Shyamoli Textile Engineering College

A constituent college of University of Dhaka

Department of Textile Engineering

Lecture -

Course Code: TE-4106

Course Name: Industrial Utility and Maintenance
Teacher Name: Jakir Hossain Lecturer (Mechanical)
Topics: Psychometric chart and psychometric processes
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
➢ Identify parts of the chart
➢ Determine moist air properties.
➢ Use chart to analyze processes involving moist air
➢ Dry-bulb temperature
is the commonly measured temperature from a thermometer. It is called "dry-bulb" since the
sensing tip of the thermometer is dry (see "wet bulb temperature" for comparison). Dry-bulb
temperature is located on the horizontal, or x-axis, of the psychrometric chart and lines of constant
temperature are represented by vertical chart lines. Since this temperature is so commonly used,
assume that temperatures are dry-bulb temperatures unless otherwise designated.
➢ Wet-bulb temperature
is determined when air is circulated past a wetted sensor tip. It represents the temperature at which
water evaporates and brings the air to saturation. Inherent in this definition is an assumption that no
heat is lost or gained by the air. This is different from dewpoint temperature, where a decrease in
temperature, or heat loss, decreases the moisture holding capacity of the air, causing water to
condense. Determination of wet-bulb temperature on this psychrometric chart follows lines of
constant enthalpy, but values are read off the upper, curved, saturation temperature boundary.

➢ Relative humidity
is a measure of the amount of water that air can hold at a certain temperature. It is
"relative" to the amount of water that air, at that same temperature, can hold at 100
percent humidity, or saturation. Air temperature (dry-bulb) is important because
warmer air can hold more moisture than cold air. Air at 60 percent relative humidity
contains 60 percent of the water it could possibly hold (at that temperature). It could
pick up 40 percent more water to reach saturation. Lines of constant relative humidity
are represented by the curved lines running from the bottom left and sweeping up
through to the top right of the chart. The line for 100 percent relative humidity, or
saturation, is the upper, left boundary of the chart.
 Dewpoint temperature
indicates the temperature at which water will begin to condense out of moist air.
Given air at a certain dry-bulb temperature and relative humidity, if the temperature
is allowed to decrease, the air can no longer hold as much moisture. When air is
cooled, the relative humidity increases until saturation is reached and condensation
occurs. Condensation occurs on surfaces which are at or below the dewpoint
temperature. Dewpoint temperature is determined by moving from a state point
horizontally to the left along lines of constant humidity ratio until the upper, curved,
saturation temperature boundary is reached.

Humidity ratio
of moist air is the weight of the water contained in the air per unit of dry air. This is often
expressed as pounds of moisture per pound of dry air. Since the humidity ratio of moist
air is not dependent on temperature, as is relative humidity, it is easier to use in
calculations. Humidity ratio is found on the vertical, y-axis with lines of constant humidity
ratio running horizontally across the chart.

Enthalpy
is the heat energy content of moist air. It is expressed in Btu per pound of dry air and
represents the heat energy due to temperature and moisture in the air. Enthalpy is useful
in air heating and cooling applications. The enthalpy scale is located above the saturation,
upper boundary of the chart. Lines of constant enthalpy run diagonally downward from
left to right across the chart. Lines of constant enthalpy and constant wet-bulb are the
same on this chart, but values are read from separate scales. More accurate
psychrometric charts use slightly different lines for wet-bulb temperature and enthalpy.
Specific volume
indicates the space occupied by air. It is the inverse of density and is expressed as a
volume per unit weight (density is weight per unit volume). Warm air is less dense than
cool air, which causes warmed air to rise. This phenomena is known as thermal
buoyancy. By similar reasoning, warmer air has greater specific volume and is hence
lighter than cool air. On the psychrometric chart, lines of constant specific volume are
almost vertical lines with scale values written below the dry-bulb temperature scale
and above the upper boundary's saturation temperature scale. On this chart, values
range from 12.5 to 15.0 cubic feet/ pound of dry air. Greater specific volume is
associated with warmer temperatures (dry-bulb).
 Properties of Moist Air 449

14.2.2 Amagat Law of Partial Volumes

In the Amagat model, each component gas is considered as existing separately at the
total pressure p and temperature T of the mixture as shown in Fig. 14.1 (c).
Temperature T Temperature T
Temperature T Pressure p
Pressure p Pressure p

Volume Volume V2
Volume V = V1 + V2 = V1 +
Gas 1 + Gas 2 Gas 2
Gas 1

Fig. 14.1(c) Figure illustrating Amagat model

Let the volumes of individual gases under these conditions be V1, V2, L etc.
These are referred to as partial volumes. Again, applying the ideal gas equation of
state to mixture and components, we have:
pV
Mixture pV = n R T n=
RT
p V1
Components p V1 = n1 R T n1 =
RT
p V2
p V 2 = n2 R T n2 =
RT
Substitution in n1 + n2 = n gives
V = V1 + V2 or V = Si Vi (14.4)
Thus, we see that the total volume is equal to the sum of the partial volumes. This
is known as the Amagat law of partial volumes. The ratios V1/V, V2/V, L etc., are
referred to as volume fractions.

14.2.3 Mole Fractions of Component Gases

It is seen from the above section that
p1 V n
= 1 = 1 = y1 (14.5)
p V n
Thus, the ratio of partial pressure to total pressure, and volume fraction are equal
to the mole fraction yi of the gas. It also shows that both Dalton’s law and Amagat
law are equivalent.

14.2.4 Molecular Mass of Mixture

Since m = m1 + m2, and m = Mn, m1 = M1 n1, m2 = M2 n2, we have
Mn = M1 n1 + m2 n2
We have
M = y 1 M1 + y 2 M2 or M = S i y i Mi (14.6)
where M represents the molecular mass of the mixture. Note that n1 = m1/M1 ,
n2 = m2/M 2, etc. Similarly, for the mixture, n = m/M.
450 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

14.2.5 Gibbs’ Theorem

Gibbs’ Theorem further enunciates that the internal energy of a mixture is equal to
the sum of internal energies of the individual components, taken each at the tempera-
ture and volume of the mixture. Thus, we have for the internal energy of the mixture.
mu = m1u1 + m2u2 (14.7)
It can also be shown that the enthalpy and specific heat of the mixture can, simi-
larly, be written as
mh = m1h1 + m2h2 (14.8)
mC = m1C1 + m2C2 (14.9)

14.2.6 Molecular Masses and Gas Constants for Dry Air and Water Vapour
From the respective mole fractions and molecular masses of component gases, the
molecular mass of the dry air part may be computed. For the purpose, it may be
observed from Eq. (14.16) that a part by volume represents the mole fraction. Thus
using the values for mole fractions from Table 14.1, we have
Ma = SMy (14.10)
= 28.02 (0.7803) + 32 (0.2099)
+ 39.91 (0.0094) + 44 (0.0003) + 2.02 (0.0001)
= 28.966
where subscript a denotes dry air. Knowing that the value of the universal gas
constant is 8.3143 kJ/kg mole K, the gas constants for the two parts of moist air are
as follows:
Dry air Ma = 28.966
8.3143
Ra = = 0.2871 kJ/kg.K
28.966
Water vapour Mv = 18.016
8.3143
Rv = = 0.461 kJ/kg.K
18.016
where subscript v refers to water vapour.

Example 14.1 One cubic metre of H2 at 1 bar and 25°C is mixed with one
cubic metre of N2 at 1 bar and 25°C. For the mixture at the same conditions,
find:
(a) Mole fractions of components. (b) Partial pressures of components.
(c) Mass fractions of components. (d) Molecular weight of the mixture.
(e) Gas constant of the mixture. (f) Volume of the mixture.

Solution Molecular weights

M1 = MH2 = 4.003, and M2 = MN2 = 28.02
Gas constants
8.3143
R1 = = 2.077 kJ/kg.K
4.003
 Properties of Moist Air 451

8.3143
R2 = = 0.2967 kJ/kg.K
28.02
Masses
p1V1 (1 ´ 105 )(1)
m1 = = = 0.1616 kg
R1T1 (2.077 ´ 103 )(298)
p2V2 (1 ´ 105 )(1)
m2 = = = 1.131 kg
R2 T2 (0.2967 ´ 103 )( 298)
m = m1 + m2 = 0.1616 + 1.131 = 1.2926 kg
Number of moles
m1 0.1616
n1 = = = 0.0404
M1 4.003
m 1131
.
n2 = 2 = = 0.0403
M2 28.02
n = n1 + n2 = 0.0807
(a) Mole fractions
n 0.0404
y1 = 1 = = 0.5
n 0.0807
n 0.0403
y2 = 2 = = 0.5
n 0.0807
(b) Partial pressures
p1 = y1 p = 0.5 (1) = 0.5 bar
p2 = y2 p = 0.5 (1) 0.5 bar
(c) Mass fractions
m1 0.1616
= = 0.125
m 1.2926
m2 1131
.
= = 0.875
m 1.2926
(d) Molecular weight of mixture
M = y1 M1 + y2M2 = 0.5(4.003) + 0.5(28.02) = 16.01
(e) Gas constant of mixture
8.3143
R = R /M = = 0.5193 kJ/kg.K
16.01
(f) Volume of mixture
m RT 1.2926(0.5193 ´ 103 )( 298)
V= = = 2 m3
p 1 ´ 105
Also, from Eq. (14.4)
V = V1 + V2 = 1 + 1 = 2 m3
452 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

14.3 PSYCHROMETRIC PROPERTIES

Dry air and water vapour form a binary mixture. A mixture of two substances
requires three properties to completely define its thermodynamic state, unlike a pure
substance which requires only two. One of the three properties can be the composi-
tion. The properties of moist air are called psychrometric properties and the subject
which deals with the behaviour of moist air is known as psychrometry.
Water vapour is present in the atmosphere at a very low partial pressure. At this
low pressure and atmospheric temperature, the water vapour behaves as a perfect
gas. The partial pressure of dry air is also below one atmosphere which may also be
considered to behave very much as a perfect gas. The Gibbs-Dalton laws of perfect
gas mixtures can, therefore, be applied to the case of moist air.
In air-conditioning practice, all calculations are based on the dry air part since the
water vapour part is continuously variable. For defining and calculating the relevant
psychrometric properties, we may consider a certain volume V of moist air at pres-
sure p and temperature T, containing ma kg of dry air and mv kg of water vapour as
shown in Fig. 14.2. The actual temperature t of moist air is called the dry bulb tem-
perature (DBT). The total pressure p which is equal to the barometric pressure is
constant. The other relevant properties will now be discussed.
Volume V
Mass m
Pressure p
Temperature T

Dry Air:
Mass = ma kg
Sp. vol. = va m3/kg

Water Vapour:
Mass = mv kg
Sp. vol. = vv m3/kg

Fig. 14.2 A mixture of dry air and water vapour (moist air)

14.3.1 Specific Humidity or Humidity Ratio

Specific or absolute humidity or humidity ratio or moisture content as it is variously
called denoted by the symbol w is defined as the ratio of the mass of water vapour
(w.L.) to the mass of dry air (d.a.) in a given volume of the mixture. Thus
m V / vv v
w= v = = a (14.11)
ma V / va vv
where the subscripts a and v refer to dry air and water vapour respectively.
R R
Now p a va = T pa V = m a T (14.12)
Ma Ma
 Properties of Moist Air 453

R R
p v vv = T pv V = mv T (14.13)
Mv Mv
Substituting for mv and ma from these expressions in Eq. (14.11), we obtain
M v pv 18.016 pv p
w= = p = 0.622 pv (14.14)
M a pa 28.966 a a

The units of w are kg of water vapour per kg of dry air. If multiplied by 1000, it
can be expressed as
p
w = 622 v g w.v./kg d.a. (14.15)
pa
Also, since p denotes the actual total atmospheric pressure, then from Dalton’s law
p = pa + p v (14.16)
so that
pv
w = 0.622 (14.17)
p - pv
Considering that the total atmospheric pressure remains constant at a particular
locality, we can see that
w = f ( pv )
viz., the specific humidity is a function of the partial pressure of water vapour only.
Accordingly, if there is no change in specific humidity or the moisture content of air,
the partial pressure of water vapour also does not change.
It may be noted that since pv is very small and p, which is the barometric pressure,
is constant, the denominator in Eqs (14.14) and (14.17) remains more or less con-
stant, i.e.,
pa = p – p v » p
Hence w is approximately a linear function of pv.
The concept of specific humidity is that if we take 1 kg of dry air, viz.,
ma = 1 kg
then the mass of water vapour associated with this dry air, in the same volume is
mv = w kg
so that the total mass of this volume of moist air is
m = (1 + w) kg
Thus specific humidity is not a mass fraction of water vapour which would have
been w/(1 + w), but a ratio of the mass of water vapour to that of dry air in a certain
volume of the mixture.

14.3.2 Dew Point Temperature

Figure 14.3 shows the normal thermodynamic state 1 of water vapour in moist air.
The water vapour existing at temperature T of the mixture and partial pressure pv of
the vapour in the mixture is normally in a superheated state. Moist air containing
moisture in such a state is considered as unsaturated air.
454 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

pv

1 Super heated state

T of water vapour in
unsaturated air

ng
oli
Co
T

Td d

s
Fig. 14.3 Thermodynamic state of water vapour in moist air

If a sample of such unsaturated moist air containing superheated water vapour is

cooled (at constant pressure), the mixture will eventually reach the saturation tem-
perature td of water vapour corresponding to its partial pressure pv, at which point
the first drop of dew will be formed, i.e., the water vapour in the mixture will start
condensing. This temperature td is called the dew point temperature (DPT). It is,
therefore, the temperature to which moist air must be cooled at constant pressure
before condensation of moisture takes place.
Moisture can be removed from humid air by bringing the air in contact with a
cold surface or cooling coil whose temperature is below its dew point temperature.
During the process of cooling, the partial pressure pv of water vapour and specific
humidity w remain constant until the vapour starts condensing.
It is seen that the dew point temperature can be found by knowing, from the steam
tables, the saturation temperature td at the partial pressure pv of the water vapour.

Example 14.2 In a dew point apparatus a metal beaker is cooled by gradu-

ally adding ice water to the water initially at room temperature. The moisture
from the room air begins to condense on the beaker when its temperature is
12.8°C. If the room temperature is 21°C and the barometric pressure is 1.01325
bar, find the partial pressure of water vapour in the room air and parts by mass
of water vapour in the room air.

Solution Partial pressure of water vapour at DPT of 12.8°C

pv = 1.479 kN/m2
Partial pressure of dry air
pa = 101325 – 1479 = 99846 N/m2
Specific humidity
m p 1479 kg w. v.
w = v = 0.622 v = 0.622 ´ = 0.009214
ma pa 99846 kg d. a.
 Properties of Moist Air 455

Parts by mass of water vapour

mv w 0.009214 kg w. v.
= = = 0.00913
m 1+ w 1.009214 kg mixture

14.3.3 Degree of Saturation

Figure 14.4 again shows the superheated thermodynamic state 1 of water vapour
in unsaturated moist air representing the control volume V in Fig. 14.2. The water
vapour exists at the dry bulb temperature T of the mixture and partial pressure pv.

s
p

pv
3 2 1
T
Saturated Water
Vapour in
Saturated Air Superheated
T

Water Vapour in
Td Unsaturated Air
d

s
Fig. 14.4 An imaginary isothermal process representing change of state
of water vapour in unsaturated air to that of saturated air at
the same temperature

Consider now that more water vapour is added in this control volume V at tem-
perature T itself. The partial pressure pv will go on increasing with the addition of
water vapour until it reaches a value ps corresponding to state 2 in Fig. 14.4, after
which it cannot increase further as ps is the saturation pressure or maximum possible
pressure of water at temperature T. The thermodynamic state of water vapour is now
saturated at point 2. The air containing moisture in such a state is called saturated
air. In this state the air is holding the maximum amount of water vapour (the specific
humidity being ws, corresponding to the partial pressure ps) at temperature T of the
mixture. The maximum possible specific humidity, ws at temperature T is thus
ps
ws = 0.622 (14.18)
p - ps
The ratio of the actual specific humidity w to the specific humidity ws of saturated
air at temperature T is termed as the degree of saturation denoted by the symbol m.
Thus

m=
w
= v
LM
p 1 - ps / p OP
ws N
ps 1 - pv / p Q (14.19)

We thus see that the degree of saturation is a measure of the capacity of air to
absorb moisture.
456 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

14.3.4 Relative Humidity

Relative humidity denoted by the symbol f or RH is defined as the ratio of the mass
of water vapour mv in a certain volume of moist air at a given temperature to the
mass of water vapour mvs in the same volume of saturated air at the same tempera-
ture. Thus, referring to Fig. 14.4 again, if vv and vs are the specific volumes of water
vapour in the actual moist air and saturated air respectively at temperature T and in
volume V, viz., at points 1 and 2 respectively, we see that
mv p V /RT p
f= = v = v (14.20)
mvs ps V / R T ps
V / vv v
Also, f= = s (14.21)
V / vs vv
Using the perfect-gas relationship between points 1 and 2, viz.,
p1v1 = p2v2 or pv vv = psvs (14.22)
we have
p v
f= v = s (14.23)
ps vv
Thus relative humidity turns out to be the ratio of partial pressures of water
vapour in a certain unsaturated moist air at a given temperature T to the saturation
pressure of water vapour (or partial pressure of water vapour in saturated air) at the
same temperature T. It is usually measured in percentage. When pv is equal to ps, f is
equal to unity, and the air is saturated and is considered to have 100 per cent RH.
In general, since partial pressure is a direct measure of the moisture holding of
dry air, relative humidity is considered to be a more commonly understood measure
of the degree of saturation of air.
From Eqs (14.14) and (14.23), it can be shown that
p
w = 0.622f s (14.24)
pa
w pa
f= (14.25)
0.622 ps
Also, from Eqs (14.19) and (14.23), we get

m=f
LM 1 - p / p OP
s

N1 - p / p Q
v
(14.26)

m
f= (14.27)
1 - (1 - m ) ps / p

14.3.5 Enthalpy of Moist Air

According to Gibbs’ law, the enthalpy of a mixture of perfect gases is obtained by
the summation of the enthalpies of the constituents. Thus the enthalpy of moist air h
is equal to the sum of the enthalpies of dry air and associated water vapour, i.e.,
h = ha + w hv (14.28)
per kg of dry air, where ha is the enthalpy of the dry air part and w hv is the enthalpy
of the water vapour part.
 Properties of Moist Air 457

Considering the change in enthalpy of a perfect gas as a function of temperature

only, the enthalpy of the dry air part, above a datum of 0°C, is expressed as
ha = Cpa t = 1.005 t kJ/kg (= 0.24 t Btu/lbm where t is in °F) (14.29)
where Cpa = 1.005 kJ/(kg.K) is the specific heat of dry air, and t is the dry-bulb
temperature of air in °C.

pv
C A
t B

td f
g
t

0°C g 0°C
Reference State

s
Fig. 14.5 Evaluation of enthalpy of water vapour part

Again, taking the reference state enthalpy as zero for saturated liquid at 0°C, the
enthalpy of the water vapour part, viz., at point A in Fig. 14.5, is expressed as
hv = hA = Cpw td + (hfg )d + Cpv (t – td ) kJ/kg (14.30)
where
Cpw = specific heat of liquid water
td = dew point temperature
(hfg)d = latent heat of vaporization at DPT
Cpv = specific heat of superheated vapour
Taking the specific heat of liquid water as 4.1868 kJ/(kg.K) and that of water
vapour as 1.88 kJ/(kg.K), in the range 0 to 60°C, we have
hv = 4.1868 td + (hfg)d + 1.88 (t – td) (14.31)
This expression for enthalpy is rather unwieldy for the purpose of calculations. It
may, however, be pointed out that at low pressures for an ideal gas, the enthalpy is a
function of temperature only. Thus in Fig. 14.5, the enthalpies at points B and C are
also the same as the enthalpy at A. Accordingly, enthalpy of water vapour at A, at
DPT of td and DBT of t, can be determined more conveniently by the following
two methods:
(i) hA = hC = (hg)t (14.32)
(ii) hA = hB = (hg)0°C + Cpv(t – 0) (14.33)
Thus, employing the second expression and taking the latent heat of vaporization
of water at 0°C as 2501 kJ/kg, we obtain the following empirical expression for the
enthalpy of the water vapour part
458 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

hv = 2501 + 1.88t kJ/kg ( = 1061 + 0.444 t Btu/lbm, where t is in °F)

(14.34)
and combining Eqs (14.29) and (14.34), we have for the enthalpy of moist air
h = 1.005t + w(2500 + 1.88 t) kJ/kg d.a. (14.35)
( = 0.24t + w (1061 + 0.444t) Btu/lbm d.a. where t is in °F)

14.3.6 Humid Specific Heat

Equation (14.35) for the enthalpy of moist air can also be written in the form
h = (Cpa + w Cpv) t + w (hfg)0°C
= Cp t + w (hfg)0°C (14.36)
where
Cp = Cpa + w Cpv
kJ
= (1.005 + 1.88w) (= 0.245 Btu/lbm d.a.R) (14.37)
(kg d. a. )(K)
is termed as the humid specific heat. It is the specific heat of moist air (1 + w)kg per
kg of dry air. The term Cp t governs the change in enthalpy of moist air with tempera-
ture at constant specific humidity, and the term w (hfg)0°C governs the change in
enthalpy with the change in specific humidity, i.e., due to the addition or removal of
water vapour in air.
Since the second term 1.88w is very small compared to the first term 1.005, an
approximated value of Cp of 1.0216 kJ/(kg d.a.) (K) may be taken for all practical
purposes in air-conditioning calculations.

Example 14.3 A mixture of dry air and water vapour is at a temperature of 21°C
under a total pressure of 736 mm Hg. The dew-point temperature is 15°C. Find:
(i) Partial pressure of water vapour.
(ii) Relative humidity.
(iii) Specific humidity.
(iv) Specific enthalpy of water vapour by the three methods of Fig. 14.5.
(v) Enthalpy of air per kg of dry air.
(vi) Specific volume of air per kg of dry air.

Solution (i) From steam tables, the partial pressure of water vapour at 15°C DPT is
pv = 12.79 mm Hg = 12.79 (133.5) = 1707.5 N/m2.
(ii) Saturation pressure of water vapour at 21°C DBT
ps = 18.65 mm Hg = 18.65 (133.5) = 2489.8 N/m2
Relative humidity
p 12.79
f = v ´ 100 = ´ 100 = 68.58%
ps 18.65
(iii) Specific humidity
p (12.79) (12.79)
w = 0.622 v = 0.622 = 0.622
pa (736 - 12.79) 723.21
= 0.011 kg w.v./kg d.a.
 Properties of Moist Air 459

(iv) Latent heat of vaporization of water at dry bulb and dew-point temperatures
of air
(hfg)21°C = 2452 kJ/kg
(hfg)15°C = 2466.2 kJ/kg
Specific enthalpy of water vapour from Fig. 14.5 by the three methods
hC = (4.1868) (21) + 2452 = 2540 kJ/kg w.v.
hA = (4.1868) (15) + 2466.2 + 1.88 (21 – 15)
= 2540.3 kJ/kg w.v.
hB = 2501 + 1.88 (21) = 2540.5 kJ/kg w.v.

Note The three values are extremely close to each other.

(v) Enthalpy of air using the value of specific enthalpy of water vapour from the
empirical relation
h = ha + w h v
= 1.005 (21) + 0.011 (2540.5)
= 21.1 + 27.9 = 49.0 kJ/kg d.a.
(vi) Specific volume of air is equal to the volume of 1 kg of dry air or 0.011 kg of
water vapour. Based on the dry air part
Ra T 287.3(273 + 21)
v = va = = = 0.875 m3/kg d.a.
pa (723.21)(133.5)

14.4 WET BULB TEMPERATURE (WBT)10

A method of measuring humidity by a psychrometer may now be described. A

psychrometer comprises of a dry bulb thermometer and a wet bulb thermometer.
The dry bulb thermometer is directly exposed to the air and measures the
actual temperature of air. The bulb of the wet bulb thermometer is covered by a wick
thoroughly wetted by water. The temperature which is measured by the wick-
covered bulb of such a thermometer indicates the temperature of liquid-water in the
wick and is called the wet bulb temperature. Let it be denoted by the symbol t¢.
Referring to Fig. 14.6, when unsaturated moist air at A flows over water in the
wick at f, the partial pressure pv of the water vapour in the mixture is too low for
equilibrium with the liquid which exerts the saturation pressure ps. As a result the
liquid evaporates into air, increasing the vapour pressure to ps1. The enthalpy of
vaporization is derived from liquid water itself as well as air. Accordingly, the state
of water drops to f1, its vapour pressure to ps1, and the state of leaving water vapour
(and also temperature of air) moves to 1.
The process is repeated until the equilibrium temperature t¢ is reached in the
wick, when the water in the wick is at f ¢ and the water vapour in the air after leaving
the bulb is saturated at g¢. The leaving temperature of air is also t ¢. At this equilibri-
um state, the enthalpy of vaporization is completely derived from air. Thus, we have
at this point the heat required to evaporate water to saturate air equal to the heat
surrendered by air.
 #
Psychrometry of
Air-Conditioning Processes

This chapter presents the psychrometry of common air-conditioning processes

showing how the state of moist air is altered as the respective processes take place.

15.1 MIXING PROCESS

Let us consider the adiabatic mixing of different quantities of air in two different
states at constant pressure. Let subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the two streams of air, and
let ma refer to the mass of dry air in the stream. Then by moisture balance, we have
for the specific humidity of the mixture
ma3 M3 = ma1 M1 + ma2 M 2
ma 1M 1 + ma 2 M 2
Þ M3 = (15.1)
ma 3
where by dry air mass balance,
ma3 = ma1 + ma2
is the mass of dry air in the mixture.
Also, by energy balance, we similarly get the expression for the enthalpy of the
mixture
ma 1 h 1 + ma 2 h 2
h3 = (15.2)
ma 3
Substituting expressions from Eq. (14.36) for the enthalpies in the above
equation, we have
ma 1 ma 2
(Cp t 3 + hfg0M3) = (Cp t1 + hfg 0 M 1) + (Cp t 2 + hfg0 M 2)
ma 3 ma 3
Simplifying, we get an expression for the temperature of the mixture
ma 1 t1 + ma 2 t 2
+
LM
h fg0 ma 1
M1 +
ma 2
M2 - M3
OP
t3 =
ma 3 Cp MN m
a3 ma 3 PQ
 Psychrometry of Air-Conditioning Processes 475

The second term in the above expression being negligible, we can write
ma 1 t1 + ma 2 t 2
t3 » (15.3)
ma 3
The sign of approximation has been used since an assumption has been made that
the humid specific heat Cp is the same for all three streams.
Thus, if the psychrometric chart had been plotted on a M – h coordinate system,
the state point for the mixture would lie on the straight line joining the two states. On
the M – t coordinate system (Fig. 15.1) it is only approximately so. The position of
the mixture state is such that it divides the straight line joining states 1 and 2 in the
inverse ratio of the masses ma1 and ma2 of the two dry air streams.
h1
m h3
a 2
1 ma
h2 ma
1
ma 2
1

w
ma 3 w1
3 w3

ma1
w2
2
ma 2
t t3
Fig. 15.1(a) Adiabatic mixing of Fig. 15.1(b) Mixing process on psychrometric
air streams chart

Example 15.1 30 m3/min of a stream of moist air at 15°C DBT and 13°C
WBT are mixed with 12 m3/min of a second stream at 25°C DBT and 18°C WBT.
Barometric pressure is one standard atmosphere. Determine the dry bulb and
wet bulb temperatures of the resulting mixture.

Solution From the psychrometric chart:

For the first stream
t1 = 15°C, t1¢ = 13°C, L1 = 0.827 m3/kg d.a.,
M1 = 0.0084 kg w.v./kg d.a., h1 = 36.85 kJ/kg d.a.
For the second stream
t2 = 25°C, t¢2 = 18°C, L2 = 0.859 m3/kg d.a.,
M2 = 0.01 kg w.v./kg d.a., h2 = 51.1 kJ/kg d.a.
Dry air mass flow rates
30
m a1 = = 36.2 kg d.a./min
0.827
12
m a2 = = 13.9 kg d.a./min
0.859
For the mixture
ma3 = 36.2 + 13.9 = 50.1 kg d.a./min
476 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

36.2(0.0084) + 13.9(0.01)
M3 = = 0.00886 kg w.v./kg d.a.
50.01
36.2(36.85) + 13.9(511.)
h3 = = 40.8 kJ kg./d.a.
50.1
From the psychrometric chart for calculated values of M3 and h3
DBT of mixture, t3 = 17.5°C
WBT of mixture, t3¢ = 14.5°C

Example 15.2 A stream of moist air at 2°C dry bulb and 80 per cent relative
humidity mixes with another stream of moist air at 30°C dry bulb and 10°C dew
point in the-ratio by mass of one part of the first to two parts of the second.
Calculate the temperature and specific humidity of the air after mixing.

Solution For the first stream

M 1 = 0.0035 kg w.v./kg d.a.
h1 = 10.78 kJ/kg d.a.
Mass of dry air per unit mass of moist air
1 1
ma1 = kg = = 0.9955 kg
1 + M1 1.0035
For the second stream
M2 = 0.00765 kg w.v./kg d.a.
h2 = 49.67 kJ/kg d.a.
Mass of dry air per two-units mass of moist air
2 2
ma2 = kg = = 1.9848 kg
1 + M2 1.00765
For the mixture
0.9965(10 . 78) + 1.9848(49.67)
h= = 36.68 kJ/kg d.a.
0.9965 + 1.9848
0.9965(0.0035) + 1.9848(0.00765)
M= = 0.00627 kg w.v./kg d.a.
0.9965 + 1.9848

15.1.1 Mixing with Condensation

When a large quantity of cold air mixes with a quantity of warmer air at a high
relative humidity, there is a possibility of condensation of water vapour, as seen in
Fig. 15.2, and the mixture will then consist of saturated air and the condensate.
If the DBT of the mixture falls below 0°C, the condensate may eventually freeze.
It may be noted that due to condensation, the specific humidity of the mixture M4,
will be reduced to below M3 given by Eq. (15.1), as shown in Fig. 15.2 (b). Corre-
spondingly, the temperature of the air would be increased to t4 from t3 due to the
release of the latent heat of the condensate. Now, if Mc represents the mass of the
condensate per unit mass of the mixture, we have by moisture and energy balance
Mc = M 3 – M4
 Psychrometry of Air-Conditioning Processes 477

ma 1M 1 + ma 2 M 2
or M4 = – Mc (15.4)
ma 1 + ma 2
and ma4 h4 + ma4 Mc hf4 = ma4 h3
ma 1 h 1 + ma 2 h 2
or h4 = – Mc hf4 (15.5)
ma 1 + ma 2
where hf4 is the enthalpy of the condensate at temperature t4 of the mixture. The two
variables to be solved from Eqs (15.4) and (15.5) are t4 and Mc. By assuming differ-
ent values of t4 and substituting for M4, h4 and hf4, the two equations can be solved by
trial and error to obtain the final state after mixing.

1
w1

w
3 w3
1 w4
Adiabatic 4
4
Mixer
2 w2
2

wc t
Fig. 15.2(a) Adiabatic mixer with Fig. 15.2(b) Mixing process with
condensation condensation

Mixing with condensation rarely occurs in air-conditioning processes. However,

during winter it is a common phenomenon in nature for fog or frost to form. It is due
to the mixing of cold air near the earth’s surface with the humid and warm air which
develops towards the evening or after rains.

15.2 BASIC PROCESSES IN CONDITIONING OF AIR

Four basic thermodynamic processes and four combinations of processes by which

the state of moist air can be altered are shown in Fig. 15.3. They are:
(i) Sensible heating – process OA
(ii) Sensible cooling – process OB
(iii) Humidifying – process OC
(iv) Dehumidifying – process OD
(v) Heating and humidifying – process OE
(vi) Cooling and dehumidifying – process OF
(vii) Cooling and humidifying – process OG
(viii) Heating and dehumidifying – process OH.
478 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

E
G C

B A

H
F D

t
Fig. 15.3 Basic psychrometric processes

The first two processes, viz., sensible heating and cooling, involve only a change
in the dry bulb temperature, whereas the processes of humidifying and dehumidify-
ing involve a change in the specific humidity. Thus, when the state of the air moves
from O to A or to B, there is no change in the moisture content of the air; if the state
changes from O to C or to D, the DBT remains constant. However, most practical
moisture-transfer processes involve a change in temperature as well. The last four
fundamental processes listed above involve both changes in temperature as well as
in humidity.
We shall, now, consider calculations for processes involving changes in
temperature and humidity.

15.2.1 Sensible Heat Process-Heating or Cooling

hB
When the state of moist air is altered along
the M = constant line such as AB in hA
Fig. 15.4, the heat has to be transferred which
goes to change the temperature of the air. The
heat transfer, is given by
B

QS = ma (hB – hA ) A B
=
A

= ma Cp (tB – tA )
= ma Cpa (tB – tA ) + ma MCpv (tB – tA)
= ma (1.005 + 1.88 M) (tB – tA) (15.6) td tA tB
t
where Cp is the humid specific heat. This Fig. 15.4 Sensible heat process
heat, denoted by the subscript S, is called the
sensible heat. If a building to be air conditioned receives or loses heat due to trans-
mission or other reasons, it is supposed to have sensible heat load. Heat gain in
buildings will require the conditioning of air to lower temperatures, causing a cool-
ing load on the air-conditioning equipment. However, heat loss in buildings will
require the heating of air causing a heating load on the equipment.
In Eq. (15.6), m& a denotes the mass flow rate of dry air. Generally the flow rate of
air is measured in terms of cubic metres of air per minute (cmm). Then the mass flow
rate of dry air can be calculated from
m& a = Q& LH (15.7a)
 Psychrometry of Air-Conditioning Processes 479

where Q& L is the volume flow rate of air. Expressing this in cmm, we have
( cmm) H
m& a = kg d.a./s (15.7b)
60
For the purpose of calculations, standard air is taken at 20°C and 50 per cent RH.
The density of standard air is approximated to 1.2 kg/m3 d.a. The value of humid
specific heat is taken as 1.0216 kJ/(kg d.a.) (K). Substituting these in Eq. (15.6),
we obtain
Q& S = (cmm)(1.2)(1.0216) D t
60
= 0.0204 (cmm) D t, kW (= 1.08 (cfm) D t Btu/h) (15.8)
In English units, D t is in °F.
It may be noted that, whereas, simple heating of moist air can be done to any
desired temperature, simple cooling can be done only up to the dew point tempera-
ture, viz., up to td in Fig. 15.4. Cooling below this temperature will result in the
condensation of moisture.

15.2.2 Latent Heat Process-Humidification or Dehumidification

When the state of air is altered along the hC
t = constant line, such as BC in Fig. 15.5,
moisture in the form of vapour has to be hB
C
transferred to change the humidity ratio of C
the air. This transfer of moisture is given by
G = ma (MC – MB) (15.9)
B
Because of this change in the humidity B
ratio, there is also a change in the specific
enthalpy of the air given by (hC – hB) as
t = tB = tC
shown in Fig. 15.5. In air-conditioning
t
practice, this change in enthalpy due to the
Fig. 15.5 Latent heat process
change in the humidity ratio is considered
to cause a latent-heat transfer given by
QL = ma (hC – hB) = ma (Cp tC + hfg0 MC ) – (Cp tB + hfg0 MB)
= ma hfg0 (MC – MB)
= Ghfg0 = 2500 G (15.10)
In the above derivation Cp has been taken as the same for both B and C. it is
evident that though the term latent heat appears to be a misnomer, the quantity QL is
proportional to the latent heat of vaporization hfg0. It implies that if water is to be
evaporated or condensed at the temperature of air, the required heat transfer would
be QL.
Accordingly, if a building gains or loses moisture, it is supposed to have a latent-
heat load. A gain of moisture will require the condensation of moisture for the dehu-
midification of air in the conditioning apparatus, and hence a cooling load. On the
other hand, a loss of moisture will necessitate the evaporation of water for the
humidification of air in the apparatus and hence a heating load. Substituting 2500
for hfg0 in Eq. (15.10) and using the expression for m& a from Eq. (15.7b) we obtain
480 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Q& L =
(cmm)(1.2)(2501)
DM
60
= 50 (cmm) DM, kW (= 0.68 (cfm) DM Btu/h) (15.11)
In English units, DM is in grains/Ibm d.a. Note that 7000 grains = 1 Ibm.

15.2.3 Total Heat Process

Consider now a change in the state of air along the path AC as shown in Fig. 15.6.
This involves both a change in temperature as well as in the humidity ratio. The
change in temperature causes a sensible heat load given by
Q S = ma (hB – hA )
= ma Cp (tC – tA ) (15.12)
The change in the humidity ratio causes a moisture transfer given by
G = ma (MC – MA)
and a latent heat load given by
QL = ma (hC – hB)
= ma hfg0 (MC – MA) (15.13)
Adding Eqs (15.12) and (15.13) we obtain an expression for total heat load as
Q = QS + QL
= ma (hC – hA) (15.14a)
= ma [Cp (tC – tA) + hfg0 (MC – MA)] (15.14b)
Again, expressing the mass flow rate in cmm, we get
Q& = (cmm)(1.2) Dh
60
= 0.02 (cmm) Dh, (15.15a)
which is the same as
Q& = (cmm) (0.0204 D t + 50 DM), kW (15.15b)

15.2.4 Sensible Heat Factor (SHF)

The ratio of the sensible heat transfer to the total heat transfer is termed as the sensi-
ble heat factor. Thus
QS Q
SHF = = S
QS + QL Q
Substituting from Eqs (15.8) and (15.15), we obtain
hB - hA h - hA
SHF = = B
(hB - hA ) + (hC - hB ) hC - hA
0.0204 D t 0.0204D t
= = (15.16)
0.0204 D t + 50DM 0.02D h
It may be observed from Fig. 15.6 that point B divides the total enthalpy change
(hC – hA) in the ratio of SHF and 1 – SHF. The sensible heat transfer taking place
along AB is proportional to SHF and the latent heat transfer along BC is propor-
tional to 1 – SHF. The process line AC is called the sensible heat factor line or
process or condition line.
 Psychrometry of Air-Conditioning Processes 481

hC

F)
SH

h
hB –
(1

C
wC

F
SH
hA

w
q wA
A B

t
tA tC
t
Fig. 15.6 Total heat process

It is obvious that a sensible heat factor of unity corresponds to no latent heat

transfer and the SHF line is horizontal on the psychrometric chart. However, a zero
SHF line is vertical on the psychrometric chart and implies no sensible heat transfer.
An SHF of 0.75 to 0.8 is quite common in air-conditioning practice in a normal dry
climate. A lower value of SHF, such as 0.65, implies a high latent heat load, which is
quite common in a humid climate.
Simplifying Eq. (15.16), we have
1 1
SHF = = (15.17)
DM 1 + tan G
1 + 2451
Dt
DM
where tan G =
Dt
1 FG 1 - 1IJ
=
2451 H SHF K (15.18)

We see that G is the slope of the SHF line AC on the psychrometric chart, which
is purely a function of SHF.
Thus, when a process line is to be drawn on the psychrometric chart, the
following two things have to be known:
(i) Initial state of air
(ii) Sensible heat factor
The following are the ways in which the SHF line can be drawn on the
psychrometric chart with this data:
(i) In the first method, we can calculate tan G. Then move vertically a certain
distance DM from the initial state, and then horizontally a distance
Dt = (DM) (tan G)