 

CHME 212: Ch Eng. Thermo. I, © Prof. Shaheen Al-Muhtaseb @ QU, 2020

 The material required from the students to
understand is not restricted to the lecture notes
attached herein.
 The textbook should be the basic source of
information for the students.
 Thus, students are responsible for the designated
sections in the textbook.
 Class discussions, beyond the lecture notes, are
also required.
• 1−1 Thermodynamics and Energy
• 1−2 Dimensions and Units
• 1−3 Closed and Open Systems
• 1−4 Properties of a System
• 1−5 State and Equilibrium
• 1−6 Processes, Paths and Cycles
• 1−7 Forms of Energy
• 1−8 Temperature and Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
• 1- 9 Pressure
• 1-10 Pressure Measuring Devices
• Thermodynamics is the science of energy (Probably we
may say the power of heat) .
• Energy is the ability to do work.
 Conservation of energy principle (first law of
thermodynamics): During an interaction (i. e. a process), energy
can change from one form to another but the total amount of
energy remains constant.

 Energy has quality as well as quantity; the second law of

thermodynamics.
 All activities in nature involve interaction between energy and
matter (thermodynamics).
 Thermodynamics is encountered in many engineering systems
and other aspects of life.
 Energy conversion occurs in the cells of human body.
 Examples in an ordinary house: electric or gas range, the
heating and air-conditioning systems, the refrigerator, the
pressure cooker, the water heater, the shower, the iron, and
even the computer and the TV set.
 In automotive industry thermodynamics plays an essential role
regarding design and analysis.
 Power plants.
 • Thermodynamic properties can be analyzed from a
microscopic or a macroscopic perspective:

- Classical thermodynamics treats matter as a

‘continuum’ – macroscopic approach; a direct and easy
way to the solution of engineering problems.

- Statistical thermodynamics studies the statistical (i.e.,

random) behavior of individual molecules – microscopic
approach – and then averages over all the molecules.

- We will focus entirely on the classical approach.

- Fortunately, the two approaches converge to the same
answer.
• Dimension: physical properties or characteristics of a system
- Primary Dimensions: mass m, length L, time t, and temperature T
- Secondary Dimensions (or derived dimensions): velocity V, energy E,
force F, and volume V
• Units: magnitudes assigned to dimensions
• Two Unit Systems: English and SI or System International

English SI Conversion Factors

mass: pound mass, lbm kilogram, kg 1 lbm = 0.45359 kg
length: foot, ft meter, m 1 ft = 0.3048 m
force: pound force, lbf newton, N 1 lbf = 4.4482 N
work / energy: British Thermal Unit, Btu joule, J 1 Btu = 1055.06 J*
power: Btu/h watt, W 3.41214 Btu/h = 1 W
• A conversion factor is needed when relating mass to either force,
work, or energy, i.e.,

Force = mass*acceleration/gc, where

gc = 1.0 (kg.m/s2) / N
= 32.17 (lbm.ft/s2) / lbf

• A conversion factor is also used when dealing with ‘thermal

energy’ such that

One Btu (British thermal unit) = 778.169 ft-lbf

• Horsepower ‘hp’ is also used as a unit such that
1 hp = 550 ft-lbf / s
Pound-force: the force required to accelerate a mass of 32.174 lbm (1 slug) at a rate
of 1 ft/s2
Weight is a force (not mass) = mass x gravitational acceleration.
Specific Weight (w) is the weight per unit volume of a substance; w = density x
gravitational acceleration.
Joule is a unit of energy in the SI system; 1 J = 1 N . m
British thermal unit (BTU) is the unit of energy in the English system; 1 BTU =
the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 lbm of water at 68 oF by
1 degree Fahrenheit.
1 Calorie (cal) is a unit of energy in the SI (metric) system defined as the amount
of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water at 68 oC by 1 degree
Celsius.
Dimensional Homogeneity: Quantities added or subtracted from each other
must have the same units. The terms on both sides of an equation (separated
by either + or – sign) must have the same units for the equation to be correct
(see examples 1-1 and 1-2).
 Symbol Dimension (example units)
m, m
. mass, mass flow rate (kg, kg/s)
n, n
. mole, molar flow rate (mol, mol/sec)
M molecular weight
x, y mole fraction: liquid or solid phase, vapor phase
W weight (N)
V,V
. volume, volumetric flow rate (m3, m3/s)
V velocity (m/s)
.
Q, Q heat, heat rate (J, J/s)
.
W, W work, power (J, J/s)
X total thermodynamic property, where X = U, H, S, …(J)
X molar thermodynamic property, where X = U, H, S, …(J/mol)
x (lower case) specific thermodynamic property, where x = u, h, s, …(J/kg)
 Moving
(a) Closed Systems: boundary

controlled (fixed) mass.

GAS

GAS 2 kg
2 kg 3 m3
1 m3
Closed
System mass NO Fixed
boundary
(m= constant)
energy YES
If a closed system is not allowed to
exchange energy with its
surroundings, then it is called an
isolated system.
(b) Open system: controlled (fixed) volume

Control surface
Hot Water
Out
Note:
Water Volume
Heater is fixed
(control
volume)
Cold Water
IN

Examples of open systems: Pumps, compressors, turbines, boilers,

Lungs of humans, Nozzles, etc.
 • Property: Any characteristic of a system.

Examples:

Name of property Symbol definition Units (SI)

Density kg/m3

Specific volume m3/ kg


Specific gravity, or s =  H2O=1000 kg/m3 @ 4oC
relative density H2O
- Intensive properties: independent on system size (e.g., P, T, , e)

- Extensive properties: depend on system size (e.g., m, V, E)

m Extensive
m/2 m/2
V properties
T V/2 V/2
P T T
 P P Intensive
  properties
• Thermodynamic state of a system – the condition of the system as
characterized by the values of its properties.

• Stable equilibrium state – a state in which the system is not capable of

any spontaneous change to another state without a finite change in
the surrounding. There are no driving forces to carry out a change.

• There are many different types of equilibria that can be attained:

- Thermal: the temperature is the same throughout the system.

- Mechanical: the pressure is the same throughout the system (uniform P).
- Phase: no driving force for the total mass in each phase to change.
- Chemical: no driving force for chemical composition to change.
• We can show a state as a point on a phase diagram as long as the
continuum theory applies; thermodynamics deals only with
equilibrium states.
A system is said to be a simple compressible system if it is not influenced
by electrical, magnetic, gravitational, motion, and surface tension effects.

State postulate: The state of a single-component, simple compressible

system, can be fully described by two intensive properties.
- Typically, properties chosen are either :
≫P&T
≫ P & specific volume (v = Volume / mass), or
≫T&v
- The above 3 variables are the easiest to measure.
- The state of a two-phase system cannot be fully defined by P & T only.
- Any change from one equilibrium state to another is called process.

- Series of intermediate states defines the path of the process.

State 2

Process path
State 1
 Isobaric constant pressure

Isothermal constant temperature

Isochoric constant volume

Q. What process is a frictionless, freely-moving,

piston cylinder device?
𝒎. 𝒈/𝒈𝒄 𝑷𝐚𝐭𝐦 ∙ 𝑨 Force Balance on the piston: A
Thermodynamic
𝑷𝐢 ∙ 𝑨 = 𝑷𝐚𝐭𝐦 ∙ 𝑨 + 𝒎. 𝒈/𝒈𝒄 system

 𝑷𝐢 = 𝑷𝐚𝐭𝐦 + 𝒎. 𝒈/(𝒈𝒄 ∙ 𝑨)

constant
 Ans.: Isobaric; provided there is no friction between the piston
𝑷𝐢 ∙ 𝑨 and the walls of the cylinder nor any resistance (e.g., spring).
Quasi-equilibrium process: process is slow enough for system
to be near equilibrium at intermediate states

(a) Slow compression (quasi-equilibrium)

(b) Very fast compression (non-quasi-equilibrium)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M1h9eU9YH5o
 P 2 Final state

Process path

Process formulation Initial

using thermodynamic 1 state
properties

V2 V1 V

System

(2) (1)
Thermodynamic cycle: Processes as a result of which a system
returns to its original state, i.e., identical end states.

P (a) Two-process P (b) Four-process

cycle 3 cycle
2

4
2

1 1

V V
 “Steady” : no change with time
“Uniform” : no change with location

Flow process type:

1. Steady flow process (SFP): flow through a control volume such that
properties are steady and uniform at any point inside the control volume
(examples of SFP in real life is the flow in: turbines, compressors, heat
exchangers, . etc.).

Important Note: in steady flow process properties may change from one point to
another, but important to note is that at any point there is no changes with
time, otherwise the process becomes unsteady (or transient).

2. Unsteady (Transient) flow process (e.g., charging & discharging of a

cylinder). For simplification, we will assume in this course that properties
at inlets and exits are uniform and do not change with time (i.e. steady).
• Energy can exist in many forms: thermal, kinetic, potential, electric, chemical, ..etc.
• Total energy of a system: E (extensive property)
• Specific energy: e = E/m (intensive property)
• Thermodynamics tells us nothing about the absolute value of energy, only changes.
- Thus, we can set our reference state, or zero point, of energy at any state we like.

Total Energy = microscopic Energy + macroscopic Energy

- Macroscopic: relative to a reference frame, such as:  Kinetic energy: KE
 Potential energy: PE
- Microscopic: related to the molecular structure and the degree of activity of the
molecules in the system; such as:  Internal energy: U or u.
E
Hence, E  U  KE  PE e  u  ke  pe
m
mV 2 Specific Energy
Total Energy
U   mgz V2
(kJ) u  gz (kJ/kg)
2 2
 A note on Internal energy (U): It is defined as the sum of
the microscopic forms of energy of a system:

(A) Thermal energy

Translational Kinetic Energy
(1) Sensible energy: Increase of
kinetic energy without a change in
the substance phase Rotational Kinetic Energy

(2) Latent energy: refers to

internal energy associated with
binding forces between Vibrational Kinetic Energy
molecules (involves a phase
change)

(B) Chemical energy (atomic bonds)

(C) Nuclear energy

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: Two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium if both have the same temperature reading even if they
are not in contact.

Thermometer

A
B C
Four temperature scales are commonly used: • Celsius and the
- Rankine (thermodynamic scale in the English system) Fahrenheit scales
differ in the location of
- Fahrenheit: English system.
the zero point.
- Kelvin (thermodynamic scale in the SI system)
• They also differ in the
- Celsius: SI system size of the degree unit.
Temperature Scales:
Rankine Fahrenheit Kelvin Celsius

672 R +212o F 373.15 K 100oC

Boiling point, H2O

492R +32oF 273.15 K 0oC

Ice point, H2O

Note that the degree

symbol (o) is not used
with Kelvin or Rankine.
0R -460oF 0K -273.15oC
• Conventional thermometry
- Liquid in glass.
• Electronic thermometers
- Measures resistance in a metal such as
nickel.

• Remote sensing using radiation emitted by

the air and surface (particularly, though not
exclusively, from satellites).
 Measured by a constant volume gas thermometer
where, T = a + bp at low pressures
• Gas A
P •
• Gas B

Gas C

-273.15 0 T (oC)
Therefore,
we can change Temperature scale to (T’=T+273.15) so that the
equation becomes: T’ = bP, and ‘a’ becomes zero
• Pressure is the force exerted by a fluid per unit area. For fluids,
pressure at a certain point is the same in all directions (so pressure
is a scalar quantity not a vector).

• Within solids, the counterpart to pressure is called stress.

Q. Which box below is exerting the greatest pressure

(or stress) upon the ground?

1 kg 1 kg
 Pressure is a measure of the ‘energy density’ as
N/m2 = N.m/m3 = J/m3

- Conversion factors for pressure:

SI Units:
 1atm= 101,325 Pa =101.325 kPa= 1.01325 bar

 1 bar = 105 Pa = 100 kPa = 0.1 MPa

English units:
lbf / ft2 = (lbf / in2) / 144
pounds force per inches squares ‘lbf / in2’ or psi
1 atm = 14.696 psi
  Actual pressure measured is called absolute pressure.

 Since most devices are calibrated to read zero at atmospheric

pressure, we have two other pressure readings, called vacuum
& gage.
 If pressure is higher than atmospheric, the difference is
called gage pressure, i.e.,
Pgage = Pabs – Patm

 If pressure is lower than atmospheric, the difference is

called vacuum pressure, i.e.,
Pvac = Patm – Pabs
• For pressures above • For pressures below
atmospheric atmospheric (partial vacuum)

Pgage
Patm Patm
Pvac
Pabsolute P2
Pabsolute
P=0 P=0
Step 1: Draw the “Free-Body Diagram” of the 𝒎. 𝒈/𝒈𝒄 𝑷𝐚𝐭𝐦 ∙ 𝑨

petcock, analyze the forces

𝑷𝒊 ∙ 𝑨
Step 2: Write the Force Balance, solve for “m”:
𝒈
𝒎 + 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 𝑨 = 𝑷𝒊 𝑨
𝒈𝒄
𝑔𝑐 𝑘𝑁 1𝑚 2 𝑘𝑔 1000 N
 𝑚 = 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝐴 = 100 𝑚2 4 𝑚𝑚2
𝑔 1000 𝑚𝑚 9.8 𝑁 kN
𝑘𝑔. 𝑚
𝑔𝑐 1 𝑁. 𝑠 2 1 𝑘𝑔
Internal gage = 𝑚 =
𝑔 9.8 2 9.8 𝑁
pressure 𝑠

 m = 0.0408 kg = 40.8 g
– Manometer
– Bourdon Tube
– Barometer
 The Manometer:
Measuring Pressure Drops (i.e., DP)

Used to measure pressure drops

(DP) across a horizontal flow section
between two specified points due to
the presence of a device such as a
valve or heat exchanger.

At point A :
PA  P B
P1  1 g a  h   P2  1 ga   2 gh
 P1  P2   2  1 gh
 P1  P2   2 gh for  2  1 
Manometer (continued)

P1  Patm   oil gz1 but P1 = P2,

P2  Patm   water gz 2 so oilz1 = waterz2

z1
Take another example
z2
Note: Gases
1 2 have uniform
pressures
within their
space

Pgas = P1 = P2 = Patm + h,

 = g is known as the specific weight (N/m3)
Find the absolute pressure at standard sea level for a
gage pressure of 20.0 psig?

Pabs = Patm + Pg = 14.7 psia + 20.0 psig

= 34.7 psia
10 20
where,

0 30
psia: Absolute pressure
psig
psig: gage pressure
• Pressure of a fluid at rest increases with
depth as a result of added weight

• Pressure in a fluid does not change in

the horizontal direction, but increases
with depth, P = P(z) only
z
• P =  (g/gc) z P

where,  is density, g is gravitational

acceleration and z is vertical depth
The pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a
given fluid regardless of the geometry, provided that the points
are interconnected by the same fluid.
Remember, DP = g z, different ‘’ for each fluid layer.

Q. Find P1 w.r.t. other properties and dimensions?

Patm

1 z1

2 z2
Patm + 1gz1 + 2gz2 + 3gz3 = P1

3 z3

P1
Solution:

Two solution methods:

1. Equating the pressures at two points of the system (at the same height
AND connected with the same fluid)
2. “Walking through” the apparatus from one end to the other
 
 Points of Equal Pressures:
o 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑃0 = 𝑃1
o 𝑃2 = 𝑃3
 

 Method 1:
 
𝑷𝟐 = 𝑷𝟑

𝑔
𝑷𝟐 = 𝑷𝒈𝒂𝒈𝒆 + 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 0.3 𝑚
𝑔𝑐
𝑔
Equate; solve for “h” 
𝑷𝟑 = 𝟎 + 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 0.75 𝑚 + 𝜌𝐻𝑔 ℎ
𝑔𝑐

1 𝑔𝑐
ℎ= 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 + 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 0.3 m − 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 0.75 𝑚
ρ𝐻𝑔 𝑔
 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚
𝑔𝑐 1
1 𝑔𝑐 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝑁. 𝑚𝑠 2 = 1 𝑘𝑔
ℎ = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 ∙ + 0.3 m − 0.75 𝑚 𝑔 9.8 2 9.8 𝑁
ρ𝐻𝑔 𝑔 ρ𝐻𝑔 ρ𝐻𝑔 𝑠

𝑘𝑁 𝑚3 1 𝑘𝑔 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑵 1000 720

ℎ = 80 2 ∙ ∙ + 0.3 𝑚 − 0.75 𝑚
𝑚 13600 𝑘𝑔 9.8 𝑁 𝒌𝑵 13600 13600

kPa = kN/m2 Take care of units,

and they will take
care of you!
 h = 0.583 𝑚
 
 Method 2:
o Start from one end (either right side
or left side),
o “walk through the tubes”:  
• when you go down  add ( h g/gc) 

• when you go up subtract ( h g/gc)  

• When you reach a point of equal
pressure with another side  jump
to the other side
Since we are
Example: walking through the tubes from the left-side end dealing with
to the right-side end: gage
𝑔
𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 + 𝜌 0.3 𝑚 − 𝜌𝐻𝑔 ℎ − 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 0.75 𝑚 = 0 pressure on
𝑔𝑐 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 the left-side
 Patm = 0
 Solve for “h”  get same solution as “Method 1”.
Barometer:
To measure Atmospheric pressure
PA = Patm

Where A lies on the same horizontal

line as point C, and both A and C belong to the
same fluid (Hg). Note further that the pressure B
at C = Patm

Therefore, using manometery principles gives

z
PA - gz = PB ; where PB = 0
Rearranging the above equation gives

PA - PB = Patm – 0 = gz
C A
Barometric (atmospheric) pressure is measured using an
inverted tube in a Hg bath, where tube size has no effect
on the fluid height.