Arhist33 Module1

CODE HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 3
ARHIST33
Prepared by:
A Self-regulated Learning Module
Arch. Divina Ligaya Benigno- A Self-regulated Learning Module i
Rillera, MACT, MAEHP
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................... ii
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ iii
Module Outline ......................................................................................................................... viii
Assignment Schedule ................................................................................................................ ix
Course Content .......................................................................................................................... 1
Module 1. INFLUENCES TO AND CONTEXTS OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF

ARCHITECTURE ............................................................................................. 1
Module 2. INTRODUCTION TO ASIA ............................................................................... 4
Module 3. ARCHITECTURE OF WEST ASIA: INTRODUCTION TO ISLAMIC

ARCHITECTURE ............................................................................................. 8
Module 4. ARCHITECTURE OF SOUTH ASIA ............................................................... 31
Module 5. ARCHITECTURE OF EAST ASIA .................................................................. 69
Module 6. ARCHITECTURE OF SOUTHEAST ASIA ...................................................... 96
ANSWER SHEETS .................................................................................................................... 1
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Introduction
I. Course Information
Course Code: ARHIST33
Course Title: History of Architecture 3
Number of Units: 3 Lec
Contact Hours: 3 lec hr per week
II. Course Description
Architecture is the art and science of designing and constructing buildings in their totality to
shelter man and his activities, taking into account their environment, following the principles
of utility, strength, and beauty (Architecture Act of 2004). As students of the BS Architecture
Program, it is expected that understanding the man, his activities and his environment are
basic knowledge required to successfully come up with architectural design concepts and
ideas. Further, understanding the fundamental building blocks of the development and history
of architecture to visually communicate abstract ideas logically and with skill is also necessary.
History of Architecture 3 focuses on the architectural reflections of traditional Asian thoughts
and civilization, their changes and challenges in contemporary life.
III. Requirements of the Course
This instructional material is organized according to the required instructions, suggested
readings, and activities for the course. You are required to go over the material in sequence
and accomplish the learning activities identified within the specified period. This instructional
material is designed to guide you to finish the course over the semester or 36 weeks.
As part of the course requirements, you are required to:
1. Register yourself in the course account using your SURNAME, GIVEN NAME AND
MIDDLE NAME (E.g., DELA CRUZ, FRANCISCA D.).
2. Join the FB Messenger group. Set your nickname to SURNAME, GIVEN NAME AND
MIDDLE NAME (E.g., DELA CRUZ, FRANCISCA D.).
3. Attend all the scheduled synchronous classes and activity. Attendance will be checked
every scheduled synchronous activity/classes. You will be given a failing mark if you miss
more than 20% of the total class attendance.
4. Upload a 1 - 2-minute video to introduce yourself and your expectation of the course.
5. Actively participate in discussion forums for individual course topics.
a. Discussion Forum (DF) contributions shall not be more than 150 words and will be
graded based on its relevance.
b. Discussion Forum Responses (DFR) shall not be more than 100 words and will be
graded based on its relevance.
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6. Regularly check the course stream or FB Messenger account for announcements.
7. Submit all online requirements using the file name: SURNAME_FIRST NAME
INITIAL_TOPIC (e.g., DELA CRUZ_J_SELF INTRODUCTION). Incorrectly named file
submissions will not be checked.
8. Submit ALL outputs using the PDF format. Convert all image files to PDF format when
submitting outputs. Incorrect file type submissions will not be checked.
9. Comply with the set deadlines for output submission.
10. Obtain a minimum 70% mark on all required activities to pass the course.
11. Accomplish the explanation form for ALL late submissions or turn-ins. Include evidences
as attachments for excused activities. The highest score for unjustified late submissions
will be 75% of the total score.
12. Accomplish the request/explanation form for ALL missed quizzes or exams. Include
evidences as attachments for excused activities. The highest score for unjustified re-
scheduled quiz/exam shall be 75% of the total score.
13. Check your student accounts regularly to check for missing requirements.
14. Submit a learners’ e-portfolio, which will be uploaded at the end of the semester.
Grading compilations are required and will be given corresponding accomplishment
points. The e-portfolio shall contain:
a. Cover Page
b. Introduction page (Talk about yourself, the program and the course)
c. Table of Contents
d. List of Graded Output (with screenshots or photographs)
e. Compiled screenshots of grade course work with brief descriptions of what the work
is all about and take-away or learning from the module activities.
f. Student Learning Assessment
15. Student’s Learning Assessment. You are required to answer the following questions
qualitatively:
a. Did I work as hard as I could have? Yes? No? Why?
b. Did I set and maintain high standards for myself? Yes? No? Why?
c. Did I spend enough time to do quality work? Yes? No? Why?
d. Did I prioritize and manage my time properly to complete my work? Yes? No? Why?
e. Did I make good use of available resources? Yes? No? Why?
f. Did I ask questions when I needed to? Yes? No? Why?
g. Did I evaluate and re-evaluate my work for possible errors? Yes? No? Why?
h. Did I examine best practices for similar works? Yes? No? Why?
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i. Are my works something that I am proud of and would proudly show to a larger
audience? Yes? No? Why?
16. Accomplish the end of module topic assessment. Marked as complete once submitted.
With 4 as the highest and 1 as the lowest, rate each identified criteria.
Criteria 4 3 2 1
Level of effort you placed in this module.

The difficulty in completing the course.
Contribution of the course to your skills/knowledge
on the topic.
Clarity of learning objectives.
Organization and planning if the module
Appropriateness of workload
Participation of learners in the activities
17. Accomplish a course module assessment at the end of the semester. Marked complete
once submitted.
a. What lesson or activity did I enjoy most? Why?
b. What is the most important lesson which I can apply in my daily life? Why?
c. What are the new insights/discoveries that I learned?
d. What topic/s do I find the least important?
e. What possible topics should have been included?
18. Grading rubrics for all activities will be as follows:
Description Numerical Percentage
Equivalent
Advanced, Excellent, Very Good, Excellent, Full Compliance 4 76 – 100%

Proficient, Satisfactory, Good, Acceptable 3 51 - 75%
Basic, Fair, Marginal, Borderline 2 25 – 50%
Poor, Unacceptable, Non-Compliance 1 0 - 24%
a. Creative Output (e.g., posters, graphic organizers)

DESCRIPTION
Content. The output should clearly express and organize ideas and concepts through drawings
and illustrations.
Aesthetics and Creativity. The output should consider the visually pleasing arrangement of the
elements of the composition.
Architectural Presentation. The output should reflect the proper architectural graphical
presentation of design ideas and concepts, whether manual or computer-generated.
Completeness. The output should comply with all the requirements of the activity.
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b. Written Output (e.g., essays, reaction paper, responses to the forum)
DESCRIPTION
Content. Essays and answers to questions should be clear and comprehensive.

Organization. Essays and answers to questions should be focused and logical.
Writing Style: Grammar, Punctuation. This pertains to grammar, punctuation, typographical
errors and the general tone of the written work.
IV. Learning Outcomes: Upon completion of the course, you should be able to:
1. Cognitive Domain
 Identify the influences to the development of architecture styles.
 Identify the characteristic features of specific architectural styles.
 Gain sufficient insights in the history of human community with special emphasis on
the structures built in Asia
2. Affective Domain
 Understand the mutual reinforcement of culture and architecture reflected in the
thoughts of the times
 Understand the contributions of the past architectures in the development of high-tech
utilities and construction systems,
 Appreciate the importance of learning specific architectural styles to the development
of architecture.
3. Psychomotor Domain
 Produce outputs identifying the significant characteristic features for each identified
architectural style and country.
V. Study Schedule
This module is divided into six (6) modules spread over five (5) months. Each of the module
topics will have its learning and assessment activities. You are required to accomplish each
of the activities and substantially contribute to discussion forums within the given module
period.
1. Each module topic is organized as follows:
a. Pre-Lecture Activities:
 Learning Assignment/Video Resource/Student Activity
 Discussion Forum
b. Lesson Discussion Proper
c. Post Lecture Activity
 Study Questions
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 Reflection Question
d. Test what you learned: Online quiz
e. Group Output (As applicable)
2. For each of the module topics, you are expected to:
a. Use the appropriate links in the Google Classroom to “TURN IN” your works to avoid
confusion during evaluation. Otherwise, the requirements submitted will not be
considered.
b. Observe proper etiquette in all forum contributions.
c. Plagiarism will not be tolerated in all manners of submitted requirements. Use the
APA Referencing Format to cite all lifted and borrowed ideas.
d. During summative assessments (e.g., quizzes and exams), remember that you are
testing what you have learned; thus, the highest degree of honesty and integrity is
expected.
e. Deadlines for online submissions is at 11:59 pm on the last Friday of the week of
each module topic.
3. For online learners only
a. Request for offline copies of activities.
b. Print out or copy all activities (whichever is convenient). Answer all offline activities
and submit at the end of every module schedule.
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Module Outline
Topic Time Frame
Module 1. Influences to and contexts of the development Week 1

of architecture
Module 2. Introduction to Asia Week 1
Module 3. Architecture of West Asia: Introduction to Week 2 - 5
Islamic Architecture
Module 4. Architecture of South Asia Week 6 - 9
Module 5. Architecture of East Asia Week 10 -12
Module 6. Architecture of Southeast Asia Week 13 - 15
Total 15 weeks
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Assignment Schedule
Topic Time Frame
Module 1. Influences to and contexts of the development of architecture Week 1

I. Pre-lecture Activity
1. Learning Resource: Answer the question based on the learning

resource.
Watch: History of Architecture | By Archemedys. Source:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4VLBuYq_JYc (3:46)
2. Discussion Question: What common factor influenced the

development of architecture throughout time based from the short
clip? Why do you say so?
3. Discussion Forum: Read two (2) of your classmates’ works.

What can you learn from their answers? Do you agree with their
answers? Why do you say so?
II. Post Lecture Activity
1. Student Activity: Infographic (30% of CS)
a. Make an infographic depicting the influences to the development

of architecture.
b. An infographic is a char, diagram, or illustration that uses graphic
elements to present information in a visually striking way.
c. Use a 15” x 20” vellum or any acceptable paper. Include a title
block measuring 7.5 cm by 12 cm on the lower right-hand corner,
2cm from the right and bottom edge of the paper. Information to
be included in the title block: Your Name, Project Title, Date
Issues, Date Due.
d. Why is there a need to learn the various elements affecting the
development of architecture? Why do you say so?
e. Submit your outputs as PDF files.
2. Reflection Question: Why is there a need to learn the various

elements affecting the development of architecture? Why do you
say so?
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3. Discussion Question: Read two (2) of your classmates’ works.
What can you learn from their answers? Why do you say so?
4. Test what you have learned: Online Quiz – 20 points
Module 2. Introduction to Asia Week 1
resource.
Watch: Asian History Documentary.
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FPaPD-atXe4 (41:30)
2. Discussion Question: What was the dominant factor that

influenced the development and advancement of Asian countries?
What can you learn from their answers? Do you agree with their
answers? Why do you say so?

1. Student Activity: Storyboard (30% of the CS)
a. Make a storyboard depicting the influences to the development

of Asia.
b. A storyboard is a sequence of drawings, in this case, showing
the development of Asia.
c. Use a 15” x 20” vellum or any acceptable paper. Include a title
block measuring 7.5 cm by 12 cm on the lower right-hand
corner, 2cm from the right and bottom edge of the paper.
Information to be included in the title block: Your Name,
Project Title, Date Issues, Date Due.
d. Give one (1) significant impact of the diversity of the Asian
continent to the development of architecture? Why do you say
so?
e. Submit your outputs as PDF files.
2. Reflection Question: Give one (1) significant impact of the

diversity of the Asian continent to the development of architecture?
Why do you say so?
3. Discussion Question: Read two (2) of your classmates’ answer to
Question 4. What can you learn from their answers? Why do you
say so?
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4. Test what you have learned: Online Quiz
Module 3. Architecture of West Asia: Introduction to Islamic Architecture Week 2 - 5

resource.
Read: Salimi, A., Salimi, A., & Pilehvarian, N. (2016). The role and
impact of religion on the architecture of mosque and churches. The
Turkish Online Journal of Design Art and Communication- TOIDAC.
Source: http://tojdac.org/tojdac/VOLUME6-
APRLSPCL_files/tojdac_v060ASE103.pdf
Watch: The hidden secrets of Islamic architecture | (Islam Religious

Documentary) | Timeline.
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XdOxBCpk39c
2. Discussion Question: What was the major contribution of religion

to the development of Islamic mosques? Why do you say so?
3. Discussion Forum: Read two (2) of your classmates’ works. What

can you learn from their answers? Do you agree with their answers?
Why do you say so?

1. Student Activity: Architectural Plate Reproduction (70% of CS)
a. Choose one distinct architectural example representative of the
country presented (except that which was already mentioned in
the module). This will be submitted in increments.
b. Identify the name of the building, the location and the year it was
constructed.
c. Write a brief background or history of the building presented.
Justify why the structure chosen best represents the country.
d. Reproduce the perspective on a 12” x 18” vellum or acceptable
paper. Include a title block measuring 7.5 cm by 12 cm on the
lower right-hand corner, 2cm from the right and bottom edge of
the paper. Information to be included in the title block: Your
Name, Project Title, Date Issues, Date Due.
e. Call out the important architectural features and details that
evidences the Islamic architectural character. Organize your
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labels and support your illustrations with short write ups. Identify
your references.
f. Give one important contribution of Islamic architecture to the
development of architecture. Why do you say so?
g. Submit your outputs as PDF files.
2. Reflection Question: Give one important contribution of Islamic
architecture to the development of architecture. Why do you say
so?
3. Discussion Question: Read two (2) of your classmates’ answer to
Question 6. What can you learn from their answers? Why do you
say so?
First Grading Exam Feb 22 – 27, 2021

Submission of E-Portfolio Accomplishment
Module 4. Architecture of South Asia Week 6 - 9
resource.
Read: Salimi, A., Salimi, A., & Pilehvarian, N. (2016). The role and
impact of religion on the architecture of mosque and churches. The
Turkish Online Journal of Design Art and Communication- TOIDAC.
Source: http://tojdac.org/tojdac/VOLUME6-
APRLSPCL_files/tojdac_v060ASE103.pdf
Watch: The hidden secrets of Islamic architecture | (Islam Religious
Documentary) | Timeline.
2. Discussion Question: What was the major contribution of religion
to the development of Islamic mosques? Why do you say so?
3. Discussion Forum: Read two (2) of your classmates’ works. What
can you learn from their answers? Do you agree with their answers?
Why do you say so?
1. Student Activity: Architectural Plate Reproduction (70% of the CS)

the module). To be submitted in increments.
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constructed.
e. Call out the important architectural features and details that
evidences the specific architectural character. Provide short
descriptions to your call-outs. Organize your labels and support
your illustrations with short write ups. Identify your references.
f. Give one important contribution of South Asian architecture to
the development of architecture. Why do you say so?
g. Submit your outputs as PDF files.
2. Reflection Question: Give one important contribution of South
Asian architecture to the development of architecture. Why do you
say so?
3. Discussion Question: Read two (2) of your classmates’ answers.
Test what you have learned: Online Quiz
Module 5. Architecture of East Asia Week 10 -12

resource.
Watch: HIST 1111 - Early East Asian Civilization.
Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q9dL7DZ9IrY
2. Discussion Question: Give one similarity evident in the East

Asian countries? Why do you say so?


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1. Choose one distinct architectural example representative of the
the module).
2. Identify the name of the building, the location and the year it
was constructed.
3. Write a brief background or history of the building presented.
4. Reproduce the perspective on a 12” x 18” vellum or acceptable
5. Give one important contribution of East Asian architecture to
6. Call out the important architectural features and details that
7. Submit your outputs as PDF versions.
Midterm Exam April 5 – 10, 2021

Submission of E-Portfolio Accomplishment
Module 6. Architecture of Southeast Asia Week 13 - 15

resource. Watch: The geography and cultures of Southeast
Asia. Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DdwPNUAIVIA
2. Discussion Question: Give one (1) common feature of the

Southeast Asian countries. Why do you say so?

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the module). To be submitted in increments.
constructed.
e. Give one important contribution of Southeast Asian architecture
to the development of architecture. Why do you say so?
f. Call out the important architectural features and details that
g. Submit your outputs as PDF versions.
2. Reflection Question: Give one important contribution of Southeast
Asian architecture to the development of architecture. Why do you
say so?
3. Discussion Question: Read two (2) of your classmates’ answers.
Final Exam May 17–22, 2021

Submission of Complete E-Portfolio
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Course Content
Module 1. INFLUENCES TO AND CONTEXTS OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF

ARCHITECTURE
I. Objective: At the end of the lesson, you should:

1. Define the basic factors influencing the development of architectural styles.
2. Understand the significance of learning the influences and contexts of the development
of architecture throughout history.
3. Produce plates identifying the significant characteristic features for each identified
II. Pre-Lecture Activity:
1. Learning Resource: Answer the question based on the learning resource.
Watch: History of Architecture | By Archemedys.
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4VLBuYq_JYc (3:46)
2. Discussion Question:
What common factor influenced the development of architecture throughout time based
from the short clip? Why do you say so?
What can you learn from their answers? Do you agree with their answers? Why do
you say so?
III. Discussion
1. Definition of Terms
A. Architecture
 the art and science of buildings. – It refers to the process of designing buildings
and administering their construction.
 the practice of building design and its resulting products customarily those
buildings and structures that are culturally significant. – It refers to the buildings
that are products of architectural design.
 is the art and science of designing and constructing buildings. – It refers to both
the process and product of design and construction.
B. Culturally Significant Buildings by Vitruvius
 It must be functional and have a use.
 It must be technically sound.
 It must express ideas of beauty or aesthetics.
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C. History of Architecture
 is the record of man’s effort to build beautifully.
 traces the origin, growth and decline of architectural styles which have prevailed
land and ages.
D. Historic Styles of Architecture
 is the particular method, the characteristics, manner of design which prevails at a
certain place and time.
2. Forces that Shape Buildings
A. Owner – providing the specific requirements for the building.
B. Architect/Builder – with professional training and judgement
C. Society – provides concept of good and bad design, and concept of beauty
D. Governments – control and regulate development of all buildings
E. Site and Location – nature of site and geographical location
F. Technical Aspect – available materials, knowledge of construction system and
structures.
3. Major Influences to the Development of Architecture
A. Geography – a science that deals with the description, distribution and interaction
of the diverse physical, biological and cultural features of the earth’s surface.
B. Geology – a science that deals with the history of the earth and its life especially as
recorded in rocks.
C. Climate – the average course or condition of the weather at a place, usually over a
period of years as exhibited by temperature, wind velocity and precipitation
D. Religion – a cause, principle, or system of beliefs held to with ardor and faith
E. Culture – the customary belief, social form, and material traits of a racial religious
or social group
F. Society – a community, nation, or broad grouping of people having common
traditions, institutions, and collective activities and interests.
G. Politics – the art or science concerned with guiding or influencing governmental
policy.
H. History – a chronological record of significant events (such as those affecting a
nation or institution) often including an explanation of their causes.
I. Economy – the arrangement or mode of operation of something
4. Four Great Construction Principles
A. Post and Lintel Construction – a system of construction in which two upright
members, the posts, hold up a third member, the linter, laid horizontally across their
top surfaces. All structural openings have evolved from this system.

B. Arch and Vault Construction – an arch is a vertical curved structure that spans an
elevated space and may or may not support the weight above it/
C. Corbel or Cantilever Construction – is a rigid element that extends horizontally and
is supported at only one end.
D. Trussed Construction – is a structure that consists of members organized into
connected triangles so that the overall assembly behaves as a single object.
IV. Post Lecture Activity
1. Student Activity: Infographic (30% of CS)
A. Make an infographic depicting the influences to the development of architecture.
B. An infographic is a chart, diagram, or illustration that uses graphic elements to
present information in a visually striking way.
C. Use a 15” x 20” vellum or any acceptable paper. Include a title block measuring 7.5
cm by 12 cm on the lower right-hand corner, 2cm from the right and bottom edge of
the paper. Information to be included in the title block: Your Name, Project Title,
Date Issued, Date Due.
D. Submit your outputs as PDF files.
2. Reflection Question: Why is there a need to learn the various elements affecting the
development of architecture? Why do you say so?
3. Discussion Question: Read two (2) of your classmates’ works. What can you learn
from their answers? Why do you say so?
References
Definition of terms. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/economy

Module 2. INTRODUCTION TO ASIA

1. Identify the general influences to Asian architecture.
2. Understand the significance of learning the influences and contexts of the development
of Asian architecture.
Watch: Asian History Documentary.
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FPaPD-atXe4 (41:30)
What was the dominant factor that influenced the development and advancement of
Asian countries?
What can you learn from their answers? Do you agree with their answers? Why do you
say so?
III. Discussion
1. Facts about Asia
a. Asia is the world’s largest and most diverse continent.
b. It occupies the eastern four fifths of the giant Eurasian landmass
c. Origin of the word:
 The Greeks used it to designate the lands situated to the east of their homeland.
 It is believed to be derived from the Assyrian word asu which means “east.”
 It was originally a local name given to the plains of Ephesus (originally referred
to as Anatolia by the ancient Greek and Romans), also called Asia Minor which
is the western extreme of mainland Asia.
2. Geography
a. Asia has both the highest and lowest points on the surface of the Earth.
b. It has the longest coastline of any continent. The coastal periphery was the home
to some of the world's earliest known civilizations and religions.
c. Early civilizations developed around fertile river valleys, particularly beside the great
rivers of Asia.
d. Five major physical regions of Asia:

 Mountain Systems: Himalayan mountains which separates the Indian
subcontinent from the rest of Asia.
 Plateaus are areas of relatively high-level grounds. E.g., the Iranian Plateau,
and the Tibetan Plateau or the “Rooftop of the World”
 Stepped and Deserts in the West Siberian Plain, Central Asia and across Saudi
Arabia, Oman, the United Arab Emirates and Yemen.
 Freshwater Environments area along the river systems, like the Yangtze in
China, Lake Baikal in Russia, Tigris and Euphrates in the Indian subcontinent
 Saltwater or Coastal Environments along the Persian Gulf, the Bay of Bengal,
etc.
3. Climate
a. It is subject to the world’s widest climatic extremes.
4. Religion
a. Asia is the birthplace of all the world’s major religions.
 Buddhism – originated in India, but is more prevalent in various forms in China,
South Korea, Japan and the Southeast Asian countries, and Sri Lanka
 Christianity – developed primarily outside of Asia, and exerts little influence on
the continent.
 Hinduism – has been mostly confined to the Indian subcontinent
 Islam - has spread out of Arabia eastward to south and southeast Asia.
 Judaism.
5. Society
a. Agriculture remains the mainstay of Asia, though the proportion of the population
engaged in agriculture is steadily declining.
b. Writing likely developed individually in each area. Cities, states and then empires
developed in these lowlands
c. The civilizations in Mesopotamia, India, and China shared many similarities and
likely exchanged technologies and ideas such as mathematics and the wheel.
d. Trade of the Silk Road, which spread cultures, languages, religions, and diseases
throughout Afro-Eurasian trade had influenced the developments in Asia and in
other parts of the Asian and neighboring regions.
e. A major advancement was the innovation of gunpowder in medieval China, later
developed by the Gunpowder empires, mainly by the Mughals and Safavids, which
led to advanced warfare through the use of guns.

6. Divisions of Asia
a. Central Asia – Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and Kyrgyzstan
b. East Asia – China, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, Japan, Hong Kong,
Taiwan and Macau
c. South Asia – Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, India, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Bhutan, Nepal
and the Maldives
d. Southeast Asia – Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar,
Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Timor Leste, Vietnam, Christmas Island, Cocos
Islands
e. Western Asia – Bahrain, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, State of Palestine,
Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syrian Republic, United Arab Emirates and Yemen.
Map of Asia
https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-four-regions-of-
asia.html#:~:text=Asia%20can%20be%20divided%20into,Southeast%20Asia%2C%20and%20Western%20
Asia.

1. Student Activity: Storyboard (30 % of CS)
A. Make a storyboard depicting the development of Asia.
B. A storyboard is a sequence of drawings, in this case, showing the major influences
in the development of Asia.
C. Use a 15” x 20” vellum or any acceptable paper. Include a title block measuring 7.5
cm by 12 cm on the lower right-hand corner, 2cm from the right and bottom edge of
the paper. Information to be included in the title block: Your Name, Project Title,
Date Issues, Date Due.
2. Reflection Question: Give one (1) significant impact of the diversity of the Asian
continent to the development of architecture? Why do you say so?
3. Discussion Question: Read two (2) of your classmates’ answer to Question 4. What
can you learn from their answers? Why do you say so?
References
Yefremov, Y. K. (2020). Asia. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/place/Asia

Pariona, A. (2020). World Atlas. Retrieved from https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-four-
regions-of-
asia.html#:~:text=Asia%20can%20be%20divided%20into,Southeast%20Asia%2C%20
and%20Western%20Asia.

Module 3. ARCHITECTURE OF WEST ASIA: INTRODUCTION TO ISLAMIC
ARCHITECTURE
Islamic architecture, also called Muslim architecture, became evident from the 7th century on,
developing in the wake of Muhammadan conquests of diverse territories from Spain in the west
to India in the east and absorbing the elements of art and architecture from each region. This
architectural style is characterized by the development of the mosque as a distinctive building
type, masonry domes and tunnel vaults, round and horseshoe arches, and ich surface
decorations incorporating calligraphy and floral motifs in a geometric framework because of the
ban on human and animal representations.

A. Describe the influences of Islam in the development of Islamic Architecture.
B. Identify the characteristic features of the Islamic architecture style.
C. Produce plates identifying the significant characteristic features for each identified
Read: Salimi, A., Salimi, A., & Pilehvarian, N. (2016). The role and impact of religion
on the architecture of mosque and churches. The Turkish Online Journal of Design Art
and Communication- TOIDAC.
Source: http://tojdac.org/tojdac/VOLUME6-APRLSPCL_files/tojdac_v060ASE103.pdf
Watch: The hidden secrets of Islamic architecture | (Islam Religious Documentary) |
Timeline.
What was the major contribution of religion to the development of Islamic mosques?
Why do you say so?
What can you learn from their answers? Do you agree with their answers? Why do you
say so?

III. Discussion
INTRODUCTION TO ISLAM
Islam is one of the global religions and the third monotheistic religions of the world today.
The world Islam literally means “to surrender, to submit” (to the will of God) which is the
essence of the religion.
 About 610 AD, the prophet Muhammed (560 – 632)
began preaching the new faith of Islam in the city
of Mecca, a city in modern day Arabia, and soon
spread over the southern and eastern
Mediterranean, Africa, and the south, east, and
central Asia.
 In 622 AD, Muhammed and his followers moved to
Medina due to hostility from the neighbors. This was the year the Islamic calendar is
measured.
 By 632 AD, Islam has spread throughout Persia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt and North
Africa, and to the east into northern India, Bangladesh, western China, and southeast
Asia over to Indonesia. Likewise, to the west into Spain and Europe.
 The spread of Islam has been frequently associated with military conquests, racial
movements and in some places, with the consequent displacement of established
population.
 Jihad – “holy wars” - Many Muslims saw the battles as efforts to fight evil and
spread the message of Mohammed and the idea of monotheism.
The Islamic World

Source: http://scottkaciuba.weebly.com/islamic-world.html

THE ISLAMIC WORLD
1. Geography
 In the early 600s, the Arabian Peninsula was a desert-like region with a few fertile
areas on the edges.
 Towns were usually centered around a spring or well of fresh water, and were far
and few between. The three earliest major towns in the Arabian Peninsula were:
 Yathrib – the northernmost town, was made up of farms and small villages
settled around an oasis (an area in the desert that has water and vegetation).
 Taif – a mountain resort area, used by wealthy Arabs to escape the summer
heat.
 Mecca – a town which seemed to have the least potential to succeed, since it
was located in a rocky area with little vegetation and surrounded by mountains.
In the 600s, however, Mecca emerged as the commercial center of the Arabian
Peninsula. It became a center of trade since it was an important stop along
many caravan routes between Syria, Iran, southwestern Arabia, and the Red
Sea.
Map of Islam
http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-DF1uM5keIWI/T_jnz5isoQI/AAAAAAAAC4A/N3Q6E8Yao3Q/s640/Islam733.png
2. Geology
 The countries into which Islam first expanded were already rich in building tradition.
 Trade in building materials also had exploited the important techniques of using
natural resources for building works
 Common building materials: Bricks, Marble, Stone, Ceramics, Gypsum Plaster,
Glass and Metalworks

3. Climate
 Almost all regional contexts where Islamic architecture developed was
characterized by dry climate.
 These arid conditions encouraged a vision of a paradise of lush gardens,
embellished by dancing fountains, shaded by trees, and scented by flowers.
4. Religion
 Pre-Mohammed, the people practiced animism, a type of worship that attributes
supernatural powers to objects in nature. Mecca was the center of animistic worship,
which was centered on the Kaaba, a large cube-shaped building in the middle of the
town.
 Islamic period: Monotheism
 In 610, Mohammed began preaching the message about Islam, based from the
message he received from the Angel Gabriel.
a. Words to Live by
 Qur’an – word of Allah
 Hadith – collection of writings of Prophet Mohammed
 Sunna – example set by Mohammed through all of his words and deed.
b. Five Pillars of Islam
 Believe in the oneness of God (Allah) and Mohammed was the messenger
of God
 Pray five times daily
 Fast from sunrise to sunset during the month of Ramadan
 Give alms to the poor
 Make at least one pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca
c. Four Levels of Participation in Prayer
 The individual or small group
 The neighborhood congregation
 The entire populace of a small city
 The whole Muslim world
5. Politics and Society
 The caliphate was an Islamic theocracy – a government in which religious rulers
govern in the name of God. There was no separation of religion and the
government. The laws of the empire were based upon the Quran and the Hadith.
 Caliph – the spiritual and political leader of the empire, supreme leader and
unquestioned

 The Sharia - the Islamic Law that is both moral and legal, is literally translated
as “the clear path that leads to God” – based on the Quran, the Hadith and the
Sunna.
 Social classes
a. Pre-Islamic period: The Quraysh Tribe in Mecca represented a sort of Arab
aristocracy
b. Caliphs – the most elite of the upper class, which included the rulers, their
families and their officials and courtiers
c. Mawali (sing. mawla) – “clients” – New Muslims, non-Arabs who converted to
Islam after being conquered. Non-Arabs had to be accepted by an Arab patron.
d. Dhimmi – or the “protected minority” are the people who followed religions that
were protected under Islam, which includes Christians and Jews (considered as
“People of the Book” because they followed the word of God as revealed by the
prophets of the Old and New Testaments of the Judeo-Christian Bible). They
held important positions in government and owned and operated their own
businesses. They are allowed to continue practicing their religion. They pay
additional head tax, in addition to land tax that all people of the empire pay.
 Restrictions for Dhimmis
 Forbidden to build new houses of worship outside their church or
synagogue
 Not allowed to ride horses or bear arms
 Should wear distinctive clothing that signified their religion
 Not allowed to testify against a Muslim in a court of law
 Not allowed to live in Mecca or Medina
e. Slaves
 Muslims are forbidden to enslave another Muslim
 There are restrictions placed on who could be enslaved and how slaves must
be treated based on Mohammed’s Hadith.
 Two types of slaves: Domestic and those that serve in the Islamic Armies
6. History
a. The Byzantine Influence
 The Byzantine Empire survived from 900 years after Justinian’s reign.
 Outlying territories were gradually lost to the advance of Islam, a new religion
from Arabia.

 In 673 AD, Constantinople had come under Islamic siege, but successfully
prevailed. Until 1453, when the city finally fell to the Seljuk Turks.
 Constantinople was then renamed to Istanbul.
 The influence of Justinian’s architectural style continued to influence the shape
of Islamic buildings, particularly in the design of domed mosques of Suleyman,
and the Sultan of Ahmed in Istanbul to Taj Mahal in India (1150 to 1650).
The Hagia Sophia or the Divine

The Hagia Sophia or the Divine Wisdom Wisdom with minarets
without minarets Source: https://theconversation.com/hagia-
Source: sophia-turning-this-turkish-treasure-into-a-
mosque-is-at-odds-with-its-unesco-status-143372
https://www.pallasweb.com/deesis/hagiasophia.html
b. Ottoman – Istanbul (Turkey)

 Byzantine, Persian and Syrian Influence
 Vast inner spaces covered by seemingly
weightless but massive domes.
 Vaults, domes, semi-domes, columns
 Great architect: Mimar Sinan
 Noteworthy architecture: Suleiman Mosque
c. Persian – Isfahan (Iran)
 Early Islamic architects borrowed adopted the
traditions and ways of the fallen Persian
Ottoman -Istanbul
empire. Influence
 Characteristics: Tapered brick pillars and https://www.slideshare.net/iqamar/i
slamic-architecture-
large arcades lecture?next_slideshow=1
d. Moorish – Alhambra (North Africa)

 Moors are North African people who controlled Spain, Portugal and the
Pyrenees region of France for hundreds of years.
 Lasting impact on modern Spanish Architecture

 Characteristics: Large Mosques and Elaborate Fortress-Palaces
 Features: Foliage, Arches, Glazed Tile Work, Central Fountain
Turkistan - Samarkand
Persian – Isfahan Moorish Influence Influence
Influence https://www.slideshare.net/iqamar/i https://www.slideshare.net/iqam
https://www.slideshare.net/iqamar/i slamic-architecture- ar/islamic-architecture-
slamic-architecture- lecture?next_slideshow=1 lecture?next_slideshow=1
lecture?next_slideshow=1
e. Turkistan – Samarkand (Uzbekistan)

 Derived from Persian influence
 Gave rise to Mughal design
 Characteristics: Axial Symmetry, Double Domes,
Brilliant Colors on the Outside
f. Indo-Islamic or Mughal (India)
 Fusion: Persian, Arabic, Hindu
 Used marble and precious/semi-precious stone
 Showed power and influence over region
 Famous buildings: Shalimar Gardens, Delhi Fort,
Badshahi Masjid, Taj Mahal Indo - Islamic
https://www.slideshare.net/iqa
mar/islamic-architecture-

g. Sino-Islamic (China)
 Follow the traditional Chinese form.
 Buildings are highly symmetrical but gardens are
asymmetrical.
 {predominantly wooden construction – but some
use of red or gray blocks
 First mosque in China: Grand Mosque of Xi’an
h. Afro-Islamic
 Frequent display of a formal conjunction
between Islamic structure and indigenous
Sino-Islamic
conical ancestral pillars and shrines. https://www.slideshare.net/iqam
ar/islamic-architecture-
 Style is highly influenced by Muslim traders to lecture?next_slideshow=1
the region.
i. Fatimid and Mamluk – Cairo (Egypt)
 Majestic domes
 Soaring minarets
 Decorative arts: Enameled and gilded glass,
inlaid metalworks, woodwork, and textile
7. Livelihood and Economics
 Early settlers in the Arabian area were the nomadic
Bedouins which means “people of the desert”. They
conducted raids in order to survive. Afro - Islamic
https://www.slideshare.net/iqam
 Town settlers practiced agriculture and are ar/islamic-architecture-
essentially traders.
 Trade was the most important industry.
 Muslim merchants were responsible for the wealth
and prosperity of the empire, and they also helped
spread Islam, Arabic and Arabian-Islamic culture.
 Shipping trade supplemented land trade.
 Money changing and money lending became
common. Early bankers were usually Jewish or
Christian, often operating with Muslim merchants as
partners since it is forbidden for Muslims to lend
Fatimid and Mamluk –
money at interest.
Cairo (Egypt)
 Textile production was a major Islamic trade. https://www.slideshare.net/iqam
ar/islamic-architecture-

 Conquests and border wars made the business of making war a profitable one.
Muslim conquests did not destroy existing towns and cities. They confiscated land
only from the royals and their followers, and did not disrupt the existing system of
government.
Isfahan Bazaar, Iran

Source:
Islamic Trade Route https://www.slideshare.net/iqa
mar/islamic-architecture-
https://www.slideshare.net/saiAltovar/islamic-architecture-history lecture?next_slideshow=1
8. Functional Typology of Religious Structures

a. Types of Structures for Prayers
 Masjid – a prayer house for moderately sized congregation with a prayer niche,
but no facilities for preaching.
 Musalla or namaz-gah – prayer enclosure
 Masjid - neighborhood mosque (Masjid means “Place of Prostration” in
Arabic)
 Jami or masjid jami - congregational mosque
 Idgab – a structure for corporate worship described as a very large, unroofed
open space with a long prayer wall on one side.
 Jami or Friday Mosque – a well-known Islamic religious structure named for
the day when the principal weekly service is held. It is a covered square or wide-
rectangular-shaped prayer hall where worshippers are tightly packed and
assemble themselves as close as possible to the prayer wall.
b. Structures for religious education
 Kuttab - Qur'anic school for children
 Madrasa - religious college. A madrasa usually contains a mosque, classrooms,
and lodgings for students and teachers

c. Monastic structures
 Ribat or monastic fortress. This structure was originally designated as a building
type that was both military and religious in character. It was a fortified barracks
for those volunteers (murabitun) whose piety led them to devote themselves to
guarding the frontiers of the Islamic state.
 Khanqah and/or takiyya or tekke or the urban Sufi lodge which usually
contains a mosque, quarters for a number of Sufis (followers of a mystical
Islamic belief), and a meeting hall where the hudur (Sufi acts of devotion which
took the form of dancing, singing, and whirling among other ways) is performed.
Its introduction into the urban environment in major cities marked the recognition
of popular religious practices by both the ruling and the clerical classes.
 Zawiyya or the retreat for a famous sheikh.
d. Memorial structures:
 Maqam or mazar is a saint (wali) tomb or reliquary.
 Mashhad or a memorial of a vision
 Qubba or turba or a mausoleum with
charitable functions attached. Qubba,
literally means "dome", but the word often
signified the mausoleum of an amir or a pious
man, which was usually, but not always, a
cubical structure covered with a dome.
 Rawd or a funerary garden or enclosure. https://makezine.com/2016/12/16/he
irloom-tech-math-magic-muqarnas/
9. Other types of Islamic Structures
a. Hammam – a structural design for a hot
bathhouse/steam bathhouse
b. Hammamat – public baths with hot and cold
running water. The public bath provides social
opportunities for Islamic men to relax with other
Islamic men. They were also believed to have
played a key role in preventing contagious
diseases from spreading.
c. Caravanserai or Wikala or Khan – a roadside
inn for travelers, where the caravan leader would https://archnet.org/sites/1840/media
_contents/37231
find a room for himself and a place for his camels
Interior and Exterior Views
to rest and eat. of the Muqarna
d. Casbah – citadel or fortress

e. Souq or Bazaar – open air supermarket
f. Bimaristan – a hospital
g. Maktab – elementary school
h. Bab – Islamic gateway
i. Saray or Serai - Palace
10. Architectural Features
a. Muqarna - a form of ornamented
vaulting, are used to both reflect and
refract light, used for ornamental
conditions exploiting light, such as
glass or translucent screens that filter
illumination
b. Arches – are one of the main
architectural expressions in Islamic
architecture, and are distinguished by
their unique style that originate from
the different Islamic eras. https://www.slideshare.net/saiAltovar/islamic-
architecture-history
 The Lancet Arch or Pointed Arch
which was principally two and
four-centered and generally constructed as a true arch through corbels.
 The Trefoil or Multifoil Arch
 The Horseshoe arch
 Ogee Arch
 Onion Arch
c. Ornamentation was symbolic or suggestive rather than literally representational,
and were executed in stone, but most frequently in glazed brick or tile, gypsum,
stucco, glass and even wood.
 The exterior envelopes of religious structures are treated like skin that can
receive universally applied decorations.
 Ornamentations are controlled through primary and secondary grids which
makes extensive use of repetition, symmetry and patterning.

Typology of Islamic Arches
Source: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/BIM-Driven-Library-for-Islamic-Arch-Almaimani-
Nawari/fd9a0e690fbab75a50e3ade8d83bc96f465a189d
d. Types of Ornaments
 The use of inscriptions in the Kufic style.
 The use of glass mosaic
 The absence of figural representation.
 Vegetal and geometric motifs, derived
mostly from Classical traditions.
https://www.slideshare.net/shahrilkhairi
/history-of-islamic-architecture
e. Four Ornamentation Design Strategies
 The repetition of an architectural element like the arch
 Geometric manipulation like rotated and interlocking polygons – These patterns
exemplify the Islamic interest in repetition, balance, symmetry and continuous
generation of pattern.
 The arabesque or the islimi - The organic growth in the form of plant-like foliation,
which produces the intricate pattern of laced lines. The arabesque designs are
biomorphic, floral patterns representing the underlying order and unity of nature
with a great deal of accuracy.
 Calligraphy, which is the most important since it records the words of Allah. It
can be flowing, cursive or angular.

https://muslimheritage.com/introduction-to-islamic-art/
https://graphicriver.net/item/islamic-ornament-
ferforge/48559
https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/396387204680115056/
https://muslimheritage.com/introduction-to-islamic-art/
f. Other Architectural Features

 Light can add a dynamic quality to architecture,
extending patterns, forms and designs into the
dimension of time. The combination of light and shade
creates strong contrasts of places and gives texture to
sculpted stone, as well as stocked brick surface.
 Water from courtyard pools and
fountains cools as it decorates,
particularly hot Islamic climates. https://www.slideshare.
net/shahrilkhairi/history-
Water can not only reflect of-islamic-architecture
architecture and multiply the

decorative themes. It also
emphasizes the visual axes.
https://www.slideshare.net/shahrilkhairi/history-of-
islamic-architecture

11. The Architectural Character of Islamic Architecture
a. Balance and symmetry
b. Concept of perfect creation
c. Formal Landscape
d. Centered upon God
e. Use of striated masonry – alternate bands of bricks and stones (borrowed from
Byzantium)
The Great Mosque of Damascus

https://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2012/byzantium-and-islam/blog/where-in-the-
world/posts/damascus
12. Architectural Examples
A. The Islamic Mosque
 Essential to Muslim worship
 Had a light-filled court open to the sky and a large covered public space for
prayer.
a. Origins of the Mosque
 House of the Prophet Mohammed at Medina (c. 622)
The Prophet Mohammed’s House at Medina

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/House-of-Prophet-Muhammad-SAW-13-The-Hadith-literature-provides-
further-extensive_fig8_319036606

Beside the house stood a square enclosure with small chambers set in the
southeast corner for the living quarters. The remainder of the space was
a partially open central court, which was constructed primarily for domestic
purposes. However, it also served as a gathering place for his followers to
hear sermons and prayers.
 Christian churches
 Audience halls of Persian Kings
b. Types of Mosques
 The House and Mosque of the Prophet at Medina: The Islamic prototype
of both religious and residential architecture, built in 622 C. E. (1 A.H. or After
Hegire, the emigration of the Prophet to Medina), and enlarged several times
in the first century of Islam, the most important of which is the enlargement
of al-Walid, the Umayyad caliph, in 707.
 The Hypostyle Mosque: Mosque in which the prayer hall is formed of rows
of vertical supports, or columns, that can multiply indefinitely. Dominant type
in the early period.
 The Iwan Mosque: Mosque in which the prayer hall is an iwan, or more, up
to four iwans, surrounding a courtyard. It was the most popular type in the
medieval period, and remained dominant in Iran.
 The Central-Dome Mosque: A Mosque in which the prayer hall's space is
dominated by a central dome surrounded by smaller and lower semi-domes.
It was introduced by the Ottomans in the 15th century.
Mosque Typology
Source: https://www.slideshare.net/shahrilkhairi/history-of-islamic-architecture

c. Parts of a Mosque
 Minbar – a pulpit near the mihrab, from which the prayer leader gives the
sermon on Fridays.
 Haram - the large covered hall where the faithful gather in rows to prostrate
themselves in prayer (salah).
 Hypostyle Hall – a large space for prayer with rows of parallel arches on
columns supporting comparatively narrow parallel roofs.
 Mihrab – a niche in the wall of a mosque, at a point nearest to Mecca,
towards which the congregation faces to pray.
 Qibla – a prayer wall to orient the worshipper towards Mecca, the holiest city
in Islam. Muslims are required to face Mecca when they perform their prayer
 Sahn – a broad open court, ringed with classical round arched arcades on
columns (north of the enclosed prayer hall in Damascus)
 Ablution Fountain- fountain used for ritual ablutions before prayer (western
side of the sahn)
 Minaret - a tall slender tower, typically part of a mosque, with a balcony from
which a muezzin calls Muslims to prayer.
 Iwan – is a vaulted space (pavilion) that opens on one side to a courtyard,
and used as an entrance
 Maqsura – is a special processional area reserved for the adviser’s and
assistants of the caliph. The maqsura developed from a broad nave-like
transverse element, with a dome over its central bay, which resulted from
two parallel rows of columns dividing the haram into thirds.
Source: (1) https://www.slideshare.net/shahrilkhairi/history-of-islamic-architecture; (2)

https://www.slideshare.net/saiAltovar/islamic-architecture-history

The Great Umayyad Mosque of Damascus, Syria (706
– 715)
The Iwan
Oldest Mosque (Started as a Roman temple
Source:
dedicated to Jupiter, and partially rebuilt as an Early https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
Christian Church) commons/f/ff/Jameh_Mosque_of_Isfa
Source: (1) https://syriahr.org/wp- han_-_Northern_Iwan.jpg
content/uploads/2018/05/Damascus-mosque-999x640.jpg ; (2)
https://smarthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Fountain.jpg; (3)
B. Shrines
The Dome of the Rock, Damascus
a. Built to shelter an exposed portion of the bedrock on which the second Jewish
temple had stood.
b. The rock was sacred to Muslims as the site from which Muhammad
ascended to Heaven to speak with Allah before returning to earth.
Ka’aba, Mecca
a. The goal of the annual Islamic pilgrimage or the Haj.

b. The center of worship and pilgrimage before Islam which became the axis
mundi of Islam's conception of the universe and the qibla towards which
worshippers face when praying. Date of building unknown.
c. This cloth-draped shrine contains the Black Stone, believed to have been
given to Abraham by the Angel Gabriel.
d. The Black Stone was already venerated in pre-Muslim times.

Dome of the Rock (689 – 691)
Source: (1) https://cdn.britannica.com/93/84693-050-BBB16251/Dome-of-the-Rock-
Jerusalem.jpg ; (2)
https://www.ne.jp/asahi/arc/ind/2_meisaku/28_jerusalem/plan_eng.jpg ; (3)
https://sacredsites.com/images/middle_east/israel/dome-rock-interior-1200.jpg
Source: (1) https://edition.cnn.com/2016/05/26/middleeast/sun-kabaa-alignment/index.html ; (2)

https://www.quora.com/Why-do-birds-not-fly-over-the-Kaaba
C. Palaces
a. Early palaces included central courtyards, walls, towers, and a gate.
b. Arcades around the open courtyard contained the throne room, a reception
room, and the living area for the caliph and his family and courtiers.
c. Early royal complexes often included a large bathhouse decorated with mosaic
tiled floors.

d. Later palaces included reception rooms, living quarters, harem quarters for the
women, pools, gardens, and fountains in the courtyard.
The Alhambra, Spain
a. Alhambra literally means “Red” – The palace, thus, is the “Red Fort”
b. A palace complex on an elevated plateau which started as a citadel in the 9th
century, and later became a fortified residence.
c. No systematic geometric planning
d. Became the last refuge of Islamic artists and intellectual fleeing the advancing
Christian armies of the north.
The Alhambra, The Red Fort

Source: (1) https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/323555554450868570/ ; (2) https://www.britannica.com/topic/Alhambra-
fortress-Granada-Spain
D. Tombs
a. It is common for the tomb of a founder or holy man to be included in the mosque
design.
b. All Muslims had to be buried in the morning after their death. After purification
preparation, the body is buried on its side facing Mecca. Martyrs (those dying
for Islamic causes) were buried as they died without any preparation.

c. Most Muslim graves were plain and
simple, and often without a coffin.
Wealthy Muslims were often buried in
large, domed tombs.
Taj Mahal, India
a. Strong Persian influence
b. Had distinctly onion-shaped
domes, and pointed “ogee” arch Taj Mahal, India
openings. Source:
https://www.minube.net/place/taj-
c. Chattras – small pavilions, garden-a857851
frequently seen in Mughal
architecture
E. Houses and Urban Patterns
a. A strong recognition for the fundamental
right of privacy for the family within its
own house.
b. Houses consisted of a large single
building with a central open courtyard.
The courtyard often had a fountain or a
garden in the center. In many cases,
extended families lived together in these Interior, Courtyard House
big houses, with different branches of the https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Tradit
ional-courtyard-in-a-Syrian-House-21-
family residing in separate apartments. Source-Alabidin-nd_fig1_319036606
c. In hot, arid climates, residences tend to

be designed around courtyards that
preserve privacy and also modify the
microclimate advantageously.
d. Doorways on opposite sides of the
streets are arranged that one cannot look
from one dwelling into another when both
doors are open.
e. The ground-level windows are set so Plan, Courtyard House
high that those passing by cannot look in. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Tr
aditional-Islamic-Arab-House-%3A-
f. Above-ground windows may be larger Vocabulary-And-El-
Shorbagy/c711f2abccd60b7964038a95e7
but they should not overlook courtyards 38820e19bc3cf2
or rooftop areas of other houses, thus

invading the privacy of the other occupants of that house. These upper-floor
windows may project beyond the plane of the wall, but are frequently provided
with elaborately carved screens to restrict the view from the outside.
g. Women and children are segregated from men and visitors. Thus, the family
area is separate from reception facilities for male guests and from the main
entrances
h. Elements of Domestic Architecture:
 Hijab – traditionally, these curtains used by Mohammad’s wives so guests
will not see them. They are screens or grilles used for privacy and seclusion
in houses, admitting light and air, while allowing those behind to look out
without being seen
 Selamlik – The Reception area
 Haramlik – The family or harim area
 Liwan or Iwan a ubiquitous element in palaces and rich houses serving as
the focal point of the structure. It also functions as an open reception space
accessed through an arch onto the courtyard.
 Mashrabiyya – the turned-wood lattice in geometric designs, which screens
windows.
 Maq’ad – an open loggia with several arches that overlooks the courtyard
and is raised by several steps. It was the sitting place for men.
 Harem – domestic spaces that are reserved for the women of the house.
F. Garrison Towns
a. These are towns established in
conquered regions, where the
conquerors would live apart from the
conquered, to discourage the
Muslims from interacting with the
conquered people.
b. Functions:
 They prevented problems from
Model of the Khatta
arising between Muslim troops Source:
and the newest subjects of the https://www.brown.edu/Departments/Joukows
ky_Institute/courses/islamicarch2011/files/153
Islamic Empire. 55107.pdf
 They kept Muslim troops from picking up the habits and customs of the newly
conquered.

 They made it possible for life in conquered cities and towns to continue
functioning as normal.
c. Example of Garrison Towns
 Kufa, Iraq – first garrison town, which became a Shiite political center, as
well as a center for learning
 Baghdad, Iran – the most glorious city built by the Muslims during the Islamic
empire. It was not built as a garrison town, but as a new capital for one of
the Abbasid caliphs. The capital was called Madinat al-Salam or “city of
peace”, and was located between the Tigris and the Euphrates and
surrounded by fertile lands.
 Cairo, Egypt – served as the center of government, culture and commerce
throughout the Fatimid dynasty.
 Cordoba, Spain – was the center of trade and industry in the area. It was
famous for the production of silk and paper, and decorated crimson leather.
It was also the center of learning and culture, not only for the Muslim world
but for Europe as well.

1. Student Activity: Architectural Plate Reproduction (70% of CS)
A. Make a storyboard of Islamic Architecture. Highlight the architectural character and
characteristic feature of this style. Maximize the use of visuals materials. Do not
use paragraphs in your labels. Just use phrases or words if needed.
B. Reproduce the perspective on a 12” x 18” vellum or acceptable paper. Include a
title block measuring 7.5 cm by 12 cm on the lower right-hand corner, 2cm from the
right and bottom edge of the paper. Information to be included in the title block:
Your Name, Project Title, Date Issues, Date Due.
C. Call out the important architectural features and details that evidences the Islamic
architectural character. Organize your labels and support your illustrations with
short write ups. Identify your references.
2. Reflection Question: Give one important contribution of Islamic architecture to the
3. Discussion Question: Read two (2) of your classmates’ answer to Question 6. What
can you learn from their answers? Why do you say so?

References
Ching, F.D.K. (1995). A visual dictionary of architecture. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
Doak, R. (2005). Empire of the Islamic world. Facts on File, Inc., New York
Roth, L.M. & Roth Clark, A.C. (2014). Understanding architecture. Its elements, history and
meaning, 3rd Edition. Routledge, New York.
The birth of Islam (2001-2021. MITOPENCOURSEWARE. Retrieved from
https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/architecture/4-614-religious-architecture-and-islamic-
cultures-fall-2002/lecture-notes/birth-islam/

Module 4. ARCHITECTURE OF SOUTH ASIA
The architecture of the Indian subcontinent, includes the Indus valley culture of the Harappa to
the Mauryan era, and later to periods of foreign domination and indigenous rule. It is
characterized esp. by Hindu and Buddhist monuments, sometimes sharing the same site, and
rhythmic stratified multiplications of motifs and profuse carved ornamentation, often combining
the religious and the sensuous.

1. Identify the country-specific characteristic features of the South Asian architecture.
2. Appreciate the importance of learning specific architectural styles to the development
of architecture.
Watch: Earliest history of the Indian subcontinent
Retrieved from https://youtu.be/MNwfp3Gh66Y
Ancient Indian Architecture Part 1.
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QTh9l7WLxl4
2. Discussion Question: What is the impact of South Asia being a subcontinent? Why
do you say so?
3. Discussion Forum: Read two (2) of your classmates’ works. What can you learn from
their answers? Why do you say so?
III. Discussion
1. GEOGRAPHY
a. South Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the Indo-Gangetic Plain and
Peninsular India.
b. Countries of South Asia
A. Bangladesh
B. Bhutan
C. India
D. Pakistan
E. Nepal
F. Sri Lanka
G. Afghanistan and the Maldives are often considered part of South Asia
c. The term “Indian subcontinent” is used more restrictively to refer to Bangladesh,
India and Pakistan.

d. The Indo-Gangetic Plains formed by the Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra Rivers are
found south of the mountains.
e. Boundaries:
A. North: A series of mountain ranges
B. Northwest: Hindu Kush
C. Central North: Karakoram Range
D. Northeast: Himalayas
E. Southwest: Arabian Sea
F. Southwest: Bay of Bengal
Map of South Asia

Source: https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_world-regional-geography-people-places-and-globalization/s12-
south-asia.html

f. River Systems of South Asia
Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-geography-and-river-systems-of-South-
Asia_fig1_268508800
 Major Rivers of South Asia:
a. The Ganges – flows across northern India to Bangladesh
b. The Indus – runs through Pakistan
c. The Brahmaputra – flows through the Assam region of northeastern India

and also into Bangladesh.
2. GEOLOGY
 Wood and terracotta
 Brick and stone
 Sandstone
 Granite
 Schist
 Marble
3. CLIMATE
 Northeast – Tropical to subtropical (temperate)
 West – Steppe and desert climate due to moisture and elevation changes.
 Monsoon - a seasonal reversal of prevailing wind that is associated with heavy rains,
and commonly observed in the region of South and Southeast Asia, blowing from
the southwest between May and September and bringing rain (the wet monsoon),
or from the northeast between October and April (the dry monsoon)
 Mild Climate - Near the Indus River, which makes it conducive for growing crops like
rice and tea

4. RELIGION
a. Hinduism - common in India
Watch: Beliefs made visible: Hindu Art in South Asia (Part 1 of 2).
Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8fExgZfVEPA
 Two important beliefs:
 Samsara – reincarnation, and that action in this life determines the status of
the soul in the next incarnation
 Dharma – caste or social class
 Karma – an ethical law of cause and effect
 Moral behavior in one life guaranteed rebirth in a higher caste.
 Immoral behavior automatically dropped a reborn soul to a lower caste.
 Hindu Gods
i. Brahma – the creator god
 Saraswati – goddess of wisdom, consort of Brahma
ii. Vishnu – the preserver god
 Incarnates: Rama
(featured in the
Ramayana, and Krishna
(featured in
Mahabharata)
 Lakshmi – goddess of
good fortune, consort of
Vishnu
iii. Shiva – god of constructive
destruction (the transformer https://www2.slideshare.net/Subhashitam/what-is-
hinduism-presentation?qid=a104bdaf-4732-4403-
 Incarnates: Shiva Nataraj ba7c-8cca04aa813c&v=&b=&from_search=2
– lord of the dance and

creation
 Wife: Parvati – divine mother, wife of Shiva, Son: Ganesha – elephant
headed god of beginnings
iv. Devi – the feminine divine
v. Durga – the protectress
vi. Kali – the destroyer of demons
 Tenet:
i. Religious salvation is through meditation.
ii. Rejection of earthly desires

iii. Reverence of all life forms.
 The Four Yogas – seeking union with the divine
i. Karma Yoga – the path of action through selfless services: releases up
karma without building up new karma
ii. Jnana Yoga – the path of knowledge: understanding the true nature of
reality and the self
iii. Raja Yoga – the path of meditation
iv. Bhakti Yoga – the path of devotion
 Household shrines
 Temples
b. Buddhism – is observed in Myanmar
Watch: Beliefs made visible: Buddhist art in South Asia (Part 2 of 2).
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jl6S0wdeWk4
 Founded by Siddhartha Gautama, who is recognized as the first Buddha.
 World’s fourth main religion Considered as “Dharmic” faith concerns a following
path of duty for a proper life.
 Life is dictated by karma, which connects our actions with future experiences.
 Buddhism has no caste system.
 Basis:
i. Enlightenment can be attained through many cycles of rebirth of the person.
ii. Enlightenment and no longer have a need for desire or selfish interest.
iii. Enlightenment is being free from suffering and is reaching a state of liberation,
which is often referred to as Nirvana.
 Teaching:
i. Non-violence
ii. Honesty
iii. Selflessness
iv. Tolerance
v. Moral Living
 Four Noble Truths
i. Suffering exists (Suffering = Rebirth).
ii. Suffering arises from attachment to desires,
iii. Suffering ceases when desire ceases.
iv. Freedom from suffering is possible by the practicing the Eightfold Path

 Eightfold Path (The Middle Way)
 Eight guidelines that assist the
practitioner towards the knowledge
of the Four Noble Truths. The
center of the wheel represents
enlightenment
i. Attainable through wisdom: Right
View, Right Intention
ii. Attainable through ethical conduct: The Dharmachakra or the The Dharma
Wheel
Right speech, Right Action, Right Source:
https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/291045194669
Livelihood 479483/
iii. Attainable through meditation: Right
Effort, Right Mindfulness, Right Concentration
 Types of Buddhism
i. Theravada Buddhism – The Teaching of the Elders
 Most prominent in Southern Asia and Sri Lanka
 Oldest branch Buddhism, which attempts to follow the original Buddha’s
teaching.
 Meditation and consideration are seen as keys to enlightenment.
 Spiritual forces do exist but it is up to the individual to attain his or her
own path towards awakening.
ii. Tibetan Buddhism
 Associated with Vajrayana Buddhist traditions
 Rooted in the Buddha’s original teaching
 Strongest allegiance in: Tibet, Western China, Bhutan, Nepal and parts
Mongolia
 Spiritual techniques are often used, along with the main principle of
meditation
iii. Mahayana Buddhism
 The Great Vehicle
 Common in Japan, Taiwan, Korea, part of Vietnam and Eastern China
 Includes Zen Buddhism
 Meditative in nature, with a strong emphasis on universal compassion
altruism, and selflessness.
 Touted as more a lifestyle than a religion

 The meditative activities are focused on the body and mind, which can
provide a positive outcome for anyone seeking inner direction
c. Islam – predominant in Bangladesh
 Diffused to South Asia from the Middle East through traders and merchants
shortly after its creation.
 Most Muslims in India live in the north along the Ganges River Basin and in
Nepal, in eastern India near the border with Bangladesh, Kashmir, in northern
India
d. Christianity
 A monotheistic religion following the teachings of Jesus Christ which originated
from the Middle East.
 There is a strong Christian presence in Eastern India, in the region bordering
Myanmar.
e. Jainism or Jain Dharma
 Religious minority.
 Jains believe that their religion’s origin extend back to the distant past.
 Jains believe that everything is alive and that many beings possess a soul.
 Humans who have discovered the dharma (or the way) and have become fully
liberated are called Jinas. They teach this spiritual path to other people.
 Strictly vegetarian.
 Emphasis: Consequences of physical and mental behavior.
f. Sikhism
 Monotheistic religion centered on justice and faith.
 The writings of former Sikh gurus are the basis for the religion.
 Justice can be obtained through devotion to God and through disciplined
meditation.
 There is high importance placed on the principles of equality between all people
in the Sikh religion.
 There should be no discrimination on the basis of gender, creed, caste, or
ethnicity; every person is equal.
 Centered in Punjab
g. Baha’I Faith
 The Baha’i Faith was founded by Baha’u’llah in Persia (Iran) during the
nineteenth century CE.
 This religion focuses on the spiritual oneness of humanity and the unity of the
other major world religions.

h. Zoroastrianism
 Zoroastrianism originated in Iran (or Persia); in fact, it was once the dominant
religion of Greater Iran
 Concentrated in Iran, India (primarily Mumbai), and Pakistan (primarily Karachi
and Lahore)
 The greatest numbers of followers of Zoroastrianism can be found in India, with
additional numbers in southern Pakistan.
 Zoroastrianism follows the teachings of the prophet Zoroaster (also known as
Zarathustra or Zarthosht).
 One of the tangible forms of this religion is the use of fire as a purifying agent in
ceremonies. The temples are commonly known as “fire temples.” Additionally,
because of a prohibition of burials of bodies in the ground, Zoroastrians allow
natural exposure of bodies to the elements in structures known as “Towers of
Silence.”
5. SOCIETY AND POLITICS
 The Aryans organized society into separate groups or castes.
 Every person was born into an unchanging group or caste that remained his or her
status for rest of his or her life.
 The caste a person was born into was considered to be based on what they had
done in a past life.
 Five main caste levels: According to the Rig Veda, these groups were created
from the body of a Hindu god. The caste system is not explicitly part of the Hindu
religion.
i. Brahmin: priests, teachers and judges: created from the god’s mouth
ii. Kshatriya: warrior, ruler, or landowner: created from the god’s arms
iii. Vaisya: merchants, artisans, landowners, herders and farmers: created from
the god’s legs
iv. Shudra: workers and laborers: created from the god’s feet
v. Dalits or Pariah (Untouchables or Harijan) – outcasts or tribal groups
 Restricted from entering Hindu places of worship or drinking water from the
same sources as members of higher castes
 Often had to work at night and sleep during the day

6. LIVELIHOOD AND ECONOMICS
 Aryans (1550 -1000 BCE) – Nomadic
herding tribes from the Iranian
TORANA
Plateau
 Dravidians – who lived in the south
were merchants of cotton, gold, pearl,
peppers
7. ARCHITECTURE OF SOUTH ASIA
A. Architectural Features
 Torana – a free-standing The Great Stupa of Sanchi, Madhya,
Pradesh India
ornamental or arched gateway for Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stupa
ceremonial purposes
 Gopuram - a monumental entrance tower, usually
ornate, at the
entrance of a Hindu
temple
 Stambha or Lath
– columns which
were carved with
inscriptions
Ashoka Pillar at Vaishali Kirti Stambha,
crowned by (Stambha) Chittorgarh, Rajasthan,
India
emblems such as Source:
Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancie
https://www.alamy.com/stock-
elephant, lion nt_Indian_architecture#/media/Fil
photo-kirti-stambha-
e:Ashoka_pillar_at_Vaishali,_Bih
which is chittorgarh-rajasthan-india-
ar,_India.jpg
51786089.html
reminiscent of
Torana Source: https://qph.fs.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torana d596671e6c17a7f24b25b0226f1a505e

Persepolis architecture. These are parts of a
structure which also has a decorative and
structural properties
 Vimana – the structure over the garbhagriha or
inner sanctum
 Sikhara – or summit is a dome shaped
crowning cap over the vimana
 Garbhagriha – or womb-chamber square
sanctums which is covered by vaulted towers,
and oriented toward one of the cardinal
directions. The Ashoka Pillars
Source:
http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/J
R-AN/DRAW4.JPG
Sikhara Garbhagriha
https://www.britannica.com/techn https://www.britannica.com/technolo
ology/shikhara gy/garbhagriha
Vimana
Source:
https://www.slideshare.net/Sumathi
Mariappan/unit-iv-dravidian-
architecture
 Chhatri – elevated, dome-shaped pavilions, which are purely decorative and

have no utility, but are a classic folly displaying the status and wealth of the
owner

 Stupa – a dome-shaped memorial alleged
to contain relics of Buddha or a Buddhist
saint. Also called a tope or dagoba.
 At the top of the stupa is a stupa is
a yasti or spire which symbolized
the axis mundi or a line through the
earth’s center around which the
universe is thought to revolve. The
yasti is surrounded by a harmika, a
gate or fence and is topped by
Memorial chhatri of Jat Rana
chattras or umbrella like objects Udaybhanu Singh Maharaj
symbolizing royalty and protection. at Dholpur, Rajasthan, India
Source:
 The Evolution of the Stupa https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chhatri#/m
edia/File:Chhatri_Udaybhan_Singh.jpg
Source: http://oer2go.org:81/wikipedia_en_all_novid_2017-08/A/Stupa.html
 Buddhist Symbolism of the Stupa: Five Purified Elements
"The shape of the stupa represents the Buddha, crowned and sitting in
meditation posture on a lion throne. His crown is the top of the spire; his

head is the square at the spire's base; his body is the vase shape; his
legs are the four steps of the lower terrace; and the base is his throne."
i. The square base represents earth

ii. The hemispherical dome/vase represents water
iii. The conical spire represents fire
iv. The upper lotus parasol and the crescent moon represent air
v. The sun and the dissolving point represent the element of space
Source: http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/history/buddhist-art/stupas.htm
 General Types of Stupa according to Function

vi. Relic Stupa – contains the relics or remains of the Buddha, his
disciples and lay saints are interred.
vii. Object Stupa –
contains objects that
belonged to Buddha or
his disciples, ex.
begging bowl or robe
or important Buddhist
sculptures.
viii. Commermorative
Stupa – built to The Great Stupa of Sanchi, Madhya,
Pradesh India
commemorate events Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stupa
in the lives of Buddha
or his disciples
ix. Symbolic Stupa – built to symbolize of Buddhist theology, for
example,
x. Votive Stupa – constructed to commemorate visits or to gain spiritual
benefits, usually at the site of prominent stupas which are regularly
visited.

 Chaitya – assembly halls which were excavated out of a solid rock resulting in
the presentation of one external façade. This is a shrine, sanctuary, temple or
prayer hall in Indian religions. In Buddhism, it refers to a space with a stupa and
a rounded apse at the end opposite the entrance and a high roof with a rounded
profile.
Development of the Chaitya Arch

(1) https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:IA_Development_of_the_Chaitya_arch.jpg; (2)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaitya#/media/File:Group_of_Temples_Aihole_(20169954306).jpg
 Vihara – a monastery designed with courts or shrines with a central square

space surrounded by priest’s chambers. In other practices, a vihara can refer to
a temporary dwelling places for wandering monks seeing refuge or rest during
the rainy seasons.

 Monasteries - is a community of men
or women (monks or nuns) who have
chosen to withdraw from society,
forming a new community devoted to
religious practice. This type of structure
is more common in the Buddhist
religion.
Mulagandha Kuti Vihara

Buddhist temple in Sarnath, near
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India,
Asia, South Asia
Source:
https://www.alamy.com/mulagandha-kuti-
Monastic Center, Vaishal vihara-buddhist-temple-in-sarnath-near-
https://brewminate.com/buddhist-stupas-and- varanasi-uttar-pradesh-india-asia-south-
monasteries/i asia-image263538653.html
B. Indian Architecture
a. History
 The people are unified by a common cultural and ethical outlook, a wealth of
ancient textual literature in Sanskrit and Prākit, and a common regional
language.
 Music and dance, ritual customs, modes of worship, and literary ideals are
similar throughout South Asia.
 The Indus Civilization is home to one of the world’s earliest known
civilization.

 Known for its
planned structures
and cities
 The cities and
villages of the
urban phases were
planned with major
streets going
north/south and
east west.
 It had a system of The Indus Valley Civilization
https://www.slideshare.net/Bekark/history-of-indian-
drains that architecture
channeled waste water outside the city.

 The presence of a homogenous material culture (similarity in pottery and
metallurgy artifacts), which aided in the recognition of the expanse of the
culture.
 Presence of Indo-European languages.
 The Mauryan Empire (322 and 185 BCE) was one of the most extensive
and powerful political and military empire in ancient India, founded by
Chandragupta Maurya (322 BCE)
 Greatly expanded the region’s trade, agriculture, and economic activities.
 Creation of a single and efficient system of finance, administration and
security.
 Ashoka the Great embraced Buddhism, focused on peace and created
hospitals and renovated major road systems throughout the empire.
 The Islamic Mughal Empire – absorbed the Delhi Sultanate – Muslim
dynasties or kingdoms that ruled India between 1206 and 1526
 Religiously tolerant but Muslim-oriented
 Associated monuments: Taj Mahal, the Red Fort in Lahore, and the Agra
Fort, which were built during the classical period.
 British Colonizers
 Controlled South Asia from 1857 to 1947
 Created the political borders
b. Architectural Character
 Monumental

 Indian architecture is generally obscured and overwhelmed by a rhythmical
multiplication of pilasters, cornices, moldings, roofs and an exuberant
overgrowth of sculptural decorations.
c. Architectural Features
 Building Typology
 Stupa – temple mound, with four ceremonial gates
 Sikhara – temple spire
 Pagoda – temple tower
 Torana – temple gate
 Ornamentation
 Symbolic layers
– The towers of
Hindu temples
tell stories as
they rise
skyward. Each
has its own
distinctive
“handwriting”
and depicts the Ornamentation
concerns of Source: https://www.slideshare.net/Bekark/history-of-indian-
architecture
local cults as
well as universal themes.
 Animal Statuary – most temples show fine sculptures and carvings of
animals, which depict the Hindu belief that all life is sacred and
deserving of representation.
 Figurative decorations – carving of sacred images and figurines.
d. Architectural Examples

 Colonial Architecture – Architecture which is significantly impacted by the
Dutch, Portuguese, and the French
Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus

Source: https://www.culturalindia.net/indian-architecture/colonial-architecture.html
 Indo-Islamic Architecture –
Architecture influenced by
Islamic Art. This style,
however, is neither strictly
Islamic nor strictly Hindu
https://i1.wp.com/www.hisour.com/wp-
content/uploads/2018/04/History-of-Indo-Islamic-
architecture.jpg?fit=960%2C640&ssl=1

 Ancient Architecture – characterized by the ancient architectural remains of
temples, chaityas, viharas, stupas and other religious structures.
 Rock Cut and Cave Architecture

– predominantly caves used by
Buddhist and Jain monks as places
of worships and residences
(chaityas and viharas)
Shingardar Stupa, Swat, Ganhara

Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Indian_arc
hitecture#/media/File:General_View_of_Shingar
dar_Stupa_-_From_Eastern_Side.JPG
Ajanta Caves
Source: (1) https://www.britannica.com/place/Ajanta-Caves; (2) (3)
https://www.transindiatravels.com/maharashtra/aurangabad/ajanta-caves/

 Temple Architecture -
The distinct architectural
style of temple
construction in different
parts was a result of
geographical, climatic,
ethnic, racial, historical
and linguistic diversities.
Ancient Indian temples are
classified in three broad
types classified according Kailasa Temple, Ellora, the largest rock-cut
to the shape of their Hindu Temple
Source:
towers. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Indian_architecture#/
media/File:Ellora_Cave_16_si0308.jpg
i. Nāgara (northern)
– characterized by a beehive-shaped tower called the sikhara. The
square-plan is sometimes broken up to give the impression of the tower
being circular.
ii. Dravide (southern) – has a pyramid shaped tower consisting of
progressively smaller storeys of small pavilions a narrow throat and a
dome on top. The repeated storeys give a horizontal visual thrust to the
southern style
iii. Versera (mixed) – hybrid style
Source: https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/475692779377955535/

C. ARCHITECTURE OF NEPAL
a. Influences
 Building Materials: Wood, Metal,
Natural Stone, Brick and tiles
 Predominant Religion: Hinduism
 Nepalese architecture is a unique
strain of art and practicality since it was
situated between the trade routes of
India, Tibet and China. It reflects
Source:
influences from these cultures. https://www.slideshare.net/pinedajoyceann/a
rchitecture-in-nepal-and-afghanistan
 Ornamentation
 Elaborately planned with
interior courtyards.
 Intricate lattice screened
windows
 Elaborately carved walls and
lintels
 Stupa
 Typical Stupa Layout The Great Drigung Kagyad Lotus
Stupa, Lumbini, Nepal
 Types of Stupa according to Source:
Shape https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_
Nepal
 Dhanyakara – heap of
paddy
 Ghantakara – bell-shaped
 Bubbulakara – bubble-shaped
 Ghatakara – pot shaped
 Padmakara – lotus shaped
 Amlakar – shape of a Nelli Fruit

 The Nepalese stupa usually
consists of 6 parts.
i. Pesavalulu – These are
berms or terraces. A
stupa consists of three
such berms at its base,
rising in gradually
reduced sizes.
ii. Gharbaya – the
hemispherical dome
which is constructed on
the three berms. A relic
chamber (Dhathy
garbhaya) was built in
the middle of the Typical Stupa/Stopa Layout
dagaba, enshrining the

Buddha’s relics. In the
center of the Relic
Chamber was a bo-tree
made of precious
metals, and image of the
Buddha wound which
were groups of figures
representing the various
events in the life of
Buddha
iii. Hathas Kotuwa – the tee
cube, which also
enshrines relics.
iv. Devath Kotuwa – the
cylindrical neck, built on Types of Stupa According to Shape
the Hatharas Kotuwa http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-
AN/an027_4.htm
which is adorned by
carved figures of deities.

v. Koth Kerella – or
the conical spire
built on the
Devatha Kotiwa. A
crystal
(chudamanikya) on
a pinnacle made of
metal is placed on
top of the spire to
Swayambhunath, Kathmandu
adorn it. Source:
https://www.slideshare.net/pinedajoyceann/architectur
vi. Kotha – also called e-in-nepal-and-afghanistan
“silumina” is usually
a pinnacle made of metal top
on which a precious crystal or
gemstone is placed.
 Vahalkada or the front piece is a
structure constructed joining the
stupa at its four cardinal
directions as a decorative
flourish. Stone slabs are also Vahalkada of Kanthaka Chetiya
erected as an addition for the Source:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:V
flower offerings at the stupa ahalkada_of_Kanthaka_chetiya_2.jpg
 Chethiyagara (shrine house) or

Vatadage (circular relic chamber) is
a structure constructed as a
protection for the stupa.
 Pagoda – a multi-tiered temple with multiple
roofs. Which is said to derive its shape from
the Himalayan fir trees. The ground floor is
the place to worship the deity, and the upper Changu Narayan Temple
floors can be used for the storage of God’s Source:
https://www.slideshare.net/pinedajoyc
property. eann/architecture-in-nepal-and-
afghanistan

 Gajura – found at the top of the
pagoda which is a combination
of lotus base, an upside-down
vas, a triangle and a kalasha or
kalash – literally a pitcher or
pot.
 Dunghe dhara – a traditional stone
drinking fountain. It is an intricately
carved stone waterway through which
water flows uninterrupted from
undergrounds sources.
 Durbar Square – is a generic name
used to describe plazas opposite royal
The Pagoda
palaces in Nepal. Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of
 Residences _Nepal#/media/File:Nyatapola_Temple.JP
G
 Three storey houses: Ground
floor served as a shop, recessed
beneath an overhanging first
floor which is overhung by the
upper level
Kalasha
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/c
ommons/f/f3/Kalasha.jpg
Durbar Square, Kathmandu

Source:
https://www.slideshare.net/pinedajoyceann/architectu
re-in-nepal-and-afghanistan
Dunghe Dhara
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhunge_dhara

Source: (1) https://www.alamy.com/old-houses-near-boudhanath-stupa-kathmandu-nepal-image63223209.html,
(2) https://www.slideshare.net/pinedajoyceann/architecture-in-nepal-and-afghanistan
D. ARCHITECTURE OF SRI LANKA

a. History
 The name given by the people in the island of Sri Lanka is Sinhaladwipa
or the Island of the Sinhalese
 The Portugese gave the name Celiāo, which was translated by the English
into Ceylon (1976)
 Ceylon was changed to Sri Lanka which means beautiful island.
 Influenced by Buddhism
 Unique strain of art and practicality
 Stupa, or dagebas and
cetiyas. The term is also
synonymous to
Chaithya, Thupa, Seya
and Vehera. Sri-Lankan
stupas are known as the
largest brick structures in
the pre-modern world.
The Great Stupa or the Ruwanweliseya

Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stupa#/media/File:Samye32.JP
G

 Vatadage or rotunda, is a circular
relic house
 Ornamentation
 Masks – which are used in
rituals, dramas and curing
sickness. They are believed
to have curative power for
various physical illnesses.
Polonnaruwa Vatadage, Sri Lanka
 Pottery – is the one of the Source: http://www.info.shalanka.com/most-
oldest crafts in Sri Lanka beautiful-places-in-sri-lanka/polonnaruwa-
vatadage/
 Wood carving
 Sculpture – local hard wood, granite and local marble
Source: (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_clans_of_Lanka ; (2)

http://serendib.btoptions.lk/article.php?id=819 ; (3) https://www.alamy.com/dancer-sri-lanka-wood-carving-on-
supporting-temple-posts-embekke-devale-image3092884.html
d. Architectural Examples
 The Bodhighara or the Bo-Tree Temple
 The Bodhighara was a structure, designed to house the bodhi-tree
(Ficus religiosa). But like the thupaghara or the patimaghara, it could
not be entirely covered with a roof, for the Bodhi-tree requires sunshine

for its growth. The Bodhighara was designed in a manner as to cover
only the area around the tree, leaving an open space in the center.
 The Buddha, Gautama (563-BC to 483-BC) found Enlightenment at
Buddha-Gaya in South Bihar, seated on a stone-seat ("Vajrasana") under
a Bo-tree. Therefore, both the Bo-tree and Vajrasana became objects of
worship, not only in Buddha-Gaya, but also in many other places in India
and Sri Lanka. Soon after the introduction of Buddhism in Sri Lanka a
Bo-sapling from the
great Bodhi-tree in
India was brought to Sri
Lanka by Their
Sanghamitta, the
daughter of the Indian
Emperor, Ashoka and
was planted by King
Devanam Piyatissa
(250 to 210BC) in the
royal garden of the City
of Anuradhapura
 Examples of Great Stupas of
Sri Lanka
i. Jetvanaramaya,
Source: http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-
Anuradhapura is the AN/an027_4.htm
biggest brick structure in the world

ii. Kantaka Chaitya, Mihintale is a fine example of a small dageba, which
features some of the finest stone carvings and terra cotta figures.
iii. Polonnaruwa Vatadage are circular shrines enclosed stupas with pillars
arranged in four to two concentric circles, diminishing in size outward.

Jetvanaramaya, Kantaka Chaitya, Polonnaruwa Vatadage
Anuradhapura Mihintale Source:
Source: Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stupas_i
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stupas_i https://www.gettyimages.com/d n_Sri_Lanka
n_Sri_Lanka etail/news-photo/mihintale-
kantaka-chaitya-sri-lanka-
news-photo/947614880
 Ancient
i. The Sigiraya – rock fortress built by king Kasyapa.
Sigiraya Cave
Source: (1) https://lovepik.com/image-500890036/ancient-city-of-sigiriya-in-sri-lanka.html ; (2)
https://srilankatravelpackage.com/website/TourPackages/DayTours/DayTour-
SigiriyaRockFortress&PolonnaruwaRuins/sd/3.jpg
ii. Dambulla Cave Temple – a site of great spiritual importance, and a

pilgrimage site
Dambulla Cave Temple

Source: https://www.tripoto.com/sri-lanka/trips/amazing-trip-5e1c1c9066c85

 Colonial
i. Galle Forth – used as
main business hub where
traders from Arabia, India
and China used to
exchange spices. It was
declared by UNESCO as
World Heritage site in
1988
Source:
https://www.123rf.com/photo_37953890_galle-sri-
lanka-march-9-2014-clock-tower-in-galle-fort-fort-
was-originally-built-in-1684-to-house-th.html
 Post-Independence
i. Nelum Pokuna Manda
Rajapaks Theater – a
performing arts center in
Colombo Sri Lanka which
was opened in 2011. It is
shaped a stylized eight-
Source:
petalled lotus flower. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/
c0/Nelum_Pokuna_%28Lotus_Pond%29_Mahinda
_Rajapaksa_Theatre.JPG
E. ARCHITECTURE OF TIBET
a. Architectural Character
 Primarily influenced by its
geography and climate, its
culture, Tibetan Buddhism, and
Indian, Mongol, Nepalese and
Tang architectural style.
 Tibetan architecture contains
Chinese and Indian influence,
but has many unique features
Chorten (A Tibetan Stupa)
brought about by its adaptation to Source:
http://factsanddetails.com/china/cat6/sub36/
the cold, generally arid, high- entry-4430.html
altitude climate of the Tibetan
plateau and to Tibetan Buddhism. The earliest surviving Tibetan religious
monuments are closely based on Indian prototypes. Later temples and
monuments, built after the period of the second diffusion of Buddhism, are

very similar to Tibetan vernacular architecture. They show only limited
foreign architectural influences. The earliest extant defensive structures
appear likewise to be based on indigenous designs and technologies .
b. Architectural Examples
 The Chorten
 A monument to a distinguished Buddhist, especially a lama
 A chorten typically has a dome that rests on a five-tiered base.
 It consists of a square foundation symbolizing the earth, a dome
symbolizing water, and thirteen tapering steps of enlightenment
symbolizing the element of fire. These steps lead to a stylized parasol,
the symbol of wind, which is topped in the ethereal sphere by the well-
known ‘twin-symbol’ uniting sun and moon, which is the shimmering
crown of the Chorten.
Source: http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/history/buddhist-art/stupas.htm
 The Analogy with the Symbolism of the Chorten
 Bindu - also depicted as the Tongue of Flame is the Seed of
Highest Enlightenment. It is the above the double symbol crowning
Chorten.
 Surya Chandra - the double symbol of Sun and Rising Moon is
an emblem of the Twin-unity of the Absolute Truth (of the sphere
beyond normal comprehension) and the Relative Truth (of the
worldly sphere).
 Chattra - the stylized parasol symbolically gives protection from
all evil
 The thirteen Steps of Enlightenment, i.e. the first ten Steps of
Enlightenment (Dasha-Bhumi) and the three higher levels of
supraconsciousness (Avenika-smrityupashthana).

 Dhatu-Garbha - the dome, corresponding to the primeval mound,
as Receptacle of Relics or offerings; the dome-line edifices of Old
Indian Stupas were also called egg or water-bubble (Budbuda).
 Parishada - the base, is square and four-stepped, its sides facing
the four directions. Analogous to the underworld.
The Eight Great Stupas

Source: http://oer2go.org:81/wikipedia_en_all_novid_2017-08/A/Stupa.html
 Types of Tibetan Stupa – each referring to a major event in Buddha’s

life
i. Lotus Blossom Stupa or the Enlightenment Stupa also known as
the “Stupa of Heaped Lotuses or Birth of Sugata Stupa” which refers
to the birth of Gautama Buddha. The base of this stupa is circular
and has four steps, and it is decorated with lotus-petal designs.
Occasionally, seven heaped lotus steps are constructed. These refer
to the seven first steps of the Buddha.
ii. Bodhi Stupa or the Stupa of the Conquest of Mara which
symbolizes the Buddha’s attainment of enlightenment under the
bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, where he conquered worldly temptations and
attacks, manifesting in the form of Mara (or the personification of the
forces of antagonistic to enlightenment, associated with death, rebirth
and desire.)

iii. Dharmachakra Stupa or the Stupa of Many Doors – also known as
Stupa of Many Gates. The series of doors on each sides of the steps
represents the first teaching: The Four Noble Truth, The Six
Paramitas, The Noble Eightfold Path and the Twelve Nidanas.
iv. Descent Stupa or the Stupa of Descent from the God Realm – A
stupa built by the local inhabitants in Sankassa in order to
commemorate the rebirth of Buddha’s mother. This type of stupa is
characterized by having a central projection at each side containing
a triple ladder or steps.
v. Miraculous Transformation Stupa or the Stupa of Great Miracles
– also known as the Stupa Conquest of the Tirthikas, refer to the
various miracles performed by the Buddha when he was 50 years
old.
vi. Harmonious Stupa or the Stupa of Reconciliation commemorates
the Buddha's resolution of a dispute among the sangha (monastic
community of monks and nuns).
vii. Vijaya Victorious Stupa or the Stupa of Complete Victory –
commemorates Buddha’s successful prolonging of his life by three
months. It has only three steps, which are circular and unadorned
viii. Stupa of Nirvana – refers to the death of the Buddha when he was
80 years old. It symbolizes his complete absorption into the highest
state of mind. It is bell-shaped and usually unornamented
 Pagodas
i. A structure with tiered
tower with multiple
eaves
ii. Originated from the
Indian Stupa
iii. The Palkor Dagoba has
thirteen storeys. Its plan
is mandala. From its
bottom to top, there are The Palkor Pagoda or the
Baike Riwoqi Pagoda
several components,
Source: https://www.tibetdiscovery.com/tibet-
such as: thirteen stone culture/pagoda-architecture/
stages, a pedestal, an inverted-bowl shaped lower body, a bottle like

upper body and a neck known as ‘thirteen heavens’

 Temples
i. Temples have a square or
rectangular plan and are
composed of three main
parts: an assembly hall,
ambulatory, and cells. The
hall serves as a meeting
place and a place of
worship. The ambulatory
is where worshipers walk
in a clockwise fashion Jokang Temple, Lhasa
while praying. It usually Source:
http://factsanddetails.com/china/cat6/sub36/entry-
surrounds cells---interior 4430.html
rooms filled with images of the Buddha, sacred objects and brightly-
colored frescoes of sacred images and scenes from the life of Buddha .
ii. On the roof of almost every temple in Tibet is a symbol comprised a
religious wheel in between two deer. The center symbolizes the lord
Buddha and the deer symbolize human beings. As a whole is represents
people learning from Buddha.
 Monastery
i. Monastery architecture is a large sized building complex consisting of
temples and halls, residence quarters of monks, stupas and several
Source: (1) https://www.nomadictibet.com/samye-monastery/ ; (2) https://www.tibetdiscovery.com/what-to-

see/samye-monastery/
colleges. In terms of shapes, it can be divided into three categories:

temples, cave temples and stupa temples built surrounding the main hall.

ii. Most Tibetan monasteries have been built on the mountains. At the
beginning of Buddhism's introduction to Tibet, religious buildings were
seen as places to enshrine mysterious and auspicious treasures. The
architectures of Tibetan Buddhism gradually developed from just niches
and ritual halls to independent building complexes, and eventually
separated from the palace architectures, after the extensive spreading of
Buddhism and strong supporting by Songtran Ganpo and his successors
iii. Parts of a Tibetan Monastery
i. The main hall is composed of several units:
 The central Buddha hall - is the center of the entire construction,
enshrining Vairocana, the head of the Five Dhyani Buddhas and
the Bodhisattvas and deities.
 The sutra hall - is for monks to study and gather
 The circumambulation passages - is for people to prostrate
before Bhudda, the bodhisattvas and deities at any time
 The arrangement of the circumambulation passages, the layout
of the buildings around the main hall is according to the layout of
four continents and eight subcontinents in the Buddhist world.
 Four groups of constructions and four dagobas of different
colors, green, black, red and white, are located respectively at
the east, west, south and north sides.
ii. The monastery is enclosed by a fencing wall, representing the Mount
Cakravda (meaning Mount Iron Fencing).
iii. The entire complex plan is a representation of the mandala of the
Buddhist world. The construction units of different heights and sizes
are arranged harmoniously.
 Cave Temples
a. Wooden structure caves
b. The plan of the cave is in a near oblong shape. The cave has an east
facing doorway. In the middle rear part of the cave, a central pillar with
its cross section being in square shape is erected. On each of the four
sides of the pillar, there is a niche. Around the pillar there is a narrow
circumambulating passage. On the outer wall of the cave there are
niches built on the four sides of the cave, for enshrining of Songtsan
Gampo and Buddhas and Bodhisattvas.

 Palace
c. The Potala Palace is the massive fortress-like building. It is a massive
white and brownish-red structure that casts an imposing shadow over
the rest of the Lhasa. The Potala Palace symbolizes Tibetan Buddhism
and its central role in the traditional administration of Tibet. "Potala" is
translation of Sanskrit "Putuoluo" which means "a famous scenic spot of
Buddhism".
d. Historically, it was the home of the Dalia Lama.
Sources: (1) https://www.tibetdiscovery.com/what-to-see/samye-monastery/ ;(2)

https://www.greattibettour.com/tibet-attractions/potala-palace-11
e. Parts of the Potala Palace:

i. The central Red Palace at the top, which is used for religious affairs.
The main purpose of the red palace is to house the stupas holding
the remains of the Dalai Lamas, and contains the many Buddha and
sutra halls

ii. White Palace which is used for secular functions like politics and daily
life.
iii. Namgyel Dratshang – private monastery of the Dalai Lama
iv. Other important components of the Potala complex are the squares
to the north and south and the massive palace walls, built from
rammed earth and stone and pierced by gates on the east, south and
west sides.
f. The Potala Palace contains 1,000 rooms---including assembly halls,
government offices, and temples--- 10,000 altars and 200,000 statues.
Constructed of wood, stones and mud bricks and fastened together
without steel or nails, it covers an area of 41 hectares and is 13 stories
high. The roofs are covered with gilded bronze tiles that glitter in the sun
and can be seen miles away.
F. THE ARCHITECTURE OF BANGLADESH

 The Architecture of Bangladesh is intertwined
with the architecture of the Bengal region and the
broader Indian subcontinent.
 The architecture of Bangladesh has a long
history and is rooted in
The Pancharatna Go
Bangladesh's culture, religion and history.
binda Temple
 It has evolved over centuries and assimilated at Puthia Temple
Complex, Rajshahi
influences from social, religious and exotic
Source:
communities. https://commons.wikimedia.
org/w/index.php?curid=420
 The Pala Empire was an early Indian empire of
Bengali Buddhist dynasty ruling from
Bengal (which included present-
day Bangladesh) influenced Bengali
Architecture.
 Terracotta temple architecture which
dates back to the Islamic period and
Paharpur Buddhist Bihar,
Early British period. Bangladesh
Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somapura_M
ahavihara#/media/File:Paharpur_Buddhist
_Bihar.jpg

G. Bhutan
 Bhutanese architecture consists of Dzong and everyday varieties.
 Secular lordly houses emerged as a distinct style in the late 19th century,
during a period of relative peace in Bhutan. Throughout its history, Bhutan
has mainly followed the Tibetan tradition of Buddhist architecture .
 The architecture of ordinary houses varies according to location and
elevation. In the southern lower altitudes, thatched bamboo houses are
common. The wetter eastern valleys of Bhutan tend to be steep, narrow
ravines, with settlements dug directly into mountainsides.
b. Architectural Examples
 Dzongs
in Bhutan were
built as
fortresses and
have served as
religious and
administrative
centers since the
17th century. Dzong Architecture
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dzong_architecture
Dzongs were
frequently built on a hilltop or mountain
spur, or adjacent to important streams.
 Buddhist temples (lakhang) in
Bhutan are often relatively simple
single-story structures surrounding a
courtyard. Most also feature high
thresholds. They are often adorned
with a red stripe along the upper walls,
and gilded copper roofs. There is
sometimes an antechamber at the
entry.
 Monasteries (gonpa, goenpa) follow
two architectural traditions: cluster Kyichu Lhakhang and
Chorten, Paro
and dzong. Cluster types seem to Source:
present the oldest tradition of monastic https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architectur
e_of_Bhutan#/media/File:Kyichu_Lhakh
ang-060701.JPG

architecture in Bhutan, in which one or two temples is surrounded by clusters
of housing for its monks.
 Chortens, receptacles of worship akin to stupas, dot the land. Pilgrims and
locals circumambulate chortens in order to gain merit. Larger Bhutanese
domed chorten are hewn of stone and whitewashed in the Nepalese style.
Smaller flared chortens in Tibetan style is found in eastern and central
Bhutan, often accompanied by a protective wooden superstructure. The
native Bhutanese style is a square stone pillar with a khemar (a painted red
band that runs just below the roof) near the top, sometimes accompanied by
a ball and crescent to depict the sun and moon. This indigenous style
represents a kind of reduced form of the classical stupa. Yet another style of
chorten is supported on two pillars, under which people pass to gain merit.[
 Bridges. Mountainous Bhutan has always relied on bridges for travel
across its many steep ravines and rushing rivers prone to disastrous
flooding. The most traditional bridges of Bhutan are its cantilever bridges,
however the kingdom also has several large suspension bridges.
Bhutanese cantilever bridges are aggregations of massive, interlocking
wooden structures that form a single bridge. These ancient bridges have
supported centuries of human, animal, and increasingly industrial traffic.

A. Choose one distinct architectural example representative of the country presented
(except that which was already mentioned in the module).
B. Identify the name of the building, the location and the year it was constructed.
C. Write a brief background or history of the building presented. Justify why the
structure chosen best represents the country.
D. Reproduce the perspective on a 12” x 18” vellum or acceptable paper. Include a
E. Call out the important architectural features and details that evidences the specific
architectural character. Provide short descriptions to your call-outs. Organize your
labels and support your illustrations with short write ups. Identify your references.
F. Submit your outputs as PDF files.

2. Reflection Question: Give one important contribution of South Asian architecture to
3. Discussion Question: Read two (2) of your classmates’ answers. What can you learn
References
Alexeeva, N.N. (2020). South Asia. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/place/South-

Asia
Chapter 9. South Asia. Retrieved from https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_world-regional-
geography-people-places-and-globalization/s12-south-asia.html
Indian architecture. Retrieved from https://www.culturalindia.net/indian-architecture/
Stupas in Sri Lanka. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stupas_in_Sri_Lanka
Symbolism of the Stupa/Chorten. Retrieved from http://www.buddhanet.net/e-
learning/history/buddhist-art/stupas.htm
Tibetan architecture: Temples, palaces, stupas. Retrieved from
http://factsanddetails.com/china/cat6/sub36/entry-4430.html

Module 5. ARCHITECTURE OF EAST ASIA

1. Identify the country-specific characteristic features of the Islamic architecture style.
of architecture.
Watch: HIST 1111 - Early East Asian Civilization.
Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q9dL7DZ9IrY
2. Discussion Question: Give one similarity evident in the East Asian countries? Why
do you say so?
III. Discussion
GENERAL INFLUENCES
1. Geography
 East Asia is a large expanse of territory with China as its largest country. Mongolia
is the only land-locked country.
 Countries of east Asia
i. China
ii. Mongolia
iii. North and South Korea
iv. Japan
v. Taiwan
 The Silk Road was the main link
between China and Europe
 Boundaries
i. West: Series of mountain
ranges: Karakoram Ranges,
Pamirs, Tian Shan Mountains, Map of North Asia
Altay Mountains, Himalayan Source:
Mountains /

ii. North: Mongolia and Russia
iii. South: Southeast Asia
2. Climate
 Major rain shadow and desert conditions in the western regions.
 West: Vast arid regions
 East: Temperate climates
 North: Moist mid-latitude climate with cold winters (Continental Climate)
 South: Warmer tropical climates
 Agriculture
 Mining
 Export and Trae
ARCHITECTURE OF EAST ASIA
A. ARCHITECTURE OF CHINA
1. Influences
a. Religion
g. Buddhism was introduced to China from India around the first century AD.
Due to varied introduction time and channel, as well as regional, historic and
social backgrounds, several branches of Buddhism became evident.
i. Chinese Buddhism
ii. Tibetan Buddhism
iii. Pali Buddhism
h. Confucianism is an ancient belief system which focuses on the importance
of personal ethics, good behavior and morality which can affect the world
around that person through the idea of “cosmic harmony.”. Confucianism
believes in ancestor worship and human-centered virtue for living a peaceful
life. Confucianism is best understood as an ethical guide to life and living
with strong character.
i. Confucian ideology was the core of feudal China’s hierarchical social
system.
ii. Golden Rule: “Do not do unto others what you would not want others to
do unto you”
iii. Beliefs:
 Education is important to create a virtuous character (respect,
altruism and humility)

 People are essentially good, yet may have stray from the appropriate
forms of conduct.
 Rituals were designed to bring respectful attitude and create a sense
of community within a group.
 Filial Piety – devotion to family, is a key Confucius thought, through
ancestor worship, submission to parental authority or the use of
family metaphors, like “son of heaven” to describe the emperor and
his government.
i. Taoism is a religion native to China. Laozi established this philosophy and
came to be regarded as the “Father of Taoism”.
i. Yin and Yang – these are the two basic principles underlying all matters
and energy in the universe. These forces
are opposites, but are not in opposition.
Rather, they are complementary and
need each other to exist and flourish.
ii. Feng Shui – a practice that Is related to
physical space, but also to the inhabitants
of the space itself. The goal of feng shui
guidelines is to locate and orient
dwellings, possessions, land and
landscaping, etc., to as to be attuned with
the flow of the qi (the energy of the
universe).
 The bagua (pakua) of the I Ching is an
octagonal diagram used in feng shui
analysis. Each direction on the Source:
https://www2.slideshare.net/Ar
octagon is associated with certain chiEducPH/history-chinese-
architecture-10-
significant aspects. 62122142?qid=b1cfe841-22f6-
b. Politics 4bea-9b2a-
189f75b484cc&v=&b=&from_s
i. Dr. Sun Yat-sen – promoted an independent earch=4
Chinese Republic free from dynastic rule, Japan or European colonial

influence
ii. Chiang Kai-shek – defeated the communists and established a national
government.
iii. Nationalists and Communists – work to establish the republic

c. Geography
j. Major Rivers of East Asia
i. Yellow River (Huang He River) – named after the light-colored silt that
washes into the water, flows from the Tibetan highlands through the
North China Plains into the Yellow Sea. This river also provides water
for extensive agricultural operations.
ii. Yangtze River (Chang Jiang River) – flows out of the Tibetan Plateau
through the Sichuan Province, through the Three Gorges region and its
lower basin into the East China Sea. The Yangtze river is a valuable
and vital transportation corridor for the transport of goods between
periphery and core and between the different urban centers of activity.
iii. Liao River Basin and the Songhua River Basin through Northeast
China
iv. Pearl River Basin along the southernmost region of China
2. Architectural Character
a. Bilateral symmetry
b. Use of Enclosed open spaces
c. Directional hierarchies, emphasizing on the horizontal
d. The use of symbolisms or allusions to various cosmological or mythological
symbols.
a. Traditional Chinese are always found in pairs or groups, and use wood-frame
construction as one of its most distinctive features.
b. Modularity or the use of a module. Traditional Chinese carpenters used “jian”
– a structured bay as a standard unit
to construct all buildings. Jian was a
rectangular space marked by
adjacent structural frames. Jian can
be expanded or repeated along the
architectural plan axis. Odd numbers
of Jian are allowed. Even numbers Source:
http://designportfolios.philau.edu/gallery/76399
are considered unlucky. 385/Jian-%28%29-Group-Presentation
c. Siheyuan or a courtyard surrounded

by buildings on all four sides houses is a type of a basic historical pattern used
for residences, palaces, temples, monasteries, family business, and government
offices.

d. Dougong or Tou kong – bracket sets instead
of capitals on their columns
e. Pantiles or S – Tiles for roof
f. Muguija – timber frames
g. Taizi – podium
Dougong
Anatomy of a Courtyard
Pantile
Source: (1)
https://www.researchgate.net/figure
/a-Dougong-brackets-from-China-
The-Sakyamuni-Pagoda-of-
Fogong-Temple-1056-AD-
and_fig4_264972592 ; (2)
http://www.sfrooftile.com/products_
show.aspx?channel=dannuo_prod
Skywell Example ucts_en&page=square_pavilion
Source: (1) https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Rule-Based-
Generation-of-Ancient-Chinese-from-the-Liu-
Wu/597ba97bf8db006e8b86dac8b339645cecbd4a38/figure/3 ; (2)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_architecture
h. Courtyard or Sky Well

i. Wu’ Ding – roof
j. Methods of Construction: Wood
 Tai-Liang – Pillars and
beam
 Chuan Duo – Pillars and
transverse Tie beam
k. Color played a vital part in
their structure
Classic Roof (Wu’ Ding) Types

Source:
https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/architectu
re/roofs.htm

l. Upturned eaves are religious elements to dispel evil spirits, since it is believed
that spirits only travel in straight lines.
m. Styles of Ancient Chinese
Architecture
 Yinhgshan Roof
 Yingshan Juanpeng
 Xiashan Roof
 Xiashan Juanpeng Roof
 Double Eaves Xianchan
Roof
 Xuanshan Roof
 Wudian Roof
 Tented Roof
 Tented Roof (Pyramidal)
Styles of Ancient Chinese Architecture
n. Classification by Structure Source: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Rule-
Based-Generation-of-Ancient-Chinese-from-the-Liu-
 Lou – Multistory buildings Wu/597ba97bf8db006e8b86dac8b339645cecbd4a38/f
igure/2
 Tai – Terraces – an
external, raised, open, flat area in
either a landscape near a building, or
on a roof (roof terrace)
 Ting – Pavilions – a garden pavilion Chines Pavilion
which is used to provide shade and a Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_pa
place to rest, and are not exclusively vilion
religious structures
 Ge – Multistory Pavilion
 Ta – Pagodas
 Xuan – Verandas with windows – A veranda is roofed, open-air gallery or
porch attached to the outside of a building. A veranda is often partially
enclosed by a railing and frequently extends across the front and sides of
the structure.
 Xie – Pavilions or Houses in Terraces
 Wu – Rooms along roofed corridors
 Gong - Palaces

a. Pagoda – is a symbol of Buddhism.
 Materials: Stone, Wood, Colored Glaze
or Metal
 Plan shape: Rectangular, eight-sided or
circular
 Height: Odd numbered layers, seven-
and nine- layered pagodas are
common.
 Features: Beautiful shapes, Bas Relief
Carvings, Dougong Brackets and
upturned eaves.
b. Grottos – are often chiseled into cliffs, and The Chinese Pagoda
Source:
decorated with painted sculptures, carvings https://rampages.us/garstai/2016/04/
06/ancient-chinese-architecture-
and frescoes. pagodas/
Longmen Grottoes
Mogao Caves, Dunhang, China
Source:
Source: https://www.britannica.com/place/Mogao- https://m.visitourchina.com/luoyang/photo/the-long-
Caves men-grottoes.html
Yungang Grottoes, Sangxi, China Maiji Caves, Tainashu

Source: Source:
https://www.123rf.com/photo_94560432_shanxi- https://www.visitourchina.com/tianshui/attraction/maiji-
datong-yungang-grottoes.html caves.html

c. Miao or Buddhist temples tend to be
decorated in red or black, and there is
a main hall for the statue of a
Bodhisattva, followed by a smaller hall
with statues of other Buddha’s and
deities.
d. Stupa is a Buddhist square or round
tomb, which is also called a “soul Buddhist Temple
Source:
shrine” https://www2.slideshare.net/ArchiEducPH/hi
e. Taoist Temples story-chinese-architecture-10-
62122142?qid=b1cfe841-22f6-4bea-9b2a-
 Traditional Style - asymmetric 189f75b484cc&v=&b=&from_search=4
 Ba-gua Style –all structures

surround the danlu, or the stove to
make pills of immortality, in the
center according to the Ba-gua
position.
 The Temple of Heaven is a
complex used by the emperor to
Temple of Heaven
make offerings to the heaven and Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Hea
pray for a good harvest. ven
f. Funeral Buildings
 The Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor where a terracotta army guards
the complex.
Sources: (1); (3) https://chinatouradvisor.files.wordpress.com/2014/06/d51fd0b5e522b315a5faa1ad8d525b33.jpg

; (2) https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/481251910156481752/ ; (3) http://en.people.cn/n3/2019/0102/c90000-
9533801.html

g. Imperial Palaces:
 The Forbidden City
 Situated in Beijing, the Forbidden city is the
world’s largest palace complex. It has lavishly
decorated ceremonial halls and royal palaces.
All the gates, palace and other structures of the
Forbidden City was arranged about the north-
south central axis of old Beijing.
 The forbidden City Is rectangular in shape with
9,999 rooms covering 74 hectares. It is
surrounded by a six-meter-deep moat and a
ten-meter-high wall. Stupa at China
Qinghai Xining Tar
Temple
Source:
https://www.123rf.com/ph
oto_99778911_stupa-at-
china-qinghai-xining-tar-
temple.html
The Summer Palace

Source: http://en.chinaculture.org/focus/focus/2010expo_en/2010- Source:
https://www.chinadiscovery.com/beijing/sum
04/19/content_376722.htm mer-palace.html
 The Forbidden City is divided into two parts:

i. The southern section or the Outer Courts was where the emperor
exercised his supreme power over the nation.
ii. The northern section or the Inner Courts was where he lived with the
royal family.

h. Gateways
 Pai-lou or Paifang are
monumental arches or gateways
with one, three or five openings,
erected at the entrance to a
palace, tomb for persons of
distinction, or processional way.
These structures are erected only
with government permission.
i. Altars - Tan
 A proper altar holds images
or representations of
the Buddha's enlightened Source:
https://twitter.com/sommimi/status/12772610
body, speech and mind which 22651248640
serve as reminders of the goal
of Buddhist practice; that is: to
develop these qualities in oneself
so as to be able to
fully benefit all sentient beings.
The reason for setting up
an altar is not for fame, for
showing off wealth, or to
increase pride, but rather it is to A Buddhist Altar
Source;
reduce one's mental
http://www.chinabuddhismencyclopedia.com
afflictions and to seek the ability to /en/index.php/Why_Have_an_Altar%3F#/me
dia/File:Shinvc010.jpg
help all sentient beings.
j. Gardens
 The Summer Palace (Yiheyuan)
had one of the largest, best
preserved and most interesting
royal gardens in the world. It used
to be the private garden for the
royal families of the Qing dynasty
to decamp during hot summer Source:
https://www.indiatoday.in/education-
days. today/gk-current-affairs/story/great-wall-of-
china-opens-351197-2016-11-10

k. Military Structure
 The Great Wall of China is a series of stone and earthen fortification built by
a number of emperors to protect the northern borders against nomadic
tribes.
B. JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE
1. Influences
a. Geography
 Japan is an archipelago, or a string of islands on the eastern edge of Asia
 Four main islands: Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu
 Boundaries
i. North: Siberian Region of Russia
ii. South: Korea and China
b. Geology
 Sits on three plates, which makes it predisposed to earthquakes.
 Forest and wild vegetation occupy 4/5 of the country.
 Bamboo is plentiful.
 Stone is mainly of volcanic origin.
c. Climate
 Influenced by a cold airstream from Asia in winter, and warm moist air from
the Pacific during summer.
 Houses face south, with projecting eaves to give protection against the sun,
while high courtyard walls screen the northern cold winds of winter.
d. Religion
 Shintoism – veneration of ancestors and the divine forces of nature.
 Buddhism – more meditative in nature than mystical
e. Periods of Development:
 Archaic Development – introduced the “gusho-type” of construction based
on the principle of the rigidity of the triangle which formed the fundamental
structural system considered resistant to earthquakes.
 Asoka-Narra Period – The predominant religion was Buddhism, and the
different roof construction types were introduced
 Konin Period – the transition when Japan was engrossed in assimilating
imported culture. Thus, little attempt to adopt to new architectural forms was
made.

 Fujiwara Period – Japanese period which reached their full maturity. One
feature was the luxurious Buddhist altar in the Japanese mansion.
 Komamura-Muromachi Period – the decline of Buddhist religion and the
rise of military order.
 Mayama-Yenko Period – the center of architectural interest was transferred
from religious to secular structures.
f. Society and Politics
 The Tokugawa introduced a system of strict social stratification, organizing
the majority of Japan’s social structure into a hierarchy of social classes.
The shinokosho was ideated to stabilize the country based on the ideas of
Confucianism.
 The Japanese people were assigned a hereditary class based on their
profession, which would be directly inherited by their children.
i. Emperor – the official ruler of Japan, but functioning as an only as a
figurehead for the Shogun.
ii. Court Nobility or kuge – civil aristocracy and were incredibly prestigious
and held significant influence in cultural fields, but wielded very political
power.
iii. Shogun – the de facto ruler of Japan. This is a title for a prominent
military general of the Samurai class appointed by the Emperor with the
task of national administration.
iv. Daimyo – samurai feudal lords, and also holds most of the real political
power. They are responsible for the administration of their large personal
domains, the han.
v. Samurai – noble or warrior class who starts the order and sets a high
moral example for others to follow.
vi. Farming Peasants or heimin – were held in high regard as commoners
because they produce the most important commodity, food.
vii. Artisans – were placed below the peasants because they produce non-
essential goods.
viii. Merchants – were placed at a low status because they do not produce
any goods.
ix. Untouchables – are those who fell outside of the mainstream Japanese
society for one reason or another, and were actively discriminated
against at the societal level.

 Barakumin or hamlet or village people whose occupations were
considered impure or tainted by death, like executioners,
undertakers, slaughterhouse workers, butchers and tanners. These
occupations were seen to be kegere or defilement in the Shinto
religion.
 Ethnic minorities were generally excluded from the class system.
The Tokugawa isolationist policy of Sakoku banned most foreigners
from entering Japan.
a. The architecture of Japan was influenced by
Chine, but it has maintained its own special
characteristics of lightness as delicacy.
b. Refinement is combined with carving and
decoration which is noticeable in timber
construction.
a. Roof Types
 Kirizuma – gable roof
 Hogyo – pyramidal roof
 I’rimoya – hip roof
 Yosemune – hip ridge roof
b. Types of Doors
 Taikobusuma a sliding door comprised of a
lattice frame with white paper affixed to both Roof Types
sides. Source:
 Fusuma is a standard sliding door in old 68790627909469964/
Japanese houses
c. Chashitsu or tea house
1. Sadouduchi - a full-sized door the host uses to enter and exit the Chashitsu
carrying utensils
2. Tokobashira – supporting pillar
3. Otoshigake – Tokonama lintel
4. Kakejiku – Hanging scroll

5. Tokogamachi – Tokonama bottom
beam
6. Tamaeza – The master’s mat
7. Nijiriguchi – small crawl through
opening where guests enter
8. Tokonama – alcove in the tea
room where the hanging scroll is The Chashitsu or theTea House
Source:
hung and chabana (tea flowers) https://www2.slideshare.net/wongcheeonn7/
Atraditional-japanese-
Typical Chashitsu
are displayed. A Tokonoma is architecture?qid=97782d7f-d196-4729-a56f-
Source: http://japanese-tea-
considered the most important 1c87a3477802&v=&b=&from_search=1
ceremony.net/chashitsu.html
place in the room and thus the chief guest or Shokyaku will be seated nearest
to the Tokonoma.
d. Tatami Mat – a type of mat used as flooring material in traditional Japanese-
style rooms.
e. Ken – as the standard measurement of
intercolumniation.
f. Yariganna – is a wood working tool to
split timber and beautify it.
g. Kamidana – a family altar which is
Shinto Home Shrine
miniature Shinto Shrine for home Source:
https://www.patheos.com/blogs/pagantam
worship or god-shelf a/2017/01/22/anatomy-kamidana-shinto/
 Ofuda – the paper or wood charm
that is imbued with kami essence and it
functions as the central point of
veneration
 Omiya – miniature replica of the Shinto
shrine building
h. Tamaya – is a Shinto altar dedicated to
the spirits of the deceased ancestors.
The tamaya is placed on a lower level than
kamidana. It contains a mirror or a
Tamashiro (tablet) listing the names of the
deceased family members.
An ornate Butsudan
i. Butsudan or Butudan is a Buddhist altar or Source:
shrine commonly found in temples and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butsudan
homes. It is simply a defined, often ornate platform or simply a wooden cabinet

sometimes crafted with doors that enclose
and protect a Gohonzon or religious icen,
typically a statue or painting or a Buddha or
Bodhisattva, or a calligraphic mandala
scroll.
j. Ikebana (arrangeing flowers or making
flowers alive) also known as Kado (way of
flowers) is the Japanese art of flower
arrangement.
k. Torii or gateways
 A red-orange Torii gate signals entry to
a sacred place. It consists of two
upright pillars with two crossbeams at
Types of Japanese Torii
the top.
Source:
4. Architectural Examples https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/54768000
4667661918/
a. Vernacular Structure
 Jomon Hut
 These huts are built by digging as deep as 2- 3 feet into the ground.
 Trees are used as pillars to support the roof.
 The hut is shaped like a tent with as small ridge on the roof for
ventilation,
 Yayoi Hut
 These huts are raised from the ground
 The gable roof is used
 The roof is over a wattle screen wall surrounded by a damp excluding
ditch.
Yayoi Hut
Source: Typical Jomon Hut
https://heritageofjapan.wordpress.com/y Source:
ayoi-era-yields-up-rice/the-advent-of- https://heritageofjapan.wordpress.com/ju
agriculture-and-the-rice-revolution/life- st-what-was-so-amazing-about-jomon-
on-a-wet-rice-farming-village/yayoi- japan/ways-of-the-jomon-world-2/jomon-
architectural-styles/ architecture/

b. Shrines
i. Torii – Shinto gate
ii. Stone Stairs
iii. Sando – the approach to the
shrine
iv. Chozuya or Temizuya – a
purification font to cleanse
one’s hand and mouth
v. Toro – decorative stone
lantern
vi. Kagura-den – building
dedicated to Noh or the sacred
kagura dance
vii. Shamusho – the shrines
administrative office
viii. Ema – wooden plaques Typical Shinto Shrine Plan
Source:
bearing prayers or wishes https://www2.slideshare.net/wongcheeonn7/traditi
ix. Sessha/Massha – small onal-japanese-architecture?qid=97782d7f-d196-
4729-a56f-
auxiliary shrines 1c87a3477802&v=&b=&from_search=1
x. Komainu – “lion dogs – the guardians of the shrine

xi. Haiden – oratory or hall of worship
xii. Tamagaki - fence surrounding the honden
xiii. Honden – main hall, enshrining the kami (god or deity)
Types of Shrines
Source: https://www2.slideshare.net/wongcheeonn7/traditional-japanese-architecture?qid=97782d7f-d196-4729-
a56f-1c87a3477802&v=&b=&from_search=1

c. Temples and Pagodas
 Square plan, Five storey
or 45 meters high
 In construction, they are
virtually suspended
around a central timber to
provide stability against
earthquakes.
 The ground storey
contains the images and The Main Sanctuary (Shôden) of the
Inner Shrine
shrines. The upper storey Source: https://www.gonomad.com/3031-ise-japan-
s-holiest-shrine
serves as “belvederes”
Section of a Pagoda
Source: (1) http://factsanddetails.com/japan/cat20/sub129/item2783.html ; (2)
https://www2.slideshare.net/wongcheeonn7/traditional-japanese-architecture?qid=97782d7f-d196-4729-a56f-
1c87a3477802&v=&b=&from_search=1

Typical Japanese Buddhist Temple
Source: https://www2.slideshare.net/wongcheeonn7/traditional-japanese-architecture?qid=97782d7f-d196-
4729-a56f-1c87a3477802&v=&b=&from_search=1
d. Tombs
 Kofun (old tumuli) are large artificial mound tombs built in ancient Japan for
the ruling elite between the 3rd and 7th century CE. Many measures several
hundred meters across, are surrounded by a moat, and, besides containing
valuable bronze and iron goods, they were protected by terracotta figurines
called haniwa. The goods within the tombs illustrate the increasing prosperity
of ancient Japan as the rulers of Yamato traded both materials and ideas
with neighboring states. The mounds have given their name to the Kofun
Period of Japanese history which covers c. 250 to 538 CE.
e. House and Residential Architecture
 Method of Construction
i. Shinden-zukuri – are houses that stood in the midst of a large garden,
and are symmetrical with its rooms connected with long hallways. This
house design allowed residents to enjoy seasonal events and the beauty
of nature.

ii. Shoin-zukuri – house style
created by the samurai
(warrior-class)
f. Castles and Palaces
 Castles were built with the object
of keeping the enemy out, thus
Shinden-Zukuri
they are elaborate in design and
strongly fortified. Their
magnificent architecture also
served to demonstrate the power
of the joshu or the lord of the
castle.
Shoin -Zukuri
Source:
https://www2.slideshare.net/wongcheeonn7/tra
ditional-japanese-architecture?qid=97782d7f-
d196-4729-a56f-
Himeji Castle
Source: https://www.nippon.com/en/features/jg00105/
Castle Layout
Source:
https://www2.slideshare.net/wongcheeonn7/tra
ditional-japanese-architecture?qid=97782d7f-
d196-4729-a56f-

Details of the Castle Design
Source: https://www2.slideshare.net/wongcheeonn7/traditional-japanese-architecture?qid=97782d7f-d196-
4729-a56f-1c87a3477802&v=&b=&from_search=1
C. ARCHITECTURE OF KOREA
1. Influences
a. Geography
 Korea is a peninsula, separated by the Korean demilitarized zone (DMZ) into
North and South.
 Korea is derived from Koryo the name of an ancient kingdom on the
peninsula mountains, and poetically interpreted as the “Land of High
Mountains and Sparkling Streams.”
 Boundaries
i. East: Sea of Japan and the Yellow Sea
ii. West and North: China
iii. North: Yalu and Tumen Rivers.
 Topography: mountainous with few arable or farmable land.
b. Geology: The bedrock is predominantly volcanic and granitic rocks that have
been severely modified by glacial process.
c. Climate: Four distinct seasons, monsoon

a. Avoidance of Extremes: Flexible
responses to topography and
surrounding mountains
b. Naturalistic Tendencies: Organic layout
of its buildings
c. Economy of Shape: Iteration and
metastasis of space
d. Simplicity of Shape
Pagoda, South Korea
3. Architectural Features Source:
https://www.britannica.com/art/Korean-
a. Gently sloping roof as compared to the architecture
sharply curving Chinese roofs
b. Avoidance of sharp angles, strong lines,
steep planes and garish colors.
c. Exhibits a quiet inner harmony
d. Used mainly bricks since wood was
expensive.
e. Traditional Korean houses consists of
several stand-alone buildings to
separate:
 Servants from owners
 Men from women Source:
https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=00
 Adults for children KQCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT63&lpg=PT63&dq=
f. Principles of Visual Planning baeheullim&source=bl&ots=GYf404DFNP
&sig=ACfU3U2FD5u-7_dCvFLq-
 Baeheulim is the Korean word for b8AIsDEyD74HA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ah
UKEwiCvYjBjY7uAhX0KKYKHW0oCXAQ
entasis, the practice of making 6AEwD3oECBIQAg#v=onepage&q=baeh
eullim&f=false
columns wider in their middle
sections than at their tops and bottoms.
 Guisoseum literally means “rising at the corners”, which refer to the practice
of making the heights of the column in a building progressively taller from
the center to the corners where they are at their tallest.
 Ansollim means “leaning inwards.” This describes the way the columns
are erected at an angle where they lean, very slightly, inward towards the
building’s center. This technique is used to overcome the illusion where
absolutely vertical columns at each end of the building appear to lean

outward. This technique was used in the construction of stone and wooden
pagodas.
g. Baesanimsu – a principle that means that the ideal house is built with a
mountain in the back and a river in front.
h. Korean Wooden Brackets:
 Jusimpo – column-head bracket
 Dapo – multi bracket
 Igkong Style – a simplified version of the
column-head bracket. It features a bird beak-
like protrusion as its main decorative element Jusimpo
i. Roof Types
 Matbae – gable roof
 Ujingak – hipped roof
 Paljak – hip and gable roof
Dapo
Types of Roofs
Sources: https://www2.slideshare.net/ArchiEducPH/history-japanese- Ikgong
architecture-10?qid=7d25b073-e35e-4888-a53b- Source:
0d07cf2c346c&v=&b=&from_search=4 https://www2.slideshare.net/Arc
hiEducPH/history-japanese-
architecture-10?qid=7d25b073-
e35e-4888-a53b-
0d07cf2c346c&v=&b=&from_se
arch=4
Roof Configuration
Source: https://www2.slideshare.net/ArchiEducPH/history-
japanese-architecture-10?qid=7d25b073-e35e-4888-a53b-
0d07cf2c346c&v=&b=&from_search=4

a. Ko’indol or Chisongmyo – in Pre-historic Korea, these are dolmens or simple
structures made of monolithic stones which appear most often near villages.
The archaeological finds buried within them imply that they were constructed as
tombs for elite members of the community.
b. Temples
 Silla Temples frequently used brick-like patterns in the construction of
pagodas. The square pagodas stand on elevated platform of granite and
each story is capped by thin roof
stones with projecting eaves. The
stories diminish progressively in
size as they go upward, forming a
characteristic slender and
stabilized type.
 Goguryeo Temples were built with
three sanctums arranged to the Table Dolmen, Ganghwa, Korea
Source:
north, east and west of a central https://www.ancient.eu/Korean_Architectur
wooden octagonal pagoda. This e/
layout was shows influence by

Japan’s Asuka-dera and Horyuji temples.
 Paekche Temples used thee one pagoda with three surrounding hall plan,
which seems to be the earliest Buddhist temple plan used. The temple also
had central octagonal wooden pagoda
Goguryeo Temple Silla Temple Paekche Temple

Source: Source: Source:
https://www.alamy.com/stock- http://www.humanhistoryinbrief.net/ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v
photo/culture-of-the-goguryeo- 2017/07/silla-kingdom-of- =ad4O7R78XNI
kingdom.html korea.html

c. Hanok – a traditional Korean house first
built in the 14th century, during the
Joseon Dynasty. This structure
considers the positioning of the house in
relation to its surroundings, with thought
given to land and seasons. Hanok
A Hanok in Bukchon Hanok
shapes differ by region. In the cold
Village
northern regions of Korea, hanoks are built Source:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.p
in a square with a courtyard in the middle hp?curid=94734574
in order to retain heat better. In the south,
hanoks are more open and L-shaped.
 The environment-friendly aspects of
traditional Korean houses range from
the structure's inner layout to the
building materials which were used.
 Structure of a Hanok: Hanok of Lee Man Hyun located
in Andong
i. Built on a raised platform, usually
Source:
made by piing rocks to avoid http://www.antiquealive.com/Blogs/Hanok
_Traditional_Korean_House.html
water splashing into the house on
rainy days.
ii. Use natural stone blocks with pillars
hewn to fit them to block the
humidity from the ground.
iii. Use wooden beams and stone-
block construction.
iv. Have their own roof tiles called
“giwa”
v. The edge of the Hanok’s curvy roofs
called cheoma can be adjusted to
control the amount of sunlight that
enters the house
Source:
 A unique feature of traditional houses https://www.bigstockphoto.com/image-
338217424/stock-photo-detail-of-
is their special design for cooling the building-in-bukchon-hanok-village%2C-
a-korean-traditional-village-in-
interior in summer and heating the seoul%2C-south-korea
interior in winter.
i. The 'Ondol (Gudeul),' a floor-based heating system, and 'Daecheong
(Maru),' a cool wooden-floor style hall were devised long ago to help

Koreans survive the frigid winters and to block sunlight during summer.
These primitive types of heating and air-conditioning were so effective
that they are still in use in many homes today.
ii. The posts, or 'Daedulbo' are not inserted into the ground, but are fitted
into the cornerstones to keep Hanok safe from earthquakes .
Layout of a Hanok
Source: https://www2.slideshare.net/ArchiEducPH/history-japanese-architecture-10?qid=7d25b073-e35e-
4888-a53b-0d07cf2c346c&v=&b=&from_search=4
D. ARCHITECTURE OF MONGOLIA
 The architecture of Mongolia is largely based on traditional dwellings, such as
the yurt and the tent.
 During the 16th and 17th centuries, lamaseries (a monastery of lamas) were built
throughout the country as temples which were later enlarged to accommodate a
growing number of worshipers.
 Mongolian architects designed their temples with six and twelve angles and
pyramidal roofs approximating the yurt's round shape. Further expansion led to
a quadratic shape in the design of the temples, with roofs in the shape of pole
marquees.
 Trellis walls, roof poles and layers of felt were eventually replaced by stone, brick
beams and planks.
b. Architectural Features
 Medieval yurt camps were commonly arranged in a huree (circle), with the
leader's yurt in the center. As huree monasteries and camps developed into
towns and cities, their names retained the word huree.

 The organization and
furnishings of the interior space
mirror family roles and spiritual
concepts. Each cardinal
direction is significant, and the
door always faces south. Inside a Yurt
Source:
Herders use the sun's position https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Mongoli
a#/media/File:Panoramique_ger.jpg
in the crown of the yurt as
a sundial.
c. Architectural Examples
 Tent Architecture
i. Jodgor is a small tent,
accommodating one or two
people.
ii. Maihan is a larger tent for a
group.
Zuu Temple at Erdene Zuu Monastery
iii. Tsatsar is a fabric shade on Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Mongoli
vertical supports, replacing a a#/media/File:ErdeneZuuKhiidTemple.jpg
wall.
iv. Tsachir is a large,
rectangular tent with vertical
fabric walls,
v. Asar is a generic name
for tsatsar and tsachir.
 Buddhist Monasteries
 Stupa
Stupa at Erdene Zuu Monastery

Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Mongoli
a#/media/File:Z%C5%82ota_Stupa_w_klasztorze_Er
dene_Dzuu_01.jpg

V. Post Lecture Activity
F. Submit your outputs as PDF versions.
2. Reflection Question: Give one important contribution of East Asian architecture to the
References
Chapter 10. East Asia. Retrieved from https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_world-regional-

geography-people-places-and-globalization/s13-east-asia.html

Module 6. ARCHITECTURE OF SOUTHEAST ASIA

1. Identify the country-specific characteristic features of the Southeast Asian architecture
style.
of architecture.
Watch: The geography and cultures of Southeast Asia
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DdwPNUAIVIA
2. Discussion Question: Give one (1) common feature of the Southeast Asian countries.
Why do you say so?
III. Discussion
GENERAL INFLUENCES
1. Geography
 Southeast Asia is a region of peninsula and islands.
 Also called Indochina Peninsula or Indochina, a name given by France
 Countries of the Two Geographic Regions:
i. Mainland – nations connected to India and China
 Vietnam
 Laos – the only landlocked country of Southeast Asia
 Cambodia
 Thailand
 Myanmar (or Burma)
ii. Insular Region – nations surrounded by water
 Malaysia
 Singapore
 Brunei
 Indonesia
 East Timor

 Philippines
Map of Southeast Asia

Source: https://asiasociety.org/education/introduction-southeast-asia
 Three longest rivers on the Mainland:

i. Mekong River – has its headwaters from the Himalayan river and serves as the
political borders of Laos and Thailand
ii. Red River – flows out from China through Hanoi to
iii. Irrawaddy River – flows through the length of Burma
 Minor River: Chao Phraya, Thailand
 Many other rivers can be found on both the mainland and the insular region. The
rivers transport water and sediments from the interior to the coasts, often creating
large deltas with rich soils that are major agricultural areas. Multiple crops of rice
and food products can be grown in the fertile river valleys and deltas. The
agricultural abundance is needed to support the ever-increasing populations of the
realm.
2. Geology
 Tectonic plate activity has been responsible for the existence of the many islands
and has created the mountainous terrain of the various countries.

3. Climate
 Dominantly tropical climate type. Cooler temperatures may be found in the
mountainous regions and more even temperatures ranges can be found along the
coasts.
4. Religion
 Indonesia is home to the largest Muslim population in the world.
 The Philippine population is predominantly Christian, but there is a minority Muslim
community
 Most of people in Malaysia follow Islam
 About 95 percent of the people in Thailand and more than 60 percent of the people
in Laos are Buddhist.
 Hinduism is present in the Indonesian island of Bali and in various other locations in
the region.
 Animism and local religions can be found in rural and remote areas.
5. Society and Politics
 Southeast Asia was heavily influenced by European colonialism. France and Britain
colonized the mainland region. Burma was a British colony, and the rest was under
French colonial rule.
 The only area of the region that was not colonized by the Europeans was Thailand,
which was called Siam during the colonial era
 The Japanese colonial empire controlled much of Southeast Asia before World War
II.
 Some of the countries and regions of Southeast Asia became known by their
colonial connection:
 Indonesia was once referred to as the Dutch East Indies
 French Indochina is a term legitimized for historical references to the former
French claims in Southeast Asia
 Malaya and British Borneo each had its own currency based on a dollar unit that
was legal tender for these regions.
 Generally, agricultural or rice production due to the climate.
 Southeast Asia was also a critical part of the world trading system.

ARCHITECTURAL EXAMPLES
ARCHITECTURE OF MAINLAND SOUTHEAST ASIA
A. Architecture of Vietnam
 Strongly influenced by
Buddhism
 Influenced by the Chinese,
Khmers and Chams
 Due to dense lakes,
swamps, rivers, and highly
humid tropical climate, the
most appropriate building material is bamboo and wood to set up houses on low
stilts.
 The process development of Vietnam’s ancient architecture is related with the
natural environment and socio-economic situation. Thus, it was gentle, modest
and suitable for the climate and customs of Vietnam
 All buildings must follow the principle of symmetry and balance, a principle
which originated from primitive religious beliefs.
 Wooden structures and steep roofs
 Odd number of compartments (l, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11)
 the depth of the interior of the house is determined by the number of columns in
each compartment
 The ancient steep roof is curved at four ends, and its edges are decorated with
high relief motifs. Both the gables of the house are decorated. As a result, the
roof looks quite light in spite of its large size.
 Formerly, the roof of the house was covered with “fish scale” “dragon scale” or
tube tiles; baked or enameled colored tiles.
 Each building usually comprised an interior space (which was closed) and a
verandah space (half-closed)
 Wood Architecture on Stilts
 Military Architecture - such as bastions, citadel and city gates. This
architecture contains the shapes and arrangement of squares, rectangular,

regular polygon, circles,
stars and special. In the
mountainous area,
people used timber. In
the midlands, laterite
was used, and in plains,
mortar was used.
 The Thang Long
Citadel is one of the
largest constructions Thank Long Citadel (UNESCO World Heritage
Site in Hanoi)
among the feudal
Source: http://www.vietnam-guide.com/hanoi/imperial-
dynasties. It consists citadel.htm
of two 25-kilometer-long
layers, a majestic palace
complex, and many three-
to-four-floor buildings.
 Palace Architecture is typical
of the imperial dynasties of
Vietnam and expresses the
wealth and power of each
period of each King.
But Thap Pagoda
 Usually had “attic” and a Source: https://vietnamcycling.com/vietnam-cycling-
tour/hanoi-bicycle-tour-but-thap-phat-tich-pagoda-1-
corridor system connecting day/
the buildings to create an
open space which was
necessary for the daily
living of the people in the
hot weather.
 Made of wood
 Religious Architecture which
includes pagodas, towers,
temples and tombs.
 Temples are the honoring
places of Taoism. The Village Gate: A symbol of
Vietnamese Culture
 Van chi are the monuments
Source:
of Confucianism. https://en.nhandan.org.vn/culture/heritage/item/22283
02-village-gate-a-symbol-of-vietnamese-culture.html

 Landscape Gardens which are a manifestation of the art of making models of
nature in a small space to elevate the value of main buildings or whole
monument. Landscape garden of Vietnam are influenced by Oriental styles with
some similarities to Chinese and Japanese gardens. They have three main
parts: water, tree and small mountain.
 Traditional Vietnamese
Village Architecture
 Cong – Gate. No village
lacks a village gate. The
gate is the home of a
guardian spirit that protect
the hamlet and village.
Each strange visitor could Traditional Communal Houses on Stilts
have to understand the Source:
https://www.fareastour.asia/destination/detail/vietname
fixed principle: "the will of se-traditional-house-on-stilts-vietnam-culture-26.html
the king yields to the people’s customs", and they have to pass the village
gate to do the "procedure".
 Long Houses or Communal Houses: "Communal houses are places to
honor tutelary gods of a village according to the religious customs of ancient
Vietnam’s society. They are also sued for other purposes. They are often an
administration center which is taken to organize every activity of the village,
the office for officials of the village, meeting place of the local citizen. This is
also the place for traditional festivals, cultural activity. In general, the three
above functions (religion, administration, cultural-arts), Communal house is
the place where many activities are organized under the feudal period of
Vietnam. In front of the Communal house, there is often a big yard and pond
to create the landscape. The structure of Communal house could be five to
seven apartments or seven apartments with two sub-apartments like Dinh
Bang Communal house in Bac Ninh province
B. Architecture of Laos: Lao Architecture

 Mainly a mix of French colonial, Buddhist (in temples), traditional Lao
 Traditional Lao houses are built of wood and raised off the ground on stilts.
 French influence: Pitched tile roofs and shuttered windows

 Chinese shophouses with upper floors
for residence and lower flows for
traditional style buildings
 Traditional Lao homes are made of
wood or bamboo and are built on stilts
above the ground. People live on the
first floor of houses raised on timber
stilts. Traditionally the houses had Pha That Luang, the Great Sacred
steep thatched roofs and verandas. Stupa, Vientiane
Source:
Under the house the family often keep https://www.indochinavoyages.com/travel-
blog/useful-tips-travel-pha-luang
animals, and craft equipment. Houses
commonly range from five by seven
meters to eight by twelve meters, with
the smallest size typical of a newly
established household or a family that
has recently moved. Most houses are
built with a porch on the long side that
is used for visiting and as a public area. Lao Loum Houses
Source:
The interior is divided into one or two https://pt.slideshare.net/chindatouy/lao-
sleeping rooms, a common room for presentation-9146313/3
visiting and eating, and a separate

kitchen area or side porch.
 Wats are characterized by steep tiled
roofs, with frescoes and mosaic
decorations in the walls depicting the
events of Buddha’s life. Wats are often
clusters of buildings with Temple in Vientiane
Source: https://www.evivatour.com/wat-ho-
the uposatha (ordination hall) being phra-keo-temple-in-vientiane-laos/
the most important structure. These
have traditionally been built on a
multilevel platform and are made of
brick covered by stucco.
 Thats (stupas) have a distinctive
curvilinear, four-corned shape, said
the to represent the unfurling of a lotus Temple in Luang Prabang
Source: https://www.renown-
travel.com/laos/temples/templesluangpraban
g.html

bud, along with the steeple-like spire that many stupas have.
 The high peaked roofs are layered in odd numbers to correspond with certain
Buddhist doctrines such as the three characteristics of existence and the seven
factors of enlightenment. The edge of roofs often features a repeated flame motif
with long finger-like hooks in the corners that are said to catch evil spirits that
fall on the building from above. The umbrella-like spires in the central roof ridge
often have small nagas (serpents that protected Buddha) arranged in a double-
step fashion said to represent Mt. Meru
 Wat – Buddhist temples
 Vientiane temples are large rectangular structures constructed of brick and
covered with stucco and high-peaked roofs. Vientiane-style temple
architecture also features a large veranda with heavy columns, an
ornamented, overhanging roof, carved wood porticos and a carved wood
shade along the top of the veranda, often with half-bird, half
human kinnari against a background of stylized foliage. The style of
Vientiane is a more tapering style, the part that the roof plays in the structure
is less important here and the openings are higher
 Luang Prabang the roofs sweep very low and, unlike in Vientiane, almost
reach the ground. Luang Prabang-style temple architecture also features a
roof that is very pointed and steep at the top and gradually flares and is
almost horizontal at the bottom and often almost touches the ground. The
style of Luang Prabang, is characterized by its huge pointed roofs made from
flat tiles which are put down in successive layers, normally two or three,
stopping only a few meters from the ground. The Lao sometimes say these
roofs resemble to the wings of a hen protecting her chicks.
 That – Buddhist stupa built to hold religious objects
 Pha That Luang, the Great Sacred Stupa – a huge gold-covered Stupa is
believed to enshrine a breast bone of the Buddha
C. Architecture of Cambodia: Khmer Architecture or the Angkorian Architecture

 Influenced by the architecture of the Indian rock-cut temples, particularly the
sculptures, were widely adopted in South Indian
 Indianized architecture of Cambodian, Annamese (Khmer) and Javanese
temples (of Greater India)

 Emphasis on religious nature
 Materials: Brick, Sandstone, Laterite
 The central sanctuary of an Angkorian
temple was home to the temple's primary
deity, the one to whom the site was
dedicated: typically Shiva or Vishnu in the
case of a Hindu temple, Buddha or
a bodhisattva in the case of
a Buddhist temple. The temple was not
considered a place of worship for use by
the population at large, but rather a home
for the deity, the sanctuary needed only to Central Prang, Angkor Wat
be large enough to hold the statue or linga; Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khmer_arc
it was never more than a few meters hitecture#/media/File:Tower-
Angkor_Wat.jpg
across
 Prasat is a tower that conveyed the
importance of the temple through height.
 Prang is the tall finger-like spire, usually
carved, common to much Khmer religious
structure.
 Khmer temples were typically enclosed by
Cruciform Gallery
a concentric series of walls, with the
Source:
central sanctuary in the middle; this https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khmer_arc
hitecture#/media/File:Angkor_Wat,_Ca
arrangement represented the mountain mboya,_2013-08-15,_DD_038.JPG
ranges surrounding Mount Meru, the

mythical home of the gods.
 A gallery is a passageway running along
the wall of an enclosure or along the axis
of a temple, often open to one or both
sides.
 Gopura is an entrance building. Gopura
Source:
Enclosures surrounding a temple are often https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khmer_arc
hitecture#/media/File:Ta_Phrom,_Angk
constructed with a gopura at each of the or,_Camboya,_2013-08-
four cardinal points. In plan, gopuras are 16,_DD_01.JPG
usually cross-shaped and elongated along the axis of the enclosure wall; if the

wall is constructed with an
accompanying gallery, the gallery is
sometimes connected to the arms of the
gopura.
 Dvarapalas guardian figures which are
often placed or carved on either side of
the doorways. Garuda is a divine being
that is part man and part bird. He is the Dvarapalas
lord of birds, the mythologial enemy Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dvarapala#/
of nāgas, and the battle steed of Vishnu. media/File:Plaosan_Temple_Guardian.jp
g
 Bas Reliefs are individual figures,
groups of figures, or entire scenes cut
into stone walls, not as drawings but as
sculpted images projecting from a
background.
 Blind door and window. Angkorean
shrines frequently opened in only one
Garuda
direction, typically to the east. The other Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khmer_archit
three sides featured fake or blind doors ecture#/media/File:Linteau_Mus%C3%A9
to maintain symmetry. Blind windows e_Guimet_25972.jpg
were often used along otherwise blank

walls.
 Colonette were narrow decorative
columns that served as supports for the
beams and lintels above doorways or
windows. Depending on the period, they
were round, rectangular, or octagonal in
shape. Colonettes were often circled with Bas Relief of Tympanum,
molded rings and decorated with carved Banteay Srei
Source:
leaves. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khmer_archit
ecture#/media/File:Indraforestped01.JPG

 Angkorian engineers tended to use
the corbel arch in order to construct
rooms, passageways and openings in
buildings. A corbel arch is constructed by
adding layers of stones to the walls on
either side of an opening, with each
successive layer projecting further
towards the center than the one
supporting it from below, until the two Blind Door Flanked by
sides meet in the middle. Colonettes, Banteay Srei
Source:
3. Architectural Examples https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khmer_archit
ecture#/media/File:Colonettesbanteaysrei
 Wat any place of worship. "Wat" .JPG
generally refers to a Buddhist place of
worship, but the precise term
is wat putthasasana. Angkor Wat means
“City of Temples.
 Hall of Dancers is a rectangular building
elongated along the temple's east axis
and divided into four courtyards by
galleries. Formerly it had a roof made of
perishable materials; now only the stone
walls remain. The pillars of the galleries
Corbelled Arch, Angkor Thom
are decorated with carved designs of
Source:
dancing apsaras; hence scholars have https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khmer_archit
ecture#/media/File:Corbelangkorthomsout
suggested that the hall itself may have h.JPG
been used for dancing.

 Dharmasala or House of Fire has thick
walls, a tower at the west end and south-
facing windows. Scholars theorize that
the House of Fire functioned as a "rest
house with fire" for travelers. Another
theory is that the House of Fire had a
Angkor Wat
religious function as the repository the
Source:
sacred flame used in sacred ceremonies. https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities
/ap-art-history/south-east-se-
asia/cambodia-art/a/angkor-wat

 Temple Mountain Concept was
influenced by South Indian temple
architecture. The temple itself took
shape as a five-level stepped pyramid,
and the home of the gods was
represented by the elevated sanctuary at
the center of the temple.
D. Architecture of Thailand (Siam) Apsaras

Source:
1. Architectural Character https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apsara#/medi
a/File:India_semi-
 Siam – means dark brown; Thailand – devine_attendant_Dancing_Celestial.jpg
means Land of the Free
 Peace, Lightness and Floating which is
related to the main Theravada idea about
getting rid of unwholesomeness, as a
way to end all sufferings at the level of
lokiya and lokutara
 Lightness and Buoyant by breaking
down the roof structure
 Steeply-sloping tile roofs with upturned The Bakong is the earliest
surviving Temple Mountain at
edges, open air spaces and lush gardens Angkor
 Materials: Sandstone, brick, stucco, Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khmer_archit
wood, porcelain, glass mosaic pieces, ecture#/media/File:Roulos_Group_-
_005_Bakong_(8587796725).jpg
lacquer, guilt, inlaid mother of pearl, gold
leaf
 Influences: Indian, Ceylonese, Mon, Khmer and Burmese
 Major Religious Influence: Theravada Buddhism
 Minor Religious Influence: Islam, Christianity, Sikhism
 Traditional architecture is characterized by elevation of its buildings on stilts,
most commonly to around head height. The area beneath the house is used for
storage, crafts, lounging in the daytime, and sometimes for livestock such as
chickens or ducks. The houses were raised due to the fact that many Thai
villages are centered around rivers and canals, which are subject to flooding
during the rainy season.

 The size and height of Thai traditional houses are related to the occupants’
physical traits. The different space between floor and open deck area is
designed to make it fit for occupants to sit with their feet hanging down. The
window panes are level with seated occupants, allowing them to look out of the
house comfortably.
 A traditional house is usually built as a cluster of physically separate rooms
arranged around a large central terrace. The terrace is the largest singular part
of the home as it makes up to 40% of the square footage, and up to 60% if the
veranda is included. An area in the middle of the terrace is often left open to
allow the growth of a tree through the structure, providing welcome shade. The
tree chosen is often flowering or scented.
 Furniture is sparse and includes a bed
platform, dining table, and loose cushions
for sitting. Sleeping areas are set up so that
the beds are aligned with the shorter end of
the room (as sleeping parallel with the
length is similar to lying in a coffin). The
direction that the head points towards can
never be the west as that is the position
bodies are laid in before cremation. Kuti
Source:
3. Architectural Examples https://www.slideshare.net/AnsherinaD
elMundo/architecture-in-thailand-and-
 A kuti is a small structure, built on stilts, cambodia-27170898
designed to house a monk. The tiny

footprint of 4.013 x 2.343m) is intended to
aid the monk's spiritual journey by
discouraging the accumulation of material
goods. Typically, a monastery consists of a
number of these buildings grouped together
on a shared terrace, either in an inward
facing cluster or aligned in a row. Often
these structures included a separate
building, called a hor trai, used to store Lak Mueang
scriptures. Source:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/inde
 Although the term wat is properly used to x.php?curid=84920273
refer only to a Buddhist site with resident monks, it is applied loosely in practice

and will typically refer to any place of
worship other than the Islamic mosques
found in southern Thailand.
 Lak Mueang or city pillar is a shrine which
is also believed to house Chao Pho Lak
Mueang, the city spirit deity.
 A sala Thai is an open pavilion used as a
meeting place and to protect people from
sun and rain. Most are open on all four
sides.
The Golden Pagoda Thai
 Floating market is a marketplace where Stupa in Grand Palace, Wat
goods are sold from boats. it was Phra Kaew
Source:
constructed to connect the rivers. The https://depositphotos.com/211572758/
stock-photo-golden-pagoda-thai-stupa-
floating market riverbank adjoined a grand.html
Buddhist temple and Thai stilt house.

 Chedi – Thailand Stupa is bell shaped and
similar to Sri-Lankan Style.
E. Architecture of Myanmar (Burmese

Architecture)
 “The Land of a Million Pagodas”
 Deep religious tradition and devotion
 Motif: The lotus is a decorative feature
found on the architecture of Buddhist Wat Inthrawat Temple
shrines and sacred depositories such as Source:
https://www.slideshare.net/ArchiEducP
chedis (stupas) H/history-thai-thailand-architecture-10
 Features of the Burmese Stupa

i. The base platform (the plinth)
ii. Receding terraces
iii. The bell
iv. The spire with molding tapering upwards
v. Lotus petals
vi. The banana bud

vii. The umbrella
Features of Myanmar Stupa

Source: https://www.ijirmf.com/wp-content/uploads/IJIRMF201908050.pdf
 There are essentially three kinds of Buddhist structures:
i. Stupas of Pagodas, bell-shaped structures that contain a holy relic or
scripture. Stupas are solid structures that typically cannot be entered and
were constructed to contain sacred Buddhist relics that are hidden from view
(and vandals) in containers buried at their core or in the walls. Best
examples of Myanmar Stupa Architecture.
 Shwezigon Stupa, Bagan is virtually the prototype of later Myanmar
Style
 Shwedagon Stupa, Yangon
Shwedagon and Shwezigon Stupa

Source: https://www.ijirmf.com/wp-content/uploads/IJIRMF201908050.pdf

ii. Temples are places of
worship somewhat
similar to a church.
 One temple type
has an open interior
that may be entered
and in which are
displayed one or
more cult images as
a focus for worship, Ananda Temple, Bagan, Myanmar
(Cruciform Temple Type)
that is typically Source: https://luxurymyanmarrivercruises.com/ananda-
entered from the temple-bagan-myanmar
east by a door which opens into a small vestibule area located directly in
front of the primary cult image that sits against the west wall. The interior
may be illuminated by light from the door or by windows in the north and
south walls. Larger temples having a sanctuary were often built on a
cruciform plan where the central shrine can be entered from all four
sides. At times these temples have four Buddha images seated back-to-
back at the center or a screen wall is erected inside against which the
major cult image is placed. Often, one of the four entrances is developed
into a hall that may then open directly into the sanctuary.
 The second temple
type has a solid core
that is ringed by a
fairly broad
circumambulatory
corridor that then
serves as a
continuous
sanctuary. These
temples are most Nagayon Temple, Bagan, Myanmar (Closed
often square having Temple Type)
Source:
a door in each wall https://www.myanmartours.us/destinations/bagan/ba-
attractions/nagayon-temple/
with the major images placed in a niche facing each entrance. These
four images may represent by their differing iconography the Four Great
Events in the Buddha’s life – Birth, Enlightenment, First Sermon, Death.

iii. Monasteries, which
contain living quarters
and meditation cells for
monks. The monastery
building itself had
several rooms or spaces
that were in linear
alignment from east to
west. The first room is a
Nat Taung Kyaung Monastery, Bagan,
room where Buddha Thailand
images and sacred texts Source:
https://www.orientalarchitecture.com/gallery.php?sid=526
are stored and, at times, &index=2
informally displayed.
This important space is
marked by a tall tower
and is linked to the main
hall by a transitional,
lower space where the
head monk resides. The
most important part of
the building is located at
its symbolic center and Upali Thein Ordination Hall
is a large rectangular Source: https://www.agefotostock.com/age/en/Stock-
Images/upali-thein-ordination-hall.html
hall divided into two
square rooms by a partitioning wall. The room nearest the eastern entrance
is a public space where a Buddha image is displayed and rituals involving
both monks and laymen are celebrated. The western room is reserved for
activities in which only monks are involved. To the West beyond the main
hall, a storeroom is situated that may be attached or unattached to the main
structure.
 Thein or Upali thein are ordination halls in temples and monasteries. They are
used not only for the ordination ceremony itself but also for other ceremonies
such as the confession by monks.
 Royal Palaces which pre-dates the colonial era was often made of teak (an
abundant tropical hardwood). Recently reconstructed palaces, although

sometimes done with patchy
attention to detail and quality can
be found at Mandalay and
Shwebo.
Reconstructed Royal Palace

Source:
https://www.slideshare.net/ArchiEducPH/history-
myanmar-burma-architecture-10
ARCHITECTURE OF INSULAR SOUTHEAST ASIA
A. Architecture of Malaysia
 Dominant Influence: Hindu-Buddhist Culture, Islam (13th and 14th Century)
 Other Influences: Indigenous Malay, Javanese, Sumatran, Thai, Arab, Indian,
Chinese
 Style: Built on stilts, have stairs, partitioned rooms, vernacular roof, and adorned
with decoration.
 Traditional Malay architecture
employs sophisticated
architectural processes ideally
suited to tropical conditions such
as structures built on stilts,
which allow cross-ventilating
breeze beneath the dwelling to
cool the house whilst mitigating
the effects of the occasional Istana Lama Sri Menanti or Old Palace
of Sri Menanti
flood. High-pitched roofs and Source:
large windows not only allow https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/664843963729249343/
cross-ventilation but are also carved with intricate organic designs. Traditional
houses in Negeri Sembilan were built of hardwood and entirely free of nails.
They are built using beams, which are held together by wedges .
 Parts of the kampung house: (a) Rumah Ibu - in honor of the mother (ibu), so
named because the spacings between stilts typically follow the arms-spread

width of the wife and mother in the
family of the house when being
built, and (b) Rumah Dapur or
kitchen annex, which was
separated from the main house
for fire protection, (c) At least one
raised veranda (serambi) is
attached to the house for seated
work or relaxation, or where non- Kampung House
familiar visitors would be Source:
entertained, thus preserving the 7/
privacy of the interior.

 The roof of traditional Malay houses is designed to provide shade and protection
from heat and rain, as well as to
provide ventilation. The basic
design of a roof on a Malay house
is gabled roof, an extended frame
with ornaments on the edges of
the roof.
 Rumah Melayu are traditional Rumah Melayu
dwellings, originating before the Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malay_house#/media/
arrival of foreign or modern File:Rumah_kedah.gif
influences, and constructed by the

indigenous ethnic Malay of
the Malay
Peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo.
Traditional architectural forms,
such as tropically-suited roofs and
harmonious proportions with
decorative elements are
considered by traditionalists to still
have relevance. Rumah Panggung
Source:
 Rumah Panggung (lit. “stage https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/44114172598231538
1/
house”) or houses built on stilts.

 Kampung House – the main
characteristics is its on stilts
or piles. This was to avoid wild
animals and floods, to deter
thieves, and for added ventilation.
In areas located close to big rivers
of Sumatra and Borneo, the stilts
help to elevated house above
flood surface. In parts of Sabah, Malaysian Longhouse
Source: https://www.shutterstock.com/image-
the number of dowry buffaloes photo/longhouse-sarawak-malaysia-279037469
could even depend on the number
of stilts there are in the bridal
family's home.
 Longhouses are traditional
elongated community homes on
stilts and can house 20 to 100
families.
 Water Villages are rustic water
villages built on stilts, also
Water Villages
commonly found along riverbanks Source:
https://bombasticborneo.com/2018/08/kampung-
and seafronts, are linked by plank awat-awat-a-malay-fishing-village-in-lawas-
sarawak/lawas-water-village-sarawak-limbang-
walkways with boats anchored on tourist-attraction/
the sides. Transport around the
village is usually by sampan or
canoe.
 Colonial Architecture:
Portuguese and Dutch Periods
The Stadhuys
Dutch Architecture
Source: http://factsanddetails.com/southeast-
asia/Malaysia/sub5_4f/entry-3157.html

 Modern Malaysian Architecture
 The National Mosque design
with the umbrella shape roof,
act as the best form, reflecting
the unique Malaysian identity.
It defines with this uniqueness
sleek shape, interpreting
Islamic features with the
combination of “Jawi”
inscription and five pillars of The National Mosque
Source:
faith of Islam concept at the https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/63669646605655331
4/
structural elements
B. Architecture of Indonesia
 The architecture of Indonesia reflects the diversity of cultural, historical and

geographic influences that have shaped Indonesia as a whole. Invaders,
colonizers, missionaries, merchants and traders brought cultural changes that
had a profound effect on building styles and techniques.
 Most significant influences: Indian
 Other influences: Chinese, Arab and European.
 Balinese Architecture: Contains elements of Hindu-Buddhist architecture
 Timber construction, varied and elaborate roof structures.
 Overall concept design: symmetric, nature contextual and used nature

materials
 Building houses off the ground

allows breezes to moderate the
hot tropical temperatures; it
elevates the dwelling above
stormwater runoff and mud; it
allows houses to be built on
rivers and wetland margins; it Traditional Batak Toba House
keeps people, goods and food Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Indones
ia#/media/File:Batak_Toba_House.jpg

from dampness and moisture;
lifts living quarters above
malaria- carrying mosquitos;
and reduces the risk of dry rot
and termites. The sharply
inclined roof allows the heavy
tropical rain to quickly sheet off,
and large overhanging eaves
keep water out of the house and
provide shade in the heat. In hot Rumah Adat
Source:
and humid low-lying coastal https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumah_adat#/media/Fil
regions, homes can have many
windows providing good cross-
ventilation, whereas in cooler
mountainous interior areas,
homes often have a vast roof
and few windows.
 Rumah adat - traditional

houses built on stilts in any of
the vernacular architecture Rumah Gadang
Source:
styles of Indonesia. The house https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumah_Gadang#/media
/File:Rumah_Gadang.jpg
provides the main focus for the
family and its community, and is the point of departure for many activities of its
residents. The houses are at the center of a web of customs, social relations,
traditional laws, taboos, myths and religions that bind the villagers together.
 Rumah Gadang or Rumah Bagonjong "house for the Minangkabau people" or

the “spired roof houses” are the traditional homes in West Sumatra, Indonesia.
A Rumah Gadang serves as a residence, a hall for family meetings, and for
ceremonial activities. In the matrilineal Minangkabau society, the Rumah
Gadang is owned by the women of the family who live there; ownership is
passed from mother to daughter. The houses have dramatic curved roof
structure with multi-tiered, upswept gables. Shuttered windows are built into
walls incised with profuse painted floral carvings. The term Rumah
Gadang usually refers to the larger communal homes, however, smaller single
residences share many of its architectural elements

 Tongkonan – ancestral homes with saddle-
back roofs which likened to buffalo horns and
boats. In the original Toraja society, only nobles
had the right to build tongkonan. Commoners
live in smaller and less decorated homes called
banua.
 Mosques
 By the fifteenth century, Islam had become

the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra,
Indonesia's two most populous islands. As Tongkonan House,
Indonesia
with Hinduism and Buddhism before it, the
Source:
new religion, and the foreign influences that https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tong
konan#/media/File:TMII_Toraja_
accompanied it, were absorbed and House.jpg
reinterpreted, with mosques given a unique Indonesian/Javanese

interpretation. Mosques
lacked, for example, the
ubiquitous Islamic dome
which did not appear in
Indonesia until the 19th
century. Earlier minarets
were likewise thought to be
the watch tower of an
earlier Hindu Temple. Kauman Grand Mosque, Yogyakarta
Influences: Buddhist, Hindu, Chinese
 Temples Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kauman_Great_Mosque
 Prambanan or Rara
Jonggrang is a 9th-
century Hindu temple
compound in Special
Region of Yogyakarta,
Indonesia, dedicated to the
The Majapahit style minaret of Kudus

Mosque
Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Indonesi
a#/media/File:Masjid_Menara_Kudus.jpg

Trimūrti, the expression of
God as the Creator
(Brahma), the Preserver
(Vishnu) and the Destroyer
(Shiva) - is the largest
Hindu temple site in
Indonesia and the second-
largest in Southeast Asia.
It is characterized by its tall
and pointed architecture, The Prambanan Temple Complex
typical of Hindu dedicated to Trimurti Hindu gods
Source:
Architecture. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Indonesi
a#/media/File:Prambanan_Complex_1.jpg
 Palace Architecture
 Istana (or "palace")

architecture of the
various kingdoms
and realms of
Indonesia, is more
often than not based
on the vernacular
adat domestic styles
of the area. Royal Pagaruyung Palace:
courts, however, A three-storey version of the
Minangkabau Rumah Gadang.
were able to Source:
develop much http://www.alluringworld.com/pagaruyung-palace/
grander and
elaborate versions of this traditional architecture
C. Architecture of Singapore
 The architecture of Singapore displays a range of influences and styles from
different places and periods. These range from the eclectic styles and hybrid
forms of the colonial period to the tendency of more contemporary architecture
to incorporate trends from around the world. In both aesthetic and technological
terms, Singapore architecture may be divided into the more traditional pre-World
War II colonial period, and the largely modern post-war and post-colonial period.

 Traditional architecture in Singapore includes vernacular Malay houses, local
hybrid shophouses and black and white bungalows, a range of places of worship
reflecting the ethnic and religious diversity of the city-state as well as colonial
civic and commercial architecture in European Neoclassical, Gothic, Palladian
and Renaissance Style.
 Vernacular architecture was
primarily village (or 'kampong')
houses built in the Malay tradition.
Malay kampong houses were built
on stilts and raised above the
ground (or water, depending on
their location). The house was
Kampong Bahru, Singapore
erected around a skeletal Source:
structure of tropical hardwood https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Singa
pore#/media/File:KITLV_-_105811_-
posts and beams. The basic form _Lambert_&_Co.,_G.R._-_Singapore_-
_Kampong_Baru_at_Singapore_-_circa_1890.tif
of the house was simple, but
additional rooms could be added according to the requirements and wealth of
the family. Likewise, the architectural ornament, in the form of carved
wood fascia boards, screens and panels, could be quite elaborate.
 Critical Regionalism: Realization that in Singapore's hot and humid tropical
climate realized that the glassy, unadorned International Style buildings being
proliferated across the world by globalism were not appropriate for the local
climactic or cultural context. Kerry Hill pioneered this form of modern tropical
architecture, blending the architectural vernacular of Modernism with naturally-
ventilated tropical spaces and Asian cultural references.
 Temple
 Candi Muara Takus is
a Buddhist temple complex,
thought to belong to
the Srivijaya empire. It is one
of the largest and best-
preserved ancient Mahayana
Candi Muara Takus, Sumatra
Buddhist temple (candi)
Source:
complex in Sumatra. It is https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muara_Takus#/media/
File:003_Site_from_South-
West_(38244920665).jpg

thought that the area was used as both a religious and trade center by
Srivijaya.
 Shophouse. The old style
shophouses are shops with one or
more stories of living
accommodation above it. These
shophouses typically have a so-
called five-foot way which is a
covered walkway located in front
of the shop doors, with the upper
Shop House
floors shielding the pedestrians Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Sing
from the elements. This is a result apore#/media/File:Shophouses_along_Neil_Road
,_Singapore_-_20121012.jpg
of the Raffles Town Plan (1822)
for Singapore with the stipulation
that "all houses constructed of
brick or tiles have a common type
of front each having an arcade of
a certain depth, open to all sides
as a continuous and open
passage on each side of the
street"
 Colonial Architecture: Old
Old Supreme Court Building
Supreme Court Building Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Sing
apore#/media/File:Old_Supreme_Court_Building
_5,_Jan_06.JPG
D. Architecture of Brunei
 Influences: Indian, Chinese,
British, Islam (later)
 Wooden stilt houses were the living
arrangement for most of the time
Kampong Ayer
as they tend to be fairly open to let Source:
https://www.tripadvisor.com.ph/ShowUserRevie
the breeze to cool the houses ws-g293938-d8609011-r499085312-
3. Architectural Examples Kampong_Ayer_Cultural_Tourism_Gallery-
Bandar_Seri_Begawan_Brunei_Muara_District.h
tml

 Kampong Ayer is the largest water village in Brunei.
 Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien Mosque, Bandar Seri Begawan
 The Royal Palace of the Sultan of Brunei or the Istana Nurul Iman
The Royal Palace of the Sultan of Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien Mosque,
Brunei Bandar Seri Begawan
https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/216806169544211372 Source: https://www.viator.com/en-MY/Bandar-
/ Seri-Begawan-attractions/Sultan-Omar-Ali-
Saifuddin-Mosque/d4617-a24740

F. Submit your outputs as PDF versions.
2. Reflection Question: Give one important contribution of Southeast Asian architecture
to the development of architecture. Why do you say so?

References
Chapter 11. Southeast Asia. Retrieved from https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_world-regional-

geography-people-places-and-globalization/s14-00-southeast-
asia.html#:~:text=Southeast%20Asia%20is%20a%20region,bays%2C%20inlets%2C
%20and%20gulfs.
Su, A.M., Shwe, T. & Aye, T.T (2019). Approach to the architectural study Myanmar Buddhist
stipa (Case study of “Mahar Zedi” in Bago, Myanmar. International Journal for
Innovative Research in Multidisciplinary Field, 5 (8). ISSN: 2455-0620. Retrieved from
https://www.ijirmf.com/wp-content/uploads/IJIRMF201908050.pdf
Vietnamese architecture and gardens. Retrieved from http://factsanddetails.com/southeast-
asia/Vietnam/sub5_9e/entry-3429.html

ANSWER SHEETS
(You can print the answer sheet or make your own using the same format)
Discussion Question
Module Date
Name
Discussion Forum Answer

Names of Classmates Reviewed:
Module Date
Name

Reflection Answer
Module Date
Name

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CODE HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 3

Introduction ................................................................................................................................ iii

Module Outline ......................................................................................................................... viii

Assignment Schedule ................................................................................................................ ix

Course Content .......................................................................................................................... 1

Module 1. INFLUENCES TO AND CONTEXTS OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF

Module 2. INTRODUCTION TO ASIA ............................................................................... 4

Module 3. ARCHITECTURE OF WEST ASIA: INTRODUCTION TO ISLAMIC

Module 4. ARCHITECTURE OF SOUTH ASIA ............................................................... 31

Module 5. ARCHITECTURE OF EAST ASIA .................................................................. 69

Module 6. ARCHITECTURE OF SOUTHEAST ASIA ...................................................... 96

ANSWER SHEETS .................................................................................................................... 1

A Self-regulated Learning Module ii

A Self-regulated Learning Module iii

A Self-regulated Learning Module iv

Level of effort you placed in this module.

Advanced, Excellent, Very Good, Excellent, Full Compliance 4 76 – 100%

a. Creative Output (e.g., posters, graphic organizers)

A Self-regulated Learning Module v

Content. Essays and answers to questions should be clear and comprehensive.

A Self-regulated Learning Module vii

Topic Time Frame

Module 1. Influences to and contexts of the development Week 1

A Self-regulated Learning Module viii

Topic Time Frame

Module 1. Influences to and contexts of the development of architecture Week 1

1. Learning Resource: Answer the question based on the learning

Watch: History of Architecture | By Archemedys. Source:

2. Discussion Question: What common factor influenced the

3. Discussion Forum: Read two (2) of your classmates’ works.

II. Post Lecture Activity

1. Student Activity: Infographic (30% of CS)

a. Make an infographic depicting the influences to the development

2. Reflection Question: Why is there a need to learn the various

A Self-regulated Learning Module ix

Watch: Asian History Documentary.

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FPaPD-atXe4 (41:30)

2. Discussion Question: What was the dominant factor that

II. Post Lecture Activity

a. Make a storyboard depicting the influences to the development

2. Reflection Question: Give one (1) significant impact of the

A Self-regulated Learning Module x

1. Learning Resource: Answer the question based on the learning

Watch: The hidden secrets of Islamic architecture | (Islam Religious

2. Discussion Question: What was the major contribution of religion

3. Discussion Forum: Read two (2) of your classmates’ works. What

II. Post Lecture Activity

A Self-regulated Learning Module xi

First Grading Exam Feb 22 – 27, 2021

1. Student Activity: Architectural Plate Reproduction (70% of the CS)

A Self-regulated Learning Module xii

Test what you have learned: Online Quiz

Module 5. Architecture of East Asia Week 10 -12

Watch: HIST 1111 - Early East Asian Civilization.

Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q9dL7DZ9IrY

2. Discussion Question: Give one similarity evident in the East

3. Discussion Forum: Read two (2) of your classmates’ works.

II. Post Lecture Activity

A Self-regulated Learning Module xiii

Midterm Exam April 5 – 10, 2021

1. Learning Resource: Answer the question based on the learning

2. Discussion Question: Give one (1) common feature of the

3. Discussion Forum: Read two (2) of your classmates’ works.