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Definitions and scales

"Corrupt" redirects here. For other uses, see Corrupt (disambiguation).
Causes For other uses, see Corruption (disambiguation).
By sector Corruption is a form of dishonesty or a criminal offense which is undertaken by a person or an
Methods organization which is entrusted in a position of authority, in order to acquire illicit benefits or abuse
power for one's personal gain. Corruption may involve many activities which include bribery,
Measurement
influence peddling and embezzlement and it may also involve practices which are legal in many
Relationship to economic growth countries.[1] Political corruption occurs when an office-holder or other governmental employee acts
Prevention with an official capacity for personal gain. Corruption is most common in kleptocracies, oligarchies,
narco-states, and mafia states.[citation needed]
Anti-corruption programmes
Corruption and crime are endemic sociological occurrences which appear with regular frequency in A map depicting Corruption Perceptions Index in
In popular culture
the world in 2022; a higher score indicates lower
virtually all countries on a global scale in varying degrees and proportions. Recent data suggests
Legal corruption levels of corruption.
corruption is on the rise.[2] Each individual nation allocates domestic resources for the control and 100 – 90
Historical responses in regulation of corruption and the deterrence of crime. Strategies which are undertaken in order to 89 – 80
philosophical and religious thought
counter corruption are often summarized under the umbrella term anti-corruption.[3] Additionally, 79 – 70
Corruption by country global initiatives like the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 16 also have a targeted 69 – 60
goal which is supposed to substantially reduce corruption in all of its forms.[4] 59 – 50
See also
49 – 40
References 39 – 30
Definitions and scales [ edit ] 29 – 20
Further reading
19 – 10
Stephen D. Morris,[5] a professor of politics, wrote that political corruption is the illegitimate use of
9–0
public power to benefit a private interest. Economist Ian Senior defined corruption as an action to
No data
secretly provide a good or a service to a third party to influence certain actions which benefit the
corrupt, a third party, or both in which the corrupt agent has authority.[6] World Bank economist
Daniel Kaufmann[7] extended the concept to include "legal corruption" in which power is abused within the
confines of the law—as those with power often have the ability to make laws for their protection. The effect of
corruption in infrastructure is to increase costs and construction time, lower the quality and decrease the
benefit.[8]

Corruption is a complex phenomenon and can occur on different scales.[9] Corruption ranges from small favors
between a small number of people (petty corruption),[10] to corruption that affects the government on a large A billboard in Zambia exhorting the
scale (grand corruption), and corruption that is so prevalent that it is part of the everyday structure of society, public to "Just say no to corruption".

including corruption as one of the symptoms of organized crime (systemic corruption).

A number of indicators and tools have been developed which can measure different forms of corruption with increasing accuracy;[11][12] but when those
are impractical, one study suggests looking at bodyfat as a rough guide after finding that obesity of cabinet ministers in post-Soviet states was highly
correlated with more accurate measures of corruption.[13][14]

Petty corruption [ edit ]

Petty corruption occurs at a smaller scale and takes place at the implementation end of public services when public officials meet the public. For
example, in many small places such as registration offices, police stations, state licensing boards,[15][16] and many other private and government sectors.
[clarification needed]

Grand corruption [ edit ]

Grand corruption is defined as corruption occurring at the highest levels of government in a way that requires significant subversion of the political, legal
and economic systems. Such corruption is commonly found in countries with authoritarian or dictatorial governments but also in those without adequate
policing of corruption.[17]

The government system in many countries is divided into the legislative, executive and judicial branches in an attempt to provide independent services
that are less subject to grand corruption due to their independence from one another.[18]

Systemic corruption [ edit ]

Systemic corruption (or endemic corruption)[19] is corruption which is primarily due to the weaknesses of an organization or process. It can be
contrasted with individual officials or agents who act corruptly within the system.

Factors which encourage systemic corruption include conflicting incentives, discretionary powers; monopolistic powers; lack of transparency; low pay;
and a culture of impunity.[20] Specific acts of corruption include "bribery, extortion, and embezzlement" in a system where "corruption becomes the rule
rather than the exception."[21] Scholars distinguish between centralized and decentralized systemic corruption, depending on which level of state or
government corruption takes place; in countries such as the post-Soviet states both types occur.[22] Some scholars argue that there is a negative
duty [clarification needed] of western governments to protect against systematic corruption of underdeveloped governments.[23][24]

Corruption has been a major issue in China, where society depends heavily on personal relationships. By the late 20th century that combined with the
new lust for wealth, produced escalating corruption. Historian Keith Schoppa says that bribery was only one of the tools of Chinese corruption, which also
included, "embezzlement, nepotism, smuggling, extortion, cronyism, kickbacks, deception, fraud, squandering of public money, illegal business
transactions, stock manipulation and real estate fraud." Given the repeated anti-corruption campaigns it was a prudent precaution to move as much of
the fraudulent money as possible overseas.[25]

In Latin American countries, corruption is permitted as a result of the cultural norms of the institution. In countries like the United States, there is a
relatively strong sense of trust among strangers, one that is not found in Latin American countries. In Latin American countries, this trust does not exist,
whereas the social norms imply that no stranger is responsible for the wellbeing or happiness of another stranger. Instead, the trust is found in
acquaintances. Acquaintances are treated with trust and respect—a level of trust that is not found among acquaintances in countries like the United
States. This is what permits for corruption in Latin American countries. If there is a strong enough trust within an administration that no one will betray the
rest, corruptive policies will take place with ease. In the United States, this could not occur, as there is not a strong enough trust among the members of
an administration to allow for corruption. In Latin American countries, there is a stronger value in individuality, which includes that of acquaintances,
unlike in countries like the United States, which fails to include acquaintances.[26]

Causes [ edit ]

Per R. Klitgaard[27] corruption will occur if the corrupt gain is greater than the penalty multiplied by the likelihood of being caught and prosecuted.

Since a high degree of monopoly and discretion accompanied by a low degree of transparency does not automatically lead to corruption, a fourth
variable of "morality" or "integrity" has been introduced by others. The moral dimension has an intrinsic component and refers to a "mentality problem",
and an extrinsic component referring to circumstances like poverty, inadequate remuneration, inappropriate work conditions and inoperable or over-
complicated procedures which demoralize people and let them search for "alternative" solutions.

According to a 2017 survey study, the following factors have been attributed as causes of corruption:[28]

Greed of money, desires. Poverty

Higher levels of market and political monopolization Political instability
Low levels of democracy, weak civil participation and low political Weak property rights
transparency Contagion from corrupt neighboring countries
Higher levels of bureaucracy and inefficient administrative structures Low levels of education
Low press freedom Lack of commitment to society
Low economic freedom Extravagant family
Large ethnic divisions and high levels of in-group favoritism Unemployment
Gender inequality Lack of proper policies against corruption

It has been noted that in a comparison of the most corrupt with the least corrupt countries, the former group contains nations with huge socio-economic
inequalities, and the latter contains nations with a high degree of social and economic justice.[29]

By sector [ edit ]

Corruption can occur in many sectors, whether they be public or private industry or even NGOs (especially in public sector). However, only in
democratically controlled institutions is there an interest of the public (owner) to develop internal mechanisms to fight active or passive corruption,
whereas in private industry as well as in NGOs there is no public control. Therefore, the owners' investors' or sponsors' profits are largely decisive.

Public sector [ edit ]

Public corruption includes corruption of the political process and of government agencies such as tax collectors and the police, as well as corruption in
processes of allocating public funds for contracts, grants, and hiring. Recent research by the World Bank suggests that who makes policy decisions
(elected officials or bureaucrats) can be critical in determining the level of corruption because of the incentives different policy-makers face.[30]

Judicial [ edit ]

Judicial corruption refers to the corruption-related misconduct of judges, through the receiving or giving of bribes,
the improper sentencing of convicted criminals, bias in the hearing and judgement of arguments and other forms
of misconduct. Judicial corruption can also be conducted by prosecutors and defense attorneys. An example of
prosecutorial misconduct, occurs when a politician or a crime boss bribes a prosecutor to open investigations
and file charges against an opposing politician or a rival crime boss, in order to hurt the competition.[31]

Governmental corruption of the judiciary is broadly known in many transitional and developing countries because
the budget is almost completely controlled by the executive. The latter critically undermines the separation of
powers, because it fosters financial dependence on the judiciary. The proper distribution of a nation's wealth,
including its government's spending on the judiciary, is subject to constitutional economics.

In the Renaissance fresco The

The judiciary may be corrupted by acts of the government, such as through budget planning and various
Good and the Bad Judge (Monsaraz,
privileges, and by private acts.[32] Corruption in judiciary may also involve the government using its judicial arm Portugal), the Bad Judge, depicted as
to oppress opposition parties. Judicial corruption is difficult to completely eradicate, even in developed having two faces, is shown taking
countries.[33] bribes: the nobleman to the right offers
him gold coins from a purse, and the
villein to the left gives him a pair of
Military [ edit ] partridges.

Military corruption refers to the abuse of power by members in the armed forces, in order for career
advancement or for personal gain by a soldier or soldiers. One form of military corruption in the United States Armed Forces is a military soldier being
promoted in rank or being given better treatment than their colleagues by their officers due to their race, sexual orientation, ethnicity, gender, religious
beliefs, social class or personal relationships with higher-ranking officers in spite of their merit.[34] In addition to that, the US military has also had many
instances of officers sexually assaulting fellow officers and in many cases, there were allegations that many of the attacks were covered up and victims
were coerced to remain silent by officers of the same rank or of higher rank.[35]

Another example of military corruption, is a military officer or officers using the power of their positions to commit activities that are illegal, such as
skimming logistical supplies such as food, medicine, fuel, body armor or weapons to sell on the local black market.[36][37] There have also been instances
of military officials, providing equipment and combat support to criminal syndicates, private military companies and terrorist groups, without approval from
their superiors.[38] As a result, many countries have a military police force to ensure that the military officers follow the laws and conduct of their
respective countries but sometimes the military police have levels of corruption themselves.[39]

Natural resources [ edit ]

Within less democratic countries, the presence of resources such as diamonds, gold, oil, and forestry increases the prevalence of corruption. Corruption
includes industrial corruption, consisting of large bribes, as well as petty corruption such as a poacher paying off a park ranger to ignore poaching. The
presence of fuel extraction and export is unambiguously associated with corruption, whereas mineral exports only increased corruption in poorer
countries. In wealthier countries, mineral exports such as gold and diamonds are actually associated with reduced corruption. The international Extractive
Industries Transparency Initiative seeks to create best practices for good governance of gas, oil, and minerals, particularly focusing on the state
management of revenue from these resources. Any valued natural resource can be affected by corruption, including water for irrigation, land for livestock
grazing, forests for hunting and logging, and fisheries.[40]

The presence or perception of corruption also undermines environmental initiatives. In Kenya, farmers blame poor agricultural productivity on corruption,
and thus are less likely to undertake soil conservation measures to prevent soil erosion and loss of nutrients. In Benin, mistrust of government due to
perceived corruption led small farmers to reject the adaptation of measures to combat climate change.[40]

Political [ edit ]
Main article: Political corruption

Political corruption is the abuse of public power, office, or resources by elected government officials for personal
gain, by extortion, soliciting or offering bribes. It can also take the form of office holders maintaining themselves
in office by purchasing votes by enacting laws which use taxpayers' money.[41] Evidence suggests that
corruption can have political consequences- with citizens being asked for bribes becoming less likely to identify
with their country or region.[42]

The political act of graft (American English), is a well known and now global form of political corruption, being
the unscrupulous and illegal use of a politician's authority for personal gain, when funds intended for public
projects are intentionally misdirected in order to maximize the benefits to illegally private interests of the
corrupted individual(s) and their cronies. In some cases government institutions are "repurposed" or shifted away
from their official mandate to serve other, often corrupt purposes.[43]

The Kaunas golden toilet case was a major Lithuanian scandal. In 2009, the municipality of Kaunas (led by
mayor Andrius Kupčinskas) ordered that a shipping container was to be converted into an outdoor toilet at a cost A political cartoon from Harper's
of 500,000 litai (around 150,000 euros). It was to also require 5,000 litai (1,500 euros) in monthly maintenance Weekly, 26 January 1878, depicting
costs.[44] At the same time when Kaunas's "Golden Toilet" was built, Kėdainiai tennis club acquired a very similar, U.S. Secretary of the Interior Carl
Schurz investigating the Indian Bureau
but more advanced solution for 4,500 euros.[44] Because of the inflated cost of the outdoor toilet, it was
at the U.S. Department of the Interior.
nicknamed the "Golden Toilet". Despite the investment, the "Golden Toilet" remained closed for years due to the The original caption for the cartoon is:
dysfunctionality and was a subject of a lengthy anti-corruption investigation into those who had created it and[44] "THE SECRETARY OF THE
INTERIOR INVESTIGATING THE
the local municipality even considered demolishing the building at one point.[45] The group of public servants
INDIAN BUREAU. GIVE HIM HIS
involved in the toilet's procurement received various prison sentences for recklessness, malfeasance, misuse of DUE, AND GIVE THEM THEIR DUES."
power and document falsifications in a 2012 court case, but were cleared of their corruption charges and
received compensation, which pushed the total construction cost and subsequent related financial losses to
352,000 euros.

On 7 July 2020, the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, a global think tank, released a report claiming
the Emirati city, Dubai, of being an enabler of global corruption, crime and illicit financial flows. It stated that the
global corrupt and criminal actors either operated through or from Dubai. The city was also called a haven for
trade-based money laundering, as it gives space to free trade zones, with minimal regulatory laws and customs
enforcement.[46]
The Kaunas "Golden Toilet"
A report in September 2022 revealed that British Members of Parliament received a total of £828,211 over a
period of eight years from countries of the Saudi-led coalition in the Yemeni Civil War. The money was granted in
the form of all-expenses-paid trips to 96 MPs by Saudi Arabia (at least £319,406), Bahrain (£197,985), the United Arab Emirates (£187,251), Egypt
(£66,695) and Kuwait (£56,872). MPs also received gifts, including a £500 food hamper, tickets for a Burns Supper, an expensive watch and a day out at
the Royal Windsor Horse Show. The Saudi-led coalition was alleged of attempting to buy influence in the UK. While the MPs registered the trips and gifts
at Westminster as per the rules, critics called it “absolutely shameful” to accept donations from countries with poor human rights records.[47]

Police [ edit ]
Main article: Police corruption

Police corruption is a specific form of police misconduct designed to obtain financial benefits, personal gain,
career advancement for a police officer or officers in exchange for not pursuing or selectively pursuing an
investigation or arrest or aspects of the "thin blue line" itself where force members collude in lies to protect their
precincts, unions and/or other law enforcement members from accountability. One common form of police
corruption is soliciting or accepting bribes in exchange for not reporting organized drug or prostitution rings or
other illegal activities. When civilians become witnesses to police brutality, officers are often known to respond by
harassing and intimidating the witnesses as retribution for reporting the misconduct.[48] Whistleblowing is not
A 1902 cartoon depicts a police
common in law enforcement in part because officers who do so normally face reprisal by being fired, being
officer whose eyes are covered with a
forced to transfer to another department, being demoted, being shunned, losing friends, not being given back-up cloth labelled "bribes".
during emergencies, receiving professional or even physical threats as well as having threats be made against
friends or relatives of theirs or having their own misconduct exposed.[49] In America another common form of
police corruption is when white supremacist groups, such as Neo-Nazi Skinheads or Neo-Confederates (such as the Ku Klux Klan), recruit members of
law enforcement into their ranks or encourage their members to join local police departments to repress minorities and covertly promote white
supremacy.[50]

Another example is police officers flouting the police code of conduct in order to secure convictions of suspects—for example, through the use of
surveillance abuse, false confessions, police perjury and/or falsified evidence. Police officers have also been known to sell forms of contraband that were
taken during seizers (such as confiscated drugs, stolen property or weapons).[51] Corruption and misconduct can also be done by prison officers, such as
the smuggling of contraband (such as drugs or electronics) into jails and prisons for inmates or the abuse of prisoners.[52][53] Another form of misconduct
is probation officers taking bribes in exchange for allowing paroles to violate the terms of their probation or abusing their paroles.[54] More rarely, police
officers may deliberately and systematically participate in organized crime themselves, either while on the job or during off hours. In most major cities,
there are internal affairs sections to investigate suspected police corruption or misconduct. Similar entities include the British Independent Police
Complaints Commission.

Private sector [ edit ]

Private sector corruption occurs when any institution, entity or person that is not controlled by the public sector company, household and institution that is
not controlled by the public sector engages in corrupt acts. Private sector corruption may overlap with public sector corruption, for example when a
private entity operates in conjunction with corrupt government officials, or where the government involves itself in activity normally performed by private
entities.

Legal [ edit ]
Main article: Attorney misconduct

Corruption facilitated by lawyers is a well known form of judicial misconduct. Such abuse is called Attorney misconduct. Attorney misconduct can be
either conducted by individuals acting on their own accord or by entire law firms. A well known example of such corruption are mob lawyers. Mob
lawyers are attorneys who seek to protect the leaders of criminal enterprises as well as their criminal organizations, with the use of unethical and/or
illegal conduct such as making false or misleading statements, hiding evidence from prosecutors, failing to disclose all relevant facts about the case, or
even giving clients advice on how to commit crimes in ways that would make prosecution more difficult for any investigating authorities.[55]

Corporate [ edit ]
See also: Corporate crime

The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You
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In criminology, corporate crime refers to crimes committed either by a corporation (i.e., a business entity having
a separate legal personality from the natural persons that manage its activities), or by individuals acting on
behalf of a corporation or other business entity (see vicarious liability and corporate liability). Some negative
behaviours by corporations may not be criminal; laws vary between jurisdictions. For example, some jurisdictions
allow insider trading.

Examples [ edit ]

Petróleo Brasileiro S.A. — Petrobras, more commonly known as simply Petrobras (Portuguese pronunciation:
[ˌpɛtɾoˈbɾas]), is a semi-public Brazilian multinational corporation in the petroleum industry headquartered in Rio
de Janeiro, Brazil. The company's name translates to Brazilian Petroleum Corporation – Petrobras. The
company was ranked No. 58 in the 2016 Fortune Global 500 list.[56] From 2014 to 2021, an investigation known
as Operation Car Wash examined allegations of corporate and political collusion and corruption by Petrobras.[57]
Petrobras headquarters in
Odebrecht is a privately held Brazilian conglomerate consisting of businesses in the fields of engineering, real downtown Rio de Janeiro
estate, construction, chemicals and petrochemicals. The company was founded in 1944 in Salvador da Bahia by
Norberto Odebrecht, and the firm is now present in South America, Central America, North America, the
Caribbean, Africa, Europe and the Middle East. Its leading company is Norberto Odebrecht Construtora [pt].[58] Odebrecht is one of the 25 largest
international construction companies and led by Odebrecht family.

In 2016, the firm's executives were examined during Operation Car Wash part of an investigation over Odebrecht Organization bribes to executives of
Petrobras, in exchange for contracts and influence.[59][60][57] Operation Car Wash is an ongoing criminal money laundering and bribes related corporate
crime investigation being carried out by the Federal Police of Brazil, Curitiba Branch, and judicially commanded by Judge Sérgio Moro since 17 March
2014.[61][62][63][57]

Education [ edit ]

Corruption in education is a worldwide phenomenon. Corruption in admissions to universities is traditionally considered one of the most corrupt areas of
the education sector.[64] Recent attempts in some countries, such as Russia and Ukraine, to curb corruption in admissions through the abolition of
university entrance examinations and introduction of standardized computer-graded tests have met backlash from part of society,[65] while others
appreciate the changes. Vouchers for university entrants have never materialized.[66] The cost of corruption is that it impedes sustainable economic
growth.[66]

Endemic corruption in educational institutions leads to the formation of sustainable corrupt hierarchies.[67][68][69] While higher education in Russia is
distinct with widespread bribery, corruption in the US and the UK features a significant amount of fraud.[70][71] The US is distinct with grey areas and
institutional corruption in the higher education sector.[72][73] Authoritarian regimes, including those in former Soviet republics, encourage educational
corruption and control universities, especially during the election campaigns.[74] This is typical for Russia,[75] Ukraine,[76] and Central Asian regimes,[77]
among others. The general public is well aware of the high level of corruption in colleges and universities, including thanks to the media.[78][79] Doctoral
education is no exception, with dissertations and doctoral degrees available for sale, including for politicians.[80] Russian Parliament is notorious for
"highly educated" MPs[81] High levels of corruption are a result of universities not being able to break away from their Stalinist past, over
bureaucratization,[82] and a clear lack of university autonomy.[83] Both quantitative and qualitative methodologies are employed to study education
corruption,[84] but the topic remains largely unattended by the scholars. In many societies and international organizations, education corruption remains a
taboo. In some countries, such as certain eastern European countries, some Balkan countries and certain Asian countries, corruption occurs frequently in
universities.[85] This can include bribes to bypass bureaucratic procedures and bribing faculty for a grade.[85][86] The willingness to engage in corruption
such as accepting bribe money in exchange for grades decreases if individuals perceive such behavior as very objectionable, i.e. a violation of social
norms and if they fear sanctions regarding the severity and probability of sanctions.[86]

Healthcare [ edit ]

Corruption, the abuse of entrusted power for private gain, as defined by Transparency International[87] is systemic in the health sector. The
characteristics of health systems with their concentrated supply of a service, high discretionary power of its members controlling the supply, and low
accountability to others are the exact constellation of the variables described by Klitgaard, on which corruption depends.[88]: 26

Corruption in health care poses a significant danger to the public welfare.[89] It is widespread, and yet little has been published in medical journals about
this topic and as of 2019 there is no evidence on what might reduce corruption in the health sector.[90] Corruption occurs within the private and public
health sectors and may appear as theft, embezzlement, nepotism, bribery up til extortion, or as undue influence.[91] and occurs anywhere within the
sector, be it in service provision, purchasing, construction and hiring. In 2019, Transparency International has described the 6 most common ways of
service corruption as follows: absenteeism, informal payments from patients, embezzlement, inflating services also the costs of services, favouritism and
manipulation of data (billing for goods and services that were never sent or done).[92]

Labor unions [ edit ]

Labor unions leaders may be involved in corrupt action or be influenced or controlled by criminal enterprises.[93] For example, for many years the
Teamsters were substantially controlled by the Mafia.[94]

Arms trafficking [ edit ]

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may improve this section, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new section, as appropriate.
(January 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

"Arms for cash" can be done by either a state-sanctioned arms dealer, firm or state itself to another party it just regards as only a good business partner
and not political kindred or allies, thus making them no better than regular gun runners. Arms smugglers, who are already into arms trafficking may work
for them on the ground or with shipment. The money is often laundered and records are often destroyed.[95] It often breaks UN, national or international
law.[95]

Main article: Mitterrand–Pasqua affair

The Mitterrand–Pasqua affair, also known informally as Angolagate, was an international political scandal over the secret and illegal sale and
shipment of arms from the nations of Central Europe to the government of Angola by the Government of France in the 1990s. It led to arrests and
judiciary actions in the 2000s, involved an illegal arms sale to Angola despite a UN embargo, with business interests in France and elsewhere improperly
obtaining a share of Angolan oil revenues. The scandal has subsequently been tied to several prominent figures in French politics.[96]

42 individuals, including Jean-Christophe Mitterrand, Jacques Attali, Charles Pasqua and Jean-Charles Marchiani, Pierre Falcone. Arcadi Gaydamak,
Paul-Loup Sulitzer, Union for a Popular Movement deputy Georges Fenech, Philippe Courroye [fr] the son of François Mitterrand and a former French
Minister of the Interior, were charged, accused, indicted or convicted with illegal arms trading, tax fraud, embezzlement, money laundering and other
crimes.[96][97][98]

Philosophy [ edit ]

The 19th-century German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer acknowledged that academics, including philosophers, are subject to the same sources of
corruption as the societies which they inhabit. He distinguished the corrupt "university" philosophers, whose "real concern is to earn with credit an honest
livelihood for themselves and ... to enjoy a certain prestige in the eyes of the public"[99] from the genuine philosopher, whose sole motive is to discover
and bear witness to the truth.

To be a philosopher, that is to say, a lover of wisdom (for wisdom is nothing but truth), it is not enough for a man to love truth, in so far as it is
compatible with his own interest, with the will of his superiors, with the dogmas of the church, or with the prejudices and tastes of his
contemporaries; so long as he rests content with this position, he is only a φίλαυτος [lover of self], not a φιλόσοφος [lover of wisdom]. For this title
of honor is well and wisely conceived precisely by its stating that one should love the truth earnestly and with one's whole heart, and thus
unconditionally and unreservedly, above all else, and, if need be, in defiance of all else. Now the reason for this is the one previously stated that
the intellect has become free, and in this state, it does not even know or understand any other interest than that of truth.[100]

Religious organizations [ edit ]

Main articles: Simony, Cardinal-nephew, Benefice § Pluralism, Mental reservation, Casuistry § Early modern times, and Detraction § Controversies
involving detraction

The history of religion includes numerous examples of religious leaders calling attention to the corruption which Wikiquote has quotations
existed in the religious practices and institutions of their time. The Jewish prophets Isaiah and Amos berate the related to Corruption in
religion.
rabbinical establishment of Ancient Judea for failing to live up to the ideals of the Torah.[101] In the New
Testament, Jesus accuses the rabbinical establishment of his time of hypocritically following only the ceremonial parts of the Torah and neglecting the
more important elements of justice, mercy and faithfulness.[102] Corruption was one of the important issues which led to the Investiture Controversy. In
1517, Martin Luther accused the Catholic Church of widespread corruption, including the selling of indulgences.[103]

In 2015, Princeton University professor Kevin M. Kruse advances the thesis that business leaders in the 1930s and 1940s collaborated with clergymen,
including James W. Fifield Jr., in order to develop and promote a new hermeneutical approach to Scripture which would de-emphasize the social Gospel
and emphasize themes, such as individual salvation, which were more congenial to free enterprise.[104]

Business leaders, of course, had long been working to "merchandise" themselves through the appropriation of religion. In organizations
such as Spiritual Mobilization, the prayer breakfast groups, and the Freedoms Foundation, they had linked capitalism and Christianity and,
at the same time, they likened the welfare state to godless paganism.[105]

Methods [ edit ]

In systemic corruption and grand corruption, multiple methods of corruption are used concurrently with similar aims.[106]

Bribery [ edit ]
Main article: Bribery

Bribery involves the improper use of gifts and favours in exchange for personal gain. This is also known as kickbacks or,
in the Middle East, as baksheesh. It is a common form of corruption. The types of favors given are diverse and may
include money, gifts, real estate, promotions, sexual favors, employee benefits, company shares, privileges,
entertainment, employment and political benefits. The personal gain that is given can be anything from actively giving
preferential treatment to having an indiscretion or crime overlooked.[107]

Bribery can sometimes form a part of the systemic use of corruption for other ends, for example to perpetrate further
corruption. Bribery can make officials more susceptible to blackmail or to extortion.

Embezzlement, theft and fraud [ edit ]

Main article: Embezzlement
An election leaflet with
Embezzlement and theft involve someone with access to funds or assets illegally taking control of them. Fraud involves
money stapled to it
using deception to convince the owner of funds or assets to give them up to an unauthorized party.

Examples include the misdirection of company funds into "shadow companies" (and then into the pockets of corrupt employees), the skimming of foreign
aid money, scams, electoral fraud and other corrupt activity.

Graft [ edit ]
Main article: Graft (politics)

The political act of graft is when funds intended for public projects are intentionally misdirected to maximize the benefits to private interests of the corrupt
individuals.

Extortion and blackmail [ edit ]

Main article: Extortion

While bribery is the use of positive inducements for corrupt aims, extortion and blackmail centre around the use of threats. This can be the threat of
physical violence or false imprisonment as well as exposure of an individual's secrets or prior crimes.

This includes such behavior as an influential person threatening to go to the media if they do not receive speedy medical treatment (at the expense of
other patients), threatening a public official with exposure of their secrets if they do not vote in a particular manner, or demanding money in exchange for
continued secrecy. Another example can be a police officer being threatened with the loss of their job by their superiors, if they continued with
investigating a high-ranking official.

Influence peddling [ edit ]

Influence peddling is the illegal practice of using one's influence in government or connections with persons in authority to obtain favors or preferential
treatment, usually in return for payment.

Networking [ edit ]
Main article: Business networking

Networking (both Business and Personal) can be an effective way for job-seekers to gain a competitive edge over others in the job-market. The idea is to
cultivate personal relationships with prospective employers, selection panelists, and others, in the hope that these personal affections will influence future
hiring decisions. This form of networking has been described as an attempt to corrupt formal hiring processes, where all candidates are given an equal
opportunity to demonstrate their merits to selectors. The networker is accused of seeking non-meritocratic advantage over other candidates; advantage
that is based on personal fondness rather than on any objective appraisal of which candidate is most qualified for the position.[108][109]

Abuse of discretion [ edit ]

Main article: Abuse of discretion

Abuse of discretion refers to the misuse of one's powers and decision-making facilities. Examples include a
judge improperly dismissing a criminal case or a customs official using their discretion to allow a banned
substance through a port.

Favoritism, nepotism and clientelism [ edit ] Euro bank notes hidden in sleeve.
Main article: Nepotism

Favouritism, nepotism and clientelism involve the favouring of not the perpetrator of corruption but someone related to them, such as a friend, family
member or member of an association. Examples would include hiring or promoting a family member or staff member to a role they are not qualified for,
who belongs to the same political party as you, regardless of merit.[110]

Measurement [ edit ]

Several organizations measure corruption as part of their development indexes. The Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) ranks countries "by their
perceived levels of public sector corruption, as determined by expert assessments and opinion surveys." The index has been published annually by the
non-governmental organization Transparency International since 1995.[111] On the supply side, Transparency International used to publish the Bribe
Payers Index, but stopped in 2011.

The Global Corruption Index (GCI), designed by the Global Risk Profile to be in line with anti-corruption and anti-bribery legislation, covers 196 countries
and territories. It measures the state of corruption and white-collar crimes around the world, specifically money laundering and terrorism financing.[112]

Absence of corruption is one of the eight factors[113] the World Justice Project[114] Rule of Law Index[115] measures to evaluate adherence to the rule of
law in 140 countries and jurisdictions around the globe. The annual index measures three forms of government corruption across the executive branch,
the judiciary, the military and police, and the legislature: bribery, improper influence by public or private interests, and misappropriation of public funds or
other resources.[116]

Relationship to economic growth [ edit ]

Corruption can negatively impact the economy both directly, through for example tax evasion and money laundering, as well as indirectly by distorting fair
competition and fair markets, and by increasing the cost of doing business.[117] It is strongly negatively associated with the share of private investment
and, hence, it lowers the rate of economic growth.[118]

Corruption reduces the returns of productive activities. If the returns to production fall faster than the returns to corruption and rent-seeking activities,
resources will flow from productive activities to corruption activities over time. This will result in a lower stock of producible inputs like human capital in
corrupted countries.[118]

Corruption creates the opportunity for increased inequality, reduces the return of productive activities, and, hence, makes rent-seeking and corruption
activities more attractive. This opportunity for increased inequality not only generates psychological frustration to the underprivileged but also reduces
productivity growth, investment, and job opportunities.[118]

Some expert have suggested that corruption actually stimulated economic growth in East and Southeast Asian countries. An often cited example is South
Korea, where president Park Chung Hee favoured a small number of companies, and later used this financial influence to pressure these chaebol to
follow the government's development strategy.[119][120] This 'profit-sharing' corruption model incentivizes government officials to support economic
development, as they would personally benefit financially from it.[117][121]

Prevention [ edit ]

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According to the amended Klitgaard equation,[122] limitation of monopoly and regulator discretion of individuals and a high degree of transparency
through independent oversight by non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and the media plus public access to reliable information could reduce the
problem. Djankov and other researchers[123] have independently addressed the role information plays in fighting corruption with evidence from both
developing and developed countries. Disclosing financial information of government officials to the public is associated with improving institutional
accountability and eliminating misbehavior such as vote buying. The effect is specifically remarkable when the disclosures concern politicians' income
sources, liabilities and asset level instead of just income level. Any extrinsic aspects that might reduce morality should be eliminated. Additionally, a
country should establish a culture of ethical conduct in society with the government setting the good example in order to enhance the intrinsic morality.

Enhancing civil society participation [ edit ]

Creating bottom-up mechanisms, promoting citizens participation and encouraging the values of integrity, accountability, and transparency are crucial
components of fighting corruption. As of 2012, the implementation of the "Advocacy and Legal Advice Centres (ALACs)” in Europe had led to a significant
increase in the number of citizen complaints against acts of corruption received and documented[124] and also to the development of strategies for good
governance by involving citizens willing to fight against corruption.[125]

Anti-corruption programmes [ edit ]

See also: List of anti-corruption agencies

The Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA, USA 1977) was an early paradigmatic law for many western countries
i.e. industrial countries of the OECD. There, for the first time the old principal-agent approach was moved back
where mainly the victim (a society, private or public) and a passive corrupt member (an individual) were
considered, whereas the active corrupt part was not in the focus of legal prosecution. Unprecedented, the law of
an industrial country directly condemned active corruption, particularly in international business transactions,
which was at that time in contradiction to anti-bribery activities of the World Bank and its spin-off organization
Transparency International.

As early as 1989 the OECD had established an ad hoc Working Group in order to explore "the concepts
fundamental to the offense of corruption, and the exercise of national jurisdiction over offenses committed wholly
or partially abroad."[126] Based on the FCPA concept, the Working Group presented in 1994 the then "OECD
Anti-Bribery Recommendation" as precursor for the OECD Convention on Combating Bribery of Foreign Public
Officials in International Business Transactions[127] which was signed in 1997 by all member countries and came
finally into force in 1999. However, because of ongoing concealed corruption in international transactions several
instruments of Country Monitoring[128] have been developed since then by the OECD in order to foster and
evaluate related national activities in combating foreign corrupt practices. One survey shows that after the United Nations Convention against
implementation of heightened review of multinational firms under the convention in 2010 firms from countries that Corruption

had signed the convention were less likely to use bribery.[129]

In 2013, a document[130] produced by the economic and private sector professional evidence and applied knowledge services help-desk discusses some
of the existing practices on anti-corruption. They found:

The theories behind the fight against corruption are moving from a principal agent approach to a collective action problem. Principal–agent theories
seem not to be suitable to target systemic corruption.
The role of multilateral institutions has been crucial in the fight against corruption. UNCAC provides a common guideline for countries around the
world. Both Transparency International and the World Bank provide assistance to national governments in term of diagnostic and design of anti-
corruption policies.
The use of anti-corruption agencies have proliferated in recent years after the signing of UNCAC. They found no convincing evidence on the extent of
their contribution, or the best way to structure them.
Traditionally anti-corruption policies have been based on success experiences and common sense. In recent years there has been an effort to
provide a more systematic evaluation of the effectiveness of anti-corruption policies. They found that this literature is still in its infancy.
Anti-corruption policies that may be in general recommended to developing countries may not be suitable for post-conflict countries. Anti-corruption
policies in fragile states have to be carefully tailored.
Anti-corruption policies can improve the business environment. There is evidence that lower corruption may facilitate doing business and improve
firm's productivity. Rwanda in the last decade has made tremendous progress in improving governance and the business environment providing a
model to follow for post-conflict countries.[130]
Armenia aims to achieve zero corruption through raising awareness on the societal hazards. After the lavish spending accusations on the Armenian
anti-corruption council, through action strategies with implementation and observing instruments progress is noticeable.[131]

In recent years, anti-corruption efforts have also been criticised for overemphasising the benefits of the eradication of corruption for economic growth and
development,[132][133][134][135] following a diversity of literature which has suggested that anti-corruption efforts, the right kind of institutions and "good
governance" are key to economic development.[136][137] This criticism is based on the observed fact that a variety of countries, such as Korea and China
but also the US in the 19th and early 20th century, saw high economic growth and broader socio-economic development coinciding with significant
corruption [138][139]

In popular culture [ edit ]

See also: Kleptocracy Tour

In some countries people travel to corruption hot spots or a specialist tour company takes them on corruption city tours, as is the case in
Prague.[140][141][142][143] Corruption tours have also occurred in Chicago[144] and Mexico City.[145][146]

Films about corruption include Runaway Jury, The Firm, Syriana, The Constant Gardener, and All the President's Men.

Legal corruption [ edit ]

Though corruption is often viewed as illegal, a concept of "legal corruption" has been described by Daniel Kaufmann and Pedro Vicente.[7][147] It might be
termed as processes which are corrupt, but are protected by a "legal" (that is, specifically permitted, or at least not proscribed by law) framework.[148]

Examples [ edit ]

In 1994, the German Parliamentary Financial Commission in Bonn presented a comparative study on "legal corruption" in industrialized OECD
countries[149] They reported that in most industrial countries foreign corruption was legal, and that their foreign corrupt practices ranged from simple,
through governmental subsidization (tax deduction), up to extreme cases as in Germany, where foreign corruption was fostered, whereas domestic was
legally prosecuted. The German Parliamentary Financial Commission rejected a Parliamentary Proposal by the opposition, which had been aiming to
limit German foreign corruption on the basis of the US Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA from 1977), thus fostering national export corporations.[150]
In 1997 a corresponding OECD Anti-Bribery Convention was signed by its members.[151][152] It took until 1999, after the OECD Anti-Bribery Convention
came into force, that Germany withdrew the legalization of foreign corruption.[153]

Foreign corrupt practices of industrialized OECD countries 1994 study [ edit ]

A study on foreign corrupt practices of industrialized OECD countries 1994 (Parliamentary Financial Commission study, Bonn)[149] indicates widespread
acceptance of bribes in business practices.

Belgium: bribe payments are generally tax deductible as business expenses if the name and address of the beneficiary is disclosed. Under the following
conditions kickbacks in connection with exports abroad are permitted for deduction even without proof of the receiver:

Payments must be necessary in order to be able to survive against foreign competition

They must be common in the industry
A corresponding application must be made to the Treasury each year
Payments must be appropriate
The payer has to pay a lump-sum to the tax office to be fixed by the Finance Minister (at least 20% of the amount paid).

In the absence of the required conditions, for corporate taxable companies paying bribes without proof of the receiver, a special tax of 200% is charged.
This special tax may, however, be abated along with the bribe amount as an operating expense.

Denmark: bribe payments are deductible when a clear operational context exists and its adequacy is maintained.

France: basically all operating expenses can be deducted. However, staff costs must correspond to an actual work done and must not be excessive
compared to the operational significance. This also applies to payments to foreign parties. Here, the receiver shall specify the name and address, unless
the total amount in payments per beneficiary does not exceed 500 FF. If the receiver is not disclosed the payments are considered "rémunérations
occult" and are associated with the following disadvantages:

The business expense deduction (of the bribe money) is eliminated.

For corporations and other legal entities, a tax penalty of 100% of the "rémunérations occult" and 75% for voluntary post declaration is to be paid.
There may be a general fine of up 200 FF fixed per case.

Japan: in Japan, bribes are deductible as business expenses that are justified by the operation (of the company) if the name and address of the recipient
is specified. This also applies to payments to foreigners. If the indication of the name is refused, the expenses claimed are not recognized as operating
expenses.

Canada: there is no general rule on the deductibility or non-deductibility of kickbacks and bribes. Hence the rule is that necessary expenses for obtaining
the income (contract) are deductible. Payments to members of the public service and domestic administration of justice, to officers and employees and
those charged with the collection of fees, entrance fees etc. for the purpose to entice the recipient to the violation of his official duties, can not be abated
as business expenses as well as illegal payments according to the Criminal Code.

Luxembourg: bribes, justified by the operation (of a company) are deductible as business expenses. However, the tax authorities may require that the
payer is to designate the receiver by name. If not, the expenses are not recognized as operating expenses.

Netherlands: all expenses that are directly or closely related to the business are deductible. This also applies to expenditure outside the actual business
operations if they are considered beneficial to the operation for good reasons by the management. What counts is the good merchant custom. Neither
the law nor the administration is authorized to determine which expenses are not operationally justified and therefore not deductible. For the business
expense deduction it is not a requirement that the recipient is specified. It is sufficient to elucidate to the satisfaction of the tax authorities that the
payments are in the interest of the operation.

Austria: bribes justified by the operation (of a company) are deductible as business expenses. However, the tax authority may require that the payer
names the recipient of the deducted payments exactly. If the indication of the name is denied e.g. because of business comity, the expenses claimed are
not recognized as operating expenses. This principle also applies to payments to foreigners.

Switzerland: bribe payments are tax deductible if it is clearly operation initiated and the consignee is indicated.

US: (rough résumé: "generally operational expenses are deductible if they are not illegal according to the FCPA")

UK: kickbacks and bribes are deductible if they have been paid for operating purposes. The tax authority may request the name and address of the
recipient."

"Specific" legal corruption: exclusively against foreign countries [ edit ]

Referring to the recommendation of the above-mentioned Parliamentary Financial Commission's study,[149] the then Kohl administration (1991–1994)
decided to maintain the legality of corruption against officials exclusively in foreign transactions[154] and confirmed the full deductibility of bribe money,
co-financing thus a specific nationalistic corruption practice (§4 Abs. 5 Nr. 10 EStG, valid until 19 March 1999) in contradiction to the 1994 OECD
recommendation.[155] The respective law was not changed before the OECD Convention also in Germany came into force (1999).[156] According to the
Parliamentary Financial Commission's study, however, in 1994 most countries' corruption practices were not nationalistic and much more limited by the
respective laws compared to Germany.[157]

Particularly, the non-disclosure of the bribe money recipients' name in tax declarations had been a powerful
instrument for Legal Corruption during the 1990s for German corporations, enabling them to block foreign legal
jurisdictions which intended to fight corruption in their countries. Hence, they uncontrolled established a strong
network of clientelism around Europe (e.g. SIEMENS)[158] along with the formation of the European Single
Market in the upcoming European Union and the Eurozone. Moreover, in order to further strengthen active
corruption the prosecution of tax evasion during that decade had been severely limited. German tax authorities
were instructed to refuse any disclosure of bribe recipients' names from tax declarations to the German criminal
prosecution.[159] As a result, German corporations have been systematically increasing their informal economy Development of the shadow
economy in (West-) Germany 1975–
from 1980 until today up to 350 bn € per annum (see diagram on the right), thus continuously feeding their black
2015. Original shadow economy data
money reserves.[160] from Friedrich Schneider, University
Linz.

Siemens corruption case [ edit ]

In 2007, Siemens was convicted in the District Court of Darmstadt of criminal corruption against the Italian corporation Enel Power SpA. Siemens had
paid almost €3.5 million in bribes to be selected for a €200 million project from the Italian corporation, partially owned by the government. The deal was
handled through black money accounts in Switzerland and Liechtenstein that were established specifically for such purposes.[161] Because the crime
was committed in 1999, after the OECD convention had come into force, this foreign corrupt practice could be prosecuted. It was the first time a German
court of law convicted foreign corrupt practices like a national practice, although the corresponding law did not yet protect foreign competitors in
business.[162]

During the judicial proceedings it was disclosed that numerous such black accounts had been established in the past decades.[158]

Historical responses in philosophical and religious thought [ edit ]

This section uses texts from within a religion or faith system without referring to secondary sources that
critically analyze them. Please help improve this article. (August 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this
template message)

Philosophers and religious thinkers have responded to the inescapable reality of corruption in different ways. Plato, in The Republic, acknowledges the
corrupt nature of political institutions, and recommends that philosophers "shelter behind a wall" to avoid senselessly martyring themselves.

Disciples of philosophy ... have tasted how sweet and blessed a possession philosophy is, and have also seen and been satisfied of the
madness of the multitude, and known that there is no one who ever acts honestly in the administration of States, nor any helper who will
save any one who maintains the cause of the just. Such a savior would be like a man who has fallen among wild beasts—unable to join in
the wickedness of his fellows, neither would he be able alone to resist all their fierce natures, and therefore he would be of no use to the
State or to his friends, and would have to throw away his life before he had done any good to himself or others. And he reflects upon all this,
and holds his peace, and does his own business. He is like one who retires under the shelter of a wall in the storm of dust and sleet which
the driving wind hurries along; and when he sees the rest of mankind full of wickedness, he is content if only he can live his own life and be
pure from evil or unrighteousness, and depart in peace and good will, with bright hopes.

— Plato, Republic, 496d

The New Testament, in keeping with the tradition of Ancient Greek thought, also frankly acknowledges the corruption of the world (ὁ κόσμος)[163] and
claims to offer a way of keeping the spirit "unspotted from the world."[164] Paul of Tarsus acknowledges his readers must inevitably "deal with the
world,"[165] and recommends they adopt an attitude of "as if not" in all their dealings. When they buy a thing, for example, they should relate to it "as if it
were not theirs to keep."[166] New Testament readers are advised to refuse to "conform to the present age"[167] and not to be ashamed to be peculiar or
singular.[168] They are advised not be friends of the corrupt world, because "friendship with the world is enmity with God."[169] They are advised not to
love the corrupt world or the things of the world.[170] The rulers of this world, Paul explains, "are coming to nothing"[171] While readers must obey corrupt
rulers in order to live in the world,[172] the spirit is subject to no law but to love God and love our neighbors as ourselves.[173] New Testament readers are
advised to adopt a disposition in which they are "in the world, but not of the world."[174] This disposition, Paul claims, shows us a way to escape "slavery
to corruption" and experience the freedom and glory of being innocent "children of God".[175]

Corruption by country [ edit ]

Corruption in Afghanistan Corruption in Ghana Corruption in Papua New Guinea

Corruption in Albania Corruption in Greece Corruption in Paraguay
Corruption in Angola Corruption in Haiti Corruption in Peru
Corruption in Argentina Corruption in Hungary Corruption in the Philippines
Corruption in Armenia Corruption in Iceland Corruption in Poland
Corruption in Australia Corruption in India Corruption in Portugal
Corruption in Austria Corruption in Indonesia Corruption in Romania
Corruption in Azerbaijan Corruption in Iran Corruption in Russia
Corruption in Bahrain Corruption in Iraq Corruption in Saudi Arabia
Corruption in Bangladesh Corruption in Ireland Corruption in Senegal
Corruption in Belarus Corruption in Israel Corruption in Serbia
Corruption in Belgium Corruption in Italy Corruption in Singapore
Corruption in Benin Corruption in Jordan Corruption in Slovakia
Corruption in Bolivia Corruption in Kenya Corruption in Slovenia
Corruption in Bosnia and Herzegovina Corruption in Kosovo Corruption in Somalia
Corruption in Botswana Corruption in Kuwait Corruption in South Africa
Corruption in Brazil Corruption in Laos Corruption in South Korea
Corruption in Bulgaria Corruption in Latvia Corruption in South Sudan
Corruption in Cambodia Corruption in Lebanon Corruption in Spain
Corruption in Cameroon Corruption in Liberia Corruption in Sudan
Corruption in Canada Corruption in Lithuania Corruption in Sweden
Corruption in Chad Corruption in Luxembourg Corruption in Switzerland
Corruption in Chile Corruption in Malaysia Corruption in Tajikistan
Corruption in China Corruption in Mauritania Corruption in Tanzania
Corruption in Colombia Corruption in Mauritius Corruption in Thailand
Corruption in Costa Rica Corruption in Mexico Corruption in Tunisia
Corruption in Croatia Corruption in Moldova Corruption in Turkey
Corruption in Cuba Corruption in Mongolia Corruption in Turkmenistan
Corruption in Cyprus Corruption in Montenegro Corruption in Uganda
Corruption in Czech Republic Corruption in Myanmar Corruption in Ukraine
Corruption in Denmark Corruption in Nepal Corruption in the United Kingdom
Corruption in Ecuador Corruption in the Netherlands Corruption in the United States
Corruption in Egypt Corruption in New Zealand Corruption in Uruguay
Corruption in Estonia Corruption in Nicaragua Corruption in Uzbekistan
Corruption in Equatorial Guinea Corruption in Nigeria Corruption in Vanuatu
Corruption in Ethiopia Corruption in North Korea Corruption in Venezuela
Corruption in Finland Corruption in North Macedonia Corruption in Vietnam
Corruption in France Corruption in Norway Corruption in Yemen
Corruption in Georgia Corruption in Pakistan Corruption in Zambia
Corruption in Germany Corruption in Panama Corruption in Zimbabwe

See also [ edit ]

1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal Corruption in local government Operation Car Wash
Academic careerism Corruption Perceptions Index Patronage
Accounting scandals Cover-up Penny stock scam
Anti-globalization movement Enron Privilege (evidence)
Appearance of corruption Federal Bureau of Investigation Pump and dump
Biens mal acquis Fraternization Pay to play
Business ethics Graft (politics) Professional courtesy
Business oligarch Guanxi Political repression
Bribe Payers Index Goldman Sachs Poisoning the well
Blue wall of silence Investigative magistrate Regulatory capture
Command responsibility Industrial espionage Second economy of the Soviet Union
Conflict of interest Kaunas golden toilet case Social influence
Crony capitalism Kleptocracy Sexual misconduct
Corporate abuse Lobbying Tax evasion
Corporate Accountability International List of companies convicted of felony Tax havens
Corporate warfare offenses in the United States Trial in absentia
Corporate crime Meritocracy United Nations Convention against
Corporate malfeasance Multinational Monitor Corruption
Corporate tax haven Noble cause corruption Wasta
Non-disclosure agreement Whistleblowers

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Further reading [ edit ]

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