Biophysics past questions

Explain principles of diffusion on the example of

respiratory gases in the tissues?
Diffusion is a passive process , where a single substance
tends to move from an area of high conc to an area of low
concentration until the conc. Is equal across the space. This
can be explained by movement of respiratory gases in
tissues, as the carbon dioxide moves from the blood to the
alveoli , where it can be exhaled through the lungs.
Explain the scientific method in research?
Scientific method tests the validity of a physical physical
theory with the use of a methodical approach to compare the
implications of the theory with the associated conclusions
drawn from experiments.
How do fish utilize an electrical field to navigate in
murky waters?
Ampullae of lorenzini= detect electric fields in the water (the
difference between the voltage at the skin pore , and the
voltage at the base of the electroreceptor cell.
How the increased blood viscosity affects circulation?
Increased blood viscosity increases the resistance to blood
flow and so increases the movement of the heart and impairs
organ perfusion.
Which thermodynamic principle allows measurement of
the body temperature?explain why?
The principle of zeroth law= because if two bodies are each
in thermal equilibrium , with a third body , they are also in
thermal equilibrium with each other.
Explain consequences of lambert-beer’s law to marine
phytoplankton?
Beer-lambert's law relates to the attenuation of light to the
properties of the material through which the light is travelling.
Beer lambert's law in turn affects the phytoplankton’s ability
to absorb the sunlight - and then they are unable to use
photosynthesis to turn it into chemical energy.
Explain physics of the stethoscope?
When one side of the stethoscope chest piece is placed up
against the patient’s body , it picks up tiny vibrations which
directly generate acoustic pressure waves that travel up the
hollow tube to the examiner's ears.
Describe the advantages and disadvantages of
fluoroscopy?
Fluoroscopy is an imaging technique used by physicians to
obtain real-time moving images of the internal structures of a
patient through the use of a fluoroscope.
Advantages; 1. Allows us to see live images of the body's
internal organs in order to observe shape and movement .
2. Readily available and inexpensive.
Disadvantages; 1. Risk of skin injury due to radiation
exposure .
2. May be limited due to the patient's mobility/inability to
comply.
Characterise the major forces in the universe?What are
their carriers?
1.Electromagnetism; is the force responsible for the way
matter generates and responds to electricity and magnetism.
Force carrier= photon
2.Gravity; force that pulls us to the surface of the earth,
keeps the planets in orbit around the sun and causes the
formations of said planets, and galaxies.- force carrier=
Graviton
3. Strong nuclear force; found inside nuclei of atoms. Binds
the nucleus of an atom together. Force carrier= Gluon
4. Weak nuclear force; found inside nuclei of atoms.
Responsible for certain types of nuclear decay. Force
carrier=W/Z Bosons
What is biophysics?how can it be applicable in
veterinary and medicine?
Biophysics is an interdisciplinary science that uses the
methods of physics and physical chemistry to study
biological systems.
It can be applicable in veterinary and general medicine due
to the physics aspect being useful in many aspects of
medicine , both in treatment and diagnostic medicine, such
as x-rays, ultrasound s and ct scans.
What is a cathode, explain?
A cathode is an electrode attractive for positive ions (cations)
the potential of a cathode is also called = closing potential
How does atomic mass and atomic number of an atom
change during the alpha decay process?
During the alpha decay process , there is a release of an
energetic helium ion (alpha particle) leaving a daughter
nucleus of an atomic number, two less, then the parent and
of atomic mass number, four less than the parent.
Explain the difference between “soft” and “hard”
magnets?
Soft magnets; materials that can be magnetized but do not
stay that way for long.
Hard magnets; materials that after magnetization retain this
property,
Explain the difference between candela, lumen and lux?
Lumen is how much light is given off.
Lux; is how bright the surface will be.
Candela; measures the visible intensity from the light
source.
Main properties of hadrons?
-Hadrons are a group[ of particles composed of quarks
-Hadrons are defined in terms of properties as particles that
experience strong magnetic forces/interactions.
Influence of gravity on the thickness of elephants leg’s?
The thickness of the elephant’s legs is important as the
larger , thicker legs need to be able to bear the immense
stress put upon them by the elephant's surface area.
Gravity influences the movement of the legs, as they flex in
particular ways, which continuously changes the animal's

a cathode is an electrode that

is attractive for positive cations
aces v

acceptor
the
centre of gravity, and the immense force it exerts on the
ground.
The colour of visible light?
Visible light waves consist of various different wavelengths,
and so that color of visible light depends on said wavelength.
These visible light waves are only electromagnetic waves
that are visible to the naked eye.
Why are SI units changing and give examples?
ThSI units are changing because the system of weights and
measures are derived from and extending the metric system
of weights. These measurements are consusuebtly being
reopskaced by new standards based on fundamental laws of
physics.
Examples of SI Units: Mass-kilograms, heat-Joule and
velocity- m/s.
Biological and physical decay?
Biological decay- when an organism eliminates half of its
radioactive atoms, from its body through strictly biological
processes.
Physical decay; physical decay is when half of the original
population of radioactive atoms, decay.
Diffusion?
Diffusion is a process resulting from random motion of
molecules, by which there is a net flow of matter, from a
region of high concentration, to a region of low concentration.
The process is drawn across a conc. Gradient. The process
is unreliable over long distances.

Explain the similarities and differences between

processes of osmosis and dialysis?
Osmosis is the spontaneous passage of diffusion of water or
other solvent through a semipermeable membrane(one that
blocks the passage of dissolved substances).

Dialysis is the separation of suspended colloidal particles

from dissolved ions or molecules of small dimensions by
means of their unequal rates of diffusion through the pores of
semipermeable membranes (part of the glomerular filtration)
Differences; dialysis is the movement of molecules in
solute(glucose)and osmosis is the movement of the solvent
itself(water).
Similarities: during osmosis fluid moves from areas of high
water conc. To lower water conc. Across a semipermeable
membrane until equilibrium (the same) and in dialysis,
excess fluid moves from solvent to the dialysate through a
membrane until the fluid level is the same between solvent
and dialysate.

Compare the biological effect of ionizing and

nonionizing radiation?
Ionizing radiation consists of particles or electromagnetic
waves. The biological effect of ionizing radiation is that their
electromagnetic waves are energetic enough to detach
electrons from atoms or molecules.
Non Ionizing radiation is radiation with insufficient energy to
produce charged ions when passing through matter. The
biological effect of nonionizing radiation is that the radiation
has only sufficient energy to change the rotational ,
vibrational or electronic valence configurations of molecules
and atoms.
Compare the physics of magnetic domains in strong
ferromagnet and paramagnet?
Ferromagnet- substances that produce their own persistent
magnetic field.-the spins of large numbers of unpaired
electrons of neighbouring atoms align with each other,
creating a unidirectional magnetic field.
Paramagnet- substances that are attracted to a magnetic
field.- spins of atoms and molecules is the sum of the spins
of unpaired electrons, which may be parallel or antiparallel,
as a result it is responsible for paramagnetism.

What is the polarization of light and how it affects the clarity

of microscopic image?
 Polarization : the orientation of oscillations in the plane
perpendicular to a transverse wave's direction of travel

Polarized light is a contrast-enhancing technique that

improves the quality and clarity of the image obtained with birefringent
materials

25. Explain which physical properties govern the velocity of blood

flow?

The velocity of the steady flow of a blood through a blood vessel is directly
proportional to the pressure difference and the fourth power of the the
vessel diameter and inversely proportional to the length of the vessel and
the coefficient of viscosity

26. How does a mirror work? briefly explain physics and comment on
how refraction, dispersion and Lambert-Beer's law can alter the
clarity of the reflection

When photons (rays of light) coming from an object strike the smooth
surface of a mirror, they bounce back at the same angle. Your eyes see
these reflected photons as a mirror image. If a smooth surface absorbs the
photons, they can't bounce back and there will be no reflection
Light strikes different parts of a rough surface at different angles and is
reflected, or diffused, in many different directions.
A mirror has a smooth surface (compared with the wavelength of light) and
so reflects light at specific angles.
We see the light reflected off a mirror coming from a direction determined
by the law of reflection.
reflection: the property of a propagated wave being thrown back from a
surface (such as a mirror)
Dispersion: separation of different wavelengths comprised in a ray of light
Refraction: bending of light while passing through medium boundary due
to the variation is speed
Lambert-Beer's law: relates the absorption of light to the properties of the
material

27. How do properties of the medium affect propagation of the sound

wave?

e.g. the speed of sound in water isn't the same as the speed of sound in air.
-The properties of a material, or medium, that affect the wave speed are
tension, density, temperature and elasticity

-the greater the elasticity and the lower the density; the faste sounds travels
in a medium

-temperature affects the mediums density

-higher tension in the medium; higher speed of sound wave

28. How does radiation interact with matter? What are the biological
consequences of interaction?

Interaction of Radiation & Matter

-When x-rays or gamma rays are directed into an object, some of the
photons interact with the particles of the matter and their energy can be
absorbed or scattered

consequences

-Radiation can harm either the whole body (somatic damage) or eggs and
sperm (genetic damage) when interacting with a mass. Its effects are more
pronounced in cells that reproduce rapidly, such as the stomach lining, hair
follicles, bone marrow, and embryos

29. What is “gecko principle”? discuss its potential application in

veterinary and medicine

Gecko principle:

-dry glue is a method of adhesion based around the van der Waals
interactions

-naturally occuring adaptations on the feet of geckos

-you should always examine the toes of geckos if they are having problems
shedding off skin, because the skin can become wrapped around its digits
cutting off circulation and causing necrosis
 30. What is the transverse and longitudinal wave of the oscillations
through a lake and a pier?

Longitudinal: waves of alternating wave vibrations from the equilibrium. Go

through solids, fluids and plasma.

Transverse: a moving wave that consists of oscillations occurring right

angled to the direction of energy transfer. Go through solids.

31). Explain the consequences of Bernoullis principle to the

structure of major and minor arteries.

For an invisaid (flow of a nonviscous fluid) flow an increase in the speed

of the fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in dynamic
(transmural) pressure or a decrease in the fluids potential energy.

32). Explain the Nernst Equation on the limitation of the membrane

potential of the hypothalamus of a mouse.

The Nernst equation is used to determine the equilibrium reduction

potential of a half cell in an electrochemical cell.
The physiological application of the Nernst Equation is to find the
potential of an ion of charge across a biological membrane, the reversal
potential of an ion is the membrane potential at which there is no net
flow of that particular ion from one side of the membrane to the other,
this applies only to a static situation.
The Nernst equation can therefore be used to find the potential of an ion
of charge across a mouse's hypothalamus membrane.

32). Explain what a wave is.

A wave is a physical disturbance that transfers energy through space.

A wave is a physical phenomenon characterized by its frequency,
wavelength, and amplitude.In general, waves transfer energy from one
location to another, in which case they have a velocity.
A standing wave is an undulating wave motion that strays in one place.
These have no net velocity and involve no net transfer of energy. They have
frequency, wavelength and amplitude.

Mechanical waves require a medium to travel through: for example, sound

waves and earthquake waves cannot travel through a vacuum.

Electromagnetic waves, such as light, do not require a medium and can travel
through a vacuum.

Transverse waves, such as light, oscillate perpendicular to the direction the

wave is carrying energy in - as in the diagram above. Longitudinal waves,
such as sound, oscillate parallel to the direction of energy transfer.

What is driving pressure and where it applies in the vertebrate

organism?

- tension in the wall of a hollow cylinder is directly

proportional to the cylinder's radius and the pressure
across the wall caused by the flow inside (driving pressure)
- ▪ T = Pr
- T – tension P – driving pressure r – vessel radius

Explain the Zeroth law of thermodynamics and its implications in

medicine?

- zeroth law – if two bodies are each in thermal equilibrium

with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with
each other
- Zeroth Law establishes that temperature is a fundamental and
measurable property of matter.

What is the polarisation of light and how it affects the clarity of microscope
image?

- the orientation of oscillations in the plane perpendicular to

a transverse wave's direction of travel
 - the plane of polarization of linearly polarized light is
affected by the magnetic field – Faraday rotation
- Microscopy Polarized light is a contrast-enhancing technique that
improves the quality of the image obtained

Biological differences of ionizing vs nonionizing radiation

-Non-ionizing (or non-ionising) radiation refers to any type of

electromagnetic radiation that does not carry enough energy per
quantum (photon energy) to ionize atoms or molecules—that is, to
completely remove an electron from an atom or molecule.[1] Instead of
producing charged ions when passing through matter, non-ionizing
electromagnetic radiation has sufficient energy only for excitation, the
movement of an electron to a higher energy state.

- In contrast, ionizing radiation has a higher frequency and shorter

wavelength than non-ionizing radiation, and can be a serious health
hazard; exposure to it can cause burns, radiation sickness, cancer, and
genetic damage. Using ionizing radiation requires elaborate radiological
protection measures, which in general are not required with non-ionizing
radiation.

Explain the consequences of Bernoulli’s principal on the structure of

major and Minor arteries

-Bernoulli principle describes the flow of liquids through conduits of

differing diameters with respect to velocity and pressure (Fig 2). As a
liquid (eg, blood) moves from a conduit with a larger diameter to one
with a narrower diameter, the blood flow velocity must increase (and the
pressure decrease) to allow the same volume of blood to flow through
the narrower area. ...

How to calculate(explain) the focal point of a converging lens

What principal is behind it ?
-For a converging lens, the focal point is the point at which converging
light rays cross; for a diverging lens, the focal point is the point from
which diverging light rays appear to originate. The distance from the
center of the lens to its focal point is called the focal length

-For converging lenses, the focal length is always positive, while

diverging lenses always have negative focal lengths.

How to increase the intensity of sound waves produced by vocal

chords ?

-The vocal folds produce sound when they come together and then
vibrate as air passes through them during exhalation of air from the
lungs. This vibration produces the sound wave for your voice. In
order for the sound to be clear and not raspy or hoarse, the vocal
folds must vibrate together symmetrically and regularly.

-the greater its pressure amplitude, the more the air is compressed
during the vibration. Because the power of a sound wave is the rate at
which energy is transferred, the energy of a sound wave is also
proportional to its amplitude squared.

-principal :The intensity of a sound wave is proportional to the change in

the pressure squared and inversely proportional to the density and the
speed.

41.Under the red light, an elephant appears red, what may be its
colour change?briefly explain your answer.

43.Which properties of sound waves are utilised in lithotripsy?

High energy shock waves are used in lithotripsy. Guided by x ray or
ultrasound, the shock waves will pass through the body until they hit the
kidney stone and break the stone into smaller pieces that can pass
through the urinary system.
44.On the example of potassium channel , explain the specificity of
facilitated membrane transport?
 Biophysics Laws

Gravity:
A mutual attraction of all the objects of any mass
A force acting between two masses, making them attract one
another. Earth’s avg. gravity = 9.81 N/Kg

Mass:
An asymmetry in the Higgs field

Law of conservation of mass:

The mass of a closed system (in the sense of a completely
isolated system) will remain constant over time.

Law of conservation of linear momentum (Newton’s

second law of motion):
The total momentum of a closed system of objects (which has
no interactions with external agents) is a constant.

Law of conservation of energy (First law of

thermodynamics):
The total amount of energy in an isolated system remains

45.What are the properties of contrasting agents in radiology?

constant over time.

Fick’s law:
States that the random wandering causes an average drift of

Explain the physics of their action?

particles from regions where they are denser to regions where
they are rarer, and that the mean drift rate is proportional to
the gradient of density and invertly proportional to the
distance over which diffusion occurs.

Coulomb’s Law:
Describes magnitude of the electrostatic force between two
electric charges.

Ohm’s Law:
Current passing through a conductor between two points is
directly proportional to the potential difference across these
46. Explain what a spin of an elementary particle is and how it is
two points.

Newton’s first law:

A body/cat will remain at its current state of motion unless it
affected by non ionizing radiation?Which medical imaging
is acted upon by an external force/mouse.

technique utilizes this property?

atomic nuclei
▪ a type of angular momentum, where angular momentum is
defined as the "generator of rotations”
▪ spin of atoms and molecules is the sum of the spins of unpaired
electrons, which may be parallel or antiparallel. It is responsible
for paramagnetism
▪ quantum mechanical spin can exhibit phenomena analogous to
classical gyroscopic effects
Non ionising radiation only had the ability to change rotational,
vibrational or electronic valence configurations of molecules

47. What are anti-fermions and what will happen when

they interact with the matching fermion?
Anti-fermions are similar to the original particle/fermion, just with an
opposite spin. When they react with their matching fermion, they spin in
harmony because the vacuum space is quantised with spin angular
momentum of h.
48. On the example of either;racehorse, crocodile or
whale , describe mechanisms of storage and release of
mechanical energy during gallop?
Horses use their energy from mouth to muscle.During gallop, the energy
they had stored is released by elastic elements within the limbs help to
moderate the mechanical cost of locomotion by storing and releasing
elastic energy, so enhancing mechanical economy. Energy is lost to the
system by tendons so it has to be replaced, usually by the hind limbs
due to the large proportion of muscle there. Internal and External
mechanical work usually increases with speed. During gallop, the faster
they go, the more work they have to put in.
 49. Explain consequences of the body build for thermal
capacitance and heat capacity of polar fox and fennec?
Polar foxes have small bodies to minimalise their bodies' surface area
helping them to stay warm.They have short facial features and limbs to
help keep in the heat also. They have developed a thick fur coat to help
insulate them; this fur also covers their paws to allow them to walk on
the cold snow without it affecting them. During summer they start to lose
their fur and it turns brown. The fat layer helps conserve heat loss.
Bodily systems have adapted to ensure there is high blood supply
throughout the body, by the arteries and veins now been next to each
other to stop the fox from getting cold especially at night.
Fennec foxes have adapted to their environment over time. They have
large ears which they can move about in a fanning motion to help them
cool down during hot days. They also lose heat by panting and sweating.
Their thick fur keeps them warm at night, and is a Sandy colour to
camouflage them. Their fur also covers their paws to protect them from
the hot sand when walking.

50. Which of the following units describe time and which

space: meter , inch(2), second , light, year , pint. How do
they differ from a bit?
time= second/year
space=meter/inch(2)
How they differ from a bit=
51.how does rigidity and elasticity co-operate in the
movement of the animal body?
Rigidity is deemed the stiffness of the animal body which is
the property of said solid body to resist deformation ,
elasticity is the ability of an animal body to return to its
original shape and size when the forces causing the
deformation are removed. These two forces co-operate ,
as one has the ability to allow the animal body to resist
deformation while the other corroborates, by being able to
quickly remove any deformation but upon the animal's body
during movement.
52. Explain the principles of gas solubility and
effervescence in the example of beer?
 In beer, the principles of gas solubility and effervescence are
displayed evidently.Gas solubility and Effervescence; The
effervescence can be seen from the escape of gas from the
aqueous beer solution and the foaming of the beer that
results from that release.The gas solubility can be seen from
the production of the frothy beer head which is produced by
bubbles of gas predominantly carbon dioxide, rising to the
surface.
53.explain differences in thermal capacitance of an
elephant and a mouse?
The thermal capacitance of an animal is its ability to
store heat.
Elephant; the elephant is an endotherm.the production of
body heat drops as body size increases. The big elephant
keeps warmer more easily because the area of its skin
surface is less , relative to its head output.
Mouse; the mouse is also an endotherm.the mouse being
smaller in size then the elephant is less able to retain as
much body heat. The mouse generates metabolic wheat to
maintain internal body temperature.The mouse produces
more heat per pound , so it makes the smaller mouse colder
than the elephant.
54. How does the shape and amplitude of ultrasound
pulse affect its applicability in medicine?
Shape and amplitude affect the ultrasound pulse’s applicability to
medicine.. In terms of amplitude depending on the frequency of the
ultrasound , sound while travelling through the body loses
approximately 0.3 db of energy per every cm of depth via.
Attenuation, this is due to the amplitude of the ultrasound pulse
The shape of the pulse affects its applicability to medicine, due to
the different ways it can be read such as ; continuous pulse,
square, triangular and trapezoidal pulse rate.In this sense medical
practitioners can understand and diagnose conditions more easily.
 1. Which SI unit would you use to describe a pint of beer?
Briefly explain your choice.
- Would use a Pint (pt) to describe a pint of beer – unit of
capacity, one-eighth of a gallon, one pint is described as a
volume easily lifted to the average height of one foot, tilted
and drank within one minute
2. Which physical laws govern the transfer of oxygen across the
cellular membrane.
- Fick’s Law and Brownian motion, which are principles of
diffusion. Oxygen gas is exchanged from an area of high
concentration to an area of lower concentration by diffusion
down a concentration gradient. It is slow and unreliable.
3. Describe in your own words a physical phenomenon of
stationary charge. What happens when you put it in contact
with a grounded metal rod?
- Stationary charge is static electricity, which is the buildup of
electric charge on surfaces of objects. For example when
you brush your hair, electrons are transferred from the hair to
the brush so the hair has a positive charge and becomes
static and frizzy. On contact with a grounded metal rod the
hair would lose its positive charge due to electron transfer so
would no longer possess static electricity.
4. Explain in your own words a consequence of Newton’s first
law to the cat in an isolated system.
- The cat will stay at its current state of motion unless an
external force/mouse acts upon it

What is fluoroscopy and what are its applications in veterinary?

- Fluoroscopy is a form of imaging that is used in medicine. It is

similar to that of an x-ray except an x-ray is a single picture
meanwhile fluoroscopy is a continuously moving image. Its
application in veterinary allows for the doctor to see what is
happening inside of the body in motion such as the heart beating.
How physical laws regarding diffusion, impact on osmosis?

- Osmosis is in principle a process of diffusion and therefore is

expected to obey the diffusion laws. Ficks diffusion law describes
the relationship between the rate of diffusion is proportional to both
the surface area and concentration difference and is inversely
proportional to the thickness of the membrane. Diffusion is a
process resulting from random motion of molecules, by which
there is a net flow of matter from a region of low concentration to
an area of high concentration across a concentration gradient.
Osmosis is the spontaneous passage of diffusion of water or other
solvent through a semipermeable membrane; one that blocks the
passage of dissolved substances.

How does the density and rotation of earth influence the gravitation
of the planet?

- The denser an object, the greater its concentration of mass, this

creates a larger gravitational pull than a same sized object of a
lower density. The spinning of the earth does not directly affect
gravity, it does off set it a little. The equatorial bulge and its effects
on the surface centrifugal force due to rotation means that sea
level gravity increases from the equator to the poles. The farther
you are from the earth's axis, the more centrifugal force you'll
experience.

Compare propagation of mechanical wave in solids and fluid

- The propagation of mechanical wave in solids are longitudinal and

transverse oscillations. The propagation of mechanical wave in
fluid are longitudinal oscillations. Transverse waves are waves of
alternating sher stress at right angle to the direction of
propagation. Longitudinal sound waves are waves of alternating
pressure deviations from the equilibrium.

In which way in 2019 were SI units redefined?

- In 2019 the SI units were redefined in agreement with the
international system of quantities. The kilogram, ampere, kelvin
and mole were redefined. They were redefined by setting fixed
numerical values for the plank constant, the elementary electric
charge, boltzmann constant and the avogadro constant. These
changes were done to improve the SI unit without changing the
 value of any units, this change endures the continuity of the
existing measurements.

What would be the effect of change in the internal energy during

adiabatic process? Is such a process possible in living organisms?
- Adiabatic processes take place without the loss or gain of heat.
They are rapid processes leaving no time for heat to enter or
disperse. They don't occur in the living organism as within the
organism there is always a change in heat.
 Biophysics Laws

Gravity:
A mutual attraction of all the objects of any mass
A force acting between two masses, making them attract one
another. Earth’s avg. gravity = 9.81 N/Kg

Mass:
An asymmetry in the Higgs field

Law of conservation of mass:

The mass of a closed system (in the sense of a completely
isolated system) will remain constant over time.

Law of conservation of linear momentum (Newton’s

second law of motion):
The total momentum of a closed system of objects (which has
no interactions with external agents) is a constant.

Law of conservation of energy (First law of

thermodynamics):
The total amount of energy in an isolated system remains
constant over time.

Fick’s law:
States that the random wandering causes an average drift of
particles from regions where they are denser to regions where
they are rarer, and that the mean drift rate is proportional to
the gradient of density and invertly proportional to the
distance over which diffusion occurs.

Coulomb’s Law:
Describes magnitude of the electrostatic force between two
electric charges.

Ohm’s Law:
Current passing through a conductor between two points is
directly proportional to the potential difference across these
two points.

Newton’s first law:

A body/cat will remain at its current state of motion unless it
is acted upon by an external force/mouse.
Newton’s second law:
The momentum of a body/cat is equal to the product of its
mass, its velocity, a magnitude and direction of the force
imposed on it (and the direction chosen by its prey, in the case
of the cat).

Newton’s third law/Law of action and reaction:

When two bodies interact, they apply forces to one another
that are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
Action-reaction law in cats: when two bodies interact, they
scratch each other and jump in the opposite direction.

Poiseuille’s Law:
Describes the flow of Newtonian fluid through a pipe of
constant diameter, which is smaller than the length of the
pipe.

Henry’s Law:
Gases will dissolve in liquids to an extent that is determined
by the equilibrium between the undissolved gas and the gas
that has dissolved in the liquid.

Laws of thermodynamics:
First law (one of fundamental laws of physics):
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only transferred
from one system to another and converted from one form of
energy to another.

Second law:
Differences in temperature, pressure, and chemical potential
tend to equilibrate in an isolated physical system.

Third law:
Entropy of a system approaches zero as its temperature
approaches absolute zero.

Zeroth law:
If two bodies are each in thermal equilibrium with a third
body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.

Boyle’s Law:
For a fixed amount of an ideal gas kept at a fixed temperature,
pressure and volume are inversely proportional (while one
doubles, the other halves)

Charles’s Law (Law of volumes):

At constant pressure, the volume of a given mass of an ideal
gas increases or decreases proportionally to the changes in
absolute temperature of gas.

Pressure law:
In a mixture of ideal gases, each gas has a partial pressure
which is the pressure which the gas would have if it alone
occupied the volume; the total pressure of a gas mixture is the
sum of the partial pressures of each individual gas in the
mixture.

Hess’s law (the law of heat summation):

The total amount of energy gained or lost by a system in any
chemical reaction does not depend in the reaction mechanism,
but only on the initial reactants and the final products.

Lambert-Beer’s Law:
Relates the absorption of light to the properties of the material
through which the light is travelling.

Distance law:
p~
Exponential decay law:
Radioactive decay occurs at a statistical exponential rate,
proportional to the number of atoms present and the decay
constant.

Gauss’s Law for Magnetism (Law of ‘absence of free

magnetic poles’):
The magnetic field has divergence equal to zero.
Magnetic monopoles do not exist.
Biophysics Principles

Pascal’s principle:
Pressure exerted anywhere in a confined incompressible fluid
is transmitted equally in all directions throughout the fluid
such that the pressure ratio remains the same.

Archimedes principle:
Any body completely or partially submerged in a fluid (gas or
liquid) is acted upon by an upward force the magnitude of
which is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the
body.

Bernoulli’s Principle:
For an inviscid flow, an increase in speed of the fluid occurs
simultaneously with a decrease in dynamic (transmural)
pressure or a decrease in the fluid’s potential energy.

Bernoulli’s principle:
For an inviscid flow, an increase in the speed of the fluid
occurs simultaneously with a decrease in dynamic
(transmural) pressure or a decrease in the fluid’s potential
energy.

Hero of Alexandria’s principles of reflection (expanded by

Ibn al-Haytham to both reflection and refraction):
A ray of light will go from point A to point B, through number
of reflections of flat mirrors, in the same and medium, by a
shortest possible path.

Fermat’s principle:
States that path taken between two points by a ray of light is
the path that can be traversed in the least amount of time.

Physics of middle ear:

Pneumatic principle:
Surface of tympanic membrane is much larger than the
surface of the stapes (stirrup) footplate and oval window.

Lever principle:
Dimensions and organisation of the ear ossicles lead to an
increase in the force applied to the stapes footplate.

Gecko principle:
Dry glue is a method of adhesion based around the van der
Waals interactions
Lecture 1
Wednesday, October 5, 2016 6:09 PM

• Physics is a natural science that involves the study of matter and it's motion through space-time, as
well as all applicable concepts, including energy and force. More broadly it is the general analysis of
nature, from elementary particles ( such as quarks, neutrinos and electrons) to the largest super-
clusters of galaxies conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.

• Biophysics -> studies included under the branches of biophysics span all levels of biological
organisation, from the molecular scale to whole organisms and ecosystems.

The physical domain

-> condensed matter physics is the field of physics that deals with the macroscopic physical
properties of matter.
-> atomic, molecular and optical physics is the study of matter-matter and light matter interactions on
the scale from single to few atoms
-> High energy/particle physics is the study of the elemental constituents of matter and energy, and
the interactions between them, plus Higgs.
-> Astrophysics applies the theories and methods of physics to the study of stellular.

Scientific Method
-> tests the validity of a physical theory, with the use of a methodical approach to compare the
implications of the theory in question with the associated conclusions drawn from experiments and
observations conducted to test it.
-> theories which are very well supported by data and have never failed any competent empirical test
are often called scientific laws or natural laws.
-> theorists develop mathematical models that both agree with existing experiments and successfully
predict future results.
-> experiments devise and perform experiments to test theoretical predictions and find what was
wrong with them.
-> Schrodinger's cat: theory and experiment

Fundamentals of physics
• A set of universal laws governing the known universe
• Gravity -> a mutual attraction of all objects of any mass
• Mass -> an asymmetry in the Higgs Field
• Higgs Field

QUARKS : Types: up and down, charm and strange, top and bottom

They have different: electric charge (flavours), colour change (RGB), Spins, Mass

Higgs Field -> mass = hypothesized to be created by the Higgs boson (force carrier) through spontaneous
breaking of the local symmetry.

Conservation Laws: a particular measurable property of an isolated physical system does not change as the
system evolves.

• Conservation of mass: the mass of a closed system ( in a sense of a completely isolated system) will
remain constant overtime
• Conservation of linear momentum: (Newton's second law): the total momentum of a closed system of
objects ( which has no interactions with external agents) is constant.
• Conservation of energy: (first law of thermodynamics): the total amount of energy in an isolated
system remains constant over time.
SI Units (Systeme Internationals d'Unites) = international decimal system of weights
1. Length -> the metre (m), defined as the distance travelled by light in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458
seconds
2. Mass -> the kilogram (kg) which = 1000 grams as defined by lab in France
3. Time -> the second (s), is the duration of 1/60 of a minute, 1/3600 of an hour
4. Electric Current -> the ampere (A), which is the current that, if maintained in 2 wires placed 1m apart
in a vacuum, would produce force of 2 x 10 to the -7 newton per metre of length
5. Luminous intensity -> the candela (cd), defined as the intensity in a given direction
6. Amount of a substance -> the mole (m), defined as containing as many elementary entities of a
substance as there are atoms in 12g of carbon-12
7. Thermodynamic temperature - the helum defined as 100/27,316 of the triple point of pure water

Triple point = equilibrium among solid, liquid and gaseous phases

Other Units: Space and Time

• Hour: 24th part of a mean solar day
• Day
• Month
• Year: a measure of time corresponding to length of time required by earth to revolve around the sun
• Light-year: distance travelled by light moving in a vacuum in the course of one year

Force, work, power, current

• Newton (N) - the absolute unit of force, the force necessary to provide a mass of 1kg with an
acceleration of 1m/s2
• Joule (J) - unit of work or energy, 1J = amount of work done by a force of 1 newton acting through 1
metre
• Watt (W) - unit of power in equal to 1J of work
• Volt (V) unit of electrical potential
• Horsepower (HP) - unit of power defined to compare the output of steam engines

Luminosity
• Lumen (lm) is the SI unit of luminous flux, a measure of the power of light received by the lumen eye -
differs from radiant flux
• Lux (lx) the SI unit of illumination. Amount of illumination provided when 1 lumen is evenly
distributed over an area of 1m2

Temperature
• Celsius - 1/100 of a scale based on 00 for freezing point of water and 1000 for the boiling point of
water
• Fahrenheit - 1/180 of a scale based on 320 for freezing point of water and 2120 for boiling point of
water
• Absolute zero -> -273.150C and -459.670F
□ The theoretical temperature at which the molecules of a substance have the lowest
(no) kinetic energy (are motionless)

Other Units:
• Pint (pt) - 1/8 of a gallon
• Calorie (cal) unit of energy or heat -> the heat required to raise temp of 1g of water from 140 to 150C
at pressure of 1 standard atmosphere
• Bit or binary digit (b) - basic unit of information in computing and telecommunications that can be
stored by a physical system
• Range - explains the difference between the largest value and the smallest value, it is the simplest
measure of variability in the data, the range is determined by only the two extreme data values.

• Physiological range - describes the ideal boundaries for biological processes such as growth and
development, and is usually characteristic of a species or a population

• Population mean - average and limits of physiological process or parameter characteristic for certain
population, obtained during screening study within this population
Lecture 2 - transport of mass and electrical charge
Saturday, October 22, 2016 5:20 PM

• From diffusion to filtration, membrane transport, protein folding, dynamic proteins

• Atoms - smallest unit into which matter can be divided without the release of electrically charged particles
(elementary particle in chemistry)
• Nucleus: positively charged centre of atom that contains most of its mass containing proton and neutron
• Electrons (e-) negatively charged subatomic particles that move around the nucleus

• Diffusion: process resulting from random motion of molecules by which there is a net flow of matter from
a region of high concentration to region of low concentration down a concentration gradient -> very slow
and unreliable over long distances e.g. O2

Principles:
• Brownian motion: a dissolved molecule or a small particle suspended in a fluid
• Ficks Law:

• Polar and non polar substances:

◆ When atoms share electrons the covalent bond is formed and two atoms form a
substance
◆ When both nuclei have equal affinity to electrons they are distributed equally and
the resulting substance has no charge (non-polar substance)
◆ When one nucleus has higher affinity to electrons than another the electrons are
distributed unequally

• Solution:
◆ Ionic (charged) substances are attracted by oppositely charged domains of polar
substances (electrostatic interaction).

• Osmosis: the spontaneous passage or diffusion of water or other solvents through a semipermeable
membrane (one that blocks the passage of dissolved substances)
◆ Oncotic pressure or colloid osmotic pressure is a form of osmotic pressure exerted
by proteins

• Dialysis: separation of suspended colloidal particles from dissolved ions or molecules of small dimensions
by means of their unequal rates of diffusion through the pores of semipermeable membranes (part of the
glomerular filtration).

• Filtration: Dialysis under pressure

• Uniport: transport down a concentration gradient

◆ Aquaporin, potassium channels (pores)
◆ Voltage-dependent-regulated by the difference in voltage across the membrane
(neurons)
◆ Stress-dependent-regulated by physical pressure on the transporter (sensory
epithelium in the cochlea of the ear)
◆ Ligand-regulated by the binding of a ligand to channel either on the intracellular
or extracellular.

• Protein Folding: proteins (&other molecules) tend to maintain the lowest possible (most relaxed) energy
state
◆ Energy shaping the structure of the protein comes from interactions between its
components
◆ Proteins work by changing structural organisation or shape of their subunits
Principles of Diffusion:
• Brownian motion - a dissolved molecule or a small particle suspended in a fluid is constantly struck at
random by molecule of the fluid in its neighbourhood, as a result of which it wanders erratically
• Fick's Law - states that the random wandering causes an average drift of particles from regions where they
are denser to regions where they are rarer, and that the mean drift rate is proportional to the gradient of
density and invertly proportional to the distance over which the diffusion occurs.

Biological Membrane:
• Very thin boundary that separates living cell from, and links the cell with the environment and permits
cellular function by regulating transport, flow of information, nutrients and metabolites
• Consists of a mosaic of proteins embedded in the semipermeable (selectively-permeable) lipid bilayer

Polar and Non-Polar Substances:

• When atoms share electrons the covalent bond is formed and two atoms form a substance
• When both nuclei have equal affinity to electrons they are distributed equally and resulting substance has
no charge (non-polar substance)
• When one nucleus has higher affinity to electrons than another the electrons are distributed unequally in
the substance creating polarity
• Polar substances have positively and negatively-charged domains

Membrane Transport:
• Passive transport
o Diffusion
o Osmosis
o Dialysis
• Facilitated transport (membrane channels)
o Uniport
o Symport
o Antiport
• Active transport

Symport (Co-Transport)
• Transport down a concentration gradient
• Two substrates, generally an ion and another molecule or ion, must bind simultaneously to the same side
of the transporter before its conformational change and conductivity; both substrates are transported
together
• Sugars and amino acids are absorbed by the enterocytes by co-transport with sodium ions

Antiport (Counterport)
• Transport down a concentration gradient
 • Two substrates, generally an ion and another molecule or ion, must bind simultaneously to the opposite
sides of the transporter before its confromational change and conductivity; one substrate is absorbed
while another secreted
• Sodium-proton exchanger in proximal tubule (kidneys)

Active Transport:
• This is usually concerned with accumulating high concentrations of molecules that the cell needs, such as
ions
• Transport against a concentration gradient
• Primary active transport - directly utilises chemical energy from high-energy phosphate bounds i.e. ATP
(Na - K ion pump)
• Secondary active transport - involves the use of an electrochemical gradient (a spatial variation of both
electrical potential and chemical concentration across a membrane resulting in a type of potential energy
available for work in a cell) -> symport and antiport

Protein Folding:
• Proteins (and other molecules) tend to maintain the lowest possible (most relaxed) energy state

• Energy shaping the structure of the protein comes from interactions between its components (from
subunits to amino-acids to atoms) and interactions with surrounding water molecules
• These include: force, geometry and elasticity of the atomic bonds
• Structure, geometry, volume, hydrophobicity and composition of amino-acids

How Do Proteins Work?

• Proteins work by changing structural organisation or shape of their subunits
• Proteins that have alterable structure are called dynamic proteins (i.e. enzymes, motor proteins or
membrane channels)
• Proteins that remain stable are called structural proteins (actin filaments, microtubules or B-keratin);
they provide scaffolding for other molecules

Bulk Transport:
• Reshaping of cell membrane
o Remodeling of intracellular filaments
o Anchoring proteins
o Vesicle - shaping proteins
o Transfer of package is tubulin-dependent
Lecture 3
Sunday, October 23, 2016 11:52 AM

Electric Force:
• Described by Charles Augustin de Coulomb
• Coulomb's Law - describes magnitude of the electrostatic force between
two electric charges
• F = k(Q1Q2/r2) - scalar form
F - electric force
Q1,2 - electric charge
r- distance
k- Coulomb constant

• Applies only to the magnitude of the force, irrelevant to the charge

Electric Field:
• Introduced by Michael Faraday
• Surrounds electrically charged particles and time-varying magnetic
fields
• Exerts a force on other electrically charged objects
• E = F/Q F - electric force, Q - electric charge

Resistive Ohm:
• Ohm's law: current passing through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the potential
difference across this two points

• Ohm (0) - unit of resistivity; resistance between two points of a conductor (separated from any
electromagnetic interactions) when a constant potential difference of 1 volt, applied to these points,
produces in the conductor a current of 1 ampere

• Electrical resistance is the opposition to the passage of an electric current; the inverse quantity is electrical
conductance, the ease at which an electric current passes

Water and Solutions:

• Pure water is a good isolator (high resistivity)
• It is due to the ions diluted in water that it acquires conducting properties
• Charge in colution can travel both ways towards (+) and (-) electrode
Nernst Equation:
• Equation that can be used to determine the equilibrium reduction potential of a half-cell in an
electrochemical cell
• Related the numerical values of the concentration gradient of solution to the electric gradient
that balances it
 K• 4.5 160 -95 mV
Na• 144 7 +80 mV
-24mV
w 4*10·5(pH 7.4) lo-' (pH 7.0)
114 7 -SO mV
0-
28 10 -27 mV
HCO •3
Lecture 4

Newton's First Law:

• A cat will remain at its current state of motion unless it is acted upon by an external force (e.g. a mouse)

Newton's Second Law:

• The momentum of a cat is equal to the product of its mass, its velocity, a magnitude and direction of the
force imposed on it . and, of course, the direction chosen by its prey

Newton's Third Law:

• When two bodies interact, they apply forces to one another that are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction e.g. stags banging heads

Action-Reaction Law in Cats:

• When two bodies interact, they scratch each-other and jump in opposite direction

Newton Laws of Motion:

• Define the relations between the forces acting on a body and the motion of the body

• Newton's first Law states that a body will remain at its current state of motion unless it is acted upon by
an external force
• Newton's second Law states that the momentum of a body is equal to the product of its mass, its velocity
and a magnitude and direction of the force imposed on it
• Newton's third Law states that when two bodies interact, they apply forces to one another that are equal
in magnitude and opposite in direction - the law of action and reaction

Gravity:
• A force acting between two masses, making them attract one another

Newtonian Energy
• Potential - a set of forces that act on a body in a way that depends only on the body's position in space
• Kinetic - energy of an object, which it possesses die to its motion

Weight and scale

• Weight is mass in gravitational field
• W = mg

Rigidity
• Stiffness, the property of a solid body to resist deformation
• Bending force
• Compression force

Spine
• Rigidity
• Flexibility
• Energy recovery

Joints
• Allow movement to occur within the skeletal junctions - flexibility
• Fixed: structures in skull - fibrous or cartilage
• Semiflexible: backbone joints
• Flexible: majority of joints

Gliding plane
 • Bone
• Cartilage
• Synovial fluid
• Ligaments
• Tendons and muscles

Example question:

Spring, Lever and Latch

• Spring = elasticity
o Material that quickly regains its shape after a force has acted upon it
• Lever
o Simple material used to magnify applied force

Static and Dynamic Posture:

• Static - big standing on one leg
• Dynamic - elephant on four limbs

Air, Water and Land

• Energy state of the atoms
• Fluid vs. solid
• Thawing
• Sublimation
• Evaporation
• Condensation
• Crystallisation

Surface Tension
• Surface tension causes the surface of liquids to act like a kind of ''skin''.
• Created by forces that act between liquid's molecules, holding them together.
• Under surface, the liquid's molecules are surrounded on all sides by other molecules so the forces are
balanced out
• On surface, molecules are surrounded only by three sides -> this imbalance draws the surface molecules
inwards forming the skin
• Water droplets and bubbles are rounded because of surface tension -> molecules are pulled inwards to
form a ball shape or sphere
• Water is strong enough to support a pondskater which would otherwise sink

Moving in Fluid
• Floating in air:
o In the same way that some objects can float in liquids, some objects can float in air e.g. hydrogen
filled balloon
o They are less dense than the atmosphere surrounding them
• Lift:
o Wings produce a force called lift that overcomes the weight of the airplane
o Most wings have a shape called an airfoil that moves faster over the wing than underneath it
o Fast moving air exerts less pressure than slow-moving air and the pressure above the wings is
reduced -> this causes lift
Archimedes
• Archimedes principle: any body completely or partially submerged in a fluid (gas or liquid) is acted upon
by an upward force the magnitude of which is equal to the weight of the fluid displace by the body
• Buoyant force = ''less gravitational pull''
• More concentrated fluid (water) supports submerged bodies much better than less concentrated ones
(air)

Divers and Buoyancy

• Full/part tank divers
• Empty-tank divers
• Swimming bladder

XXXL
• Scaling up
• Volume-to-surface ratio
• Reach
• 2w = r2
W - weight
R - diameter of the supports
Lecture 5
Wednesday, November 9, 2016 7:45 PM

Dynamics of Blood-flow:
• Physical aspects of circulation
• Mechanics of fluid flow
• Vessels

Blood - A liquid?
• Plasma -> Liquid
• Blood cells -> Solid (but elastic and vigorous)
• Proteins -> thickener

Physics of Circulation:
• Hydrostatics
• Hydrodynamics
o Pressure
o FLOW
o Buoyancy
o Viscosity
o Surface tension
o Friction
o Velocity
o Diameter
o Driving Pressure
o Tension

Hydrostatic Pressure:
• Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by a column of fluid at equilibrium due to
the force of gravity
• A fluid cannot remain at rest under the pressure of a shear stress -> Pascal's principl

Pressure:
• Force exacted by the weight of matter over surface
• Ambient pressure on an object is the pressure of the
surrounding medium such as a gas or liquid which come into
contact with the object
• 1 atm = 100 kPa = 15 psl = 1 b

Flow:
• Movement of a fluid due to applied force
• Compressible and incompressible fluids
• All fluids (including liquids) are compressible to some extent (sound!)
 • Changes in pressure or temperature will result in the changes of density
• In liquids such charges are small or localised, so their flow can be modelled as an
incompressible flow ( a flow proportional to applied force)

Laminar and Turbulent Flow:

• Laminar flow (Stokes flow), is dominated by viscous forces and is characterised by
smooth, constant fluid motion
• Turbulent flow is dominated by inertial forces, which tend to produce chaotic eddies,
vortices and other flow instabilities

Viscosity:
• Resistance of a fluid (liquid or gas) to a change in shape
• Describes movement of neighbouring fluid portions relative to one another
• ''Thickness'' for liquids
• Newtonian fluid (a flow proportional to applied force)
• V = F/A = const
V - viscosity, F - shearing stress, A - deformation ratio
Poiseuille's Law:
• Describes the flow of Newtonian fluid through pipe of constant diameter, which is
smaller than the length of the pipe
• R = 8vL/TTr4
R - friction on a given length
L - length of the pipe
R - diameter of the pipe

Volume and Diameter:

• At any given time in the closed circuit the volume of travelling fluid is constant
• The volume of the flow is directly proportional to the diameter of the vessel and applied
pressure and reversely proportional to viscosity and friction
• For Newtonian fluids a decrease of pipe diameter results in the increase in flow velocity

Bernoulli's Principle:
• For an inviscid flow, an increase in the speed of the fluid occurs simultaneously with a
decrease in dynamic (transmural) pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy
• Inviscid flow = flow of a nonviscous fluid

Laplace equation
• Tension in the wall of a hollow cylinder is directly proportional to the cylinder's radius
and the pressure across the wall caused by the flow inside (driving pressure)
• T = Pr
T - tension
P - driving pressure
R - vessel radius

Solubility:
• Henry's Law - gases will dissolve in liquids to an extent that is determined by the
equilibrium between the undissolved gas and the gas that has been dissolved in the
liquid
• At a constant temperature, the amount of a gas dissolved in a given volume of liquid is
directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas
• Solubility - the ability of one compound to dissolve in another compound
• Saturated solution - a solution of a substance can dissolve no more of that substance; a
point of maximum concentration of dissolved substance

Gases in Liquid
• Solubility is dependent on the substance, solvent, pressure and temperature
• Supersaturated solution - solution in which the amount of dissolved substance excides
the maximal solubility of for this substance
Decompression:
• The release of pressure from solution
• Effervescence - escape (sometimes explosion) of gas from
an aqueous solution and the foaming that results from a
release of the gas
• Students
• Divers - caisson disease

Pump 'N Pipe:

• Pump - a device that expends energy in order to raise, transport or compress fluids
• Pipe - a device that separates fluid from its surroundings

An array of piston pumps

• As the piston moves in, the pressure increases in the pump
• This opens the outlet valve so the contents of the pump flow out
• As the piston moves out, the pressure drops, opening the inlet valve to draw liquid into the pump
• Peristaltic pump:
o Rotating rollers repeatedly squeeze a flexible tube to gently push the contents of the tube
forward
o This is ideal for moving delicate fluids such as blood, as the liquid does not come into
contact with mechanical parts
• Centrifugal pump:
o The fluid flows to the center of a spinning impeller
o Blades of impeller throw fluid outward
o Fluid flows through outlet which is positioned on wall of pump where pressure is highest
o Used by cooling system of car engine

Capillaries
• Packets of blood cells
• Low pressure
• Very slow flow

Valve
• A device governing directional flow of fluid

Gauge
• Arterial (high-pressure) baroreceptors
• Low-pressure baroreceptors in systematic veins
Lecture 6 - Thermodynam cs
Wednesday, November 16, 2016 5:00 PM

-> The flow of energy

-> Law of thermodynamics
-> Exo- and endothermic processes

What is energy?:
• The ability to do work, to produce movement or activity
• Energy can change from one form into another, but the total amount of energy in the Universe (the biggest
known isolated system) never changes

Receptors:
• Receptors convert physical energy into electric current and encode it from analogue into digital signal (PIC)
• VAIO
Force of stimulus

Receptor potential

Nerve impulse

Thermodynamics:
• Study of the behaviour of heat and energy and the ways that different forms of energy change into heat

Laws of Thermodynamics:
• First law- one of the fundamental laws of physics - energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only transferred
from one system to another and converted from one form of energy to another
• Second Law - differences in temperature, pressure and chemical potential tend to equilibrate in an isolated
physical system
• Third Law - Entropy of a system approached zero as its temperature approaches absolute zero
• Zeroth Law - if two bodies are each in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium
with each other

First Law:
U=Q+W
U - internal energy
Q - heat flowing in the system
W - Work done by the system
• Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only transferred from one system to another and converted from
one form of energy to another

Enthalpy:
• A measure of the energy content of a system
• Every system has a quantity called the internal energy, which is a function of volume, pressure, and temperature
• Internal energy depends only on the values of those variables and not on how changes between them are made
H = U + PV H - enthalpy, U - internal energy, P - pressure, V - volume
H = U + WORK

Isobaric vs. Isochoric

• Constant pressure • Constant Volume
• H = U + PV
• H=U+PV • V = 0 (V :;t 0)

• P = 0 (P:;t0)
• Change of enthalpy equals change in internal
• Change of enthalpy equals change in internal Energy and pressure exerted on surroundings
Energy and work done on surroundings E.g. pressure cooker

E.g. kettle

Carnot Engine:
• Ideal heat engine, concept created by French engineer Sadi
Carnot to determine how much work can be produced in
the steam engine

Second Law of Thermodynamics:

• Differences in temperature, pressure and chemical potential tend to equilibrate in an isolated physical system

Adiabatics:
• Processes that take place without the loss or gain of heat
• Thermally insulated system
• Rapid process, leaving no time for heat to enter or disperse
• Because adiabatic changes occur without the transfer of heat, any change in pressure or volume involved in the
process must be accompanied by a change in temperature
• HEAT & TEMPERATURE, Differences??

Heat Engines:
• Drawing heat from a hot body (such as a furnace) and rejecting it to a colder body (such as a condenser)
E.g. fridge

Reversible engine:
• The same amount of work is performed whether cycles are performed forwards or backwards
• At backward process the heat taken up (or rejected) is exactly equal to the heat rejected (or taken up) in the
forward process

Entropy:
• All natural processes are irreversible
• Any system will tend naturally towards a state of highest probability and greatest disorder
• Natural processes operate in one direction - towards ever increasing disorder
• NATURE????

Entropy and the Universe:

• When entropy increases in a system, there is a simultaneous loss of available energy
• All processes of radiation, convection, conduction, and so on that involve an increase in the entropy of the
Universe also involve a loss of available energy in the Universe
• Black matter
 • Black energy

Third Law of Thermodynamics:

• Entropy of a system approaches zero as its temperature approaches absolute zero

Heat Pumps:
• An engine that transfers heat from hot object to a heat sink
• In human body = circulation system

Lord Kelvin s Zero

• ABSOLUTE ZERO
• Particles have no kinetic energy
• Molecules, atoms and electrons are nearly motionless
• Matter has no temperature
• Lowest temperature ever achieved was 0.000007 K

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics:

• If two bodies are each in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each
other

Kinetic Theory:
• Properties of gas depend on the motion of its atoms or molecules
• When particles collide with each-other or the walls of the container they create pressure
• If gas contains heat energy, its molecules move faster increasing the gas temperature and collide more often
increasing pressure
• If the volume of gas is increased its molecules collide less often resulting in the decrease of gas temperature and
reduction of pressure

• Boyle's Law: for a fixed amount of an ideal gas kept at a fixed temperature, pressure and volume are inversely
proportional (while one doubles, the other halves)
• Charles's Law: (the law of volumes): at constant pressure, the volume of a given mass of an ideal gas increases
or decreases by the same factor as its temperature on the absolute temperature scale
• Pressure Law: in a mixture of ideal gases, each gas has a partial pressure which is the pressure which the gas
would have if it alone occupied the volume; the total pressure of a gas mixture is the sum of the partial
pressures of each individual gas in the mixture

Transfer of Heat Energy:

Radiation
• Electromagnetic waves
• Transferred through
transparent media
• The only type of heat transfer
that can occur through vacuum
E.g. the sun
Convection
• Involves bulk movements
of atoms or molecules
• Occurs in fluids
E.g. water boiling in a pot
Conduction
• Transfer of heat energy through increase in kinetic
energy without bulk movement of atoms or
molecules
• Occurs in solids
E.g. the pot being heated by the cooker

Convection:
• When a fluid is heated, it expands, becoming less dense and rises relative to the cooler and more dense
surrounding, the cooler fluid flows into the space left by the heated fluid creating convection currents

Conduction:
• Flow of heat through a body, without any obvious transfer of matter
 • Conductors - substances with free electrons (not involved in creation of bonds) i.e. metals; free electrons drift
through the metal lattice carrying energy between atoms; dense materials
• Isolators - substances where all electrons are involved in creation of bonds, loose substances (i.e. wood or
plastic)

Radiation:
• Bright star vs. dim star
• Good absorbers are also the best emitters of heat
• Black-body radiation
• Greenhouse effect
• Snowball Earth - the earth was covered in snow 700 million years ago

Chemical energy:
• Energy possessed by elements and components that can be released during chemical reactions
• It is a form of potential energy and its total quantity is not measurable; it is the energy change in any given
reaction that are of importance
• Exothermic and endothermic processes
• Combustion - process in which oxygen is combined with materials releasing heat and (often) light

Hess s Law:
• The Law of heat summation: the total amount of energy gained or lost by a system in any chemical reaction
does not depend on the reaction mechanism, but only on the initial reactants and the final products
• E.g. citric acid cycle

Free Energy:
• Amount of work (energy) that can be extracted from a system
• G = H-T S (Gibbs fundamental equation)

• G - Free energy, H - enthalpy, T - temperature, S - entropy

• G > 0 exothermic reaction, Universe has to absorb energy

• G = 0 system in equilibrium

• G < 0 endothermic reaction, Universe has to provide energy

E = mc2

• Mass is a form of energy

• Mass may be ''lost'' in the Universe but any ''lost'' mass is converted into energy that can be converted back
into mass again
• Conservation laws
• CONSERVATION OF MASS AND ENERGY

Nuclear Physics:
• Fusion
• Splitting up
• Fusion
• Joining together
 Lecture 7 - Heat
Wednesday, November 23, 2016 10:08 AM

Heating up
Transporting, conserving and expending heat
On turtles and hares
Heat in Medicine

Tin Roof
• Gets hot in sun because of radiation
• Between cat and roof heat moves by conduction
• Cat applies convection (hair moves to release heat)

Heat Capacity
• Characterizes the amount of heat required to change a body s temperature by a given amount (joules per kelvin)
• Molar heat capacity is the heat capacity per mole of a pure substance; specific heat capacity is the heat capacity
per unit mass of a body
• These are intensive quantities not dependent on amount of material, but directly reflected on the type of
material and the conditions of heating
• As the temperature approaches absolute zero the specific heat capacity of a system also approaches zero

Thermal capacitance
• Ability of a body to store heat
• Thermal mass (body) will absorb heat when surroundings are hotter than the mass and give the heat back when
surroundings are colder
• A large thermal mass can flatten out the daily temperature fluctuations
• Insulation reduces thermal conductivity, allowing mass to be heated or cooled relatively separate from the
environment and to retain the body heat longer -> insulative value; heat conductors and insulators

Heating up
• Passive -> turtle, crocodile
• Active -> hare, crocodile
• Solar -> crocodile
■ Take into consideration: Waste heat, thermogenesis, basking

Waste heat
• Efficiency of biological processes seldom approaches 20% -> ATP synthesis

-> ATP breakdown

• 80% LOST?
Crocodile win heat through thermoregulation mechanisms
generating through
release waste
outside the
Efficiency: Bashing in the sun roo through
thermogenesis absorbing
• Amount of energy converted into work
• Skeletal muscles = up to 20% energy used
from the Sun energy
• ATP creation = 5-20% (not efficient)
• Thinking = 15-20% efficiency
• REST -> HEAT

Internal combustion
• Cell furnace (mitochondria)
• Slowing down energy release from the substrate
• Binding chemical energy in high-energy phosphorus bonds

Solar-Powered Armor
• E.g. crocodile -> when open mouth let heat out

Cooling Down
-> Passive -> forced
Cooling Down
-> Passive -> forced

-> radiation -> sweating

-> convection -> wind factor
-> conduction

Passive Heat Dissipation (Pic)

Active Heat Dissipation

• Sweating
• Wind Factor - e.g. elephant flaps ears to release heat

Veins:
• Surface veins -> blood flows to surface veins to get rid of heat
■ Spot pattern of giraffe shows thermo heat
• Deep Veins -> to conserve heat blood flows to deep veins
■ Near arteries and capillaries to help heat transfer

Animal s Heat Engine

• Reach to all nooks and crannies of the organism
• Good thermal conductivity
• High heat capacity
• Heat exchange

Conserving Heat:
• Heat exchangers
• Temperatures will reach equilibrium with concurrent flow (same direction, lose nearly 50%)
• If have Countercurrent flow -> not much transfer of heat, maintaining a constant gradient (about 100% heat
transfer)
• This allows ducks to walk on ice -> their body temperature is less in their legs so ice doesn t melt

Insulation:
• Prevent heat loss
• Skin appendices (fur, feathers, hooves, hair)
• Fat and blubber
• Behavior e.g. penguins stick together

Antarctic Hot - Spot:

• Seals like to stay under water (-2oC) because it is warmer than above the water (-40oC)

Size Matters:
• Surface-to-volume ration
• Small is cute -> but expensive (need to produce heat a lot)
• Huge is neat -> retains heats

In Cold Blood:
• Majority of animals
• Body temperature fluctuates according to the surroundings
• Behavioural strategies: basking, extracting heat from stones, colour changing

Frozen Critters:
• Overcooled fish
• Frozen newt -> has antifreeze in their cells to prevent freezing over, draws the water away from ice crystals and
slows the forming of the crystals which then form into spheres of ice and doesn't break through the cell
membrane of the animal keeping it alive
• Antifreeze -> ethanol, glycerol, sugars, glycoproteins
Thermodynamics in Medicine:
• Zeroth law of thermodynamics -> temperature
• Second law of thermodynamics -> the temperature differences will equilibrate
• Heat and Cold gradients

Sterilisation:
• A term referring to any process that eliminates (removes) or kills all forms of life • Dry and wet heat
• Denaturation of proteins • Chemicals
• Implosion of cells • Heat + pressure
• Dissolving of cell membranes • Filtration
• DNA and lipid oxidation • UHT
• Irradiation

Heat in Surgery
• Cauterisation (electric scalpel) - used to stop bleeding from small vessels or for cutting through soft tissue

Localised Heating:
• Induces localised increase in temperature via radiation, conduction or local inflammatory reaction, increase in
blood flow, enzyme activity, induction of immune responses
• Heat vs. poison
• Direct heat application
• Irritates (bees and nettles)

Cryotherapy
• General use of low temperatures in medical therapy
o Cryosurgery
o Hilotherapy
o Ice pack therapy
o Cryogenics

Cryosurgery:
• Application of extreme cold (liquid nitrogen) to destroy abnormal or diseased tissue
• Cryoablation occurs in tissue that has been frozen by at least 3 mechanisms: 1) formation of ice crystals within
cells; 2) coagulation of blood thereby causing ischemia and cell death; and 3) induction of apoptosis
• Oncology, cosmetics, eye and skin surgery

Hilotherapy:
• Controlled application of cooling to selected areas of the body
• Between 10 and 20 C
• Immediate vasoconstriction with reflexive vasodilation, decreased local metabolism and enzymatic activity, and
decreased oxygen demand

Ice pack Therapy:

• Absorbs heat of a closed traumatic or oedematous injury, decrease of the muscle spindle fibre activity and
slower nerve conduction

Cold in Transplantology:
• Slows metabolism in isolated tissues, prolonging ischaemic storage period
• Slows down metabolic processes, heart beat and breathing in patients prepared for heart transplantations

Cryogenics
• Time travel of Walt Disney and Lyuba
Lecture 8 - Shine a Light

Light as a corpuscle
Light as a wave
Properties of Light
Interactions with matter

Light Topic: (pic of electromagnetic spectrum)

• Visible - part of electromagnetic spectrum form 380nm to about 780nm
• UV? IR?
• In physics light refers to electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength, whether visible or not

Electromagnetic spectrum
• The range of all possible frequencies of electromagnetic radiation
• Spectrum is infinite and continuous
• The top limit is the size of the Universe, the short limit is the Planck length: (1.62x10-35 m ) the length at which
the structure of space-time becomes dominated by quantum effects
• Electromagnetic spectrum of an object is the distribution of electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by
that particular object -> spectrometry (pic online)

Particle Theory
• Pierre Gassendi, French atomist, proposed a particle theory of light which was published afther his death in
1660s
• Isaac Newton stated that light was composed of corpuscles which were emitted in all directions from a source,
with a finite velocity and kinetic energy - Hypothesis of Light (1675)
• Max Planck in 1900 in his quantum theory explained radiation of a black body through quanta - discrete
bundles of electromagnetic energy, he defined a light particle - photon

Light as a Particle:
• Photoelectric effect: electrons are emitted from matter as a consequence of absorption of energy from quants
of the electromagnetic radiation of very short wavelengths, such as visible or ultraviolet light

Wave Theory:
• Robert Hooke published a first wave theory of light in 1660s
• Francesco Grimaldi observed the phenomenon of the diffraction of light - Physicomathesis de lumine, coloribus,
et iride, aliisque annexis (1665)
• Christiaan Huygens published his own wave theory of light in 1690 (Treatise on light), proposing that light was
emitted in all directions as a series of waves in a medium called the luminiferous ether. Waves are not affected
by gravity, but they slowed down upon entering a denser medium.
• Thomas Young predicted around 1800 that light waves could interfere with each other like sound waves
Light as a Wave:
• Thomas Young s sketch of the two-slit experiment showing the diffraction and interference of light
• Two oscillating components of light are an electric field and a magnetic field perpendicular to each other and to
the direction of motion

Dual Nature OF Light

• Consists of portions of light are called photons
• Exhibits wave properties of diffraction, refraction and interference
• WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY!!!
• Energy of a photon is proportional to its wave frequency
• Einstein received the Nobel Prize in 1921 for his work with the wave-particle duality

What is a Wave? :
• Something that happens periodically
• Wavelength is the distance measured between any two points of the wave with the same phase -> spectrum
• Frequency is the number of oscilations per unit time, temporal resolution of events
• Since speed of light is constant, the frequency of light is directly related to the wavelength and energy

Light As A Wave:

Dispersion and Refraction:

• Dispersion: separation of different wavelengths comprised in a ray of light
• Refraction: bending of light while passing through medium boundary due to the variation is speed -> refractive
index
• Wavelength is decreased in the medium with higher refractive index

Mirror, Mirror on the Wall:

• An object with at least one reflective surface
• Refraction, absorption and dispersion
• The sharper the angle the more pronounced distortion

Total Internal Reflection

• Refractive index - a measure of the speed of light in the substance
• Angle of refraction - angle at which light is bent as it passes from one medium to another
• TIRF - happens when a ray of light strikes a medium boundary at an angle larger than a critical angle

Light and Paint

• No black light on visible spectrum of light
• While colour reflects everything
Sea, Sky and Sunsets:
• Shorter wavelengths (blue and greens) scatter more strongly and are removed almost completely from the
incident beam, leaving the orange and red hues
• Intense reds and oranges are caused by further scattering by soot, dust or solid or liquid aerosols in the
atmosphere
Water absorbs the red and orange light more efficiently than green and blue; green and blue light is scattered to
our eyes

Polarisation:
• The orientation of oscillations in the place perpendicular to a transverse wave s direction of travel

• Michael Faraday discovered (1845) that the plane of polarisation of linearly polarised light is affected by the
magnetic field - Faraday rotation
• The first evidence that light was related to electromagnetism

Ray of Light:
• Idealized narrow beam of light
• Hero of Alexandria (ca. 60) described a principle of reflection. A ray of light that goes from point A to point B,
through number of reflections on flat mirrors, in the same medium, has a shortest length from any nearby path.
• Ibn al-Haytham expanded the principle of ray of light to both reflection and refraction - Book of Optics (1021)
• Fermat s Principle (principle of least time). The path taken between two points by a ray of light is the path that
can be traversed in the least amount of time - Cureau de la Chambre (1662)

Transparent, Translucent, Opaque

• Transparency: physical property of material allowing light to pass
• Translucency: allows light to pass through, but diffusely
• Opaque: materials which do not allow the transmission of light

Lambert-Beer s Law:
• Relates the absorption of light to the properties of the material through which the light is travelling
• There is a logarithmic dependence between the transmission of light (T) through a substance, the absorption
coefficient of the substance (a) and the distance the light travels through the material (l)
• Absorption coefficient is a product of a molar absorptivity and the concentration (c ) of absorbing substance
-> spectroscopy
T = I0/I1 = 10-al

Interaction with Matter

• Electromagnetic radiation interacts with matter in different ways in different parts of the spectrum
Photosynthesis
• A photovoltaic process that converts carbon dioxide into organic compounds, using the energy from the
sunlight - plants, algae, and cyanobacteria
• 6CO2 + 6H20 + light energy = C6H12O6 + 6O2

Can Plants See?

• Phototropism is directional growth of plants in which the direction of growth is determined by the direction of
the light source
• Phototropins - blue light receptors
• Phytochromes - red light receptors
• Cryptochromes - blue light receptors

Shadows and Shades:

• Shadow is an area where direct light from a light source cannot reach due to obstruction by an opaque object, a
surface projection of a shape of opaque object blocking light
• Shade is the area where the direct light is blocked -> ambient light

Laser:
• Brilliant
• Coherent -> doesn't spread i.e. emission in one direction
• Collimated -> all photons inside have same wavelength
• Monochromatic -> usually only one spectrum emitted

Light Pressure:
• Pressure exerted upon any surface exposed to electromagnetic radiation

The Speed of Light

• Highest speed achievable in nature
• Constant in invariable medium
• The speed of light in vacuum is defined to be exactly 299,792,458 m/s

Total and Utter Darkness

• Absence of light?
• Absence of other wavelengths of electromagnetic spectrum
• True Vacuum!

Photochemistry:
• Interactions between light and atoms or molecules
• Chemical reactions that proceed with the absorption of light
• Vitamin D
• UV-activated glue
• Photography

Photography:
• Recording of radiation on a radiation-sensitive medium
• Heliography - Nicephore Niepce - first permanent photoetching was produced in 1822, exposition time = 8h
• Dagurreotype - Louis Daguerre - first photo of a person in 1839, exposition = 7 min
 Lecture 9 - The Quantum Realm
Wednesday, December 14, 2016 10:15 AM

The Nano - Scale

Km - m - cm - mm - um - nm - A

Planck Length
• Border of quantum effects
• Newtonian physics do not apply
• Full significance not yet known

Quantum Mechanics
• Description of the dual, particle-like and wave-like, behaviour and interactions
of energy and matter
• Quantum realm is a term in physics typically referring to scales where quantum
mechanical effects become important usually 100nm or less - nanotechnology

Atom
• Wave functions - describes the quantum state of a particle or system of
particles; the probability amplitude of a position or momentum of a subatomic
particle within atom
• Chemically
• Physically

Particles
• Fermions: the basic building blocks of all matter, each has its own distinct
antiparticle, each has half-integer spin
o Six quarks
o Six leptons
• Bosons: force-carrier particles, each has integer spin
o Photon - electromagnetic force
o W and Z bosons - weak interaction
o Gluon - strong interaction
o Graviton - gravitation force
o Higgs - mass

Quarks
• Electric change (+/-) = flavour
• Colour change (RGB)
• Mass
• Spin

The Subtle Flavour of Quark

• + 2/3 e • -1/3 e
• Up quark • Down quark
• Charm quark • Strange quark
• Top quark • Bottom quark

Fermions: Hadrons and Leptons

• Hadrons
o Proton
o Neutron
o Consist of three quarks, each of a different " colour", that have to cancel
each - other to produce a neutral "white" particle
• Mesons
 o Pion
o "anti - colour" of the antiquark neutralizes the "colour" of the quark
• Leptons
o Electron
o Neutrine
o Muon
o Neutrino
o Tau
o Neurtino

The Mysterious Higgs

• Mass is hypothesized to be created by the Higgs boson through spontaneous
breaking of the local symmetry

Through the Looking Glass

• Fermions, anto-fermions and a big bang
• Uneven split

Even Horizon
• A boundary in space-time beyond which events cannot affect an outside
observer
• Black-hole and limits of the Universe
• Light emitted beyond the horizon will never reach the observer
• The object travelling from the observer side towards the horizon will never
cross it, it will appear to slow down and shift its emission spectrum towards red

The Black Hole

• Far away from the black hole a particle can move in any direction, restricted
only by the speed of light
• Closer to the black hole space-time starts to deform, more paths are going
towards the black hole than away
• Inside of the event horizon all paths bring the particle closer to the centre of
the black hole, the particle cannot escape

No Time for Photons

• As you approach the speed of light the photon still passes you with the speed of
light
• The speed of light is constant

Back to Atoms
• Atom - the smallest unit into which matter can be divided without the release
of electrically charged particles; the smallest unit of matter that has the
characteristic properties of a chemical element
• When atoms share electron the covalent bound is formed and two atoms form
a substance
• When atoms form orderly three-dimensional arrangements, these substances
are called crystals

Crystal
• Any solid object in which an orderly three - dimensional arrangement of the
atoms, ions, or molecules is repeated throughout the entire volume
• Tungsten crystal shows individual atoms as white dots when viewed through a
field-ion microscope
• Impurities included into the crystalline structure are dopants

Nanoparticles
• What does nano mean?
 o Physics - surface effects dominate over bulk effects - quantum dot
o Chemistry - active surface dominates over "active" volume
o Biology - in the living thing it behaves differently than bulk substances or
solute = at least 1 dimension in nanometer scale

Why do we seek Nanoscale

• Deep imaging
• Combined diagnosis-therapy
• Therapy of "hard-to-reach" tumours
• Carrier particles

Nanoassembly
• Robots
• Nannies
• Swarm theory

Bio-Mechanical Interface
• Transplantology - a surface for integration
• Artificial neurons
• Cybernetics

Artificial senses
• Replacements (eye, ear, touch)
• Enhancements (night visions, IR, ultrasound, radar)

Van-Der-Waals Forces
• Sometimes used loosely as a synonym for all of intermolecular forces
• A sum of the attractive or repulsive forces between molecules including:
o Force between two permanent dipole
o Force between a permanent dipole and a corresponding induced dipole
o Force between two instantaneously induced dipoles
• But not covalent bonds or the electrostatic interactions of ions

Gecko Principle
• Dry glue is a method of adhesion based around the can der Waals interactions
• Naturally occuring adaptations of the feet of geckos
• Longed for by humans

Atomic Force Microscope

• Very high-resolution type of microscope, on the order of fractions of a
nanometre (A)
• Consists of a cantilever with a sharp tip at its end that is used to scan the
specimen surface
• When the tip is brought into proximity of a sample surface, repulsive van der
Waals forces between the tip and the sample lead to deflection of the
cantilever
Lecture 10 - Physics of Sight
Wednesday, December 14, 2016 10:16 AM

• Optics
• An eye
• Optical machines
• Light in biology and medicine

Optics:
• Branch of physics which involves the behaviour and properties of light, including its interactions with matter
and the construction of instruments that use or detect it.
• Usually describes the behaviour of visible, ultraviolet and infrared light
• Other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays, microwaves, and radio waves exhibit similar properties

Lens:
• An optical device with perfect or approximate axial symmetry which transmits and refracts light
• Plane, concave or convex lenses

Simple lens:
• Convex - positive - converging
• Concave - negative - diverging

Focal Point:
• Positive or converging lens will focus a collimated ray travelling along the lens axis to a spot (known as the focal
point) at a focal distance
• A point source of light placed at the focal point will be converted into a collimated ray by the lens (PIC)

Lensmaker's Equation:
• Calculates the focal length (point) of a lens in air
• F = focal length
• N = refractive index
• R1, R2 = curvature
• d = thickness

Imagining properties
• Thin lens formula calculates the distances form the object to the lens and from the lens to the real image
Magnification:
• If S1 < f, S2 becomes negative, projection is apparently positioned on the same side of the lens as the object -
virtual image
• M = - S2/S1 = f/f-S1
• If IMI

Lens aberrations:
• Spherical aberration - occurs when spherical surfaces of the lens are not the ideal shape

• Coma - occurs when rays pass through the lens at an angle to the optical axis

• Chromatic aberration - is caused by difference in the refractive index for different wavelengths present in the
light

Numerical Aperture:
• The widest cone of light that can enter or exit the lens

• NA = n sin0
• N is the index of refraction of the medium in which the lens is working: 1.0 for air, 1.33 for pure water, 1.4 for
glycerol and close to animal tissue, up to 1.56 for oils

Resolution:
• NA is important because it indicated the resolving power of a lens
• The size of the finest detail that can be resolved is proportional to A/NA, where A is the wavelength of the
light

Prism:
• A transparent optical element that refracts light

Halo Effect:
Halo Effect:

Photodetectors:
• Sensors of light or other forms of electromagnetic energy
• Optical detectors - quantum devices where an individual photon produces a discrete effect - photovoltaic cell,
CCD, PMT
• Chemical detectors - where photon provides energy for the chemical reaction - photographic plates or films
• Photoresistors - change resistance according to light intensity - LDR (light-dependent resistor)
• Thermometers - where photon energy is converted to heat - thermocouples and thermistors
• Cryogenic detectors - sufficiently sensitive to measure the energy of single x-ray, visible and near infra-red
photons

Eye:
• A sensory organ capable of converting electromagnetic energy into binary signal transmitted by neurons
• Photodetector
•
Focusing path
•
• Accommodation mechanism
Shields and lashes

Eyes in animal kingdom

• Complex eyes
• Complex pinhole eyes
• Simple eyes
• Pit eyes
• Compound eyes

Physics of light:
• Transparency and refractive index of the optical path
• Focussing capabilities of the optical path
• Accommodation of the lens
• Energy transfer in the retina
• Ionic currents in the optical neurons

Optical path
• Cornea
• Aqueous humour
• Iris
• Lens
• Vitreous humour
• Retina
• Tapetum lucidum

Tapetum lucidum:
• Physical adaptation to nocturnal life
• Reflects >
Retina:
• A light-sensitive tissue lining the inner surface of the eye
• Rods and cones

Photo - Mechano - Electrical Coupling

• Rods - single photon
o Multiple rod cells converge on a single interneuron -> signal amplification at a cost of image resolution
• Cones - 100 photons
o Chromatic vision
o S, M and L cells are selectively absorbing different light wavelengths
o One cone -> One Neuron (visual acuity)

Optical arms-race:
• Devonian explosion - Trilobite vs. Anomalocaris
• Active predation
• Active escape

Depth and Perspective:

• The visual ability to perceive the world in three dimensions
• Perception of the distance to an object
• Binocular vision vs. the field of view

Camouflage:
• Optical blending into the background

Optical Machines:

• Every-day (and some more sophisticated) objects that benefit from the optical properties of a lens, mirror and
TIRF

Spectroscopy:
• Study of the interaction between radiation and matter as a function of wavelength
• Absorbance spectroscopy
• Fluorescence spectroscopy
• Raman spectroscopy: uses the inelastic scattering of light to analyse vibrational and rotational modes of
molecules

Spectrometry:
• Spectroscopic technique used to assess the concentration or amount of a given chemical (atomic, molecular, or
ionic) species
 • Lambert-Beer's law
• Variable measured is most often the light's intensity but could also be the polarization state
• Independent variable is usually the wavelength of the light or the photon energy (electron volts (eV))

Laser in Medicine:
• Laser scalpel
• Optical glue
• Optical tweezers
• Optical pumps

Phototoxicity:

Absorption of the Skin:

Photoprotection:
• Mechanisms that minimise the damage to the skin when exposed to UV radiation
• Sun-screen, scales, fur and feathers
• Internal conversion: a photochemical process that converts the energy of the UV photon into small amounts of
heat that are quickly dissipated and do not cause excessive damage
• Sun tan -> melanocytes -> melanin (DNA)

Photodynamic therapy:
• Next generation medicine (since 1980s)
• Activation of photosensitiser by specific light wavelength that causes non-fluorescent recombination and
energy transfer to:
o Diseases (malignant) tissue (heat)
o DNA; direct (*O2) or indirect damage (heat)
• Difficulties in specificity, efficiency and excitation
Lecture 11 - Sound - Good Vibrations
Wednesday, December 21, 2016 10:09 AM

Acoustic waves
Sound spectrum
How do we hear?

Acoustics
• An ancient interdisciplinary science that deals with the study of all mechanical waves in fluids and solids
including vibration, sound, ultrasound and infrasound

Sound
• A mechanical wave that is an oscillation of pressure transmitted through a solid, fluid, or plasma

The Medium
• Matter that supports the sound
• Mechanical vibrations that can be interpreted as sound are able to travel through all forms of matter
• Sound cannot travel through a vacuum!

Propagation of Waves
• Solids
• Longitudinal and transverse oscillations

Depending on the frequency there are longer or shorter wavelengths.

Not all frequencies can be hear by us.

• Longitudinal sound waves are waves of alternating pressure deviations from the equilibrium
• Transverse waves are waves of alternating shear stress at right angle to the direction of propagation

• Fluids and plasma

• Longitudinal oscillations

Creating Sounds
• Sound is produced whenever a vibrating object is places in the medium capable of transmitting pressure
oscillations
• Voice box
• Impact
Focusing the Sound
• Narrowing the volume in which sound waves travels with objects that do not absorb, but reflect sound waves
e.g. statoscope
• -> limits the spread of the wave in the medium

Energy of Sound
• Energy carries by the sound wave converts back and forth between the potential energy of the extra
compression or lateral displacement strain of the matter (solids) and the kinetic energy of the oscillations of the
medium

Frequency (PITCH)
• Frequency: a measure rate of vibration of an object
• Measured in oscillations per second [Hz]
• Pitch: subjective sense of the frequency to the ear

Doppler Effect
• Change in the frequency of a sound wave perceived by the observer moving relative to the source of the wave
• E.g. direction of blood flow in ultrasound
• Received frequency is higher during the approach, identical at the instant of passing by and lower during the
recession

Wavelength
• Spatial period of the wave

• In a sinusoidal wave moving at a fixed speed, wavelength is inversely proportional to frequency

• Standing wave: undulating wave motion that stays in one place

Wave Number
• The number of wavelengths per unit distance
• N = 1/).
• Measure of wave energy

Wave Amplitude
• A magnitude of change in the oscillating variable
• Decibel [dB] is a dimensionless, logarithmic unit that indicates the sound pressure level (wave energy)
• zero reference sound pressure in air is 20 uPa, the average threshold of human hearing

Sound Intensity
• Product of the sound pressure and the acoustic particle velocity
• Acoustic particle velocity: velocity of a particle in a medium as it transmits a wave
• Measurement of sound energy
• Distance law: p ~ 1/r

Reverberation
 • Persistence of sound in a particular space after the original sound is removed
• It is created when a sound is produced in an enclosed space causing a large number of echoes to build up and
then slowly decay as the sound is absorbed by the walls and air
• Reverberation time RT60 is the time required for reflection of a direct sound to decay by 60 dB below the level of
the direct sound
• Absorption coefficient of a material indicated the proportion of sound which is absorbed by the surface
compared to the portion which is reflected [ values between 0 - I ]

Speed of Sound
• Newton - Laplace equation:
C
• V=
d
• C = bulk elasticity of the medium
• D = density of the medium
• <- dependent on temperature, pressure, molecular composition
• <- humidity has a measureable effect on sound speed (-> .1% - .6%)
• In air: 343 m/s
• In water: 1,482 m/s
• In steel: 5,960 m/s

Mach Number
• In aerodynamics: the ratio of air speed to the local speed of sound
• Speed represented by Mach 1 is not a constant
• Mostly dependent on temperature .

Sonic Boom
• The sound associated with the shock waves created by an aircraft entering the supersonic flight
• Object that passes through the air, creates a series of pressure waves in front of it and behind it that travels at
the speed of sound
• When an object nears the speed of sound the waves cannot get out of the way , are compressed and
eventually merge into a single, huge shock wave when the object accelerates beyond 1M

Polarisation (NB)
• Direction of the oscillation of transverse shear waves in solids

Noise, Speech and Music

• Pure sound: a regular wave that has a fixed number of vibrations per second and a smooth, regular wave
pattern
• Noise: an irregular wave pattern, which consists of a mixture of different vibrations
• Speech: a definite pattern of sounds (pronunciations) but little regularity
• Melody: ordered, organised, regular succession of non-speech sounds

Muscial Instrument
The Colour of Sound?
• Sound is a composite of many harmonics
• Fundamental tone gives the sound its pitch
• The harmonics give the sound its characteristic timbre (spectrum)
• -> colour of voice
• -> timbre of instruments

Resonator
• Resonator is a device or system that naturally oscillates at some frequencies, called resonant frequencies, with
greater amplitude than at others, creating a standing wave of sound

Music
• Music is the silence between the tones
• Music is the ear of a beholder

Sound VS. Vibration

• Sound is composed of frequencies within the range of hearing an of a level sufficiently strong to be heard
• Vibration is the sensation stimulated in various sensory organs by frequencies to high or to low to be heard, but
sufficiently strong to be detected

Resonance
• Ability to transform sound wave into physical movement of an object
• Resonant frequency: a frequency which generates the strongest vibrations in an object

Perception of Sound
• HEARING
• in humans hearing is normally limited to frequencies between about 20 Hz and 20kHz
• That s what produces of cheap speakers wish us to believe and computer speakers/headphones train us to hear
• Maximal range of human hearing varies extensively, maximum recorded range is from 16 Hz to 38 kHz,
unconfirmed from 14 Hz to 44 kHz
• With other senses we can perceive frequencies as low as 7 Hz

EAR PICTURE

Physics of Middle Ear

• Pneumatic principle: surface of tympanic membrane is much larger than the surface of the stapes (stirrup)
footplate and oval window
• Lever principle: dimensions and organisation of the ear ossicles lead to an increase in the force applied to the
stapes footplate
• Eustachian tube: equalisation of the pressure between outside and the middle ear

Inner Ear
• Signal transducer: converting pressure changes into nerve impulses potential energy -> kinetic energy -> ionic
current
• Cochlea -> fluid filled
 • Reissner s membrane -> triangular shape membrane

Infrasound
• Sound of a frequency lower than 20Hz
• Whales, elephants, hippopotamuses, rhinoceros, giraffes, okapi, crocodiles and alligators are known to use
infrasound to communicate over large distances, up to tens (elephants) and hundreds of kilometers (whales)
• Infrasound communication is most studied in elephants - sounds between 15 - 35 Hz and as loud as 117 dB, can
travel up to 10km and are sensed using feet
 Lecture 12 - Ultrasounds in Diagnostics and Therapy
Wednesday, January 4, 2017 10:05 AM

Ultrasound
• Sounds higher than human hearing range

Birds, Bats and Whales

• Used by animals to navigate darkness or murky conditions
• Used by some for communication
• Whale uses high power ultrasound waves up to long infrasound - uses whole spectrum

Dolphin s Way
• One of the biggest inner ears

Asdic and Sonar

• Allied Submarine Detection Investigation Committee
• SOund Navigation and Ranging
• Same just British call Asdic, Americans Sonar
• Can use to map the ocean

Ultrasound in Medicine
• Ultrasound scanner used high-frequency sound waves to produce images of the insides of patients body
• E.g. use ultrasound in pregnancy
• Probe
• Echo
• Receiver
• Computer - processes the information

USG
• Diagnostics • Therapy
• Soft tissue imaging • bloodless surgery
• Aerosol therapy -> penetrate deep into lungs
• Pain relief

• Cosmetics
• Dental hygiene

The Sound
• Piezoelectric transducer of various shapes and lengths
• Use different shapes and lengths depending on the size of the animal and the picture you want to see
• Frequencies anywhere between 0.8 and 18 MHz (commonly 2-18 MHz}
• Low frequencies for pain relief etc.
• Frequency, wavelength, period, amplitude, cycle, velocity
• Compression and rarefication
Piezoelectric Effect
• Linear electromechanical interaction between the mechanical and the electrical state in certain crystalline
materials

The Head
• Linear Array - only used for inside of large animals
• Convex Array - most typical, less resolution, loss of a lot of energy of sound waves
• Phased Array - measure how much blood is going in each direction

Frequency, Wavelength, Period

Shape
• Continuous - stimulating nerves
• Pulse - square
• Pulse - triangular
• Pulse - trapezoid - bloodless surgery

Amplitude
• Depending on the frequency, sound while travelling through the body looses approximately 0.3dB of energy per
every cm of depth via attenuation

Speed
• Assumed
• V = 1540 m/s
• Not exactly true - depends on the density and elasticity of tissues

Cycle
1st pic = 1 cycle
2nd pic = 3 cycles
3rd pic = 1 cycle just changing amplitude

Compression and Rarefication

Pulsed Wave
 • Pulse ON time usually does not exceed 1% of cycle
• Pulse repetition frequency
• Spatial pulse length
SPL - .A. n

Resolution
• Resolution = .5 SPL
• Temporal
• Axial
• Lateral

Axial VS. Lateral

Wave Penetration
• Acoustic impedance
• Attenuation
• Reflection
• Refraction
• Scattering

Strengths and Weaknesses

• Useful for delineating the interfaces between solid • Trouble penetrating bone
and fluid-filled spaces
• Renders live images • Performs very poorly when there is a gas between the
transducer and the organ of interest
• Shows internal structure of the organs • Depth penetration of ultrasound is limited -> only for
reproduction in larger animals
• No known long-term side effects • High level of skill and experience is needed

Risks and Side-Effects

• Generally considered a safe imaging technique
• WHO technical report series 875 (1998): Diagnostic ultrasound is recognised as a safe, effective, and highly
flexible imaging and modality capable of providing clinically relevant information about most parts of the body in
a rapid and cost-effective fashion .
• !!! Yale School of Medicine found a correlation between prolonged and frequent use of ultrasound and
abnormal neuronal migration in mice!!
• ALARA principle: as low as reasonably achievable

Biological effects
• Cavitation
• Liquefaction
• Liquid-to-gas conversion
• Heat production

Contraindications for USG

• Skin diseases
• Fever
• Inflammation
• Intravenous thrombosis
 • Avoid areas of bone growth and regrowth

Modes of Sonography
• A - mode (amplitude} - single transducer scans a line through the body with the echoes plotted on screen as a
function of depth; in therapeutics - used to pinpoint accurate focus for the destructive way
• B - Mode - (brightness} - linear array of transducers simultaneously scans a plane through the body that can be
viewed as a two-dimensional image on screen
• M-mode (motion} - real-time - a rapid sequence of B-mode scans whose images follow each other in sequence
• Doppler mode - utilises the Doppler effect in measuring and visualising blood flow

Bottom two most commin

The Doppler Effect

• Spectral Doppler
• Colour Doppler
■ Shows blood flow towards and away from head, doesn t distinguish veins and arteries
• Computer - enhanced Doppler

3D Ultrasound
• A medical ultrasound technique, often used in obstetric ultrasonography, providing 3 d images of the foetus
• The sound waves are sent at different angles and then processed and reconstructed by the computer

Low Intensity Ultrasound

• Low intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS}
• Utilises 1.5 MHz frequency ultrasonic pulses, with a pulse width of 200 us, repeated at 1 kHz, at a low intensity
of 30 mW/cm2, for short periods of time (-20 minutes/day}
• It promotes bone fracture healing, bone regrowth, healing of cartilage and muscle tissue

The Image of Sound

• Acoustic window -> not in a place with gas or bone
• Depth
• Focus
• Gain
• Dynamic range
• Magnification

A Good Acoustic Window

• A good unobstructed or enhanced approach to the object being visualised

Depth
• Put area of interest at 3/4 depth of screen, leave a small area behind

Focus
• Focal zone - best lateral resolution (observe yellow arrows}
Gain
• Optimized to obtain most details from the image

Dynamic Range
• How white is white and how black is black?
• Adjust for the best contrast

Magnification

Artefacts
• Shadowing
■ Occurs when sound wave hits highly attenuating objects
like bones and stones

• Enhancement
■ Occurs when sound wave encounters liquid-filled structures
like gall bladder or urinary bladder that do not attenuate the
sound waves
■ Computer anticipates the attenuation of the signal with depth
and compensates it with the signal enhancement
■ Hence the enhancement of the signal reflected by the
structures behind

• Reverberation
■ Occurs when the sound beam hits a highly-reflective object like gas or metal
■ Sound wave is reflected towards the transducer then from the transducer and re-enters the patient
■ Echo produced by the reverberating sound wave receives the spatial assignment twice as deep as
original object
• Comet tail effect
■ Appears as a trail of dense continuous reverberations from the small gaseous or metal reflector
■ The closely-spaced and intense echo bands
• Mirror effect
■ The reverberation that appears in the areas adjacent to the highly-reflective interfaces such as the
diaphragm and pleura
• Refraction
 ■ Also called edge shadow
■ Occurs when the sound wave encounters the curved surface
■ Sound beam is bent, diverged and dispersed creating shadow areas at the border of the object

USG in Therapy
• Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy
• Most common therapy is removal of kidney-stones
• Using focussed pulses of high energy, high frequency sound waves to break down crystalline-like structures
inside the patients body
• Direct shearing forces
• Cavitation bubbles

Brown Note Take Two

• Stimulation of the reflex zones by a continuous, low frequency (~800 MHz} ultrasound waves of low energy
(0.05W/cm2}
• Brown zones at the lower back-bone, inside of the legs, pelvis extremities
 Lecture 13 - Radiation
Wednesday, January 11, 2017 10:23 AM

Radiation
Flow of atomic and subatomic particles and electromagnetic waves
• Nuclei or its elements
• Electrons, positrons, neutrinos
• Heat rays, light rays, x rays {PIC)

Atomic Mass and Number

• Atomic mass [N] - the mass of a specific isotope, expressed in unified atomic mass units, the total mass
of protons, neutrons and electrons in a single stationary atom
• Atomic number {proton number) [Z] - the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom,
therefore identical to the charge number of the nucleus
• Mass number [A] - the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the atom

Helium
• 42He
• Atomic mass: 4.002602 N
• Atomic number: 2 Z
• Mass number: 4 A

Non-Ionizing Radiation
• Radiation with the energy insufficient to produce charged ions when passing through matter, it has only
sufficient energy to change the rotational, vibrational or electronic valence configurations of
molecules and atoms
• Microwaves
• Radio waves
• Light
• Heat

Ionizing Radiation
• Consists of particles or electromagnetic waves energetic enough to detach electrons form atoms or
molecules
• Gamma and x-rays
• UV
• Material radiation

General Types of Radiation

• Alpha decay - an energetic helium ion {alpha particle)
• Beta decay - electron or positron
• Gamma decay - photon

Radio-Isotope
• Any of several species of the same chemical element with different masses whose nuclei are unstable
and dissipate excess energy by spontaneously emitting radiation in the form of alpha, beta and gamma
rays {PIC)

C14 - C12
{PICx2)
Z = const
A and N not = const

Decay
• Process that transmutes an isotope of one element into an isotope of another with the release of high-
energy particles or electromagnetic waves {PIC - uranium decay and PIC uranium isotopes )

Rate of Radioactive Transition

• Exponential decay law: radioactive decay occurs at a statistical exponential rate, proportional to the
number of atoms present and the decay constant
 • -dN/dt = .A. N
• Decay constant {.A. ): proportionally between the size of a population of radioactive atoms and the rate
at which the population decreases because of radioactive decay

Halftime/Half-life
• Physical: time required for half of the original population of radioactive atoms to decay
• Biological: time an organism takes to eliminate half of radioactive atoms from its body through strictly
biological processes
• Effective: incorporates both the physical and biological halftimes, used to calculate the elimination of
radioisotope from the ecosystem

Decay Chain
• A series of decay transformations, each having its own halftimes, leading through a variety of unstable
nuclides
• Each step accompanied by the release of radioactive energy
{PIC)

Alpha Decay
• Release of an energetic helium ion {alpha particle) leaving a daughter nucleus of atomic number two
less {Z-2) than the parent and of atomic mass number four less {A-4) than the parent
• PIC

Beta Minus Decay

• Release of an electron and antineutrino producing a daughter nucleus of one higher atomic number
{Z+1) and the same mass number {A)
• {PIC)

Beta Plus Decay

• Release of an energetic positron, along with a neutrino, the nucleus transforms to a daughter lower by
one in atomic number {Z-1) and the same in mass number {A)
• {PIC)

Gamma Decay
• Release of high-energy electromagnetic rays, usually accompanies alpha or beta radiation, when decay
leaves daughter particle in higher energy states {excited states)
• {PIC)

Isomeric Transitions
• There is a wide range of rates of half-lives for the gamma-emission process
• {PIC)

Internal Conversion
• Alternatively to gamma emission, an excited nucleus may transform to a lower energy state by ejecting
an electron {HAVE TO LOOK UP)

Electron Capture
• A process in which decay follows the capture of an orbital electron by the nucleus, nucleus transforms
to a daughter of one lower atomic number {Z-1) with subsequent emission of an atomic x-ray as the
orbital vacancy is filled by an electron from the cloud about the nucleus
• {PIC)

Spontaneous Fission
• The nucleus {heaviest artificial nuclei, such as fermium-256) splits into two fragment nuclei of roughly
half the mass of the parent
• {PIC)

Proton Radioactivity
• Discovered in 1970, is exhibited by an excited isomeric state of cobalt-53, 53mCo, 1.5 precent of which
emit proton {A-1, Z-1)
• {PIC)

Neutron Capture
 • Type of nuclear reaction in which a target nucleus absorbs a neutron {uncharged particle), then emits a
discrete quantity of electromagnetic energy {gamma-ray photon), the parent nucleus and the daughter
nucleus are isotopes {A+1, Z)
• {PIC)

Chain Reaction
{PIC)

UV
• Lies between wavelengths of about 400 nanometres on the visible-light side and about 10nm (4nm) on
the x-ray side
• Generated by the extremely hot surface
• Unlike other forms of ionising radiation it has a low power of penetration
{PIC ONLINE)

Ozone Hole
• Depletion of the ozone level in the ozonosphere
• Diminished absorption of Solar ultraviolet radiation that reaches Earth
• Sun burns, wrinkling, thickening and changes in skin pigmentation, damage of the cornea , skin cancer
• CAN BE OVER NORTHERN OR SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE!

Interaction with Matter

{PIC)

Penetration
{PIC)

Halving Thickness
• Indicated thickness of material , required to cut radiation by 50%
• Halving mass: indicated mass of material, required to cut radiation by 50%, in grams per square
centimetre of protected area
{PIC)

Effects of Irradiation
• Direct effects: due to the collision of radiation with atoms, resulting in an ejection of electrons from the
atoms - ionisation
• Indirect effects: due to the formation of free radicals {unstable molecules carrying an extra electron)
during the radiolysis of water molecules

Ionization
• Process by which electrically neutral atoms or molecules are converted to electrically charged ions
• Charged particles, such as alpha particles and electrons cause extensive ionization along their paths
• Neutral particles such as neutrons and neutrinos, are more penetrating and cause almost no ionization
• X-ray and gamma-ray photons, eject electrons from atoms by the photoelectric effect
• Energetic electrons resulting from the absorption of radiant energy in turn may cause further ionization,
called secondary ionization

Free Radical
• Molecule that contains at least one unpaired electron
• Usually highly reactive, abstracting parts of the molecules to complete their own electron pairs and
generating new free radicals in their process
• Damage of DNA, lipid peroxidation, oxidations of amino acids in proteins, oxidative inactivation of
enzymes

Biological Timeline
• A phenomenon where, following a dose of ionizing radiation, a victim may have a period of apparent
health, lasting for days or weeks, despite a surely terminal illness
• Depends on the irradiated organ, type of exposition, dose, intensity of biological processes
• "Walking Ghost Phase"

Banana Equivalent Dose

• The radiation exposure received by eating a single banana
• Bananas contain radioactive potassium-40 { beta plus decay)
• 3520 picocuries per kg, or roughly 520 picocuries per banana {130 Bq per kg, 20 Bq per banana)
• Roughly the average daily exposition in the fallout of the Fukushima nuclear accident
Lecture 14 - X-Ray
Wednesday, January 18, 2017 10:21 AM

Radioisotopes in Medicine
Contrasting agents
Cat - scan

Exposition
• Acute vs. chronic
• How exposed: through, external, internal (PIC)
• All considered dangerous

Prevention
• What to do when you are facing the atomic explosion
• According to Red Army manual:
o Lie down in the cemetery facing the blast
o Cover yourself with "Pravda newspapers"
o And RIP

Damage and Control

Irradiation -> Fast Electron -> Ion Radical -> Free Radical -> Chemical Change (breakage or relocation of bonds)
• Tan, fur, feathers (for irradiation)
• Free radical scavengers
• DNA-repair enzymes
• Apoptosis (if cell cannot be saved it is killed)

Uses of Radioactivity
• Medicine
o Sterilisation
o Medical applications
• Industry
o Ion implantation
o Industrial chemistry
• Science
o Security
o Agriculture
• Warfare
o Assassination

Medicine and Research

• Diagnosis and therapy (nuclear medicine)
• X-ray and cat scan
• Induction of Mutation
• Radiometric Dating
• Atomic Clock

Nuclear Medicine
• Medical specialty that involves the use of radioactive isotopes and irradiation in the diagnosis and treatment of disease
• X-ray and CT
• Radiography
• PET - uses radioisotopes to see areas of highest metabolic activity and look at blood system
• RIA

• Radiotherapy
• Sterilisation

X- Ray
• Ionizing radiation produced by accelerating (or decelerating) charged particles, usually electrons
• Between ultraviolet and gamma rays
• Produced by an x-ray tube or a circulating beam of electrons in a synchrotron particle accelerator
• Wavelength in the range of .01 to 10nm, frequencies from 3x1016 Hz to 3x1019 Hz and energies between 120 eV to 120 keV
History of X-Ray
• Discovered in 1895 by German physicist Wilhelm Konrad Rontgen while investigating the effects of cathode rays in
electrical discharges through low-pressure gasses
• Hand mit Ringen (Hand with Rings): print of Wilhelm Rontgen's first "medical" x-ray, of his wife's hand, taken on 22
December 1895
• In early XX century it was adopted as a medical imaging technique

X- Ray Tube (PIC)

Creating X-Ray
• Tungsten [74W]
• Molybdenum [42Mo]
• Bremsstrahlung - breaking down
• Compton effect

Bremsstrahlung (PIC)

Compton Effect (PIC)

Properties of X-Ray
• Wave
• Polarisation
• Scattering
• Diffraction

Quantum Interactions
• Coherent scattering - bending or changing x-ray path
• Compton effect - kick electron out of shell
• Photoelectric effect - absorption of x-ray and emission of electron
• Pair production
• Photodisintegration - destru•ctioPnart
oficalteom
• High-energy photon
Use of X-Ray
• Wave
• Scattering and Diffraction - coherent X-ray diffraction patterns of a nanosized metal cube

• Particle
• Absorption - by dense matter like bones to create image

Medical Diagnostics
• Utilises ability of x-ray to penetrate optically opaque materials (soft tissues) and its absorption on the high-density materials
like bones
• X-ray imaging (roentgenography) - shadows are white
• Fluoroscopy
• CT-scan

Fluoroscopy
• An imaging technique commonly used by physicians to obtain real-time moving images of the internal structures of a
patient through the use of a fluoroscope

Contrasting Agents
• Substances comparatively opaque to x-ray, which, when present in an organ or tissue, absorb x-rays causing a shadow on
the film
• Improve the visibility of internal bodily structures in an x-ray based imaging techniques
• Typically iodine or barium compounds

Iodinated - Intravascular
• Relatively harmless and soluble
• Angiography, urography, hysterosalpingography

Barium - Gastro - Intestinal

 • Insoluble white powder that is made into a slurry
• Swallow
• Meal
• Enema
• Daily follow through

Air
• A contrast material that is less radio-opaque than the tissues it is defining
• Gastrointestinal track
• Joints

Tomography
• Imaging by sections or sectioning, through the use of any kind of penetrating wave
• Usually transverse section

CT-Scan
• X-ray computed tomography
• A medical tomography imaging method created by computer processing
• (PIC)

Cat-Scan
• Computed axial tomography
• A three-dimensional image of the inside of an object is reconstructed from a large series of two-dimensional x-ray images
taken around a single axis of rotation

Cat-Scan in Veterinary
• Internal medicine

Cat - Scan in Paleontology

• Willow- the little dinosaur with heart

X- Ray treatment
• Curative or adjuvant treatment
• Radiation therapy works by damage the DNA of cancerous cells

Side Effects
• Acute - within several weeks of treatment - damage to the epithelial surfaces: skin, oral mucosa, pharyngeal, bowel mucosa
and ureter - irritation, inflammation, oedema, epilation, infertility
• Late - months to years after treatment - damage to the blood vessels and connective tissue - fibrosis, epilation, mucosa
dryness, lymphedema and cancer
• ALARE - as low as reasonably effective

Synchrotron
• Cyclic particle accelerator in which electrically -charged particles as electrons or protons are accelerated to very high
energies by alternating electric force (GET PIC ONLINE)
 Lecture 15 - Animal Magnetism
Tuesday, January 24, 2017 9:27 PM

Magnetism
• A property of materials that respond at an atomic or subatomic level to an applied
magnetic field
• Non-magnetic substances - materials that are negligibly affected by magnetic fields

Magnetic Materials
• Ferromagnetic materials - substances that produce their own persistent magnetic
field - in other words magnets
• Paramagnetic materials - substances that are attracted to a magnetic field
• Diamagnetic materials - substances that are repulsed by magnetic field

Magnetic Domains

Permanent Magnet
• Object made from a material that is magnetized and creates its own persistent
magnetic field
• Magnetization utilises a strong magnetic field to induce alignment of the particles
in the internal microcrystalline structure of the substance
• Soft magnets - materials that can be magnetized but do not stay that way for long
• Hard magnets - materials that after magnetization retain this property

More Magnetic Materials

• Antiferromagnet - intrinsic magnetic moments of neighbouring valence electrons
point in opposite directions, no magnetic field is produced
• Ferrimagnet - neighbouring pairs of electron spins like to point in opposite
directions, however it retains magnetization and produces magnetic field

Magnetic Field(s)
• A field of force produced by moving electric charges, by electric fields that very in
time, and by the intrinsic magnetic field of elementary particles associated with the
spin of the particle
• At any given point it is specified by both a direction and a magnitude
• There are "two" separate but closely related fields to which the name "magnetic
field" can refer a magnetic B field and a magnetic H field
• B-field lines neither start nor end - to our knowledge
• H-Field lines begin and end near magnetic poles

Magnetic Poles

Gauss's Law for Magnetism

• Law of "absence of free magnetic poles"
• The magnetic field B has divergence equal to zero
 • Magnetic monopoles do not exist

A Monopole for Magnetic Monopole

• A hypothetical particle that is a magnet with only on magnetic pole
• Dyon - a hypothetical particle with both electric and magnetic charges
• Dirac string - a factious one-dimensional curve in space, between two magnetic
monopoles with opposite magnetic charges, or from one magnetic monopole out
to infinity

Magnetic Flux
• A measure of the amount of magnetic field passing through a given surface in the
unit of time [weber w=yz]
• Magnetic flux through a given surface is proportional to the number of magnetic
field lines that pass through the surface
• Tesla - magnetic flux intensity is a unit of magnetic field [T = wlm2]

Geomagnetism

• The molten iron core of the earth acts like a giant magnet, creating a magnetic field
that is felt at the surface
• All magnets, such as those in compasses, line up with this field

Animal Magnetism
• Robin
• Pigeon • Internal compass
• Mocking bird
• Magnetic bacteria • Tiny ferrous particles
• Bee
• Marine turtle • Moving along the lines of magnetic field
• Whale
• Salmon
• Moving across the lines of magnetic
• Eel
field
• Whole fish is magnetic dipole

Spin
• A fundamental characteristic property of elementary particles, hadrons, and
atomic nuclei
• A type of angular momentum, where angular momentum is defined as the
generator of rotations
• Spin of atoms and molecules is the sum of the spins of unpaired electrons, which
may be parallel or antiparallel. It is responsible for paramagnetism
• Quantum mechanical spin can exhibit phenomena analogous to classical gyroscopic
effects

Magnetic Moment
• Particles with spin can possess a magnetic dipole moment, just like any rotating
electrically charged body e.g. earth
• Lines of magnetic force are aligned perpendicular to the particle plane of rotation

Non-Ionizing Radiation
• The energy of non-ionizing radiation is insufficient to produce charged ions when
passing through matter, it has only sufficient energy to change the rotational,
vibrational or electronic valence configurations of molecules and atoms
 • Microwaves
• Radiowaves

Magnetic Resonance Imaging - MRI

• A medical imaging technique used in utilising magnetic properties of the hydrogen
nuclei (spin and magnetic moment) to visualize detailed internal structures of the
organism