▪ refraction, absorption and dispersion

α α

Total internal reflection

▪ refractive index – a measure of the speed of light in the
substance
▪ angle of refraction – angle at which light is bent as it passes
from one medium to another

▪ TIRF – happens when a ray of light strikes a medium boundary

at an angle larger than a critical angle

▪ critical angle is the angle of incidence when the refractive index

on the other side of the boundary is lower, so no light can pass
through and all of the light is reflected → fibreoptic

Dichroic mirrors

▪ accurate colour separators used to selectively pass

light of a small range of colours while reflecting
other colours

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Colour

Light and paint

Is there a white colour?

Is there a black light?

Sea, sky and sunsets

▪ shorter wavelengths (blues and greens) scatter more
strongly and are removed almost completely from the
incident beam, leaving the orange and red hues
▪ intense reds and oranges are caused by further scattering
by soot, dust, or solid or liquid aerosols in the atmosphere

 water absorbs the red and

orange light more efficiently
than green and blue; green
and blue light is scattered to
our eyes

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Polarisation
▪ the orientation of oscillations in the plane perpendicular
to a transverse wave's direction of travel

▪ Michael Faraday discovered (1845) that the plane of

polarization of linearly polarized light is affected
by the magnetic field – Faraday rotation
▪ the first evidence that light was related to electromagnetism

Ray of light
▪ idealized narrow beam of light

▪ Hero of Alexandria (ca. 60) described in principles of

reflection that a ray of light will go from point A to point
B, through number of reflections of flat mirrors, in the
same medium, by a shortest possible path

▪ Ibn al-Haytham expanded the principle of ray of light to

both reflection and refraction – Book of Optics (1021)

▪ Fermat's principle states that path taken between two

points by a ray of light is the path that can be traversed
in the least amount of time – Cureau de la Chambre
(1662)

Transparent, translucent, opaque

▪ transparency: physical property of material allowing light
to pass

▪ translucency: allows light to pass through, but diffusely

▪ opaque: materials which prevent the transmission of light

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Lambert-Beer’s Law
▪ relates the absorption of light to the properties of the material
through which the light is traveling

▪ there is a logarithmic dependence between the transmission of

light (T) through a substance, the absorption coefficient of the
substance (α) and the distance the light travels through the
material (ℓ)

▪ absorption coefficient is a product of a molar

absorptivity and the concentration (c) of
absorbing substance
→ spectroscopy 
T =  =10 −αℓ


Interaction with matter

▪ electromagnetic radiation interacts with matter

in different ways in different parts of the spectrum

Absorption of UV light

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Transfer of energy

ê
ê

ê
ê
ê

Excitation and emission

▪ ↓ energy

▪ ↑ wavelength

Photosynthesis
▪ a photovoltaic process that converts carbon dioxide into
organic compounds, using the energy from sunlight –
plants, algae, and cyanobacteria

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The Plant spectrum

▪ C55H70O6N4Mg

Can plant see?

▪ phototropism is directional growth of plants in which the

direction of growth is determined by the direction of the
light source

▪ phototropins – blue light receptors

▪ phytochromes – red light receptors
▪ cryptochromes – blue light receptors

Shadows and shades

 shadow is an area where direct ▪ shade is the area where

light from a light source cannot the direct light is blocked
reach due to obstruction by an → ambient light
opaque object,
a surface projection of a shape of
opaque object blocking light

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325
330
405
430
Laser 442
454
457
465
476
▪ brilliant 483
488
496
▪ coherent 502
514

▪ collimated
520
532
543
▪ monochromatic 561
568
594
612
633
635
647
670
675
676
685
752
780
830
840

Light pressure

▪ pressure exerted upon any surface exposed to

electromagnetic radiation

The speed of light

▪ highest speed achievable in nature

▪ constant in invariable medium

▪ the speed of light in vacuum is defined to be exactly

299,792,458 m/s

▪ 2000 AD, Princeton University – proposed experiment

“showing” photons quicker than light
▪ 2011 AD, OPERA Collaboration – neutrinos supposedly “faster
than light”

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Total and utter darkness

▪ Absence of light?

▪ absence of other wavelengths of electromagnetic

spectrum

▪ True vacuum!

Photochemistry
▪ interactions between light and atoms or molecules

▪ chemical reactions that proceed with the absorption

of light

▪ vitamin D
▪ UV-activated glue
▪ photography

Photography
▪ recording of radiation on a radiation-sensitive medium

▪ black-and-white
▪ colour
▪ full-spectrum
▪ digital

▪ heliography – Nicéphore Niépce – first permanent

photoetching was produced in 1822, exposition time = 8 h
▪ daguerreotype – Louis Daguerre – first photo of a person
in 1839, exposition = 7 min

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Physics of sight
optics
an eye
optical machines
light in biology and medicine

Physics of sight
optics
an eye
optical machines
light in biology and medicine

Optics

▪ branch of physics which involves the behaviour and properties of

light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of
instruments that use or detect it

▪ usually describes the behaviour of visible, ultraviolet, and infrared

light

▪ other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays, microwaves,

and radio waves exhibit similar properties

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Lens

▪ an optical device with perfect or approximate axial symmetry

which transmits and refracts light

▪ plane, concave or convex lenses

Simple lenses

▪ convex – positive – converging

▪ concave – negative – diverging

Focal point

▪ positive or converging lens will focus a collimated ray travelling along

the lens axis to a spot (known as the focal point) at a focal distance
from the lens
▪ a point source of light placed at the focal point will be converted into
a collimated ray by the lens

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Lensmaker's equation

▪ calculates the focal length (point) of a lens in air

▪ f = focal length
▪ n = refractive index
▪ R1, R2 = curvature
▪ d = thickness

1 1 1 1 
 1    
 1 2 12

Imaging properties

▪ thin lens formula calculates the distances from the object

to the lens and from the lens to the real image

▪ principle behind photography and the eye

Magnification

▪ if S1 < f, S2 becomes negative, projection is apparently positioned

on the same side of the lens as the object – virtual image

 
▪ M–  
 

▪ if |M|>1, the projection is larger than

the object
▪ if M is positive the image is upright
▪ If M is negative the image is inverted

▪ with diverging lens only a virtual image can be created

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Lens Aberrations
▪ spherical aberration – occurs when spherical
surfaces of the lens are not the ideal shape

▪ coma – occurs when rays pass through the lens at

an angle to the optical axis

▪ chromatic aberration – is caused by difference in

the refractive index for different wavelengths
present in the light

Numerical Aperture

▪ the widest cone of light that can enter or exit the lens

▪ N = f/D – diameter of the entrance pupil

D

▪ NA = n sinθ
f

▪ n is the index of refraction of the medium in which the lens is

working: 1.0 for air, 1.33 for pure water, 1.4 for glycerol and
close to animal tissue, up to 1.56 for oils

Resolution

▪ NA is important because it indicates the resolving power of a lens

▪ the size of the finest detail that can be resolved is proportional to

λ/NA, where λ is the wavelength of the light

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Prism

▪ a transparent optical element that refracts light

IMPERFECTIONS !!!

missing bands trichroic prism

full spectrum

monochromatic
spectrum

Halo effect

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Photodetectors

▪ sensors of light or other forms of electromagnetic energy

▪ optical detectors – quantum devices where an individual photon produces a
discrete effect – photovoltaic cell, CCD, PMT
▪ chemical detectors – where photon provides energy for the chemical reaction –
photographic plates or films
▪ photoresistors – change resistance according to light intensity – LDR (light-
dependent resistor)
▪ thermometers – where photon energy is converted to heat –thermistors
▪ cryogenic detectors – sufficiently sensitive to measure the energy of single x-ray,
visible and near infra-red photons

Eye

▪ a sensory organ capable of converting electromagnetic energy into

binary signal transmitted by neurons

▪ photodetector
▪ focussing path
▪ accommodation mechanism
▪ shields and lashes

Eyes in animal kingdom

▪ complex eyes

▪ complex pinhole eyes

▪ simple eyes

▪ pit eyes

▪ compound eyes

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Physics of sight

▪ transparency and refractive index of the optical path

▪ focussing capabilities of the optical path

▪ accommodation of the lens

▪ energy transfer in the retina

▪ ionic currents in the optical neurons

Optical path

▪ cornea
▪ aqueous humour
▪ iris
▪ lens
▪ vitreous humour
▪ retina
▪ tapetum lucidum
▪ retina

Tapetum lucidum

▪ physical adaptation to nocturnal life

▪ reflects photons back towards retina

increasing the chance of energy transfer

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Accommodation

Retina

▪ a light-sensitive tissue lining the inner surface of the eye

▪ rods and cones

compression encoding detection

Photo – chemo – electrical coupling

Rods Cones
▪ single photon ▪ 100 photons

▪ multiple rod cells ▪ chromatic vision

converge
on a single
interneuron
L
▪ S, M and cells
-> signal are selectively absorbing
amplification different light wavelengths
rod cells

at a cost ▪ one cone -> one neuron

of resolution (visual acuity)

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Optical arms-race

▪ Devonian explosion – Trilobite vs. Anomalocaris

▪ active predation
▪ active escape

Depth and perspective

▪ the visual ability to perceive the world in three dimensions

▪ perception of the distance to an object

▪ binocular vision vs. the field of view

Camouflage

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Optical machines

▪ every-day (and some more sophisticated)

objects that benefit from the optical
properties of a lens, mirror and TIRF

Spectroscopy

▪ study of the interaction between radiation and matter as a function of

wavelength

▪ absorbance spectroscopy

▪ fluorescence spectroscopy

▪ Raman spectroscopy: uses the inelastic scattering of light to analyse

vibrational and rotational modes of molecules

Spectrometry

▪ spectroscopic technique used to assess the concentration or amount of

a given chemical (atomic, molecular, or ionic) species
▪ Lambert-Beer’s law

▪ variable measured is most often the light's intensity but could also be
the polarization state
▪ independent variable is usually the wavelength
of the light or a the photon energy (electron volts [êV])

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Laser in medicine

▪ laser scalpel

▪ optical glue

▪ optical tweezers

▪ optical pumps

Phototoxicity

.O
2

Absorption of the skin

Hb

water

melanin

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Photoprotection
▪ mechanisms that minimise the damage to the skin when exposed to UV
radiation

▪ sun-screen, scales, fur and feathers

▪ internal conversion: a photochemical process that converts the energy

of the UV photon into small amounts of heat that are quickly dissipated
and do not cause excessive damage

▪ sun tan -> melanocytes -> melanin ((DNA))

Photodynamic therapy

▪ next generation medicine (since 1980s)

▪ activation of photosensitiser by specific light

wavelength that causes nonfluorescent
recombination and energy transfer to:

– diseased (malignant) tissue (heat)

– DNA: direct (*O2) or indirect damage (heat)

▪ difficulties in specificity, efficiency and excitation

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Good Vibrations
Acoustic waves
Sound spectrum
How do we hear?

Acoustics
▪ an ancient interdisciplinary science that deals with the
study of all mechanical waves in fluids and solids including
vibration, sound, ultrasound and infrasound

Sound

▪ a mechanical wave
that is an oscillation of
pressure transmitted
through a solid, fluid,
or plasma

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The medium

▪ matter that supports the sound

▪ mechanical vibrations that can be interpreted as sound

are able to travel through all forms of matter

▪ sound cannot travel through a vacuum!

Propagation of waves

▪ solids ▪ fluids and plasma

▪ longitudinal and ▪ longitudinal
transverse oscillations oscillations

 longitudinal sound waves are waves of alternating

pressure deviations from the equilibrium
 transverse waves are waves of alternating shear stress
at right angle to the direction of propagation

Waves and stress

▪ pressure wave ▪ shear stress wave

(compression wave) (transverse wave)

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Wave direction

▪ solids ▪ fluids

Creating sounds

▪ sound is produced whenever a vibrating object

is placed in the medium capable of transmitting
pressure oscillations

▪ voice box
▪ impact

Focussing the sound

▪ narrowing the volume in which sound wave travels

with objects that do not absorb, but reflect sound
waves
▪ → limits the spread of the wave in the medium
▪ → increases the energy of the wave

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Energy of sound

▪ energy carried by the sound wave converts back and forth

between the potential energy of the extra compression
or lateral displacement strain of the matter (solids)
and the kinetic energy of the oscillations of the medium

Frequency (pitch)

▪ frequency: a measurable rate of vibration of an object

▪ measured in oscillations per second [Hz]

▪ pitch: subjective sense of the frequency to the human ear

Doppler effect
▪ change in the frequency of a sound wave perceived
by the observer moving relative to the source of the wave

▪ received frequency is higher during the approach,

identical at the instant of passing by and lower during
the recession

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Wavelength

▪ spatial period of the ▪ in a sinusoidal wave

wave moving at a fixed speed,
wavelength is inversely
proportional to wave
frequency

▪ standing wave:
undulating wave motion
that stays in one place

Wave number

▪ the number of wavelengths per unit distance


▪ n=


▪ measure of wave
energy

Wave amplitude

▪ a magnitude of change in the oscillating variable

▪ decibel [dB] is a dimensionless, logarithmic unit that indicates

the sound pressure level (wave energy)

▪ “zero” reference sound

pressure in air is 20 µPa,
the average threshold
of human hearing

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Sound intensity
▪ product of the sound pressure and the acoustic particle velocity

▪ acoustic particle velocity: velocity of a particle in a medium

as it transmits a wave

▪ measurement of sound energy


▪ distance law: p ~


Reverberation
▪ persistence of sound in a particular space

▪ it is created when a sound is produced in an enclosed space

causing a large number of echoes to build up and then slowly
decay as the sound is absorbed by the walls and air

▪ reverberation time RT60 is the time required for reflections

of a direct sound to decay by 60 dB below the level of the direct
sound

▪ absorption coefficient of a material indicates the proportion

of sound which is absorbed by the surface compared to the
portion which is reflected [values between 0 – 1]

Echo

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Speed of sound

▪ Newton-Laplace equation: ▪ ← dependant on temperature,

pressure, molecular composition,
 ▪ ← humidity has a measurable
▪ v= effect on sound speed

( 0.1% – 0.6%)
▪ C = bulk elasticity
of the medium
▪ in air: 343 m/s
▪ d = density
of the medium ▪ in water: 1’482 m/s
▪ in steel: 5’960 m/s

Mach number

▪ in aerodynamics: the ratio of air speed to the local speed of sound

▪ speed represented by Mach 1 is not a constant

▪ mostly dependent on temperature and atmospheric composition
and largely independent of pressure

Sonic boom

▪ the sound associated with the shock waves created

by an aircraft entering the supersonic flight

▪ object that passes through the air, creates a series of pressure

waves in front of it and behind it that travel at the speed
of sound

▪ when object nears the speed of sound

the waves cannot "get out of the way“,
are compressed and eventually merge
into a single, huge shock wave when
object accelerates beyond 1M

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Polarisation

▪ direction of the oscillation of transverse shear waves in solids

Italy,1557 Lisbon earthquake in 1755

Noise, speech and music

▪ pure sound: a regular wave that has a fixed number of vibrations

per second and a smooth, regular wave pattern

▪ noise: an irregular wave pattern, which consists of a mixture

of different vibrations

▪ speech: a definite pattern of sounds

(pronunciations) but little regularity

▪ melody: ordered, organised, regular

succession of non-speech sounds

Musical instrument

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Musical instrument

The colour of sound?

▪ sound is a composite of many

harmonics
▪ fundamental tone gives
the sound its pitch
▪ the harmonics give the sound
its characteristic timbre
(spectrum)

▪ → colour of voice
▪ → timbre of instruments

Resonator
▪ resonator is a device or system that
naturally oscillates at some frequencies,
called resonant frequencies, with greater
amplitude than at others, creating
a standing wave of sound

▪ used to amplify a certain sound

frequency

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Music

▪ music is the silence between the tones

▪ music is in the ear

of a beholder

Sound vs. vibration

▪ sound is composed of frequencies within the range of hearing

and of a level sufficiently strong to be heard

▪ vibration is the sensation stimulated in various sensory

organs by frequencies to high or to low to be heard,
but sufficiently strong to be detected

Resonance

▪ ability to transform sound wave into physical movement

of an object

▪ resonant frequency: a frequency which generates

the strongest vibrations in the object

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Perception of sound

▪ HEARING
▪ “in humans hearing is normally limited to frequencies between
about 20 Hz and 20 kHz”
▪ that’s what produces of cheap speakers wish us to believe
and computer speakers/headphones train us to hear

▪ maximal range of human hearing varies extensively, maximum

recorded range is from 16 Hz to 38 kHz, unconfirmed
from 14 Hz to 44 kHz
▪ with other senses we can perceive frequencies as low as 7 Hz

Ear

Physics of middle ear

▪ pneumatic principle: surface of tympanic membrane is much
larger than the surface of the stapes (stirrup) footplate
and oval window

▪ lever principle: dimensions and organisation of the ear ossicles

lead to an increase in the force applied to the stapes footplate

▪ Eustachian tube: equalisation

of the pressure between outside
and the middle ear

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Inner ear
▪ signal transducer converting pressure changes into nerve
impulses: potential energy → kinetic energy → ionic current

▪ cochlea

▪ Reissner’s membrane

Infrasound

▪ sound of a frequency lower than 20 Hz

▪ whales, elephants, hippopotamuses, rhinoceros, giraffes,

okapi, crocodiles and alligators are known to use infrasound
to communicate over large distances, up to tens (elephants)
and hundreds of kilometres (whales)

▪ infrasound communication is most studied in elephants –

sounds between 15 – 35 Hz and as loud as 117 dB, can travel
up to 10 km and are sensed using feet or trunk

Masters of the infrasound

infrasound
near infrasound
acoustic spectrum

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Ultrasounds in
diagnostics and therapy
sonar
whales
USG

Ultrasound

▪ sounds higher than human hearing range

Birds, bats and dolphins

▪ used by animals to navigate in darkness or murky conditions

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Dolphin’s way

phonic lips

fat cushion
(melon)

oil-filled chamber
isolated
inner ear

Asdic and sonar

▪ Allied Submarine Detection Investigation Committee

▪ SOund Navigation And Ranging

Ultrasound in medicine

▪ ultrasound scanner uses high-frequency

sound waves to produce images
of the inside of patients body

▪ probe
▪ echo
▪ receiver
▪ computer

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USG
▪ diagnostics ▪ therapy  cosmetics

 dental hygiene
▪ soft tissue ▪ “bloodless”
imaging surgery
▪ aerosol therapy
▪ pain relief

The Sound

▪ piezoelectric transducer of various shapes and lengths

▪ frequencies anywhere between 0.8 and 18 MHz (commonly 2-18 MHz)

▪ frequency, wavelength, period, amplitude, cycle, velocity

▪ compression and rarefication

Piezoelectric effect

▪ linear electromechanical interaction between the mechanical

and the electrical state in certain crystalline materials

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The head

▪ linear array ▪ convex array  phased array

Frequency, wavelength, period

Shape

▪ continuous t

▪ pulse – square t

▪ pulse – triangular t

▪ pulse – trapezoid t

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Amplitude

▪ depending on the frequency, sound while travelling through the

body looses approximately 0.3 dB of energy per every cm of
depth via attenuation

Speed

▪ assumed

v = 1540 m/s

▪ not exactly true – depends on the density and elasticity

of tissues

Cycle

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Compression and rarefication

Pulsed wave

▪ pulse ON time usually ON

does not exceed 1%
of cycle

▪ pulse repetition
frequency

OFF
▪ spatial pulse length
SPL = λn

Resolution

▪ resolution = 0.5 SPL

▪ temporal
▪ axial
▪ lateral

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Axial vs. lateral

Wave penetration

▪ acoustic impedance

▪ attenuation

▪ reflection

▪ refraction

▪ scattering

Acoustic impedance

▪ for single-frequency traveling waves the AI is proportional to

longitudinal wave velocity and density of the medium (characteristic
impedance of the medium) divided
by the surface area

▪ describes the behaviour of sound waves

when travelling between phase changes
and reflective properties of the matter

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Strengths and weaknesses

▪ useful for delineating the ▪ trouble penetrating bone

interfaces between solid and
fluid-filled spaces
▪ renders "live" images
▪ shows internal structure of the
organs
▪ no known long-term side
effects
▪ performs very poorly when there
is a gas between
the transducer and the organ
of interest
▪ depth penetration of ultrasound
is limited
▪ high level of skill and experience
is needed

Risks and side-effects

▪ generally considered a "safe" imaging technique

▪ WHO technical report series 875 (1998): "Diagnostic ultrasound is recognized
as a safe, effective, and highly flexible imaging modality capable of
providing clinically relevant information about most parts of the body in a
rapid and cost-effective fashion”

▪ !!! Yale School of Medicine found a correlation between prolonged and

frequent use of ultrasound and abnormal neuronal migration in mice !!!

▪ ALARA principle: as low as reasonably achievable

Biological effects

▪ cavitation

▪ liquefaction

▪ liquid-to-gas conversion

▪ heat production

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Contraindications for USG

▪ skin diseases
▪ fever
▪ inflammation
▪ intravenous thrombosis
▪ avoid areas of bone growth and regrowth*

Brown note take two

▪ stimulation of the reflex zones

by a continuous, low frequency
(~800 MHz) ultrasound waves of low
energy (0.05 W/cm2)

▪ brown zones at the lower back-bone,

inside of the legs, pelvis extremities

▪ and the rest is a flush

Modes of sonography

▪ A-mode (amplitude) – single transducer scans a line through the body

with the echoes plotted on screen as a function of depth; in therapeutics
– used to pinpoint accurate focus for the destructive way
▪ B-mode (brightness) – linear array of transducers simultaneously scans
a plane through the body that can be viewed as a two-dimensional
image on screen
▪ M-mode (motion) – real-time – a rapid sequence of B-mode scans
whose images follow each other in sequence
▪ Doppler mode – utilises the Doppler effect in measuring
and visualizing blood flow

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The Doppler effect

▪ spectral Doppler

▪ colour Doppler

▪ computer-enhanced Doppler

Low intensity ultrasound

▪ low intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS)

▪ utilises 1.5 MHz frequency ultrasonic pulses, with a pulse width of 200 μs,
repeated at 1 kHz, at a low intensity of 30 mW/cm2, for short periods
of time (~20 minutes/day)

▪ it promotes bone fracture healing, bone regrowth, healing of cartilage

and muscle tissue

3d USG

▪ a medical ultrasound technique, often used

in obstetric ultrasonography, providing three
dimensional images of the foetus

▪ the sound waves are sent at different angles

and then processed and reconstructed
by the computer

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The image of sound

▪ acoustic window
▪ depth
▪ focus
▪ gain
▪ dynamic range
▪ magnification

A good acoustic window

▪ a good unobstructed or enhanced approach to the object being

visualised

Depth

▪ put area of interest at ¾ depth of screen, leave a small area behind

too much too little perfect

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Focus

▪ focal zone – best lateral resolution (observe yellow arrows)

out of focus good focus multiple focus

Gain

▪ optimized to obtain most details from the image

too high too low perfect

dynamic range

▪ How white is white and how black is black?

▪ adjust for the best contrast

too high too low perfect

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Magnification

Artefacts

▪ shadowing
▪ enhancement
▪ reverberation
▪ comet tail effect
▪ mirror effect
▪ refraction

Shadowing

▪ occurs when sound wave hits

highly attenuating objects
like bones and stones

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Enhancement
▪ occurs when sound wave
encounters liquid-filled
structures like gall bladder or
urinary bladder that do not
attenuate the sound waves
▪ computer anticipates the
attenuation of the signal with
depth and compensates it
with the signal enhancement
▪ hence the enhancement of
the signal reflected by the
structures behind

Reverberation
▪ occurs when the sound beam
hits a highly-reflective object
like gas or metal
▪ sound wave is reflected
towards the transducer then
from the transducer and re-
enters the patient
▪ echo produced by the
reverberating sound wave
receives the spatial
assignment twice as deep as
original object
▪ and so on…

Comet tail effect

▪ appears as a trail of dense
continuous reverberations
from the small gaseous or
metal reflector
▪ the closely-spaced and
intense echo bands merge to
create the comet-like tail that
rapidly diminishes

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Mirror effect
▪ the reverberation that appears
in the areas adjacent
to the highly-reflective
interfaces such
as the diaphragm and pleura

Refraction
▪ also called edge shadow
▪ occurs when the sound wave
encounters the curved surface
▪ sound beam is bent, diverged
and dispersed creating
shadow areas at the border
of the object

USG in therapy

▪ extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy

▪ using focussed pulses of high energy, high frequency sound waves to

break down crystalline-like structures inside the patients body

▪ direct shearing forces

▪ cavitation bubbles

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RADIATION
α, β, γ
Transmutation and decay
Life after irradiation
Prevention and damage-control

RADIATION
 flow of atomic and subatomic particles
and electromagnetic waves

 nuclei or its elements

 electrons, positrons, neutrinos
 heat rays, light rays, x-rays

ATOMIC MASS AND NUMBER

 atomic mass [N] – the mass of a specific isotope, expressed in unified
atomic mass units, the total mass of protons, neutrons and electrons in a
single stationary atom

 atomic number (proton number) [Z] – the number of protons found in the
nucleus of an atom, therefore identical to the charge number of the
nucleus

 mass number [A] – the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of
the atom

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 16/01/18

HELIUM

2He
 4

 atomic mass: 4.002602 N

 atomic number: 2 Z

 mass number: 4 A

NON-IONIZING RADIATION
 radiation with the energy insufficient to produce charged ions when
passing through matter, it has only sufficient energy to change the
rotational, vibrational or electronic valence configurations of molecules
and atoms

 microwaves
 radio waves
 light
 heat

IONIZING RADIATION
 consists of particles or electromagnetic waves energetic enough to
detach electrons from atoms or molecules

 gamma and x-rays

 UV

 material radiation

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GENERAL TYPES OF RADIOACTIVITY

 alpha decay – an energetic helium ion (alpha particle)

 beta decay – electron or positron

 gamma decay – photon

RADIO-ISOTOPE
 any of several species of the same chemical element with different
masses whose nuclei are unstable and dissipate excess energy by
spontaneously emitting radiation in the form of alpha, beta, and gamma
rays

C14 – C12?

Z = const
A and N ≠ const

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C14 – C12?

Z = const
A and N ≠ const

DECAY
 process that transmutes an
isotope of one element into
an isotope of another with
the release of high-energy
particles or electromagnetic
waves

RATE OF RADIOACTIVE TRANSITION

 exponential decay law: radioactive decay occurs at a statistical
exponential rate, proportional to the number of atoms present and the
decay constant


 - = λN


 decay constant (λ): proportionality between the size of a population of

radioactive atoms and the rate at which the population decreases
because of radioactive decay

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HALFTIME
 physical: time required for half of the original population of
radioactive atoms to decay

 biological: time an organism takes to eliminate half of radioactive atoms from

its body through strictly biological processes

 effective: incorporates both the physical and biological halftimes, used to

calculate the elimination of radioisotope from the ecosystem

DECAY CHAIN
 a series of decay transformations, each having its own halftimes, leading
through a variety of unstable nuclides
 each step accompanied by the release of radioactive energy

ALPHA DECAY
 release of an energetic helium ion (alpha particle) leaving a daughter
nucleus of atomic number two less (Z-2) than the parent and of atomic
mass number four less (A-4) than the parent

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BETA MINUS DECAY

 release of an electron and antineutrino producing a daughter nucleus of
one higher atomic number (Z+1) and the same mass number (A)

BETA PLUS DECAY

 release of an energetic positron, along with a neutrino, the nucleus
transforms to a daughter lower by one in atomic number (Z-1) and the
same in mass number (A)

GAMMA DECAY
 release of high-energy electromagnetic rays, usually accompanies alpha or beta
radiation, when decay leaves daughter particle in higher energy states (excited
states)

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ISOMERIC TRANSITIONS
 there is a wide range of rates of half-lives for the gamma-emission
process

INTERNAL CONVERSION
 alternatively to gamma emission, an excited nucleus may transform to a
lower energy state by ejecting an electron from the cloud surrounding
the nucleus, giving rise to an energetic electron and an x-ray as the
atomic cloud fills in the empty orbital of the ejected electron

ELECTRON CAPTURE
 a process in which decay follows the capture of an orbital electron by
the nucleus, nucleus transforms to a daughter of one lower atomic
number (Z-1) with subsequent emission of an atomic x-ray as the
orbital vacancy is filled by an electron from the cloud about the nucleus

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SPONTANEOUS FISSION
 the nucleus (heaviest artificial nuclei, such as fermium-256) splits into
two fragment nuclei of roughly half the mass of the parent

PROTON RADIOACTIVITY
 discovered in 1970, is exhibited by an excited isomeric state of cobalt-
53, 53mCo, 1.5 precent of which emit protons (A-1, Z-1)

NEUTRON CAPTURE
 type of nuclear reaction in which a target nucleus absorbs a neutron
(uncharged particle), then emits a discrete quantity of electromagnetic
energy (gamma-ray photon), the parent nucleus and the daughter
nucleus are isotopes (A+1, Z)

 phosphorus-31, on undergoing neutron capture, becomes radioactive

phosphorus-32

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CHAIN REACTION

UV
 lies between wavelengths of about 400 nanometres on the visible-light
side and about 10 nm (4 nm) on the x-ray side

 generated by the extremely hot surfaces

 unlike other forms of ionising radiation it has a low power of

penetration

OZONE HOLE

 depletion of the ozone level in the ozonosphere

 diminished absorption of Solar ultraviolet radiation that reaches Earth

 sun burns, wrinkling, thickening and changes in skin pigmentation,

damage of the cornea, skin cancer

 CAN BE OVER NORTHERN OR SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE!

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INTERACTION WITH MATTER

PENETRATION

HALVING THICKNESS
 indicates thickness of material, required to cut radiation by 50%

 halving mass: indicates mass of material, required to cut radiation by

50%, in grams per square centimetre of protected area

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EFFECTS OF IRRADIATION
 direct effects: due to the collision of radiation with atoms, resulting in an
ejection of electrons from the atoms – ionisation

 indirect effects: due to the formation of free radicals (unstable

molecules carrying an extra electron) during the radiolysis of water
molecules

IONIZATION
 process by which electrically neutral atoms or molecules are converted to
electrically charged ions

 charged particles, such as alpha particles and electrons cause extensive

ionization along their paths
 neutral particles, such as neutrons and neutrinos, are more penetrating and
cause almost no ionization
 x-ray and gamma-ray photons, eject electrons from atoms by the photoelectric
effect

 energetic electrons resulting from the absorption of radiant energy in turn

may cause further ionization, called secondary ionization

FREE RADICAL
 molecule that contains at least one unpaired electron

 usually highly reactive, abstracting parts of the molecules to complete their

own electron pairs and generating new free radicals in the process

 damage of DNA, lipid peroxidation, oxidations of amino acids in proteins,

oxidative inactivation of enzymes

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BIOLOGICAL TIMELINE
 a phenomenon where, following a dose of ionizing radiation, a victim
may have a period of apparent health, lasting for days or weeks, despite
a surely terminal illness

 depends on the irradiated organ, type of exposition, dose, intensity of

biological processes

 “Walking Ghost Phase”

 Alexander Litvinienko (210Po)

EXPOSITION
 acute vs. chronic

thorough external internal

PREVENTION
 what to do when you are facing the atomic explosion

 according to Red Army manual:

 lie down in the cemetery

facing the blast
 cover yourself with “Pravda”
newspapers

 and Rest In Peace

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DAMAGE AND CONTROL

irradiation
↓  tan, fur, feathers
fast electron
↓  free radical scavengers
ion radical
↓  DNA-repair enzymes
free radical
↓  apoptosis
chemical change
(breakage or relocation of bonds)

EVOLUTION

DETECTION
 Geiger counter – detector of ionizing radiation,
consisting of a tube filled with inert gas, which briefly
conducts electricity when a particle or photon of
radiation ionises the gas

 dosimeter – measures an individual's or object's

exposure to irradiation

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USES OF RADIOACTIVITY
 medicine
 sterilization
 industry  medical applications
 ion implantation
 science  industrial chemistry
 security
 warfare  agriculture
 assassination

MEDICINE AND RESEARCH

 diagnosis and therapy (nuclear medicine)

 x-ray and cat scan

 induction of mutations

 radiometric dating

 atomic clock

INDUSTRY
 nuclear energy

 sterilisation

 x-ray

 induction of polymerisation

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A-BOMB

AIR TRAVEL

CHELABINSK, THREE MILE ISLAND,

CZERNOBYL AND FUKUSHIMA

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COAL BURNING

UNITS
 One gray is the absorption of one joule of energy, in the form of
ionizing radiation, by one kilogram of matter


 1Gy = 1


 the sievert (Sv) and the rem make it possible to normalize doses of
different types of radiation in terms of relative biological effect
(1 Sv = 100 rem)

BANANA EQUIVALENT DOSE

 the radiation exposure received by eating a single banana

 bananas contain radioactive potassium-40 (beta plus decay)

 3520 picocuries per kg, or roughly 520 picocuries per banana

(130 Bq per kg, 20 Bq per banana)
 roughly the average daily exposition in the fallout of the Fukushima
nuclear accident

So that’s why we evolved!

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X-ray
radioisotopes in medicine
contrasting agents
cat-scan

Nuclear medicine

▪ medical specialty that involves the use of radioactive isotopes

and irradiation in the diagnosis and treatment of disease

▪ x-ray & CT
▪ radiography
▪ PET
▪ RIA

▪ radiotherapy
▪ sterilisation

X-ray
▪ ionizing radiation produced by accelerating (or decelerating)
charged particles, usually electrons

▪ produced by an x-ray tube or a circulating beam of electrons in a

synchrotron particle accelerator

▪ wavelength in the range of 0.01 to 10 nm,

frequencies from 3x1016 Hz to 3x1019 Hz
and energies between 120 eV to 120 keV

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History of the x-ray

▪ discovered in 1895 by German physicist Wilhelm Konrad
Röntgen while investigating the effects of cathode rays in
electrical discharges through low-pressure gases

▪ Hand mit Ringen (Hand with Rings): print of Wilhelm

Röntgen's first "medical" x-ray, of his wife's hand, taken on
22 December 1895
▪ in early XX century it was adopted as a medical imaging
technique

History of the x-ray

▪ discovered in 1895 by German physicist Wilhelm Konrad
Röntgen while investigating the effects of cathode rays in
electrical discharges through low-pressure gases

▪ Hand mit Ringen (Hand with Rings): print of Wilhelm

Röntgen's first "medical" x-ray, of his wife's hand, taken on
22 December 1895
▪ in early XX century it was adopted as a medical imaging
technique

X-ray tube

x-ray

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Creating x-ray

▪ Tungsten [74W]
▪ Molybdenum [42Mo]

▪ Bremsstrahlung
▪ Compton effect

Bremsstrahlung

Compton effect

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Properties of x-ray

▪ wave ▪ particle

▪ polarisation ▪ high-energy photon

▪ scattering

▪ diffraction

Quantum interactions

▪ coherent scattering

▪ Compton effect

▪ photoelectric effect

▪ pair production

▪ photodisintegration

Use of the x-ray

▪ wave ▪ particle
▪ scattering & diffraction ▪ absorption

coherent X-ray diffraction patterns

of a nanosized metal cube

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Medical diagnostics

▪ utilises ability of x-ray to penetrate optically opaque materials (soft

tissues) and its absorption on the high-density materials like bones

▪ x-ray imaging (roentgenography)

▪ fluoroscopy

▪ CT-scan

X-ray imaging

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Fluoroscopy

▪ an imaging technique commonly used by physicians to obtain real-

time moving images of the internal structures of a patient through
the use of a fluoroscope

Contrasting agents

▪ substances comparatively opaque to x-ray, which, when present in an

organ or tissue, absorb x-rays causing a shadow on the film

▪ improve the visibility of internal bodily structures in an x-ray based

imaging techniques

▪ typically iodine or barium compounds

Iodinated – intravascular

▪ relatively harmless and soluble

▪ angiography, urography, hysterosalpingography

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Barium – gastro-intestinal

▪ insoluble white powder that is made into a slurry

▪ swallow
▪ meal
▪ enema
▪ daily follow through

Air

▪ a contrast material that is less radio-opaque than the tissues it is

defining

▪ gastrointestinal track
▪ joints

Tomography

▪ imaging by sections or sectioning, through the use of any kind of

penetrating wave

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CT-scan

▪ x-ray computed tomography

▪ a medical tomography imaging method created

by computer processing

CAT-scan
▪ computed axial tomography

▪ a three-dimensional image of the inside of an object is reconstructed

from a large series of two-dimensional x-ray images taken around a
single axis of rotation

CAT-scan in veterinary

▪ internal medicine ▪ behavioural CAT scan

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CAT-scan in palaeontology

▪ Willow – the little dinosaur with heart

Real-time CT fluoroscopy

X-ray-treatment

▪ curative or adjuvant treatment

▪ radiation therapy works by damaging the DNA of cancerous cells

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Side effects

▪ acute – within several weeks of treatment – damage to the epithelial

surfaces: skin, oral mucosa, pharyngeal, bowel mucosa and ureter –
irritation, inflammation, oedema, epilation, infertility

▪ late – months to years after treatment – damage to the blood vessels

and connective tissue – fibrosis, epilation, mucosa dryness, lymphedema
and cancer

▪ ALARE – as low as reasonably effective

Synchrotron

▪ cyclic particle accelerator in which electrically-charged particles

as electrons or protons are accelerated to very high energies by
alternating electric force

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Animal magnetism
a magnet
Sci-Fi
when north becomes south
MRI

Magnetism

▪ a property of materials that respond at an atomic or subatomic

level to an applied magnetic field

▪ non-magnetic substances – materials that are negligibly

affected by magnetic fields

Magnetic materials
▪ ferromagnetic materials – substances that produce their own
persistent magnetic field

▪ paramagnetic materials – substances that are attracted

to a magnetic field

▪ diamagnetic materials – substances

that are repulsed by magnetic field

levitating
pyrolytic carbon

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Magnetic domains

Permanent magnet
▪ object made from a material that is magnetized and creates
its own persistent magnetic field

▪ magnetization utilises a strong magnetic field to induce

alignment of the particles in the internal microcrystalline
structure of the substance

▪ soft magnets – materials that can be magnetized but do not stay

that way for long
▪ hard magnets – materials that after magnetization retain
this property

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More magnetic materials

▪ antiferromagnet – intrinsic
magnetic moments
of neighbouring valence
electrons point in opposite
directions, no magnetic field
is produced

▪ ferrimagnet – neighbouring pairs

of electron spins like to point
in opposite directions, however
it retains magnetization
and produces magnetic field

Magnetic field(s)
▪ a field of force produced by moving electric charges, by electric
fields that vary in time, and by the 'intrinsic' magnetic field
of elementary particles associated with the spin of the particle

▪ at any given point it is specified by a direction and a magnitude

▪ there are two separate but closely related magnetic fields:

a magnetic B field and a magnetic H field

▪ B-field lines neither start nor end

▪ H-field lines begin and end near magnetic poles

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Line and vector of the force

Magnetic poles

quadruple magnet
("four-pole") magnetic field

Gauss's law for magnetism

▪ law of “absence of free magnetic poles”

▪ the magnetic field has divergence equal to zero

▪ magnetic monopoles do not exist

Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss

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A monopole for a magnetic monopole

▪ a hypothetical particle with only one magnetic pole

▪ dyon – a hypothetical particle with singular electric and magnetic

charges

▪ Dirac string – a factious one-dimensional curve, between two

magnetic monopoles, or reaching from one magnetic monopole
out to infinity

Magnetic flux
▪ (Φm) is a measure of the amount of magnetic field passing
through a given surface in the unit of time [weber w = Vs]

▪ magnetic flux through a given surface is proportional

to the number of magnetic field lines that pass through
that surface

▪ tesla – magnetic flux intensity

is a unit of magnetic field
[T = w/m2]

Wilhelm Eduard Weber Nikola Tesla

Geomagnetism

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Reversals of magnetic polarity

Reversals of magnetic polarity

Magnetosphere

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Electromagnetism

Animal magnetism

▪ robin ▪ internal compass

▪ pigeon
▪ mocking bird ▪ tiny ferrous particles
▪ magnetic bacteria
▪ bee ▪ moving along the lines
of magnetic field
▪ marine turtle
▪ whale
▪ moving across the lines
▪ salmon of magnetic field
▪ eel

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Animal magnetism2

▪ a whole fish as an magnetic dipole

Spin
▪ a fundamental characteristic property
of elementary particles, hadrons and atomic nuclei

▪ a type of angular momentum, where angular momentum is

defined as the "generator of rotations”

▪ spin of atoms and molecules is the sum of the spins of unpaired

electrons, which may be parallel or antiparallel. It is responsible
for paramagnetism

▪ quantum mechanical spin can exhibit phenomena analogous to

classical gyroscopic effects

Magnetic moment
▪ particles with spin can possess a magnetic dipole moment,
just like any rotating electrically charged body (see Earth)

▪ lines of magnetic force

are aligned perpendicular
to the particle plane of rotation

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Non-ionizing radiation
▪ the energy of non-ionizing radiation is insufficient to produce
charged ions when passing through matter, it has only
sufficient energy to change the rotational, vibrational
or electronic valence configurations of molecules and atoms

▪ microwaves
▪ radiowaves

Magnetic resonance imaging

▪ a medical imaging technique used in utilising magnetic

properties of the hydrogen nuclei (spin and magnetic moment)
to visualize detailed internal structures of the organism

Physics of MRI

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Physics of MRI

Physics of MRI

MRI

▪ encephalitis ▪ real time MRI

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Functional MRI (fMRI)

Reconstruction of image

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A Few words on modern physics

nanoscale
Big Bang and beyond
the wet gecko and AFM

The nano-scale

km
m
cm

mm
µm
nm
Å

Nanoparticles

▪ What does it mean NANO?

▪ physics: ▪ surface effects dominate over bulk effects – quantum dot

▪ chemistry: ▪ active surface dominates over “active” volume

▪ biology: ▪ in the living thing it behaves differently than bulk substance

or solute – at least 1 dimension in nanometer scale

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Planck units

▪ a set of “natural units” proposed in 1899 by German physicist Max Planck

▪ derived only from properties of nature, not based on “human constructs”
▪ used nowadays to explain quantum physics and quantum interactions
▪ Planck scale defines the region where general relativity no longer applies
(explains observed or hypothesised phenomena)
▪ this region is characterised by energies around 1.22×1019 GeV (the Planck
energy), time intervals around 5.39×10−44 s (the Planck time) and lengths
around 1.62×10−35 m (the Planck length)

Planck units

The five universal constants that Planck units normalize to 1

speed of light in a vacuum (c) fastest known speed in the Universe
defines general (Newtonian and Einsteinian)
gravitational constant (G)
interactions between bodies of any mass
defines physical interactions in energy and time;
reduced Planck constant (ħ)
the quantum action
defines electrostatic interactions between
Coulomb constant (ke)
bodies of charge ≠ 0
links kinetic energy of gas particles with their
Boltzmann constant (kB)
thermodynamic temperature

Basic Planck units

Name Expression Value (SI)

Planck length 1.616229(38)×10−35 m
Planck mass 2.176470(51)×10−8 kg
Planck time 5.39116(13)×10−44 s
Planck charge 1.875 545 956(41) × 10−18 C
Planck temperature 1.416808(33)×1032 K

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Planck units

▪ Planck length ▪ Planck time  Planck temperature

▪ 10−35 m ▪ 10−44 s  1032 K

Quantum Mechanics

▪ description of the dual, particle-like and wave-like,

behaviour and interactions of energy and matter

▪ quantum realm is a term in physics typically referring to scales where

quantum mechanical effects become important, usually 100 nm
or less -> nanotechnology

Atom

▪ wave function – describes the quantum state of a particle or system

of particles; the probability amplitude of a position or momentum of
a subatomic particle within atom

▪ chemically –

▪ physically –

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Looking inside the atom

Looking inside the atom

Looking inside the atom

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May the force be with you

graviton & higgs photon gluon W & Z bosons

Vacuum and emptiness

▪ in physics there is no true vacuum
▪ all the space in The Universe is filled with 4 quantum fields
▪ all mass is “borrowed” from their energy

▪ a soup of constant creation and annihilation

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Particles

▪ fermions: the basic building blocks ▪ bosons: force-carrier particles, each

of all matter, each has its own has integer spin
distinct antiparticle, each has half-
integer spin
▪ photon – electromagnetic force

▪ six quarks ▪ W and Z bosons – weak interaction

▪ gluon – strong interaction

▪ six leptons ▪ graviton – gravitation force

▪ higgs – mass

Quarks

▪ electric charge (+ / -) = flavour

▪ colour charge (RGB)
▪ mass
▪ spin, or part of spin

▪ up & down proton

consisting
▪ charm & strange of 3 quarks
of different
▪ top & bottom colours

The subtle flavour of quark

▪ + 2/3 ê ▪ - 1/3 ê

▪ up quark ▪ down quark

▪ charm quark ▪ strange quark

▪ top quark ▪ bottom quark

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Fermions: hadrons and leptons

▪ hadrons  mesons ▪ leptons

▪ proton  pion ▪ electron

▪ neutron ▪ neutrino

▪ consist of three  “anti-colour” ▪ muon

quarks, each of a of the antiquark
different “colour”, ▪ neutrino
neutralizes the “colour”
that have to cancel of the quark
each-other to produce ▪ tau
a neutral „white”
particle ▪ neutrino

Take three quarks…

▪ P = +1 ê ▪ N=0ê
▪ = tq + tq + bq ▪ = tq + bq + bq

+ 2/3 + 2/3 + 2/3

GLUONS

- 1/3 - 1/3 - 1/3

Splitting the gluon

+ 2/3 - 1/3 + 2/3

+ 2/3 - 1/3 + 2/3 + 2/3 + 2/3

+ 2/3 - 1/3 + 2/3

+ 2/3 + 2/3

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The mysterious Mr Higgs

▪ mass is hypothesized to be created by the Higgs boson through

spontaneous breaking of the local symmetry of Higgs field

Through the looking glass

▪ fermions, anti-fermions
and a biG banG

▪ uneven split?

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The Casimir effect

▪ inside “dense” vacuum ▪ outside “rare” vacuum

vacuum force

 interactions between existing mater and creation

 density of creation
 chance of interaction

The Casimir effect

Before the Big Bang

▪ vacuum in our Universe has a temperature, a residual microwave now

birth of Sun
2.7 K
2.8 K
radiation of 2.7 K
first stars 3.5 K

▪ time-space in our Universe is filled with 4 quantum fields

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Before the Big Bang

▪ vacuum in our Universe has a temperature, a residual microwave now

birth of Sun
2.7 K
2.8 K
radiation of 2.7 K
first stars 3.5 K

▪ time-space in our Universe is filled with 4 quantum fields

13.8 billion
▪ 100 000 000 000 000 000 K years ago,
microwave
1016 K
bcgr emission

Before the Big Bang

▪ vacuum in our Universe has a temperature, a residual microwave now

birth of Sun
2.7 K
2.8 K
radiation of 2.7 K
first stars 3.5 K

▪ time-space in our Universe is filled with 4 quantum fields

13.8 billion
▪ 100 000 000 000 000 000 K years ago,
microwave
1016 K
bcgr emission

▪ 1032 K: superhot, 10−35 m: supersmall, superdense: 13.83 billion 1032 K

photons cannot move years ago

Event Horizon

▪ a boundary in space-time beyond which events cannot affect

an outside observer

▪ black-hole and limits of the Universe

▪ light emitted beyond the horizon will never* reach the observer
▪ the object travelling from the observer side towards the horizon
will seemingly never cross it, it will appear to slow down and shift
its emission spectrum towards red

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The Black Hole

▪ far away from the black hole a photon can move

in any direction, restricted only by the speed of light

▪ closer to the black hole space-time starts to deform,

more paths are going towards the black hole than away

▪ inside of the event horizon all paths bring the photon

closer to the centre of the black hole, the photon
cannot* escape

The gluttonous monster

▪ before Hawking

Hawking’s radiation & Planck hole

▪ Universe has a temperature of 2.7 K
▪ Black hole constantly emits at 10-7 K
▪ ??? Casimir effect
(vacuum pressure)

▪ uneven size distribution:

– supermassive
– Planck-size (1032 K, 10-35 m, 10-44 s)

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No time for photons

▪ as you approach the speed of light the photon still passes you with the speed

⇝
of light

▪ speed of light is constant

⇝
▪ So what changes?

Spatial-temporal effect

Remember don’t try this experiment at home!!!

Spatial-temporal effect

Remember don’t try this experiment at home!!!

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Van-Der-Waals Force

▪ sometimes used loosely as a synonym for the all of intermolecular forces

▪ a sum of the attractive or repulsive forces between molecules including:

– force between two permanent dipoles
– force between a permanent dipole and a corresponding induced dipole
– force between two instantaneously induced dipoles

▪ but not covalent bonds or the electrostatic interactions of ions

Gecko principle
▪ dry glue is a method of adhesion based around the van der Waals
interactions
▪ naturally occurring adaptations of the feet of geckos
▪ longed for by humans

Van-Der-Waals interactions

▪ extremely weak interaction (~50 mJ)

▪ works on extremely short distances (10 nm)
▪ so how does gecko do it? setae with
spatulae

▪ M=0.1 kg, G=9.81 N/kg, F=0.9 N

▪ 1 finger ~6.5 mln setae x 40 µN = 260 N
▪ 1 gecko ~5200 N !!!

rods
folds

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The wet gecko

▪ dry glue is a method of adhesion based around the van der Waals interactions

Van-Der-
Van-Der- Waals forces
Waals forces fail
prevail

HYDROPHOBICITY !!!

Atomic Force Microscope

▪ very high-resolution type of microscope,

on the order of fractions of a nanometre (Å)

▪ consists of a cantilever with a sharp tip at its end

that is used to scan the specimen surface

▪ when the tip is brought into proximity of a sample

surface, repulsive van der Waals forces between
the tip and the sample lead to deflection
of the cantilever

A view upon the atom

DNA repair proteins

bound to DNA

experimental imaging of single Si atoms

with resolved "subatomic" structures
related to the shell charge density

image of DNA lattices self-assembled from

quadruple crossovers; scan area: 500 nm x
500 nm

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