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AIRCRAFT DESIGN

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 Anna University
Syllabus Oriented Information

AIRCRAFT DESIGN

Prepared by

Lokesharun D
Research Associate

Courtesy: IIT notes and Websites

 STATE OF ART IN AIRPLANE DESIGN

AVIATION

Aviation is the practical aspect or art of aeronautics (especially heavier-than-air

aircraft) in

1. Design
2. Development
3. Production
4. Operation
5. Use of Aircraft

Aviation

Civil Military

Civil aviation

Civil aviation includes all non-military flying, both general aviation and scheduled
air transport.

Air transport :Scheduled civil flying(Airline)

General aviation :All non-scheduled civil flying (both private and commercial)

Military Aviation

Military aviation is the use of military aircraft and other flying machines for the
purposes of
1. Conducting or enabling aerial warfare,
2. Including national airlift (air cargo) capacity to provide logistical supply to
forces.

 Fighter aircraft's primary function is to destroy other aircraft.

 Ground attack aircraft are used against tactical earth-bound targets.
 Bombers are generally used against more strategic targets, such as factories
and oil fields.
 Transport aircraft are used to transport hardware and personnel.
  Surveillance and reconnaissance aircraft obtain information about enemy
forces.
 Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are used primarily as reconnaissance fixed-
wing aircraft, though many also carry payloads.
 Missiles deliver warheads, normally explosives, but also things like leaflets.

PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF AIRPLANE DESIGN

The process of design of a device or a vehicle, in general involves the useof

knowledge in diverse fields to arrive at a product that will
o satisfy requirementsregarding functional aspects,
o operational safety and cost.

The design of anairplane, which is being dealt in this course, involves

synthesizing knowledge inareas like
o aerodynamics,
o structures,
o propulsion,
o systems
o manufacturingtechniques.
The aim is to arrive at the configuration of an airplane, which willsatisfy aforesaid
requirements.
The design of an airplane is a complex engineering task. It generally involves the
following.
a) Obtaining the specifications of the airplane, selecting the type and determining
the geometric parameters.
b) Selection of the power plant.
c) Structural design and working out details of construction.
d) Fabrication of prototype.
e) Determination of airplane performance, stability, and structural integrityfrom flight
tests.
The completion of the design of an airplane in a reasonable period of timerequires a
large body of competent engineers specialized in various areas.

Helpis also needed from research laboratories to try out and give new ideas and for
testing of different components. For example,
 Laboratories of NASA (NationalAeronautics and Space Administration) in USA;
 ARC(Aeronautical ResearchCouncil) in UK;
 ONERA (Office National d’Etudes et de ResearchesAerospatiales) in France;
 DFVLR (Deutsche Forschongs and Versuchsanstalt furLuft-und Raumfahrt, now
DLR) in Germany;
 NAL (National AerospaceLaboratories) in India, are some of the agencies
carrying out Aerospaceresearch.
However, the work of all these must be coordinated by the designbureau. The final
design is a compromise between conflicting requirements sothat optimum results are
obtained from the point of view of design criteria.
 STAGES IN AIRPLANE DESIGN

The design process can be divided into the following three stages.
a) Project feasibility study.
b) Preliminary design.
c) Design project

a) Project feasibility studies:

The aim of this study is to evolve a complete set of specifications for the airplane.
It involves the following steps.
1) Comprehensive market survey to assess the number of airplanes needed.
2) Study of the operating conditions for the proposed airplane. These conditions
include
(a) landing field length,
(b) type of landing field,
(c) weather conditions inflight and near landing sites
(d) visibility.
3) Study of the relevant design requirements as laid down by the civil and military
regulating agencies.
Some of the regulating agency for civil airplanes are:
 FAA(Federal Aviation Administration) in USA;
 EASA (European Aviation Safety Agency)in Europe;
 DGCA (Director General of Civil Aviation) in India.
 The military airplanes are governed by more stringent regulations called MIL
specifications in USA.
4) Evaluation of existing designs of similar airplanes and possibility ofincorporating new
concepts.
5) Collection of data on relevant power plants.
6) Laying down preliminary specifications which may consist of the following.
a) Performance:
 Maximum speed,
 Maximum rate of climb,
 Range,
 Endurance,
 Rate of turn,
 Radius of turn,
 Take-off and landing distances.
b) Payload.
c) Operating conditions at the destinations.
d) Maneuverability.

b) Preliminary design
This stage of design process aims at producing a brochure containingpreliminary
drawings and stating the estimated operational capabilities of the airplane. This is used
for seeking approval by the manufacturer or the customer.
This stage includes the following steps.
i) Selection of geometrical parameters of main components based on designcriteria.
ii) Arrangement of equipment, and control systems.
iii) Selection of power plant.
iv) Aerodynamic and stability calculations.
v) Preliminary structural design of main components.
vi) Weight estimation and c.g. travel.
vii) Preparation of 3-view drawing.
viii) Performance estimation.
ix) Preparation of brochure.
It is also called aircraft type specification.

C) Design project

After the preliminary design has been approved by the manufacturer /customer. The
detailed design studies are carried out.
These include thefollowing stages.

1) Wind tunnel and structural testing on models of airplane configuration

arrivedafter preliminary design stage. These tests serve as a check on the
correctnessof the estimated characteristics and assessment of the new concepts
proposedin the design.

2) Mock-up: This is a full scale model of the airplane or its important

sections.This helps in (a) efficient lay-out of structural components and
equipment, (b)checking the clearances, firing angles of guns, visibility
etc.Currently this stage is avoided by the use of CAD(Computer Aided
Design)packages which provide detailed drawings of various components
andsubassemblies.

3) Complete wind tunnel testing of the approved configuration. Currently

CFD(Computational Fluid Dynamics) plays an important role in reducing the
 numberof tests to be carried-out. In CFD, the equations governing the fluid flow
aresolved numerically. The results provide flow patterns, drag coefficient, lift
coefficient, moment coefficient, pressure distribution etc. Through the results
maynot be very accurate at high angles of attack, they are generally accurate
nearthe design point. Further, they provide information on the effects of
smallchanges in the geometric parameters, on the flow field and permit
parametricstudies.
4) Preparation of detailed drawings.
5) Final selection of power plant.
6) Calculations of (a) c.g. shift (b) performance and (c) stability.
7) Fabrication of prototypes. These are the first batch of full scale airplane.
Generally, six prototypes are constructed. Some of them are used for verifyingstructural
integrity and functioning of various systems. Others are used for flighttesting to evaluate
performance and stability.

CLASSIFICATION OF AIRPLANES

At this stage, it is helpful, to know about the different types of airplanes.

Theclassification is generally based on
(a) the purpose of the airplane
(b) theconfiguration.

An aircraft is a vessel that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters
the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil.
 Method of Lift

Propulsion Based

Classification of airplanes according to function

There are two main types of airplanes viz. civil and military.
 The civil airplanes are categorized as passenger, cargo, agricultural, sports and
ambulance.
 The military airplanes are categorized as fighter, bomber,
interceptor,reconnaissance, and airplanes for logistic support like troop-carriers
and rescueairplane. The military aircraft are often designed to cater to more than
one rolee.g. fighter-bomber or interceptor-fighter.

Influence of the function of airplane on specifications/designrequirements

The specifications or design requirements of an airplane are decided by
itsfunction.
A passengerairplane should have:
(a) high level of safety in operation,
(b) adequate payload carrying capacity,
(c) economy in operation,
(d) comfort level depending on range and cruising altitude,
(e) ability to fly in weather conditions normally encountered on chosen routes and
(f) ability to use airfields of intended destinations.
A bomber airplane should have:
(a) range corresponding to the mission,
(b) capacity to carry and deploy intended bomb load,
 (c) high values of speed, endurance, and ceiling
(d) adequate protection against accidental fire.
An interceptor airplane should have:
(a) Adequate thrust to give high
(i) rate of climb, (ii) maximum flight speed and(iii) maneuverability
(b) ceiling 3 to 4 km above that of contemporary bombers
(c) ability to fly in adverse weather conditions and
(d) appropriate armament.

CLASSIFICATION OF AIRPLANES ACCORDING TO CONFIGURATION

This classification is based on the following features of the configuration.

a) Shape, number and position of wing.
b) Type of fuselage.
c) Location of horizontal tail.
d) Location and number of engines.

a) Classification of airplanes based on wing configuration

Early airplanes had two or more wings e.g. the Wright airplane had two wings
braced with wires. Presently only single wing is used. Theseairplanes are called
monoplanes. When the wing is supported by struts theairplane is called semi-cantilever
monoplane (Fig.1.2a). Depending on thelocation of the wing on the fuselage, the
airplane is called high wing, mid-wing and low wing configuration (Fig.1.2b, c and d).
Further, if the wing has no sweepthe configuration is called straight wing monoplane
(Fig.1.2e). The swept wingand delta wing configurations are shown in Figs.1.2f and g.
b) Classification of airplanes based on fuselage
Generally, airplanes have a single fuselage with wing and tail surfacesmounted
on the fuselage (Fig.1.2 h). In some cases, the fuselage is in the form ofa pod. In such a
case, the horizontal tail is placed between two booms emanatingfrom the wings
(Fig.1.2i). These airplanes generally have two vertical tailslocated on the booms. The
booms provide required tail arm for the tail surfaces.Some airplanes with twin fuselage
had been designed in the past. However,these configurations are not currently favored.
c) Classification of airplanes based on horizontal stabilizer
In a conventional configuration, the horizontal stabilizer is located behindthe wing
(Fig.1.2j).
In some airplanes there is no horizontal stabilizer and the configuration is called
tailless design (Fig.1.2k). In these airplanes, the functionsof elevator and aileron are
performed by ailevons located near the wing tips.When both ailevons (on left and right
wings) move in the same direction, theyfunction as elevators and when the two ailevons
move in opposite direction, theyfunction as ailerons.
In some airplanes, the control in pitch is obtained by asurface located ahead of
the wing. This configuration is called canardconfiguration (Fig.1.2l).
In conventional configuration the horizontal tail has anegative lift and the total lift
produced by the wing is more than the weight of theairplane. In canard configuration,
the lift on the canard is in the upward directionand lift produced by the wing is less than
the weight of the aircraft. However, thecanard has destabilizing contribution to the
longitudinal stability.

d) Classification of airplanes based on number of engines and theirlocation

Airplanes with one, two, three or four engines have been designed. In rarecases,
higher number of engines are also used. The engine, when located in thefuselage,
could be in the nose or in the rear portion of the fuselage. Whenlocated outside the
fuselage the engines are enclosed in nacelles, which couldbe located on the wings or
on the rear fuselage.
In case of airplanes with engine-propeller combination, there are
twoconfigurations – tractor propeller and pusher propeller.
 In pusher configurationthe propeller is behind the engine (Fig.1.2h).
 In tractor configuration the propelleris ahead of the engine(Fig.1.4).

FACTORS AFFECTING THE CONFIGURATION

The configuration of an airplane is finalized after giving consideration to

the following factors.
(I) Aerodynamics
(II) Low structural weight
(III) Lay-out peculiarities
(IV) Manufacturing procedures
(V) Cost and operational economics
(VI) Interaction between various features

I) Aerodynamic considerations – drag, lift and interference effects

The aerodynamic considerations in the design process involve the following.
(A) Drag
The drag of the entire configuration must be as small as possible.
Thisrequires (a) thin wings, (b) slender fuselage, (c) smooth surface conditions,
and(d) proper values of aspect ratio (A) and sweep.
 (B) Lift
The airplane must be able to develop sufficient lift under various
flightconditions including maneuvers. The maximum lift coefficient also decides
thelanding speed. These considerations require proper choice of (a) aero foil,
(b)means to prevent separation and (c) high lift devices.
(C) Interference effects
In aerodynamics the flows past various components like the wing,
thefuselage and the tail are usually studied individually. However, in an
airplanethese components are in proximity of each other and the flow past
onecomponent affects the flow past the others(components). The changes
inaerodynamic forces and moments due to this proximity are called
interferenceeffects. The lay-out of the airplane should be such that increase in
drag anddecrease in lift due to interference effects are minimized.
These can be achievedby proper fillets at the joints between (a) wing and
fuselage, (b) tail and fuselageand (c) wing and engine pods.

II) Low structural weight

The weight of the aircraft must be as low as possible. This implies use of(a) high
strength to weight ratio material, (b) aerofoil with high thickness ratio(c) wing with low
aspect ratio (d) relieving loads (e.g. wing mounted engines)etc. The airplane structure
must be strong enough, to take all permissible flightloads and stiff enough to avoid
instabilities like, divergence, aileron reversal andflutter.

III) Layout peculiarities

The specific function of the airplane often decides its shape e.g. thefuselage of a
cargo airplane generally has a rectangular cross section and alarge cargo door. The
height of fuselage floor should be appropriate for quick loading and unloading.

IV) Manufacturing processes

 During the detail design stage, attention must be paid to themanufacturing
processes. The cost of manufacture and quality control also mustbe kept in mind.

V) Cost and operational economics – Direct operating cost (DOC) andIndirect

operating cost (IOC)
The total operating cost of an airplane is the sum of the direct operatingcost
(DOC) and the indirect operating cost (IOC). The DOC relates to the cost ofhourly
operation of the airplane viz. cost of fuel, lubricants, maintenance,overhaul, replacement
of parts for airframe and engine. IOC relates to crew cost,insurance cost, depreciation
of airplane and ground equipment, hangar rental,landing charges and overheads. Thus,
for a personal plane lower initial cost ofthe airplane may be more important whereas, for
a long range passengerairplane lower cost of fuel may be the primary consideration.

VI) Interaction of various factors

Some of the considerations mentioned above may lead to
conflictingrequirements. For example, a wing with an airfoil of relatively higher
thicknessratio, has lower structural weight but, at the same time has higher drag. In
suchsituations, optimization techniques are employed to arrive at the bestcompromise.
Data collection
Airplane design is an evolutionary process. The data on existing airplanes,similar
to the proposed design, provide the necessary guidance for arriving atappropriate initial
design values.
The sources of design data are:
1. Jane’s All The World’s Aircraft (Ref.1.21)
2. Books cited in chapter 1
3. www.arnoldpublishers.com/aerodata
4. The Websites of airplane manufacturers such as Boeing, AirbusIndustries and
others mentioned.

It may be mentioned that this format includes information about the

following aspects.
(a) General features of the airplane.
(b) Geometrical parameters of the major components of the airplane.
(c) Various types of weights of the airplane.
(d) Performance parameters.

Suggested airplane data sheet

1. General description of airplane

Name of the airplane:
Type of airplane *:
Name of manufacturer and country of origin:
2. Power Plant
Type of power plant*:
Name:
Engine rating*:
Specific fuel consumption:
Oil consumption:
Weight of power plant:
Overall dimensions of engine:
Diameter (m):
Length (m):
Engine centre of gravity:
Special accessories and controls
No. of engines and their locations:
Intake/propeller details

3. Wing
Planform shape
4. Horizontal tail surface

5. Vertical tail surface

6. Fuselage
Length (m):
Length of nose (lnose):
Length of cockpit (lcockpit):
Length of tail cone (ltailcone):
Length of payload compartment:
Length of midfuselage
Upsweep angle
Fuselage closure angle
Shape and size of cabin:
Arrangement of payload and auxiliary equipment:
Cockpit:
Number and arrangement of seats:
Cockpit instruments:
Vision (angle):
Construction and other details:
Length(lf)/wingspan(b):
lnose/lf :
lcockpit/lf:
ltailcone/lf:

7. Landing gear
Type of landing gear*:
Number and size of wheels:
Tire pressure:
Wheel base* (m):
Wheel tread* (m):
Location of landing gears:
Means to reduce landing run and other details:

8. Overall dimensions of airplane

Length (m): Wing span (m):
Height (m): Landing gear wheel tread (m):
Landing gear wheel base(m):

Length/span: Height/span:
Tread/span:

9. Weights
Pay load* (kgf):
Empty weight* (kgf):
Fuel weight (kgf):
Structural weight (kgf):
Disposable load* (kgf):
Landing weight (kgf):
Normal gross weight (kgf):
Maximum gross weight (kgf):
Payload/gross weight:
Empty weight/gross weight:
Fuel weight/gross weight:
Structural weight/gross weight:
Wing loading*:
Power (or thrust) loading*:
10. Performance
Maximum speed (kmph) at sea level:
Maximum speed (kmph) at altitude:
Landing speed (kmph):
Cruise speed (kmph) and altitude (km):
Maximum sea level rate of climb (m/min):
Service ceiling (km):
Range* or radius of action* (km):
Endurance* (hours):
Take-off run* (m):
Landing run* (m):

 Aerodynamic balance: Method of reducing control-surface hingemoment.

 Aspect ratio (A): It is equal to b2/ S, where, b is the wing spanmeasured from tip to
tip perpendicular to the longitudinal axis and S is thegross wing area; gross wing area
includes the wing area inside thefuselage.
• Aspect ratio of vertical tail (Av): It is equal to h2/ Sv, where “h” is height ofvertical tail
and Sv is reference area of vertical tail.
• Disposable load: MRW (Maximum Ramp Weight) minus OEW(Operational Empty
Weight).
• Empty weight: Weight of an operational airplane without fuel, payload,crew and other
removable items. OEW (Operational EmptyWeight) is also used in the same context.
• Endurance: Time in hours for which the airplane can remain in flight witha given
amount of fuel.
• Engine rating: Output as permitted by regulations for specified use e.g.maximum
takeoff (2.5 and 5-minute rating), climb (30-minute rating),cruise (maximum continuous
rating).
• Incidence of horizontal tail (it): Angle between reference

 Incidence of wing (iw): Angle between reference chord of the wing and the
fuselage reference line.
• Landing distance: Horizontal distance covered in descending fromscreen height and
come to a halt.
• Landing gear types: a) tricycle or nose wheel, (b) tail wheel andc) bicycle.
• Landing run: Horizontal distance covered from the point where the mainwheels touch
the ground to the point where the airplane comes to a halt.
• Maximum ramp weight: Maximum weight permissible for an aircraft. Itequals MTOW
(Maximum Takeoff Weight) plus fuel allowance for runningmain engines and APU
(Auxiliary Power Unit) during start, run-up and taxing operations.
 Mean aerodynamic chord (c): It is given by:

 Mean chord (S/b):Ratio of gross wing area to span.

 Offset angle: Angle in plan-view between reference chord of vertical tailand FRL
(Fuselage Reference Line).
 Payload:That part of useful load for which the airplane is designed orfrom which
the revenue is derived (Ref.1.2).
 Take-off distance:Field length measured from brake-release to the pointof
attaining screen height; screen height is generally 15m.
 Take-off run:Field length measured from brake-release to the pointwhere main
wheels leave the ground.
 Taper ratio (λ): Ratio of tip chord (ct) to root chord (cr).
 Thrust loading (T/W): Maximum sea level static thrust divided by MTOWof jet-
propelled vehicle.
 Type of airplane:Main classification is civil and military. Among civilairplanes
there are passenger, cargo, agricultural, sports, ambulance etc.
 In military category there are fighter, bomber, reconnaissance, transportetc.
 Types of horizontal tail:Important arrangements for the horizontal tailare the
conventional tail, T-tail and cruciform tail. In conventional tailarrangement the
horizontal tail is behind the wing and located on thefuselage (Fig.1.2 f & j). In T-
tail configuration the horizontal tail is locatedon top of the vertical tail (Fig.1.1a).
Whereas in a cruciform tail thehorizontal tail is located midway on the vertical tail
(Fig.A2.2.2). SeeRef.1.18, chapter 4 for other arrangements of tails.

 Types of power plant:piston engine-propeller combination, turboprop,turbofan

and turbojet.
 Types of vertical tail: Generally, airplanes have single vertical tail(Fig.1.7, 1.8 a,
1.8 b and 1.9).

 Twist (ε): Variation in angle of incidence along the wingspan (Fig.A2.1.1).

 Useful load:It is the difference between operational empty weight (OEW)and

maximum take-off weight (MTOW).
 Wheel base:Distance in side elevation between wheel centers of noseand main
landing gears.
  Wheel tread: Lateral spacing between the left and the right main landinggears.
 Wing loading (W/S): Gross weight or MTOW divided by wing area.

Preliminary three-view drawing

The preliminary three-view drawing of the airplane gives an idea about
thepossible shape and size of the proposed airplane and forms the next step afterthe
data collection. To draw the preliminary three-view drawing, requires theapproximate
dimensions of the wing, fuselage, tail and other components. Thefollowing steps are
used to get these ballpark values.
1. The payload is the weight of the items for which the airplane is beingdesigned.
This would constitute (a) the weights of passenger & cargo for atransport
airplane, (b) the weight of the ammunition/special equipment for amilitary
airplane.Depending on the number of passengers, range etc., the payload can
beestimated. For military airplanes, the payload may be prescribed.
Let, the weightof payload be denoted by Wpay.
2. From the data collection on similar airplanes, the ratio W 0 / W pay, can bechosen;
W0 being the design gross weight. Then,W0 = Wpayx(W0 / Wpay)
3. From the data collection on similar airplanes, the wing loading (W/S) ischosen.
Then, S = W / (W /S)

4. From data collection on similar airplanes the aspect ratio (A) of the wing
ischosen. Consequently, the wing span (b) is given by:b = (S × A)1/2
5. The planform of the wing is chosen from the data collection. Let the taper ratiobe
λ.Since, S = b / 2 (cr+ ct) andλ = c t /cr , yields :c r= 2S / b (1+λ) and ct= CrλAlso
the sweep angle (Λ) of the wing can be chosen from the data on similarairplanes.
6. 6. From the data on similar airplanes, choose the ratio (lf / b);lf = length of
fuselage. Then:lf = b × (lf / b)
7. From the data collection on similar airplanes, choose the cross-sectional sizeof
the fuselage and the position where payload is located. Also find the ratiosl nose/ lf
,lcockpit/ lf and ltailcone/ lf . Obtain lnose, lcockpitandltailconeas lf is known fromstep 6.
 Obtain the length of the payload section as difference between l f and thesum of
the lengths of lnose, lcockpitandltailcone.
8. From the data on similar airplanes choose the values of S ht/ S, Svt/ S. Alsochoose
the values of aspect ratio, taper ratio and sweep for the horizontal andthe vertical
tails. In this step, the suffixes “ht” and “vt” refer to the horizontal tailand the
vertical tail respectively.

9. From the data collection on similar airplanes, choose the values of Selevator/ St,Srudder/
Svt,Saileron/S , Sflap / S , celevator/ cht, crudder/ cvt, caileron/ cwing,cflap/ cwing. Obtain the areas and
chords of elevator, rudder, flap and aileron.
10. From the data collection on similar airplanes, choose the value of T/ W orW/ P; T
is the engine thrust and P is the engine power.Hence, T = (T / W) × W or P = W / (W /
P)
Choose the number of engines to be used and obtain the rating of engine (s).
Obtain approximate dimensions of the engine and the size(s) of thepropellers/intake as
appropriate.
11. From the data collection on similar airplanes, choose the locations of thewing, the
horizontal tail and the vertical tail on the fuselage.
12. From the data on similar airplanes, choose the landing gear type and obtain(wheel
base) / lf and (wheel tread)/ lf. Obtain wheel base and wheel tread as lf isknown.
 Dependence of airplane performance on airplane parameters and
atmospheric characteristics
The airplane performance parameters like maximum speed, maximum rate ofclimb,
ceiling, range, endurance, rate of turn, take-off distance and landingdistance, depend on
weight of airplane (W) wing area (S), drag polar, thrust /power available, fuel weight etc.
This dependence is examined in the followingsubsections.
Steady level flight – maximum flight speed (Vmax)
The equations of motion, in standard notations, for this flightare:
Steady Climb – maximum rate of climb (R/C)max
Figure 3.2 shows the forces on an airplane and the velocity vector in a steadyclimb.
where, PrLis the power required in level flight at a flight velocity V and P a is thepower
available at the same speed.Hence, R/C is proportional to excess power. For a piston
enginedairplane,V(R/C)max is approximately equal to Vmp; where Vmpis the speed
corresponding tominimum power in level flight. For a jet airplane, the ratio of V (R/C)max to
Vmdisgreater than one and depends on the thrust to weight ratio(T/W); V mdisthespeed
corresponding to the minimum drag in level flight.The expressions for D L and PrLare
given in the previous subsection. Further,(R/C)max is generally prescribed at sea level
and hence ρ in Eq.(3.2) and (3.2a)is equal to that at sea level. Keeping these factors in
view the dependence of (R/C)maxfor a jet airplane can be expressed as :
(R/C)max= f(W, W/S, Ta/W, drag polar)
Absolute ceiling (Hmax):
From the engine characteristics, it is known that the thrust horse power available(THP a)
and the thrust available (Ta) decrease with altitude. Further, at a chosenaltitude the
thrust horse power required (THPr) and the thrust required (Tr) areminimum at flight
speeds which are decided by the drag polar of the airplane.Keeping these in view it can
be stated that (i) for an airplane with enginepropeller combination, at absolute ceiling or
Hmax, the power available (THPa)equals the minimum power required in level flight
(Prmin) and (ii) for an airplanewith jet engine, at Hmax, the thrust available (Ta) equals the
minimum thrust
required (Trmin) in level flight.
i.e.AtHmax, (THPa ) = (Pr)min or (Ta) = (Tr)min
From performance analysis, it is known that,
(Tr) min and (Pr) min in level flight occur respectively at CL corresponding to CLmdand CLmp.
If the drag polar is parabolic,
Range and endurance for airplanes with engine-propeller combinationand with jet
engine
Based on the performance analysis the Breguet formulae for range andendurance for
airplanes with engine-propeller combination or jet engine, instandard notation, are given
below. The range is in km and the endurance is inhours.
(a) For an airplane with engine-propeller combination the range (REP) and
endurance (EEP) are:
3.2.5. Turning – minimum radius of turn (rmin) and maximum rate of turn
(ψ max)
turn is greater than that required in level flight (Trturn>Trlevel) and (c) the loadfactor (n = L /
W) is more than unity. We note that an airplane (a) is designed fora prescribed value of
nmax, (b) has a value of CLmaxdepending on its wing designand (c) has a certain value of
(THPa)max or (Ta)max depending on the engineinstalled. Thus, a turn is limited by CLmax,
nmaxand the available thrust or power.
Take off distance (st0)

Figure 3.4 shows the phases of take-off flight. It also shows the forces on theairplane
during the ground run.The equation of motion during the ground run is:

Ground reaction = R = W – L, where ‘ ’ is the coefficient of friction between theground

and the tires and ‘a’ is the acceleration.Hence,

where, k = 1.1 to 1.3. Hence, higher the value of V t.o, longer is the takeoff
run.Consequently, for reducing the take off run, low W/S, high C Lmaxand high T/W or
(P/W) are suggested. The take-off distance (sto) is proportional to take-off run
(s1).Hence, for a jet airplane,
For an airplane with engine-propeller combination,
sto= f (W/Pa, CLmax, polar, W/S,μ )
It may be noted that the take-off distance is generally prescribed at sea level.
Landing distance(Sland)
Figure 3.5 shows the phases of landing flight. The estimation of landing distance(s land) is
more complicated than that of st0. However, it depends on the square ofstalling speed in
landing configuration (Vs) and the type of braking system.

Weight Estimation – outline of approach

A good estimate of the gross weight (W 0) is necessary for further progress in thedesign
process. Different approaches to estimate W 0 are presented in Refs.1.5,1.6, 1.9, 1.12
and 1.18. Here the approach of Ref.1.18 is followed. In theprocedure given in chapter 3
of Ref.1.18, the gross weight (W 0) is expressed asthe sum of (a) the weight of the crew
(W crew), (b) the weight of payload (W payload),
Estimation of empty-weight fraction (We/W0)
Reference 1.18, chapter 3 has analyzed the data on empty weights of differenttypes of
airplanes. When the data are plotted as (We / W0) vs log10(W 0) theresulting curves are
roughly straight lines. This suggests that these curves canbe approximated by an
equation of the type:

where, W 0 = Take- off gross weight in kgf. The quantities A and c depend on thetype of
the airplane.

3.5 Estimation of fuel fraction (Wf/W0)

The weight of fuel needed depends on the following.
I. Fuel required for mission.
II. Fuel required as reserve.
 III. Trapped fuel which cannot be pumped out.
The fuel required for the mission depends on the following factors.
a) Mission to be flown.
b) Aerodynamics of the airplane viz. (L / D) ratio.
c) SFC of the engine.

3.5.1Mission profile
a) Simple mission: For a transport airplane the mission profile would generallyconsist
of (a) warm up and take off, (b) climb, (c) cruise, (d) descent, (e) loiterand (f)
landing(Fig.3.6). Sometimes the airplane may be required to go toalternate airport if the
permission to land is refused. Allowance also has to bemade for head winds
encountered en-route.

As additional examples of the mission profiles the following three cases can becited.
(a) A trainer airplane, after reaching the specified area, may perform variousmaneuvers
and return to the base.
(b) An airplane on a humanitarian mission may go to the desired destination,drop food
and relief supplies and return to the base.
(c) In some advanced countries the doctors from cities fly to the remote areas,examine
the patients and fly back.
ii) The various segments of the mission can be grouped into the following
fivecategories.
(a) Warm up, taxing and take-off.
(b) Climb to cruise altitude.
(c) Cruise according to a specified flight plan. This item is covered under the
 topic of “Range” in “Performance analysis”.
(d) Loiter over a certain area for a specified period of time. This item is covered
under the topic “Endurance” in”Performance analysis”.
(e) Descent and landing.
Weight fractions for various segments of mission
The fuel required in a particular phase of the mission depends on (a) the weight
of the airplane at the start of that phase and (b) the distance covered or theduration of
time for the phase. Keeping these in view, the approach to estimatefuel fraction for
chosen mission profile is, as follows.
i) Let the mission consist of ‘n’ phases.
ii) The fuel fractions for the phase ‘i’ is denoted as Wi / Wi-1.
iii) Let W 0 be the weight at the start of the flight (say warm up) and W n be the
weight at the end of last phase (say landing). Then, W n/W o is expressed as:

Estimation of wing loading and thrust loading

Choice of wing loading based on considerations of landing fieldlength, prescribed
flight speed, absolute ceiling, maximum rate of climb, range,take-off balance field
length, specific excess power, sustained turn rate andturbulence. Choice of engine;
characteristics of piston engine, turboprop,turbofan and turbojet engines; propeller
characteristics, selection of propellerdiameter. choice of engines for different ranges of
flight speeds.
As pointed out in the beginning of the last chapter, the wing loading (W/S) andthe
thrust loading (T/W) or the power loading (W/P) influence a number ofperformance
items like take-off distance (sto), maximum speed (Vmax) , maximumrate of climb
(R/C)max, absolute ceiling (Hmax) and maximum rate of turn ( max ψ).Thus, the wing
loading (W/S) and the thrust loading (T/W) or power loading(W/P) are the two most
important parameters affecting the airplane performance.The approaches for estimation
of (W/S) and (T/W) or (W/P) can be divided intotwo categories.

(I) In the approach given by Lebedinski (Ref.1.6), the variations, of the

followingquantities are obtained when the wing loading is varied.
a) (T / W) or (W / P) required for prescribed values of Vp, Hmax(R/C)maxandsto.
b) Weight of the fuel (W f) required for a given range (R).
c) Distance required for landing (sland).
From these variations, the wing loading which is optimum for each of these itemsis
obtained. However, the optimum values of W/S in various cases are likely tobe different.
The final wing loading is chosen as a compromise.

(II) In the approach followed by Raymer (Ref.1.18), (T/W) or (P/W) is chosenfrom

statistical data correlations and then W/S is obtained from the requirementsregarding
Vmax, Rmax, (R/C)max, Hmax, max ψ, landing distance and take-off distance.Finally, W/S is
chosen such that the design criteria are satisfied.
These two approaches are described in the subsequent sections.
However,during the presentation, information from Ref.1.6 and 1.18 and other sources
isused as required.
Introductory remarks on approach for choosing wing loading(W/S) and thrust
loading (T/W) or power loading (W/ P)
Derive simplified relations between the chosen performance parameter andthe wing
loading.
(ii) Obtain the wing loading which satisfies/optimizes the chosen parameter e.g.landing
distance, thrust required for Vp, fuel required for range.
(iii) Examine the influence of allowing small variations in wing loading from theoptimum
value and obtain a band of wing loadings. This would give an estimateof the
compromise involved when (W/S) is non-optimum.
(iv) After all important cases are examined, choose the final wing loading as thebest
compromise.
(v) With the chosen wing loading, obtain (T/W) or (W/P) which satisfyrequirements of
Vmax, (R/C)max, ceiling (Hmax), take-off field length ( to s ) andmaximum turn rate (ψ ). If
the requirements of engine output in these cases arewidely different, then examine
possible compromise in specification. Afterdeciding the (T/W) or (W/P) obtain the
engine output required. Choose thenumber of engine(s) and arrive at the rating per
engine. Finally choose an enginefrom the engines available from different engine
manufacturers.
Selection of wing loading based on landing distance.
Landing distance (Sland) is the horizontal distance the airplane covers from
beingat the screen height till it comes to a stop. As seen in Fig.3.5, the approach
tolanding begins at the screen height of 50’(15.2 m). The flight speed at this pointis
called ‘Approach speed’ and denoted by VA. The glide angle during approachis
generally 3o. Then, the airplane performs a flare to make the flight pathhorizontal and
touches the landing field at touch down speed (VTD).
Subsequently, the airplane rolls for a duration of about 3 seconds and then the
brakes are applied. The horizontal distance covered from the start of theapproach till the
airplane comes to a halt is the landing field length.
Remarks:
(i) It may be added that in actual practice the airplane does not halt on therunway. After
reaching a sufficiently low speed the pilot takes the airplane to theallotted parking place.
(ii) Landing ground run is the distance the airplane covers from the point thewheels first
touch the ground to the point the airplane comes to a stop.
(iii) VA = 1.3(Vs)land, VTD = 1.15(Vs) land (4.1)(Vs)land is the stalling speed in landing
configuration.Exact estimation of landing distance (sland) is difficult as some phases like
flaredepend on the piloting technique.
. When SIunits are used the relationships are:
FAR 23: sland(in m) = 0.35 VA ; VA in m/s
2

FAR 25: sland(in m) = 0.3455 VA ; VA in m/s

2

VA = 1.3 (Vs)land
Guidelines for values of CLmaxof wings with various high lift devices
The value of CLmaxdepends on the following.
a) The geometry of the wing i.e. aspect ratio (A), taper ratio and sweep.
b) Airfoil shape.
c) Flap type, ratio of flap area to wing area (Sflap/S) and flap deflection ( flap).

d) Type of leading edge slat and its deflection.

e) Reynolds number.
f) Surface texture.
g) Interference effects due to fuselage, nacelle and pylons.
h) Influence of propeller slip stream, if present.
 At this stage of preliminary design, the data collection, and the three viewdrawing
presented in chapter 2, give some information about the type of high liftdevices likely be
used on the wing and the amount of wing sweep. Accordingly,the ball - park values of
CLmaxpresented in Table 4.1 can be used. These arebased on data in (a) Ref.4.1,
chapter 5, (b) Ref.1.18, chapter 5 and (c) Ref.1.15,chapter 5.
They can be used for initial estimate of CLmaxfor subsonic airplanes with
unsweptwings of aspect ratio greater than 5.
The quarter chord sweep (Λc/4) has predominant effect on CLmax. This effect can
be roughly accounted for by using the following cosine relationship:
(CLmax)Λ = (CLmax)Λ=0 cos Λc/4 (4.8)
For example, when an unswept wing without flap has CLmaxof 1.5, the same wing
with 300 sweep would have roughly a CLmaxof 1.5 × cos 300or 1.3. Similarly, anunswept
wing with Fowler flap has CLmaxof 2.5. The same wing with 300 sweepwould have
CLmaxof 2.5 × cos 300 or 2.17. With addition of leading edge slat, thiscan go upto 2.43.
Figure 4.2 shows CLmaxfor some passenger airplanes. Thesolid lines correspond to the
cosine relation given above. The following may benoted.
(a) The value of CLmaxshown in Table 4.1 can be used in landing configuration.
The flap setting during take-off is lower than that during landing. The
maximumlift coefficient during take off can be taken approximately as 80% of that
duringlanding.
(b) Do not use the values in Table 4.1, for supersonic airplanes with low aspect
ratio wings and airfoil sections of small thickness ratio. Reference 4.2,section
4.1.3.4 may be referred to for estimating CLmaxin these cases.

Selection of wing loading based on prescribed flight speed (Vp)

With an enginerating satisfying these requirements, a maximum speed (V max) of
1.05 to 1.2times the cruising speed is attainable at Hcr.The optimization from the
consideration of Vp, aims at finding out the wingloading which will result in the lowest
thrust requirement (Tvp) for a chosen VpatHp. The steps are as follows.
break-up of drag polar
The drag polar is commonly written as:
The steps to obtain the alternatebreak up of drag polar are as follows.
(1) Noting that the parasite drag (D0) is the sum of parasite drags of the
majorcomponents plus the effect of interference, it can be expressed as:
D0 = (D0)wing+ (D0)fuselage +( D0)nacelle + (D0)ht+( D0)vt+ (D0)etc+ ( D0)int
where, (D0)etcis the parasite drag of components like landing gear, external fueltanks
and armament mounted on the airplane. (D0)intis the incremental parasitedrag due to the
interference between flows past wing and fuselage, tail andfuselage etc.

(2) Some simplification is introduced based on the following considerations.

The parasite drag coefficients for wing, horizontal tail and vertical tail are nearlysame.
Further the areas of the horizontal tail and vertical tail are proportional tothe wing area.
Hence, in Eq.(4.17) the contributions of wing, horizontal tail andvertical tail to CD0, can
be clubbed together. i.e.
(3) The quantities (CDo)fuse, (CDo)nac, (CDo)etc, CDointandSfuse, Snac, Setcdonotchange, when
the wing area changes as a result of the change of wing loading.

Selection of wing loading based on rate of climb (R/C)max

The specifications of an airplane generally include the rate of climb at sea-level.In this
subsection, the wing loading is optimised such that the thrust required isminimum for
the specified rate of climb (R/C)maxor (Vc)max.

Selection of wing loading based on range (R)

If the engine failure takes place duringinitial stages of ground run, then the pilot
can apply brakes and bring the airplaneto a halt. If the engine failure takes place after
the airplane has gained sufficientspeed, then there are two possibilities viz.
(a) apply brakes and stop the airplane,but this may need much longer runway
length than in the case of take-off withoutengine failure,
(b) instead of applying brakes, continue to fly with one engine offand take-off;
but the take-off distance would be longer than when there is noengine failure. These
two alternatives indicate the possibility of a speed, called“decision speed”. If the engine
failure occurs at the decision speed, then thedistance required to stop the airplane is the
same as that required to take-off withone engine inoperative. The take-off distance
required when the engine failuretakes place at the decision speed is called ‘Balanced
field length (BFL)’.BFL is a function oftake-off parameter (TOP)

where, suffix ‘To’ refers to the take-off condition and T = sea level static thrust.Based on
this data the BFL in feet, when W/S in lbs/ft2

For two engined airplane, BFL (in m) = 0.2613 TOP (in N/m 2) (4.63)
For three engined airplane, BFL (in m) = 0.2387 TOP (in N/m 2) (4.64)
For four engined airplane, BFL (in m) = 0.2196 TOP (in N/m2) (4.65)
Wing loading based on consideration of wing weight
The aim of airplane design is to arrive at a configuration, which satisfies thedesign
requirements, with minimum gross weight. This is achieved by minimizingthe weights of
components like wing, fuselage, etc. It (W w) depends on wing parameters likeaspect
ratio, taper ratio, sweep, airfoil thickness etc. But it is also proportional toS n where ‘n’
lies between 0.62 to 0.76 depending on the type of airplane. Thus,higher the wing area,
larger is the wing weight and in turn the airplane weight.Thus, a smaller wing area or
higher (W/S) is suggested by this consideration.
Introductory remarks on selection of wing loading based on specificexcess
power and turn rate
Specific excess energy:
Consider an airplane in an accelerated climb. The equations of motion are:
Energy height and specific excess power

Following observations are made, at this juncture.

(i) An airplane can accelerate only when P s > 0. But in accelerated level flight,
thelift equals weight and the drag is equal to that in level flight (D L) i.e. Tr>DL;Tr= thrust
required.
(ii) From the discussion on turning flight in sub section 3.2.5, it is noted that in
aturn the lift is more than the weight of the airplane and hence drag is more thanthat in
level flight. i.e. Tr> DL.
Sustained rate of turn
, in a steady level, co-ordinated-turn,T-D = 0

A sustained turn is a steady, level, co-ordinated - turn. Depending on theavailable

maximum thrust and choice of q and W/S.
Gas turbine engines
A gas turbine engine consists of a diffuser to decelerate the air stream entering
the engine, a compressor, a combustion chamber, a turbine and a nozzle (Fig.4.18a). In
some turbojet engines, an afterburner is incorporated between the exit of the turbine
and the entry of the nozzle (Fig.4.18b).The hot gases leaving the combustion chamber
expand partly in the turbine and partly in the nozzle. The need for three variants of gas
turbine engines viz. turboprop, turbofan & turbojet can be explained by considering their
propulsive efficiencies.
Propulsive efficiency
Propulsive efficiency is the ratio of useful work done by the air stream and the
energy supplied to it. In a gas turbine engine, the velocity of the air stream is
augmented to Vj, the velocity of the jet stream, thereby imparting kinetic energy at the
rate of:

Why turboprop, turbofan and turbojet engines?

The overall efficiency of a gas turbine engine is the product of items like cycle
efficiency, combustion efficiency, mechanical efficiency and propulsive efficiency.
a. The cycle efficiency depends on the engine cycle and in turn on the maximum
temperature / pressure in the engine.
b. The combustion efficiency and mechanical efficiency are generally of the
order of 95%.
c. Thus, propulsive efficiency finally decides the overall efficiency of a gas
turbine engine as a propulsive system.
The variation of propulsive efficiency with flight speed provides the reason for
use of turboprop, turbofan and turbojet engines in airplanes operating at different range
of flight speeds. Consider the variation of propulsive efficiency with flight speed. For this
purpose, a subsonic jet engine with convergent nozzle is considered. In this case, the
Mach number at the exit would be unity and the temperature of the exhaust gases
would be around 600 K. Under these conditions, Vj, the velocity of jet exhaust would be
around 500 m/s. Using Eq.(4.137), the values of propulsive efficiency obtained at
different flight speeds

1) Turboprop engine

It is observed from Table 4.3 that ηp will be low if a pure jet engine is used at low
speeds. Analysis of Eqs. (4.136) and (4.137) points out that for having adequate thrust
and high propulsive efficiency at low flight speeds, a small increment in velocity should
be given to a large mass of air. This is effectively done by a propeller. Thus for airplanes
with flight Mach number less than about 0.5, a turboprop engine is used.
In this case, the turbine drives the compressor and also the propeller through a
gearbox (Fig.4.19). The gear box is needed because the turbine r.p.m. would be around
15000-20000 whereas, the propeller rotates at about 1000 to 3000 r.p.m. For practical
reasons, the expansion of the gases coming out of the combustion chamber is not
allowed to take place completely in the turbine and a part of the expansion is carried out
in the nozzle. Hence, in a turboprop engine, about 80 to 90% of the total output is
produced through the propeller and the rest 20 to 10% as output from the jet coming out
of the nozzle.
ii) Turbofan engine
As the flight Mach number increases beyond 0.7, the propeller efficiency
decreases rapidly due to the formation of shock waves at the tip of the propeller blade.
Hence, for airplanes flying near Mach number of unity, a turbo-fan engine is used
(Fig.4.20).In this engine a major portion of the power output (about 60%) is obtained as
jet thrust and the rest as thrust from the fan. A fan has a smaller diameter as compared
to the propeller and it is generally placed inside a duct. A ducted fan has a higher
propulsive efficiency than a propeller. It is observed in Fig.4.20 that all the air taken in
by the fan does not go through the turbine. Incidentally the part of the engine consisting
of the compressor, combustion chamber, turbine and nozzle is called ‘Gas generator’.
The ratio of the mass of the air that passes through the fan to the mass of air that
passes through the gas generator is called ‘Bypass ratio’. Early turbofan engines had
bypass ratio of 1:1. At present, it is around 6.5:1 and is likely to increase in future.
iii) Turbojet engine
At supersonic Mach numbers, up to three, a turbo-jet engine is used. In this
engine entire power output is through the jet thrust.

Characteristics of a typical turboprop engine

As noted earlier, in this engine, a major portion of the output is available at the
propeller shaft (SHP) and a small fraction through the jet thrust (T j). Hence, the output is
represented as:

where, SHP = shaft horse power available at propeller shaft in kW,

ηp= propeller efficiency
Tj= jet thrust.
The total output of a turboprop engine, also called ‘Equivalent shaft horse power
(ESHP)’, is defined as:

Note:
(i) For the purpose of defining ESHP, the value of η ρ is taken as 0.8. The ESHP
and SHP are in kW.
(ii) Equation would not be able to account for the contribution, to ESHP, of the
thrust produced when the flight velocity (V) is zero or the static condition. In this case
and when V < 100 knots (or 185 kmph), the convention is to define ESHP as follows
ESHP = SHP + (Tj / 14.92) (4.140)
where, ESHP and SHP are in kW and Tj is in N.

For example, a turboprop engine developing SHP of 746 kW and jet thrust of 503
N, under sea level static condition, would have:
ESHP = 746 + (503/14.92) = 780 kW.
Characteristics of a typical turbo-prop engine are shown in Fig.4.21. It is
observed that the power output increases with flight speed. This increase is due to two
factors viz. (a) the mass flow through the engine (mi =ρ Ai Vi , Ai and Vi being the area of
intake, and the velocity at the intake) increases with flight speed and (b) the pressure
rise due to the deceleration of the flow in the inlet diffuser also increases with flight
Mach number.

Characteristics of a typical turbofan engine

In the early turbofan engines the thrust output used to remain fairly constant with
flight speed. In the modern turbofan engines the performance at low speeds and low
altitudes (up to about 5 km) has been improved so that the ratio of the sea level static
thrust and that (thrust) in high speed-high altitude flight is much higher than the early
turbofan engines. The ‘Sea level static thrust’ is the engine output at M = 0 at sea level.
Higher sea level static thrust helps in reducing the distance required for take-off.
Characteristics of a typical turbojet engine
. It is observed that at subsonic speeds the thrust is fairly constant, but it
increases considerably at supersonic speeds. This rise is due to increased ram
pressurein the intake, as a result of the deceleration of the supersonic flow. The Mach
number at which the peak value of thrust occurs depends on the design of the engine.

Deducing output and SFC of engines where these characteristics are not
available directly
The detailed information about engine performance (i.e. variations with altitude
and flight velocity of the thrust (or power) and TSFC (or BSFC) is generally available
only in a limited number of cases. To get the performance of an engine with other rating,
scaling of the available data is carried out. For this purpose, the values of thrust(or
power) of the engine, whose characteristics are known, are multiplied by a suitable
factor which will bring the output of the existing engine equal to the output of the desired
engine. It is assumed that the SFC values will be the same for the two engines. This
kind of scaling is generally applicable for outputs within ± 25% of the output of the
known engine
Remarks:
i) In Figs. 4.23 a to d the true airspeed is given in knots; one knot is equal to
1.852 kmph. Further, the speed of sound at h = 0, 15000’, 30000’ and 45000’ is
respectively 661, 627, 589 and 574 knots.
ii) Bypass supersonic turbofan engines are also being considered for supersonic
flight. Reference 1.18, gives, in Appendix E, typical curves for an engine with sea level
static thrust of 30000 lb (133 kN). Similarly Ref.1.16, chapter 8 also presents curves for
an engine with 33000 lb (146.3 kN) sea level static thrust. Figures 4.23a to d also
indicate the values of specific fuel consumption (TSFC) and the air flow rate.
iii) Figure 4.18b shows an after burner duct between the turbine exit and the
entry of the nozzle. The same figure also shows the fuel spray bars and the flame
holder. An after burner is used to increase the thrust output for a short duration. When
the fuel is burnt in the after burner, the temperature of the gases goes up and the thrust
increases, when these gases subsequently expand in thenozzle. However, the specific
fuel consumption also goes up considerably and the after burner operation is resorted to
only for a short duration like during takeoff or transonic acceleration.

A note on choice of engines for different range of flight speeds

The topic of choice of engine for different types of airplanes is briefly covered in
this section. Some salient points are mentioned to conclude the discussion on engines.
The following five criteria are used to select a power plant for a specific application.

1. Overall efficiency ηo: This quantity is the product of (a) thermodynamic cycle
efficiency ηt (b) combustion efficiency ηc (c) mechanical efficiency ηm and (d)
propulsive efficiency ηp.
The thermodynamic efficiency depends on the thermodynamic cycle on which
the engine operates. The details regarding estimation of ηt are available in books on
thermodynamics. However, it is of the order of 40 to 50%. The combustion efficiency
and mechanical efficiency would be around 95. It has been pointed out there that ηp
depends on flight speed or Mach number.
The specific fuel consumption (SFC) is an indication of the overall efficiency. The
piston engine propeller combination would have lowest SFC for Mach number (M) upto
about 0.3. The turboprop engine would have lowest SFC in the range of Mach number

from 0.3 to 0.6 which may extend to M 0.7 with the use of a transonic propeller. The

high bypass ratio turbofans have lowest SFC between for M 0.7 to 1.0 and the low by-
pass ratio ones between M 1 to1.6. Turbojets are more suited for M 1.6 to about 3.5 and
ramjets later upto M 8. It may be recapitulated that a ramjet engine requires another
powerplant to bring it to Mach number of about 1.5.

2. Variation of thrust (or power) with flight speed and altitude:

The shaft horse power of a piston engine does not change significantly with flight
speed. Consequently, the thrust output of this engine decreases significantly with flight
speed or Mach number. The output of a turbofan engine decreases with Mach number,
especially at low altitudes. The thrust of a jet engine is fairly constant at subsonic
speeds but increases considerably at supersonic speeds. As regards the effect of flight
altitude Eq.(4.105) shows that for a piston engine

P/Psl = σ where, σ is the density ratio and the suffix ‘sl’ denotes a quantity at sea level.
For a turboprop engine

(T/Tsl) for turbofan and turbojet engines is also roughly proportional to σ 0.7.

3. Weight of the engine:

The weight of the engine contributes to the gross weight of the airplane and
hence it should be as low as possible. This quantity is indicated by the ratio W pp /T or
Wpp /BHP, where W PP is the weight of the power plant. This ratio depends on the type of
engine and the engine rating; it (ratio) decreases as the rating increases.
It can be mentioned that the weight per unit BHP for a piston engine is around 9
N / kW for an engine with a rating of around 150 kW and about 6 N/kW for a rating of
around 500 kW. For a turboprop engine W PP/ESHP is around 2.9 N/kW for rating of 500
kW, 2.3 N/kW for a rating of 2500 kW and 1.4 N/kW for a rating of 7500 kW. For a
turbofan engine the ratio W PP/T could be around 0.25 N/N for a rating of around 100 kN
and about 0.15 N/N for a rating of about 250 kN.

4. Frontal area:
The frontal area of an engine contributes to the parasite drag of the airplane.
Hence, a lower frontal area is a desirable feature of the engine. For a given output the
piston engine-propeller combination generally has the highest frontal area. Turboprop,
turbofan and turbojet follow in the decreasing order of the frontal area.

5. Other considerations:
Gas turbine engines have mechanical simplicity as compared to a piston engine.
However, gas turbine engines are costlier than the piston engines as some of the
components of the gas turbine engines operate at higher temperature and RPM. This
requires special materials and fabrication techniques.
Keeping these factors in view, the different types of engine are used in the speed
range / application as given in Table.

Power plant

The power plant consists of the engine or engines, perhaps a propeller

(depending on the type of engine), and the electrical system. It can be located in/on the
front of the aircraft fuselage or toward the rear of the airplane. In multi-engine aircraft,
the engines are typically located under the wings on each side.
 The engine is typically covered by a cowling that helps streamline the flow of air
around the engine and keep it cool.

Pusher configuration

In an aircraft with a pusher configuration (as opposed to a tractor

configuration), the propeller(s) are mounted behind their respective engine(s).

Engine installation considerations

In a pusher configuration, the force provided by the propeller is pushing towards

the engine, rather than away.

To convert a tractor engine and propeller combination to pusher operation it is

not sufficient to simply turn the engine and propeller round, since the propeller would
continue to "pull" driving the aircraft to the rear.

Assuming the engine cannot be run in the reverse direction, the "handedness" of
the propeller must be reversed. The loads on the thrust race (bearings that prevent fore
and aft movement of the crankshaft) are also reversed, because the pusher propeller is
pushing into the engine rather than pulling away from it as in a tractor.

Some modern engines designed for light aircraft are fitted with a thrust race
suitable for both "pushing" and "pulling", but others require a different part depending in
which sense they are operating. Power-plant cooling design is more complex than for
the tractor configuration, where the propeller forces air through the system.
Conventional layout

Conventional aircraft layout has a rear tail (empennage) for stabilization and control.

The propeller may be close to the engine, as the usual direct drive:

 The propeller may be ahead of the tail:

o inside the framework
o in line with the fuselage between tail booms
o above the fuselage on wing
o on nacelle or axial pod or coaxially around rear fuselage
 The propeller may be located behind the vertical tail, under the horizontal tail

 Engines and propellers may be located on wings or on lateral pods.

The engine may be buried in a forward remote location, driving the propeller by
drive shaft or belt:

 The propeller may be located ahead of the tail, behind the wing or inside the
airframe.
 The propeller may be located inside the tail, either cruciform or ducted fan
 The propeller may be located at the rear, behind a conventional tail, a T, an inverted
V-tail, a Y-tail or a cruciform tail.
 The propeller may be located above the fuselage such as a glider with a retractable
propeller.

Canard layout

In canard designs a smaller wing is present at the front of the aircraft. This class
mainly uses a direct drive, either single engine, axial propeller or twin engines with a
symmetrical layout or an in line layout (push-pull) as the famous.
Flying wing and tailless layout

In these installations, the engines are either mounted in nacelles or the fuselage
on tailless aircraft, or buried in the wing on flying wings, driving propellers behind the
trailing edge of the wing, often by extension shaft.

Advantages

 Placing the cockpit forward of the wing to balance the weight of the engine(s) aft
improves visibility for the crew.
 Aircraft where the engine is carried by, or very close to, the pilot place the engine
behind the pilot to minimize the danger to the pilot's arms and legs. These two
factors mean that this configuration was widely used for early combat aircraft,
and remains popular today among ultralight aircraft, unmanned aerial
vehicles (UAV) and FPV radio-controlled planes.
 A pusher may have a shorter fuselage and hence a reduction in both fuselages
wetted area and weight.
 In contrast to tractor layout, a pusher propeller at the end of the fuselage is
stabilizing.
 When there is no tail within the slipstream, unlike a tractor there is no rotating
prop wash around the fuselage inducing a side force to the fin. At takeoff, a
canard pusher pilot does not have to apply rudder input to balance this moment.
 Efficiency can be gained by mounting a propeller behind the fuselage, because it
re-energizes the boundary layer developed on the body, and reduces the form
drag by keeping the flow attached to the fuselage.

Disadvantages

 A pusher design with an empennage behind the propeller is structurally more

complex than a similar tractor type. The increased weight and drag degrades
performance compared with a similar tractor type.

 To maintain a workable center of gravity (CG) position, there is a limit to how far
aft an engine can be installed. The forward location of the crew may balance the
 engine weight and will help determine the CG. As the CG location must be kept
within defined limits for safe operation load distribution must be evaluated before
each flight.

 When a propeller is mounted in front of the tail, changes in engine power alter
the airflow over the tail and can give strong pitch or yaw changes.

 Pusher engines mounted on the wing may obstruct sections of the wing trailing
edge, reducing the total width available for control surfaces such as flaps and
ailerons.

 Propeller ground clearance and foreign object damage

 The propeller passes through the fuselage wake, wing and other flight surface
downwashes - moving asymmetrically through a disk of irregular airspeed. This
reduces propeller efficiency and causes vibration inducing structural propeller
fatigue and noise.
 In pusher configuration, the propeller does not contribute airflow over the engine
or radiator. Some aviation engines have experienced cooling problems when
used as pushers. To counter this, auxiliary fans may be installed, adding
additional weight.
 In case of propeller/tail proximity, a blade break can hit the tail or produce
destructive vibrations leading to a loss of control.
 Engine location in the pusher configuration might endanger the aircraft's
occupants in a crash or crash-landing in which engine momentum projects
through the cabin.
 Tractor configuration leaves the rear of the plane as relatively safe working area,
while a pusher is dangerous to approach from behind, while a spinning propeller
may suck in things and people nearby in front of it with fatal results to both the
plane and the people sucked in. Even more hazardous are unloading operations,
especially mid-air, such as dropping supplies on parachute or skydiving
operations, which are next to impossible with a pusher configuration airplane,
especially if propellers are mounted on fuselage.
Tractor configuration

An aircraft constructed with a tractor configuration has the engine mounted

with the airscrew in front of it so that the aircraft is "pulled" through the air, as opposed
to the pusher configuration, in which the airscrew is behind and propels the aircraft
forward. Through common usage, the word "propeller" has come to mean any airscrew,
whether it actually propels or pulls the plane.

Push-pull configuration

An aircraft constructed with a push-pull configuration has a combination of

forward-mounted (tractor) propellers and backward-mounted (pusher) propellers.
Configuration

Push-pull designs have the engines mounted above the wing as Dornier flying
boats or more commonly on a shorter fuselage than conventional one.

Benefits

While pure pushers decreased in popularity during the First World War, the push-
pull configuration has continued to be used. The advantage it provides is the ability to
mount two propellers on the aircraft's centerline, thereby avoiding the increased drag
that comes with twin wing-mounted engines. It is also easier to fly if one of the two
engines fails, as the thrust provided by the remaining engine stays in the centerline. In
contrast, a conventional twin-engine aircraft will yaw in the direction of the failed engine
and become uncontrollable below a certain airspeed, known as VMC.

Design problems

The rear engine operates in the disturbed air from the forward engine, which may
reduce its efficiency to 85% of the forward engine. In addition, the rear engine can
interfere with the aircraft's rotation during takeoff if installed in the tail, or they require
additional compromise to be made to ensure clearance. This is why they are more
common on seaplanes, where this is not a concern.

Engine location
The type of engine mounting and its location play a major role in deciding the
overall drag coefficient of the airplane. A conventional wing mounted engine is chosen
as it facilitates periodic engine maintenance. This is important in airline industry where
an unscheduled downtime could mean considerable loss to the company. The engines
are attached to the lower side of the wing using pylons to reduce drag. The other reason
for choosing a wing mounted engine is that the fuel is stored in the wing and this
reduces the length of the fuel lines. From the data collection of similar airplanes, the
engine location is fixed at 34% of the semi span.
C.G LOCATION &TRAVEL

Wing location along length of fuselage, the longitudinal location of wing is

decided based on the consideration that the c.g. of the entire airplane with full payload
and fuel is around the quarter chord of the m.a.c of wing. For this purpose, the weights
and the c.g locations of various components are tabulated. Then applying moment
equilibrium about the nose of the airplane, the distance of the leading edge of root chord
of the wing from the nose (Xle) is calculated to satisfy the aforesaid requirement. The
steps to obtain Xle are given below. As regards the c.g. locations of wing, horizontal tail
and vertical tail it is assumed that the c.g. is at 40% of the respective m.a.c. The
fuselage c.g. is taken to be at 42% of its length. The engine c.g. location is taken to be
at 40% of its length. For this purpose the distance of the engine c.g. from the root chord
is measured for various airplanes and a distance of 2 m is chosen. All other
components (equipments, furnishings etc.) are assumed to have their combined c.g.
location at 42% of the fuselage length. The tabulated values are given below. The
weights of various components and the c.g. locations are given in table below

C.G travel in critical cases

The movements of the c.g. under various loading conditions are examined below.

Full payload and no fuel

For the case of full payload and no fuel, the fuel contribution to the weight is not
present. However, it has been assumed that the fuel tanks are located such that the c.g
of the fuel is at the quarter chord of m.a.c. of wing. Since the c.g. of the entire airplane is
also at the quarter chord of wing m.a.c., there is no shift in the c.g. when the fuel has
been consumed. Hence, the C.G shift is 0%

No payload and no fuel

For this case, the fuel as well as the payload contributions is not present. Since
the c.g of payload is not at the c.g of the entire airplane, the c.g is bound to shift by a
certain amount in this case. The moment calculations are performed and the new c.g
location is obtained at 14.93 m from the nose. Therefore, the c.g shift: is 14.93 - 14.63 =
0.3 m i.e. 7.28 % of m.a.c.

No payload and full fuel

For this case, since there is no payload, the c.g shifts. On performing
calculations, the new c.g. location is obtained at 14.84 m. Therefore, the c.g. shift is:
14.84 - 14.63 = 0.21 m i.e. + 5.7 % . Hence, the c.g shift is +5.17% of the m.a.c.

Payload distribution for 15% c.g travel

Sometimes the c.g. shift is calculated for hypothetical cases like (a) only half the
pay load concentrated in the front half of the passenger cabin and (b) only half the pay
load concentrated in the rear half of the passenger cabin. These cases result in large
shift in c.g. Hence, an alternate strategy is suggested. According to Ref.7, a total c.g
shift of 15% is acceptable for commercial airplanes. To ensure this, as a first step the
maximum payload that can be concentrated in the front portion of the passenger cabin
is calculated such that a c.g shift of only 7.5% is obtained. It is assumed that the
percentage of payload is “x “and also the payload c.g of to be at x % of the passenger
cabin length. Performing the c.g. calculations yields the value of x to be 90%.As a
second step, similar calculations are performed, such that the maximum payload that
can be concentrated at the rear half of the passenger cabin resulting in a c.g shift of
only 7.5 %. On performing the calculation, a value of 70% is obtained for x. Hence, the
c.g locations for various critical cases and payload distributions have been calculated.
Location of engines
i) Engine under pylons (Podded Engine)
ii) Inside the root portion of the wing
iii) Outside the rear fuselage
iv) Engine below wing
v) Engine above wing
vi). Engine at aft fuselage or tail

1) Engine under pylons

A pylon connects the engine to the airframe of an aircraft. This design
uses air passing through the pylon to actively disrupt the jet engine exhaust
stream after it exits the engine, disrupting and redistributing the axial and
azimuthal distributed sources of jet noise from the aircraft.

Pylon: The thing between the engine and the wing.

Nacelle: The thing that covers the engine.

The cowlings are the removable/ openable parts of the nacelle, as depicted in
green in the image below. The parts in blue are not openable, hence they are just called
the nacelle.

A pylon is a rigid structure used to hold the heavy aircraft engine in its place and
position under (or over, occasionally) an aircraft's wing, without interfering with the
airflow over and under the aircraft wing that is needed for lift and control. The nacelle is
the streamlined housing that supports, contains and protects the aircraft engine.

A podded engine is a jet engine in a pod, typically attached below the wing or to the tail
of the aircraft. .The further the engines are away from the fuselage the greater
the wing bending relief so engines buried in the wing root provide little relief.

Advantages in engine under pylon

 The weight of wing structure decreases by 15-20 %as the wing is relieved
by the weight of the engines
 The space inside the wing is utilized for fuel storage, maintenance,
inspection and replacements are facilitated
 The wing structure is free from the heat from the engines, and better fire
safety can be achieved.
Disadvantages
a) Failure of outboard engine creates a large yawing moment. This moment has
to be counted by rudder deflection which results in higher drag.
b) Smaller ground clearance increases the possibility of foreign particles
entering the engines.
c) The noise level in the cabin is 5 db higher as compared to airplanes having
engines on the rear fuselage.
2. Engines located in the wing root
Advantages
There is very little increase in frontal area due to installation of power plants.
Almost the entire wing span can be used for ailerons and high lift devices
Disadvantages
The weight of the wing is high due to the cut portion in the wing spars to
accommodate engine
The weight of the power plant is high due to the long air ducts.
The intake is located at a place where the air flow is not clear.
The space in the root cannot be used for fuel accommodation.

3. Engine located on the rear fuselage

Advantages
There is less noise in the cabin and the fuselage
The entire wing can be used for fuel storage
The whole wing space can be used for high lift devices and ailerons
Fire hazard is minimum.
The actual wing does not deviate from the design profile and the wing is clean.
Disadvantages
The fuel is located far from the engines, therefore the length of the pipe line is
increased and special fuel pumps should be provided.
 Due to power plant weight at the tail, longer fuselage is provided ahead of the
wing which requires larger vertical and horizontal stabilizers.

4.Engine below wing:

Some Advantages
Less engine noise
Inertial relief (lighter wing structure weight)
Easy alternative to solve wing flutter problems by shifting the
engine mass enough forward
Easy access for engine repair and overhaul
Undisturbed inlet flow for the engine inlet
Might be safer in case of engine fire

Some Disadvantages
May require longer landing gear
More chances of ingestion of debris from the runway during Take Off.

5. Engine above wing:

Some Advantages
Less engine noise
Inertial relief (lighter wing structure weight)
 Easy alternative to solve wing flutter problems by shifting the
engine mass enough forward
Less long landing gear required
Can have a positive influence on maximum lift capability in
short take off runs (shorter TO distances)

Some Disadvantages
Less chances of ingestion of debris from the runway during
Take Off
Disturbed air flow (shock waves possible and also possible
wing boundary layer ingestion) to the inlet possible especially at high angles of
attack
Less accessible for engine repair and overhaul

6. Engine at aft fuselage or tail:

Some Advantages
Less long landing gear required
Less chances of ingestion of runway debris during Take Off
Looks more esthetical

Some Disadvantages
Disturbed air flow to the inlet possible especially at high
angles of attack
More engine noise
Maybe smaller aircraft W-CG limits constraints
No structure weight saving due to inertial relief
Usually requires a T-tail which is heavier in construction and
has the potential for dangerous stall characteristics (deep stall)
Discussion:

Why are the engines so far in front of the wings on modern airliners? What
advantages does it provide over putting the engines under the wings? Doesn’t
the exhaust damage the wing?
Wing mounted engines have always been placed in front of the wing. The engine
nacelle of a piston engine or turbine engine propeller driven airplane has the engine
mounted completely in front of the wing. The rest of the engine nacelle contains fuel and
luggage/cargo. This is for balance (for and aft ).

If the wings are at the middle ( for and aft ) . The wings and the fuselage above
and around the centre section of the wing contain the fuel tanks. As fuel is consumed
the airplane becomes lighter but the balance is unaffected because all the fuel weight
just comes out of the centre ( for and aft ) of the airplane. The passenger cabin between
the cockpit and tail plane is evenly balanced by seat allocation. The cargo bays below
the passenger cabin are balanced ( for and aft ) by the load controller before loading
commences. So we are left with a very light cockpit to counterbalance a heavy tailplane.
Ain’t gonna work. Fortunately the very heavy engines are placed slightly forward of the
wing to counterbalance the lighter weight of the tail, a long way back, and everything is
in balance.

In flight the centre of gravity ( weight of the airplane) should be slightly further
forward than the centre of lift. So that in a wing stall situation the slightly nose heavy
front of the airplane will nose down, causing the airplane to descend and speed up and
unstall the wings. If the centre of gravity is aft of the wing it will be impossible to recover
from a stall, and everybody dies. [ sorry I know that I’ve stolen that line from someone
else on Quora, but I love it so much I can’t help myself]

All airplanes are balanced with the centre of gravity (CofG) forward of the centre
of lift. With larger airliners with wing mounted engines, just looking at them in profile, it is
visually obvious. With airliners that have rear mounted engines the wings are mounted
further back, and load controllers have a harder job to get the balance right.

With smaller airplanes it is not as visually obvious. It looks like there is a lot of
airplane behind the wing and not much in front, but when you consider that the rear
fuselage and tail plane is hollow, empty, and light; and the engine is solid and heavy,
you realize that, though it doesn’t look it, the airplane really is properly balanced around
the wing. Singles have the engine in front of the cockpit and thus fairly forward of the
wing. Twins have two engines forward of the wing. Not as far forward as singles but
there are 2 of them, so twice the weight.

All the other answers provided give valid secondary reasons, but the main
reason for mounting wing mounted engines forward of the wing is for balance, plain and
simple.

With the mounting position of the engines decided, the designers then have to
ensure that issues like what happens to the hot exhaust, etc, are all remedied before
the design is finalized.
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

4.1 Airfoil selection

The usual practical is to choose the airfoil from the large number of airfoils whose
geometric and aerodynamic characteristics are available in the aeronautical literature. To
enable such a selection, it is helpful to know the aerodynamic and geometrical
characteristics of airfoils and their nomenclature.
An airfoil-shaped body moving through a fluid produces an aerodynamic force. The
component of this force perpendicular to the direction of motion is called lift.

Types of airfoil:
1) Symmetrical Airfoil:
The symmetrical airfoil is distinguished by having identical upper and lower surfaces.
2) Nonsymmetrical Airfoil (Cambered):
The nonsymmetrical airfoil has different upper and lower surfaces, with a greater curvature
of the airfoil above the chord line than below.

Geometrical characteristics of airfoils

The camber line or the mean line is the basic line for definition of the aerofoil shape.
The line joining the extremities of the camber line is the chord. The leading and trailing
edges are defined as the forward and rearward extremities, respectively, of the mean line.
Various camber line shapes have been suggested and they characterize various families of
airfoils. The maximum camber as a fraction of the chord length (Yc max/C) and its location as
a fraction of chord (Xyc max/C) are the important parameters of the camber line. Various
thickness distributions have been suggested and they characterize different families of
airfoils. The maximum ordinate of the thickness distribution as fraction of chord (Yt max/C)

and its location as fraction of chord (Xyt max/C) are the important parameters of the thickness
distribution.

Airfoil nomenclature:
Early airfoils were designed by trial and error. Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE),
UK and Gottingen laboratory of the German establishment which is now called DLR
(Deutsches Zentrum fϋr Luft-und Raumfahrt – German Centre for Aviation and Space Flight)
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

were the pioneers in airfoil design. the developments in airfoil theory and boundary layer
theory, NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics) of USA systematically
designed and tested a large number of airfoils in 1930’s. These are designated as NACA
airfoils
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

a) NACA four-digit series airfoils:

The maximum thickness of all four-digit airfoils occurs at 30% of chord. In the designation of
these airfoils, the first two digits indicate that the camber is zero and the last two digits
indicate the thickness ratio as percentage of chord.
b) NACA five-digit series airfoils:
During certain tests it was observed that CL max of the airfoil could be increased by shifting
forward the location of the maximum camber. This finding led to development of five-digit
series airfoils. The same thickness distribution was retained as that for NACA four-digit
series airfoils. (For example: A typical five-digit cambered airfoil is NACA 23012. First digit
(2) indicates that CL = 0.3. Second & third digits (30) indicate that maximum camber occurs
at 15% of chord. Last two digits (12) indicate that the maximum thickness ratio is 12 %.)
c) Six series airfoils:
The development of these airfoils boundary layer transition indicated that the
transition process, which causes laminar boundary layer to become turbulent,
depends predominantly on the pressure gradient in the flow around the airfoil.
Maintaining a laminar boundary layer over a longer portion of the airfoil would
result in a lower drag coefficient. these developments, new series of airfoils called
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

low drag airfoils or laminar flow airfoils were designed 1 to 7 series (NACA 662 - 015)
would have the minimum pressure at x/c = 0.6 when producing zero lift. The suffix ‘2’
indicates that the drag bucket extends ±0.2around CL opt. The digit ‘2’ after the dash
indicates that CL opt is 0.2. Thus in this case, drag bucket extends for CL = 0.0 to 0.4.
The last two digits”15” indicate that the thickness ratio is 15%.

NASA airfoils:
NASA has developed airfoil shapes for special applications. For example, GA (W)
series airfoils were designed for general aviation aircraft. The ‘LS’ series of airfoils among
these are for low speed airplanes. (Ex: LS (1) - 0417. In this designation, the digit ‘1’ refers
to first series, the digits ‘04’ indicate CL opt of 0.4 and the digits ‘17’ indicate the thickness
ratio of 17 %.)
How I select the airfoils? First we find the characters.
 What is the maximum airfoil thickness you can afford? A thicker airfoil makes for a
lighter wing with more internal volume for flaps and fuel. However, if you want to
operate your design at high subsonic speeds, thickness needs to be controlled.
 What is the lowest cruise lift coefficient and the highest lift coefficient for a clean wing
and with flaps down? Does your design need flaps at all?
 If the aircraft is small: What Reynolds number is flown at which lift coefficient?
 What is the desired stall behaviour? Docile (as preferred for training aircraft) or snappy.
 What construction technique is used for the wing? Wooden frame and fabric? All metal
with countersunk or exposed rivets? To be built on a jig or on a flat table? Composite, in
a mould or positive over a foam core? All of them have subtle consequences for airfoil
selection

4.2 Selection of wing parameters:

1) Aspect ratio (AR)
An increase in the span would increase the bending moment at the wing root. This
would require higher moment of inertia of the spar and hence higher weight plane. Hence,
for personal airplanes, a moderate aspect ratio of 6 to 7 is generally chosen.
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

2) Sweep
A swept wing is a wing that angles either backward or occasionally forward from its root
rather than in a straight sideways direction. The characteristic "sweep angle" is normally
measured by drawing a line from root to tip, typically 25% of the way back from the leading
edge, and comparing that with the perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the aircraft.
Typical sweep angles vary from 0 for a straight-wing aircraft, to 45 degrees or more for
fighters and other high-speed designs, whether swept forward, swept backward, angle of
sweep, cranked wing or variable sweep.
3) Taper ratio:
From these considerations, a taper ratio between 0.3 and 0.5 is common for low
speed airplanes. Some airplane wings have straight central portion.
4) Twist:
Twist is closely coupled to the wing's sweep angle, airfoil camber, taper ratio and the
desired level of static longitudinal stability. Other factors are the desired span wise lift
distribution and maneuverability.
5) Wing incidence:
The wing will pick the angle of attack that is appropriate for the given speed, air
density and the needed lift. This will result in a slightly positive incidence angle. On high
performance airplanes the incidence is set to optimize the lift to drag ratio.
6) Wing area (S):
This is calculated from the wing loading and gross weight. Which have been already
decided i.e. S= W / (W / S)
7) Location of the wing on fuselage: High, Low or mid-wing
8) Aerofoil: Thickness ratio, camber and shape.
9) High lift devices: Type of flaps and slats; values of CL max, S flap/S.
10) Ailerons and spoilers : Values of S aileron/S ; S spoiler/S
11) Leading edge strakes if any.
12) Dihedral angle (Γ).
13) Other aspects: Variable camber, plan form tailoring, area ruling, braced wing,
aerodynamic coupling (intentionally adding a coupling lifting surface like canard).
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

Presentation of aerodynamic characteristics of airfoils

 Lift coefficient (CL) vs angle of attack (α), This curve has four important features viz.
(a) angle of zero lift (α0l ), (b) slope of the lift curve denoted by d CL / d α (or) a 0 or
CLα , (c) maximum lift coefficient (CL max ) and (d) angle of attack (α stall )
corresponding to CL max .

 Drag coefficient (Cd) vs CL. This curve has two important features viz. (a) minimum
drag coefficient (Cd min) and (b) lift coefficient (CL opt) corresponding to Cd min. In
some airfoils, called laminar flow airfoils or low-drag airfoils, the minimum drag
coefficient extends over a range of lift coefficients (Fig.5.1b). This feature is called
‘Drag bucket’. The extent of the drag bucket and the lift coefficient at the middle of
this region are also characteristic features of the airfoil. It may be added that the
camber decides CL and thickness ratio decides the extent of the drag bucket.

 Pitching moment coefficient about quarter-chord Cmc/4 vs α. This curve is shown in

Fig.5.1c. Sometimes this curve is also plotted as Cmc/4 vs CL. From this curve, the
location of the aerodynamic center (a.c.) and the moment about it (Cmac) can be
worked out. It may be recalled that a.c. is the point on the chord about which the
moment coefficient is independent of CL.
Effect of geometric parameters, Reynolds number and roughness on aerodynamic
characteristics of airfoils
The important aerodynamic characteristics of airfoil from the point of view of design
are angle of zero lift (αol), maximum lift coefficient (CL max), stall pattern, minimum drag
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

coefficient (Cd min), lift coefficient corresponding to Cd min which is also called optimum lift
coefficient (CL opt), extent of drag bucket for low drag airfoils, moment coefficient about
aerodynamic centre (Cmac) and critical Mach number. At subsonic speeds these
characteristics are affected by geometrical parameters viz. camber, thickness ratio (t/c),
airfoil shape, Reynolds number and roughness.
These effects can be summarized as follows.
 The camber decides α0l, CL opt and Cmac. For a given family of airfoils, with increase
of camber, α0l and Cmac become more negative whereas CL opt increases.
 (ii) The thickness ratio influences Cd min and Cl max. For a given family of airfoils, the
minimum drag coefficient (Cd min) increases with (t/c). The maximum lift coefficient
(Cl max) is highest for (t/c) between 12 to 16%. The stall pattern is also gradual for
these thickness ratios.
 (iii) The Reynolds number (Re) mainly influences CL max and Cd min. The former (CL
max) increases with Re and the latter generally decreases with Re. the extent of drag
bucket indicated by the nomenclature of the airfoil is at Re = 9 x 106.
 (iv)The surface roughness influences CL max and Cd min. With increase of
roughness CL max decreases and Cd min increases.
 (v)The critical Mach number, in connection with the airfoil, is defined as the “Free
stream Mach number at which the maximum Mach number on the airfoil is unity”.
This quantity can be obtained theoretically by calculating the pressure distribution on
the airfoil, but cannot be determined experimentally. However, when the critical Mach
number is exceeded, the drag coefficient starts to increase. Making use of this
behaviour, the term ‘Drag divergence Mach number (MD) is defined as the Mach
number at which the drag coefficient shows an increase of 0.002 over the subsonic
drag value.
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

Choice of airfoil camber

The choice of the airfoil for the airplane wing involves the selection of camber, thickness
ratio and shape of the airfoil. The camber decides the CL opt of the airfoil and the thickness
ratio decides the characteristics like CL max, CD min, drag divergence Mach number (MD),
weight of the wing and the stall pattern. For a good design, the camber should be chosen
such that CL opt of the airfoil is close to the lift coefficient of the aircraft (CL) in the flight
corresponding to the mission of the airplane. This lift coefficient is called design lift
coefficient (CL design). In most of the cases, this would correspond to the cruise flight
condition.

Choice of airfoil thickness ratio (t/c)

The following may be noted to understand the effect of thickness ratio (t/c) on the
structural weight of the wing. The wing structure consists of spars (front and rear), stingers
and skin. The spars are like I section beams. The flanges of the “I” section take the bending
moment and the web takes the shear. If the wing section is thicker, then the spar flanges will
be away from the centroidal axis of the section. Now, the bending moment resisted by an ‘I’
section beam is proportional to the product of the area of the flange and the distance of
flange from centroidal axis. Thus, for a given bending moment, a thicker I beam would
require lower area of flange. Consequently, it would be lighter. Thus, a thicker wing will
result in lighter wing.

4.3 Selection of wing parameters and Airworthiness requirements

In this section, the selection of aspect ratio (A), sweep and taper ratio (λ) are
considered.
4.3.1) Choice of aspect ratio (AR)
Aspect ratio affects the slope of the lift curve (CLα), the induced drag (CDi), the
structural weight of the wing and the wing span.
a) Effect of aspect ratio on slope of the lift curve
The slope of lift curve of a wing in subsonic flow for A > 4, is given by:
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

C Lα , decreases as aspect ratio decreases.

b) Effect of aspect ratio on induced drag

The induced drag coefficient (CDi) of a subsonic airplane is given by:

Where, δ depends on wing geometry i.e. aspect ratio, taper ratio and sweep.

c) Effect of aspect ratio on structural weight

As the aspect ratio increases the wingspan (b) increases (b= square root of
Aspect ratio and Span). An increase in the span would increase the bending moment
at the wing root. This would require higher moment of inertia of the spar and hence
higher weight.
d) Effect of aspect ratio on span
For a chosen wing area, the aspect ratio decides the span of the wing

In turn the span decides the hangar space needed for the airplane. Hence, for
personal airplanes, a moderate aspect ratio of 6 to 7 is generally chosen. Further, the
ride in turbulent weather is poor for a high aspect ratio wing. Hence, agricultural and
other airplanes, which fly in proximity of ground, are subjected to air turbulence and
have moderate aspect ratio of 6 to 7.
4.3.2) Choice of sweep
The wing sweep affects the slope of the lift curve (CLα), the maximum lift coefficient C
CL max, the induced drag coefficient (CDi), the drag divergence Mach number (MD), the wing
weight and the tip stalling.
a) Effect of sweep on slope of lift curve
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

From this equation, it is seen that CLα decreases as sweep increases. It can be
shown that CLα of a wing of aspect ratio 9, operating at Mach number 0.8, would decrease
by about 20% when sweep increases from 0oto 30o.

b) Effect of sweep on maximum lift coefficient (CL max)

That the CL max of a swept wing decreases in proportion to cosΛ.
c) Effect of sweep on induced drag
The induced drag coefficient of typical jet airplane would be:

It is observed that K and in turn the induced drag coefficient increases as angle of
sweep increases.
d) Effect of sweep on divergence Mach number (MD)
For a swept wing the change in drag divergence Mach number due to sweep angle,
is given approximately by the following equation

where, (M D ) Λ = 0 and (MD ) Λ are the drag divergence Mach numbers of the un
swept and the swept wing respectively; As an illustration consider a wing employing a
supercritical airfoil with MD of 0.78. Ignoring the effects of aspect ratio on MD the value of
MD would be 0.78 for a wing with Λ = 0. The increase in MD due to sweep is very significant.
Further, when M < MD, the lift to drag ratio (L/D) is high. Thus, when MD increases the high
value of (L/D) can continue up to higher values of Mach numbers or flight speeds. For jet
airplanes the range increases as flight speed increases. In other words, when MD increases,
the range would increase.

e) Effect of sweep on wing weight

Equation (5.5) shows that the weight of the wing is proportional to (1 / cos Λ). Thus,
the weight of the wing increases as sweep increases.
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

4.3.3) Choice of taper ratio (λ)

The taper ratio influences the following quantities.

a) Induced drag
b) Structural weight
c) Ease of fabrication
It is known that an elliptic wing has the lowest induced drag (δ = 0). However, this plan form
shape is difficult to fabricate. A rectangular wing is easy to fabricate but has about 7% higher
CDi as compared to the elliptic wing (δ = 0.07). It is also heavier structurally. An un swept
wing, with λ between 0.3 to 0.5, has a slightly positive value of δ. Further, in a tapered wing,
the span loading is concentrated in the inboard portions of the wing and the airfoil at the root
is thicker than that near the tip. These factors help in reducing the wing weight. Tip is also
not a problem when the taper ratio is between 0.3 and 0.5. From these considerations, a
taper ratio between 0.3 and 0.5 is common for low speed airplanes.

4.3.4) Twist
A wing is said to have a twist when the chord lines of airfoils at different spanwise
stations are not parallel to each other. The difference between the angles of attack of the
airfoil sections at the root and near the tip is called geometric twist. the aerodynamic twist is
the difference between zero lift lines of airfoils at root and near the tip. Twist is given to
prevent tip stalling

Tip stalling
It is a phenomenon in which the stalling on the wing begins in the region near the
wing tip. This is because the distribution of local lift coefficient (CL) is not uniform along the
span and as the angle of attack of the wing increases, the stalling will begin at a location
where the local lift coefficient exceeds the maximum lift coefficient (CL max) there. To
understand this phenomenon better, an un swept tapered wing is considered. The lift
distribution on such a wing has a maximum at the root and goes to zero at the tip. This
distribution is also known as lift distribution. Further, the local lift (ΔL) can be equated to (1/2
ρV2c CL Δy), where c is the local chord and CL is the local lift coefficient over an element (Δy
) of span. Thus, lift distribution is proportional to the product c Cl. The local distribution along
the span can be approximately obtained by Schrenk’s method. According to this method, c
Cl distribution is roughly midway between the chord distribution of the actual wing and that of
an elliptic wing of the same area. It can be proved, that for a wing with taper ratio λ , and
Clmax constant along span, the local maximum of CL will occur at a spanwise location (y)
where: y/(b/2) = 1- λ
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

Schrenk’s Method

Typical distribution of Cl

It is known that the maximum lift coefficient (CL max) of an airfoil depends on the airfoil
shape, surface roughness and Reynolds number. For simplicity, it is assumed that CL max is
approximately constant along the span. Then from the distribution of CL, it is observed that
as the angle of attack of the wing increases, the stalling will begin at the span-wise location
where local CL equals local CL max. Subsequently, stalling will progress along the wing span
and finally the wing will stall (i.e. CL of wing will reach a maximum and then decrease). The
beginning of stall near the tip is undesirable as ailerons are located in the tip region. Stalling
there would reduce aileron effectiveness. For a wing of a taper ratio 0.3, the stall is likely to
begin around y / (b/2) of 0.7.

4.3.5) Wing incidence

The mean aerodynamic chord is the reference line of the wing. Fuselage reference
line (FRL) is the reference line for the entire airplane. The angle between fuselage reference
line and the wing reference line is called wing incidence and denoted by iw.
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

For the economy in fuel consumption, the drag should be minimum during cruise.
The fuselage has a minimum drag when its angle of attack is zero. However, during cruise,
the wing should produce sufficient lift to support the weight of the airplane. Keeping these
factors in view, the wing is mounted on the fuselage in such a manner that it produces the
required amount of lift in cruise while the fuselage is at zero angle of attack.
During the preliminary design phase, iw can be obtained as follows.

a) Obtain CL design corresponding to cruise or any other design condition

Where, V correspond to the design flight conditions.

b) Obtain for the wing (for subsonic airplanes) CLα
c) Obtain zero lift angle for wing (α 0L). This depends on of the airfoil used on the wing and
the wing twist.
For an untwisted wing,

α0L = α0lr
where, is the zero lift angle of the airfoil at the root. α olr
the following procedure for a wing with aerodynamic twist of . ε
α = α + J.ε
Where, ε is positive when the airfoil at the tip is at an angle of attack higher than at
root. The quantity J has a weak dependence on aspect ratio and taper ratio of the wing.
However, a value of -0.4 can be taken for the first estimate of α0L. For more accurate
estimate of α0L.
e) Calculate iw from the following equation :

/
4.3.6) Dihedral
Its value is decided after the lateral dynamic stability calculations have been done for the
airplane. For preliminary design purposes a value based on data collection can be used.

4.3.7) Wing vertical location

There are three choices for the location of the wing on the fuselage namely, high-, mid- and
low- wing. Figure shows three military airplanes with these locations for the wing. The
advantages and disadvantages of the three configurations are as follows.
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

High Wing configuration

Advantages:
i) Allows placing fuselage closer to ground, thus allowing loading and unloading
without special ground handling equipment.
ii) Jet engines & propeller have sufficient ground clearance without excessive landing
gear length leading to lower landing gear weight.
iii) For low speed airplanes, weight saving can be effected by strut braced wing.
iv) For short take off and landing (STOL) airplanes, the high wing configuration has
the following specific advantages. (a) Large wing flaps can be used.
(v) Engines are away from the ground and hence ingestion of debris rising from
unprepared runways is avoided. (c) Prevents floating of wing due to ground effect which may
occur for low wing configuration.
Disadvantages
i) Fuselage generally houses the landing gear in special pods leading to higher
weight and drag.
ii) Pilot’s visibility may be blocked during a turning flight.

Mid wing configuration

Advantages:
i) Lower drag.
ii) Advantages of ground clearance as in the case of high wing configuration.
iii) No blockage of visibility. Hence, used on some military airplanes.
Disadvantages:
Wing root structure passing through the fuselage is not possible, which leads to
higher weight. However, in HFB Hansa airplane, a swept forward mid-wing is located behind
the passenger cabin. This permits wing root structure passing through the fuselage.
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

Low wing configuration

Advantages:
i) Landing gear can be located in the wing thereby avoiding pods on the fuselage and
hence lower drag. However, to provide adequate ground clearance, the fuselage has to be
at a higher level as compared to the high wing configuration.
ii) Wing structure can be through the fuselage.
Disadvantages:
(i) Low ground clearance.
(ii) A low-wing configuration has unstable contribution to the longitudinal and lateral
static stability low-wing airplanes the dihedral angle may be decided by need to avoid wing
tip hitting the ground during a bad landing. A wing with high value of dihedral may require
higher vertical tail area to prevent tendency to Dutch roll.

4.3.8) Flaps
The flaps are high lift devices. These devices are deployed to increase the maximum
lift coefficient (CL max) during take-off and landing. The flaps are generally located near the
trailing edge. The flaps in common use are : plain flap, split flap, zap flap, single slotted flap,
double slotted flap, triple slotted flap and fowler flap. Along with flaps, the medium speed
airplanes and the jet airplanes have slats near the leading edge.
4.3.9) Ailerons
The main purpose of the ailerons is to create rolling moment and provide adequate rate of
roll. Federal Aviation Regulations prescribe rates of roll for different types of airplanes.
However, these calculations can be done at a later stage. At this stage of preliminary design,
guidelines from similar airplanes can be taken regarding
(i) Ratio of aileron chord to wing chord (ca / cw)
(ii) Extent of aileron span to wing span (ba / b).

4.4) V-n DIAGRAM

There are two types of V-n diagram:
` 1) The V-n maneuver diagram Load factor (n) = Lift / Weight
2) The V-n gust diagram
1) V-n diagram shows
 The flight load factors that are used for the structural design as a function of
the air speed.
 These represent the maximum expected loads that the aircraft will
experience.
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

 These load factors are called as limit load factors. These diagrams are used
primarily in the determination of combinations of flight condition and load
factors to which the airplane structure must be designed.
 For purposes of structural sizing, analysis is performed at four extreme
loading conditions on the V-n diagram.

LIMIT LOAD: the maximum

load that the aircraft is
expected to experience in
normal operation.

PROOF LOAD: product of the

limit load and proof factor

ULTIMATE LOAD: product of

limit load and ultimate factor.

 The Positive High Angle of Attack (PHAA) is the loading condition

represented by the intersection between the positive operational load limit line
and the positive maximum lift curve.
 The Positive Low Angle of Attack (PLAA) is at the intersection between the
positive operational load limit line and the dive speed.
 The Negative High Angle of Attack (NHAA) and Negative Low Angle of Attack
(NLAA) are defined similarly except are for the negative loads. Should the
gust envelope extend beyond the manoeuvring envelope in any of these four
locations, the load factor of the gust envelope is instead used for the extreme
loading condition.
 The high angle of attack conditions are characterized by a high coefficient of
lift and high drag. The low angle of attack conditions are characterized by a
high lift force.
 Designing to accommodate these four extreme loading conditions will
guarantee that the wing will not undergo structural damage so long as
operational load limits are not exceeded. The control of weight in aircraft
design is of extreme importance.
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

 Increase in weight requires stronger structures to support them, which in turn

lead to further increase in weight & so on.
 Excess of structural weight means lesser amounts of payload, affecting the
economic viability of the aircraft.
 Therefore there is need to reduce aircraft’s weight to the minimum compatible
with safety.
 Thus to ensure general minimum standards of strength & safety,
airworthiness regulations lay down several factors which the primary
structures of the aircraft must satisfy.
These are,

2) V- n Gust diagram
The gust envelope is four lines overlaid on the flight envelope, usually the plus/minus
of maximum gust at design cruising speed (Vc) and half maximum gust at maximum speed
(Vd) as required by the certifying authority. This is usually +-50ft/sec (15.2m/sec) and +-
25ft/sec (7.6m/sec).

Where,
“n” is the normal acceleration in a sharp edged gust
“K” is the tail plane gust alleviation factor. In a canard this is an aggravation factor.
“U” is the airplane mass ratio
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

V-n diagram with both configurations

4.5 Aircraft loads:

• The structure of an aircraft is required to support two distinct classes of load:
- Ground loads, includes all loads encountered by the aircraft during movement or
transportation on the ground such as taxiing and landing loads, towing and hoisting
loads.
- Air loads, comprises loads impose on the structure during flight by maneuvers and
gusts.

Aircraft Structures – Loads

• There are basically two ways loads are transferred
- Surface forces which act upon the surface of structure, E.g. aerodynamic and
hydrostatic pressure
- Body forces which act over the volume of the structure and are produced by
gravitational and inertial effects. E.g. Turns, dive pull-up etc• Pressure distribution over the
various surfaces of an aircraft’s structure is obtained from aerodynamics calculations.
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

Typical Ground Loads

• Ground loads encountered in landing and taxiing subject the aircraft to
concentrated shock loads through the undercarriage system.
• The majority of aircraft have their main undercarriage located close to the wings,
– Nose wheel or tail wheel in the vertical plane of symmetry.
• Position of the main undercarriage should take care of the stability
– When the aircraft is on ground.
Structural Components:
• The basic functions of an aircraft’s structure
– It transmits and resists the loads
– provide an aerodynamic shape and to protect passengers, payload,
systems, etc. from the environmental conditions encountered in flight.

Elements of Structures
• Three common structural elements are used: – skins, stiffeners, and beams
Function of aircraft structures:
Skin:
 Resists the applied torsion and shear forces by ttransmitting aerodynamic forces to
the longitudinal and transverse supporting members
 Supports the longitudinal members in resisting the applied bending and axial loads
 Supports the transverse members in resisting the hoop, or circumferential, load
when the structure is pressurize
Ribs and Frames:
The skeleton
1. Structural integration of the wing and fuselage
2. Keep the wing in its aerodynamic profile
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

Stiffener or Stringers:
 Resist bending and axial loads along with the skin.
 Divide the skin into small panels and thereby increase its buckling and failing
stresses.
 Act with the skin in resisting axial loads caused by pressurization.

Structural member types:

1. Truss-type Structures
– Had struts and a wire--braced wings
– Occupants sat in open fabric-covered cockpits,
2. Stressed-skin Structures
– All of the structural loads are carried by the skin.
– Thin wood skin or aluminum-alloy sheets
 Fuselage Construction:
This is the preferred method of constructing an all aluminum fuselage.
- A series of frames in the shape of the fuselage cross sections are held in position
on a rigid fixture, or jig.These are then joined with lightweight longitudinalal elements called
stringers.
– These are then covered with a skin of sheet aluminum, attached by riveting or by
bonding with special adhesives. The fixture is then removed from the
completed fuselage shell.
– Most modern large aircraft are built using this technique.
Monocoque: Thin shells which rely entirely on their skins for their capacity to resist loads.

Semi Monocoque: thin shell structures where the outer surface is usually supported by
– Longitudinal stiffening members
– Transverse frames to enable it to resist bending,
Compressive and torsion loads without buckling.
• Materials may experience both tension, and compression
– Compression can cause the elements to buckle and requires determination of air
loads. Requires determination of mass properties (weights) and check for parts exceeding
yield stress.
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

4.6) Elements of fuselage design and Fuselage Design.

Features of the fuselage of a general aviation aircraft

The primary purpose of the fuselage is to house the payload. In transport airplanes
the payload includes the passengers, their luggage and cargo. In military airplanes it is the
ammunition and /or special equipment. In addition to the payload, the fuselage
accommodates the following.
(a) The flight crew and the cabin crew in the transport airplane and the specialist
crew members in airplanes used for reconnaissance, patrol and remote sensing.
(b) Fuel, engine and landing gear when they are housed inside the fuselage. (c)
Systems like air-conditioning system, pressurization system, hydraulic system, electrical
system, pneumatic system, electronic systems, emergency oxygen, floatation vests and
auxiliary power unit.

Schematic side view and plan view of the fuselage of a four seater general aviation aircraft with low wing and tractor propeller
(a) Side view (b) Plan view

The cabin accommodates the pilot and the passengers. Its internal dimensions are
decided by human factors. The passengers must be comfortable and the pilot should be able
to fly the airplane efficiently without undue strain.
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

It is observed that the propeller is located ahead of the fuselage. A spinner is located
just ahead of the propeller. It is a streamlined fairing over the propeller hub and enables
smooth entry of air flow in the propeller. The length of the spinner is roughly 20% of the
diameter of the propeller.
The engine is located inside the engine compartment. The engine is attached to the
fuselage by an engine mounting.
 The length of the engine compartment is approximately 1.5 times the length of the
engine.
 The width of the engine compartment is approximately 1.2 times the width of the
engine.
 The rest of airplane is separated from the engine compartment by a fire- wall which is
a fire-resistant sheet attached to a bulk head.
When the airplane has a nose wheel type landing gear, the nose wheel strut is attached
to the frame inside the engine compartment.
The cabin is the portion of fuselage that extends from the firewall to the end of the
baggage compartment. This definition of cabin appears to be the practice followed by
Cessna Aircraft Company.
The cabin consists of
a) The portion of fuselage including rudder pedals and instrument panel
(b) The seats of pilot and passengers

In this type of airplane, the tail cone is the portion of the fuselage aft of the baggage
compartment. The length of the tail cone is obtained as a compromise between the
aerodynamic, structural and stability considerations. The aerodynamic consideration, for this
type of airplane, requires that the drag of the fuselage should be minimum. In this context,
instead of the length of the fuselage, the fineness ratio of the fuselage (Af) is used as the
parameter. It is defined as:

The drag coefficient of fuselage (CDf), for low speed airplanes, is the sum of the
pressure drag coefficient and the skin friction drag coefficient. Wind tunnel test on bodies of
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

different fineness ratios indicated that the drag coefficient is minimum for Af between 3 and
4. This led to the pod and boom configuration of the airplane. However, for the conventional
Configuration, with horizontal tail behind the wing and located on the rear fuselage, the
length of the fuselage is decided based on the tail length (lt).
 The quantity (lt) is the distance between the c.g. of the airplane and the aerodynamic
centre of the horizontal tail.
 It may be recalled that the contribution of the horizontal tail to the longitudinal static
stability ( mαt C ) depends mainly on the product lt.Sht ; where, Sht is the area of the
horizontal tail.
 A large value of lt would reduce Sht but that would require a long fuselage. This would
increase the structural weight of fuselage and result in higher skin friction drag.
 As a compromise, the value of lt lies between (2.5 to 3) c for the general aviation
aircraft with conventional tail. The quantity c is the mean aerodynamic chord of the
wing.

Features of the fuselage of a passenger airplane

 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

1. The size of passenger doors, emergency exits and the numbers of cabin
attendants depend on the number of passengers in the airplane. The FAA (Federal
Aviation Agency) has set guidelines for these.
2. Seating arrangement
Some of the parameters are defined below.
Seat pitch: It is the distance between the back of one seat to the back of the next
seat. It includes the seat length and the leg room. The terms (a) seat width, (b) aisle width,
(c) elbow gap, (d) gap between seat and wall of cabin (e) head room, (f) aisle height, (g)
cabin width and (h) fuselage width.
The carry-on baggage of the passengers is stored in the overhead racks. The
checked-in baggage is stored in the front and the aft cargo compartments. For ease of
loading and unloading and for segregation of cargo intended for different destinations, the
cargo in large airplanes is stored in pallets. The shapes and sizes of pallets have been
standardised.

Passenger compartment with eight seat layout

 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

Another cabin layout with six seats and different type of cargo pallet

The types of seating arrangements are classified as first class, business class, economy
class and tourist class. The dimensions of seat width, seat pitch and aisle width are the
highest for the first class and are the lowest for the tourist class. Very important persons
(VIP), like the President and Prime minister, generally have airplanes with special features.

3. Dimensions of cabin :
The width of the cabin at the level of elbow rest (W cer) can be expressed as:

W cer = (No. of seats abreast) x seat width + (No. of aisles) x aisle width + (No. of
elbow gaps) x elbow gap + 2 x (gap between seat and cabin wall)

The pitch of seats also depends on the duration/range of flight - larger pitch in
airplanes having longer range.
 The pitch of seats is between 0.76 to 0.81 m for economy/tourist class; 0.84
to 0.91 m for business class and 0.97 to 1.02 m for first class seating
arrangement.
 The seat width lies between 0.41 to 0.46 m for economy/tourist class; 0.43 to
0.51 m for business class and 0.51 to 0.71 m for first class seating
arrangement.
 The aisle width should be greater than 0.3 m for economy class; between
0.46 to 0.51 m for business class and between 0.51 to 0.71 m for first class
seating arrangement. The aisle height is between 1.5 to 1.93 m.
 The elbow rest needs to be provided on both sides of the seats. Its width is
0.0375 to 0.05 m (1.5 to 2.0 inches) in economy class and could be double
this width in first class seating arrangement. A gap of 1 to 4 cm is provided
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

between the elbow rest near the wall and the wall of the fuselage. Wide body
airplanes have larger radius of fuselage and may require a smaller gap.
The cabin width is arrived at considering (a) W cer, (b) head room (c) aisle height, (d)
height of seat above cabin floor and (e) shape of cabin.

4) Cargo volume:
It may be pointed out that the airplanes with up to about 70 passengers and with four
abreast seating arrangement, the diameter of the fuselage is less than 3m. In such cases,
the depth of fuselage below the cabin floor is not adequate for the cargo compartment.
Consequently, the cargo compartment is located ahead and / or behind the passenger
compartment.

5) Thickness of cabin:
The wall thickness of the fuselage includes
(a) thickness of structural members (bulkhead),
(b) sound proofing
(c) interior decoration. The thickness is between 6.2 to 10 cm (2.5 to 4 inches) for the
fuselage with the two and three abreast seating arrangement respectively. The thickness
would increase roughly by 1.25 cm (1/2 inch) as the number of seats abreast increases by
one i.e. for a four abreast seating arrangement, the wall thickness would be 11.4 cm (4.5
inches) and for a ten abreast seating, it would be 19.00 cm (7.5 inches).

6) Tail cone/rear fuselage:

At the end of subsection 6.2.1, some remarks have been made regarding the tail
cone of a general aviation aircraft. Further, in the case of a passenger airplane the mid
fuselage has a cylindrical shape and is followed by the tail cone or rear fuselage of a
tapering shape.
In passenger airplanes the tail cone is of substantial length and the cabin layout
extends into the rear fuselage. Galleys, toilets and storage compartments are also located
here along with the auxiliary power unit (APU).
The rear fuselage also supports the horizontal and vertical tail surfaces and the
engine installation for rear mounted engines. The lower side of the rear fuselage should
provide adequate clearance (about 0.15 m) for airplane during take-off and landing attitudes.
The length of the rear fuselage and upsweep angle are also affected by
(a) the height of the main landing gear
(b) the length of the mid fuselage after the main landing gear.
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

Rear fuselage shape

For passenger airplanes
(a) The ratio of length of the rear fuselage to the equivalent diameter of the mid
fuselage is between 2.5 to 3.5
(b) The upsweep angle is between 15 to 20o.

Features of the fuselage of a military airplane

A military airplane with engine intakes on the sides of the fuselage. The nose portion,
in this case, has the radar. In some configurations, the engine intake is in the nose. The
portion of fuselage marked as cockpit has the flight deck. The region below the flight deck
houses the systems. The engine is located inside the fuselage. The length of the tail cone is
mainly dependent on the moment arm needed for the horizontal tail and vertical tail. Some
fighters use thrust vectoring for pitch and yaw control. The moment obtainable with vectored
thrust also decides the length of the fuselage.

Desired features of fuselage design

The aim of fuselage design, at this stage of preliminary design, is to obtain the following.
(a) Lengths of nose, cockpit, payload compartment, tail cone and the overall
length.
(b) Cross section shape and the heights and widths of nose, cockpit, payload
compartment and tail cone.
The desirable features of the design can be listed as follows.
(a) The flight crew, cabin crew and the passengers should have an
environment of comfort. The crew should be able to perform their duties effectively.
The journey should be pleasant for the passengers.
(b) Loading and unloading of passengers’ luggage and cargo should be
efficient. The regulating agencies like FAA, prescribe the size, number and locations
of emergency exits and equipment for emergency evacuation.
(c) Fuselage drag should be low. The lift produced by the wing – fuselage
combination should be close to that possible under ideal conditions.
(d) The tail arms for the horizontal and vertical tails should be long.
(e) The structural weight of fuselage should be low.
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

4.7) LOADS ON FUSELAGE

 Empennage loads due to trim, manoeuvring, turbulence and gusts

 Pressure loads due to cabin pressurisation
 Landing gear loads due to landing impact, taxiing and ground manoeuvring
 Loads due to the weight of passengers and cargo

Almost all of the loads of the fuselage pass through the skin, the surface of the cylinder.
The frames and stringers are mostly to keep the "paper thin" tube from buckling or
collapsing. As a compressed air cylinder, pressurization loads are also absorbed by the skin
in tension, like a balloon.

The fuselage usually has a big cut-out on bottom to accommodate the wing box and
landing gear, which puts this great big notch in the structure right at the point in the cylinder
where the compression buckling loads are highest. The wing box itself may form part of the
fuselage structure there, but farther back the cut-out usually continues, to make space for
the landing gear. There is usually a massive beam, called a keel beam, to bridge the cut out
aft of the wing box and absorb the compression loads along that section.

The fuselage is a particularly critical part of the aeroplane and it is also the part in which
all the loads are acting. Indeed, the fuselage loads include:• Landing gear loads; • Wing
loads; • Empennage loads; • Fuselage aerodynamic loads; • Pressurization loads; • Inertial
loads. •Landing Gears, Wing and Empennage Loads.
once all these loads have already been discussed, they only have to be transmitted
to the fuselage in the attachments between these structures and the fuselage structure.

Pressurization Loads:
An aeroplane structure must be strong enough to withstand the flight loads combined
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

with pressure differentials loads from zero up to the maximum relief valve setting. This
relieving valve works as a safety device that enables a decrease in the cabin pressure
whenever the pressure difference between the fuselage outer and inner skins surpasses a
given admissible threshold for a particular fuselage. Available on aeroplanes flight manuals
is the Pressurization Chart that provides guidance on the difference between inner and outer
skin pressure for each aeroplane operating altitude. The critical loading conditions arise
when no pressure difference is felt or when the maximum admissible pressure difference is
reached, which corresponds to the relief valve setting. This maximum pressure difference
can also be obtained by computing the difference between the minimum acceptable
pressure for human comfort and ISA’s atmosphere pressure at the aeroplane’s ceiling
operation.

Inertial Loads

These loads are of particular relevance in the case of a fuselage, since almost all the
payload is carried on the fuselage. They will depend on the flight condition under analysis as
well as on the amount of payload being lifted. Figure 4 identifies all the limit conditions that
have to be studied. These limit conditions refer to a combination of equivalent airspeed and
load factor.

The highest loads on the fuselage are usually compression buckling stress just aft of the
rear spar wing attachments when in flight, or the gear attachments when on the ground, and
are highest on landing touchdown. A fuselage is a structural body not intended to generate
lift (although it may) whose purpose is to contain engine, fuel, occupants, baggage, and
mission-related equipment, although not always simultaneously.

Aircraft fuselages consist of thin sheets of material stiffened by large numbers of

longitudinal stringers together with transverse frames. Generally, they carry bending
moments, shear forces, and torsion loads, which induce axial stresses in the stringers and
skin, together with shear stresses in the skin; the resistance of the stringers to shear forces
is generally ignored.

The primary loads on the fuselage are concentrated around the wing-box, wing
connections, landing gear and payload. During flight the upward loading of wings coupled
with the tail plane loads usually generates a bending stress along the fuselage. The lower
part of the fuselage experiences a compressive stress whereas the upper fuselage (called
the crown) is subject to tension. Shear loads are generated along the sides of the fuselage
and torsion loads when the aircraft rolls and turns. Pressurisation of the cabin for high-
attitude flying exerts an internal tensile (hoop) stress on the fuselage.
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

4.8) TAIL DESIGN and Structural Features

Various arrangements of horizontal and vertical stabilizing surfaces at the rear part of
an airplane and an airplane’s tail design is important because it stabilizes and controls the
airplane in both up-and-down movements of pitch and side-to-side movements of yaw.

The Parts of an Airplane’s Tail

The tail of an airplane is called by various names, such as “empennage” and
“stabilizer.” The preferred term is “stabilizer,” because it is at least partially descriptive of the
component’s function.
However, the stabilizer provides not only stability but also some of the airplane’s
control. The tail of an airplane is designed to provide both stability and control of the
airplane in pitch and yaw. There are many different forms an aircraft tail can take in
meeting these dual requirements of stability and control. Most tail designs have a horizontal
wing like structure and one or more vertical or near-vertical structures. Whenever practical,
these structures are identified as the horizontal and vertical stabilizers, although some
designs do not conveniently fit such a description.

The many types of airplane tail design include, but are by no means limited to,
 The conventional,
 T-tail
 Cruciform-tail,
 Dual-tail, triple-tail,
 v-tail,
 Inverted v-tail,
 Inverted y-tail,
 Twin-tail,
 Boom-tail,
 High boom-tail
 Multiple-plane tail designs.
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1. Conventional Tail Design

 The conventional tail design is the most common form. It has one vertical
stabilizer placed at the tapered tail section of the fuselage and one horizontal
stabilizer divided into two parts, one on each side of the vertical stabilizer.
 For many airplanes, the conventional arrangement provides adequate stability
and control with the lowest structural weight.
 About three-quarters of the airplanes in operation today, including the Airbus
A300, the Boeing 777 and 747, and the Beech Bonanza A-36, use this
arrangement.
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

2. The T-Tail Design

 In the T-tail design, a common variation of the conventional tail, the horizontal
stabilizer is positioned at the top of the vertical stabilizer.
 The horizontal stabilizer is then above the propeller flow, or prop wash, and the
wing wake. Because the horizontal stabilizer is more efficient, it can therefore be
made both smaller and lighter.
 The placement of the horizontal stabilizer on top of the vertical stabilizer can also
make the vertical stabilizer more aerodynamically efficient. By making the vertical
stabilizer more effective, its size may be reduced.
 However, the horizontal stabilizer in the T-tail layout imposes a bending and
twisting load on the vertical stabilizer, requiring a stronger, and therefore, a
heavier, structure. These loads are avoided in the conventional design.
 There is also the possibility that at the high pitch angle usually associated with
landing the airplane, the horizontal stabilizer of the T tail will be immersed in the
slower and more turbulent flow of the wing wake.
 In some cases, it is possible to compromise severely the control function of the
horizontal tail. Nevertheless, the T tail is the second-most common tail design
after the conventional.
Advantages
T tailed aircraft is easier to recover from a spin than aircraft with other types of
empennage, as the elevator is located above the rudder, thus creating no dead air zone
(“burble”) above the elevator where the rudder would be ineffective in spin conditions.
This configuration also allows high performance aerodynamics and an excellent glide
ratio as the empennage is less affected by wing and fuselage slipstream.
A T-tail has a better effective aspect ratio (better lift slope), less interaction drag than a
cruciform tail, and a more efficient vertical tail, the horizontal tail plate effectively
increasing the aspect ratio of the fin by virtue of the ‘end plate’ effect, reducing turbulence
and hence the induced drag of the fin.
Disadvantages
T-tail configuration can cause maintenance concerns. The control runs to the
elevators are more complex, and elevator surfaces are much more difficult to casually
inspect from the ground for all but the smallest aircraft.
3. Cruciform-Tail Design
 The cruciform tail is an obvious compromise between the conventional and
T-tail designs. In the cruciform design, the horizontal stabilizer is moved part of
the way up the vertical stabilizer.
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 In this position, the horizontal stabilizer is moved up and away from the jet
exhaust and wing wake.
 The lifting of the horizontal stabilizer also exposes the lower part of the vertical
stabilizer, as well as the rudder, to undisturbed airflow. Undisturbed airflow on the
rudder is important, particularly in the recovery from spins.

4. Dual-Tail Design
 The dual-tail design, in which the two vertical stabilizers are placed at the
ends of the horizontal stabilizers, was at one time fairly common on large
flying boats and twin-engine propeller-driven bombers; this arrangement is
attractive, because it places the vertical stabilizers in the prop wash of
wing-mounted propellers.
 The result is the maintenance of good directional control during low-speed
operations.
 The positioning of the two vertical stabilizers at the ends of the horizontal
stabilizers allows for a smaller, lighter, and more aerodynamically efficient
horizontal stabilizer.
 However, the overall weight of a plane with a dual-tail design is greater
than that of a plane with the single conventional-tail design.

5. Triple-Tail Design
The triple-tail design, with two vertical stabilizers placed at the ends of
the horizontal stabilizers and one mounted on the fuselage, is attractive when the height
of the vertical stabilizer must meet certain restrictions, such as hangar-door height.

6. V-Tail Design
The V-Tail, sometimes called the “butterfly” tail, has had limited application in
airplane design, the most significant of which has been by the Beech Company in the
Beech-craft Bonanza V-35. Clearly, the usual definition of horizontal and vertical stabilizers
has no application to the V tail.
The intended advantage of the V-tail design is that two surfaces might serve the
same function as the three required in the conventional tail and its variants. Removal of one
surface then would reduce the drag of the tail surfaces as well as the weight of the tail
region.
However, wind tunnel studies by the National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics
(NACA) have shown that for the V tail to achieve the same degree of stability as a
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

conventional tail, the area of the V tail would have to be about the same size as that of the
conventional tail.
Advantages
Ideally, with fewer surfaces than a conventional three-aerofoil tail or a T-tail, the V-tail
is lighter and has less wetted surface area, so thus produces less induced and parasitic
drag. However, produce a net reduction in drag through elimination of some interference
drag.
Disadvantages
V-tailed aircraft require longer rear fuselages than aircraft with conventional
empennages to prevent yawing. This tendency, called “snaking”, was apparent on taking off
and landing on the Fouga CM.170 Magister, which has a relatively short fuselage.

Another disadvantage of the V tail has to do with turning the airplane.

To turn left, for example, the pilot would press the left rudder pedal and bank the
airplane with the left wing down. In V-tail aircraft, the right side of the V (as viewed from the
rear) deflects upward, and the left surface deflects downward. This arrangement drives the
nose to the left but also causes the airplane to roll away from the turn. Although this
tendency to roll is overcome by the wing control provided by the ailerons, it is clear that one
control of the airplane produces a secondary effect that opposes the primary effect of
another control. This secondary effect of opposing the primary purpose of another control is
called adverse coupling. Adverse coupling is one reason that the most recent Bonanza
design, the A-36, uses the conventional tail.
The undesirable rolling motion caused by the V tail might be avoided by inverting the
butterfly tail. However, except for a few small homemade glider-sail planes, this design has
been avoided because of ground clearance problems.

7. Inverted Y-Tail Design

The inverted Y tail is actually a conventional tail with a noticeable droop
to the horizontal stabilizers. In other words, the outer ends of the horizontal stabilizers are
lower than the ends attached to the fuselage. The F-4 Phantom, originally a mainstay of the
McDonnell Company, used the inverted Y tail to keep the horizontal surfaces out of the wing
wake at high angles of attack. It is interesting to note that the tips of the horizontal stabilizers
on the first McDonnell Navy fighter, the F-2H Banshee, were bent decidedly upward.
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

8. Twin-Tail Design
The twin tail is a feature of various air superiority fighters used by both
the U.S. Navy (the F-14 Tomcat) and the U.S. Marine Corps (the F/A-18 Hornet). Although
both the F-14 and F/A-18 designs have a superficial resemblance, they also have important
differences. The tilt angle of the vertical stabilizer of the F-14 is more pronounced than that
of the F-18, so much so that it approaches that of the V tail on the Beech model V-35
Bonanza. With two vertical stabilizers, the twin tail is more effective than the conventional
single tail of the same height.

9. Boom-Tail Design
Boom tails are used when an aircraft’s fuselage does not extend entirely
back to the horizontal stabilizer. In both the Lockheed P-38 Lightning fighter of World War
II and the Fairchild C-119 cargo plane, engines were mounted on the booms. In the case of
the C-119, the twin boom allowed easy access to the rear of the fuselage for loading and
removing cargo. The twin boom has also been used for an airplane with engines mounted in
the fuselage, with one engine, known as the tractor, in the nose of the airplane and one
engine, known as the pusher, in the rear of the airplane. Because the thrust of both engines
is along the centreline of the airplane, it is much easier in this arrangement to compensate
for the loss of one engine than it is in the wing-mounted engine installation. Both the Cessna
Sky master and the new Adam 309 have fuselage-mounted engines. In the case of the
Adam 309 the horizontal stabilizer is raised to avoid propeller wake from the pusher, or rear-
mounted, engine.

4.9) Determination of tail surface areas

Preliminary horizontal and vertical tail sizing

The horizontal and vertical tails are designed to provide the movable surfaces on tails
namely elevator and rudder provide control. The complete design of tail surfaces requires
information on
(a) Location of the centre of gravity (c.g.) of airplane,
(b) Shift in c.g. Location during flight
(c) The desirable level of stability.
However, to obtain the c.g. location, the weights of horizontal and vertical tails are
needed which depend on their size. Hence, preliminary sizing of the two tails are carried out
with the help of the following steps.

1) Choose the tail arrangement from the various types

 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

2) While carrying out calculations leading to the preliminary three view drawing, the areas
of horizontal tail and vertical tails were based on the ratios (Sht / S) and (Svt/S) for
similar airplanes. Here, these areas are refined based on the tail volume ratios (Cht and
Cvt) of the similar airplanes. These ratios are defined as:

where, c, bw and Sw are mean aerodynamic chord, span and area of the wing, Sht and
Svt are areas of horizontal and vertical tails ; lht is distance between c.g. of airplane and
aerodynamic centre of the horizontal tail and lvt is distance between c.g. of airplane and
a.c. of the vertical tail.
3) From the 3 - view drawings of the similar airplanes, the values of lht and lvt are obtained.
The area, span and mean aerodynamic chord of the wing are already known. Hence,
the areas of the tails are given by the following equations.

4) The aspect ratio, taper ratio, sweep, airfoil section and incidence of the horizontal tail
are selected based on the following considerations. It may be pointed out that the
shapes of the horizontal tail and vertical tail are like that of a wing. In such shapes,
especially for subsonic airplanes, the span is much larger than the chord and in turn the
chord is much larger than the airfoil thickness. For example, in case of subsonic
airplanes the span is 6 to 10 times the average chord and the average chord in turn is 6
to 10 times the thickness of the airfoil.
Choice of aspect ratio for horizontal tail

As pointed out in subsection 5.3.1 the aspect ratio affects

(a) Lift curve slope (CLα),
(b) Induced drag coefficient (CDi)
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

(c) The structural weight.

The purpose of the horizontal tail is to provide stability about Y-axis and the elevator
provides control about the Y-axis. The lift and drag produced by the horizontal tail are
much smaller than those produced by the wing. Consequently, while choosing aspect
ratio of the horizontal tail, the reduction of structural weight is accorded more importance
than the reduction of drag. Further, the structural weight decreases as aspect ratio
decreases. Hence, the aspect ratio of the horizontal tail is lower than that of the wing. A
value of aspect ratio between 3 to 5 is commonly used for subsonic airplanes. (The
actual value of the aspect ratio would be a compromise between effects of aspect ratios
on CLα, CDi and the structural weight.
Choice of taper ratio for horizontal tail
The taper ratio influences
(a) induced drag,
(b) structural weight
(c) ease of fabrication.

The induced drag is low for λ between 0.3 and 0.5, structural weight decreases as λ
decreases and fabrication is easier for untapered wing ( λ =1.0 ). Keeping these factors in
view, a tail with λ =1 is used for the low subsonic airplanes where cost of fabrication is the
prime consideration. For the general aviation aircraft and the medium speed airplanes, the
taper ratio of the horizontal tail is lower than that of the wing.
For the high subsonic airplanes with swept wings having λ around 0.2, the horizontal
tail has a taper ratio between 0.3 to 0.6. Subsection 5.3.4 may be referred to for the adverse
effects, of the low values of λ , like tip stalling.
Choice of sweep for horizontal tail
That sweep has adverse effect of (a) lower CLα , (b) lower CLmax , (c) higher CDi and
(d) higher structural weight.
The advantage of sweep is to increase the drag divergence Mach number (MD). At
flight Mach number less than 0.7, drag divergence Mach number is not a consideration.
Hence, airplanes flying at low and medium subsonic Mach numbers generally have unswept
wing and horizontal tail. However, some airplanes in these categories (e.g. XAC Y-7, AN-
140) have tails with moderate quarter chord sweep (< 10 o). This would increase the tail arm
slightly and may be resorted to, if such an increase is required at a later stage of design. In
the case of high subsonic airplanes the tail should have a value of drag divergence Mach
number (MD) equal to higher than that of the wing. Hence, the sweep angle of the horizontal
tail is equal to that of the wing or slighter higher
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

Airfoil section for horizontal tail

The elevator and rudder have deflections on both sides of the un deflected positions.
Hence, horizontal and vertical tails invariably have symmetric airfoil section. National
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) generated a large amount of data on the
aerodynamic characteristics (Cl vs Cα, Cl vs α and Cm vs Cl ) at different Reynolds
numbers, flap settings etc. for NACA 0009 and NACA 0012 airfoils. Hence, these airfoils are
commonly used for tails of airplanes flying at low and medium subsonic Mach numbers.
For airplane flying at high subsonic Mach numbers, the drag divergence Mach
number of the tail should be higher than that of the wing. A symmetrical airfoil with (t/c) of 90
% of the (t/c) of the wing can be a rough guideline for preliminary design purpose.
Horizontal tail incidence
The incidence of the horizontal tail (it) is the angle between the reference chord of the
horizontal tail and the fuselage reference line. The horizontal tail incidence is chosen such
that during the cruise, the lift required from the tail, to make the airplane pitching moment
zero, is produced without elevator deflection.
This is because, the drag at low angles of attack, is the least when the lift by the tail
is produced without elevator deflection. The angle (it) is measured clockwise from FRL. It
generally has a small negative value.

Choice of aspect ratio for vertical tail

The aspect ratio of the vertical tail is defined as :

Where, hvt and Svt are the height and area of the vertical tail respectively.
Due to prevalence of various types of vertical tails and different shapes of fuselage in
the region where vertical tails are located, the definitions of hvt and Svt have been
standardised.
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

Effective vertical tail geometry (a) Fuselage with horizontal upper surface, (b) Fuselage with curved upper surface

Figures a and b present two commonly observed arrangements of vertical tails. In the
configuration shown in Fig. a, the upper portion of fuselage, on which the vertical tail is
attached, is parallel to the fuselage axis.
The hatched area in the figure is taken as the vertical tail area (Svt). Figure 6.9a also
shows the root chord (Cr vt) tip chord (Ct vt), quarter chord sweep and the height (hvt) of the
vertical tail.
Figure b, shows a configuration in which the vertical tail has a dorsal fin and is
attached to the fuselage with curved upper surface. The hatched area is the area Svt.
The area of the dorsal fin is not included in the area of the vertical tail. The root chord
of the vertical tail lies along the centre line of the rear end of the fuselage. Figure 6.9b also
shows root chord (Cr vt), tip chord (Ct vt), quarter chord sweep and height (hvt) of the vertical
tail. In subsection 6.3.1, while discussing the effect of aspect ratio on horizontal tail, it is
pointed out that an increase in the aspect ratio results in (a) higher lift curve slope (b) lower
drag and (c) higher structural weight. These aspects are applicable to vertical tail also. In
addition, an increase in the aspect ratio has the following effects.
(a) Increases the height of vertical tail and in turn the height of the airplane
(b) Lower lateral control as the moment of inertia about longitudinal axis increases.
(c) Higher directional control as the moment arm (lvt) increases.
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

Choice of taper ratio for vertical tail

As mentioned in subsection 6.3.2, a low value of λ reduces structural weight, a value
between 0.3 and 0.6 results in low value of induced drag and λ =1 results in lower cost of
fabrication. As a compromise a λ =0.3 to 0.6 is chosen for subsonic airplanes with
conventional tail. λ = 0.6 to 1.0 is chosen for subsonic airplanes with T-tails. The relatively
higher value of tip chord and hence, λ is required as the horizontal tail rests on top of the
vertical tail.

Choice of sweep for vertical tail

The disadvantages of sweep for horizontal tail are mentioned above. These are
applicable to vertical tail also. However, a vertical tail with sweep increases the moment arm
lvt. In case of T-tail configuration the moment arm of horizontal tail (lht) is also increased. In
case of high subsonic airplanes the vertical tail should have a drag divergence Mach number
equal to or higher than that of the wing.
Keeping these factors in mind the vertical tail of airplanes flying at low and medium
subsonic Mach numbers have moderate sweep (around 200). In case of high subsonic
airplanes the sweep angle of vertical tail would be equal to or more than that of the wing.

Airfoil section for vertical tail

As mentioned above, the horizontal and vertical tails employ a symmetrical airfoil.
NACA 0009 and 0012 are commonly used on general aviation aircraft. For airplanes flying at
high subsonic Mach numbers the thickness ratio of the vertical tail is typically 2 % lower than
the thickness ratio of the wing

Vertical tail incidence

In the case of a single engine airplane with engine-propeller combination, there are
two effects viz.
(a) Rolling moment produced as a reaction to the rotation of proper
(b) The slipstream of the propeller has swirl and causes asymmetric flow.

4.10) Cross check (Nose wheel lift-off) – Adequacy of elevator to develop sufficient
pitching moment to enable nose wheel lift-off
During the ground run, the airplane starts from rest and accelerates to the takeoff
speed (VT0 or V1 ). The flaps and engine(s) are adjusted for their take-off settings. In the
case of an airplane with tricycle type of landing gear, all the three wheels remain in contact
with the ground till a speed of about 85% of the VT0 is reached. This speed is called ‘Nose
wheel lift-off speed’. At this speed the pilot pulls the stick back and increases the angle of
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

attack of the airplane so as to attain a lift coefficient corresponding to take-off (CLT0). At this
stage, the nose wheel is off the ground and the speed of the airplane continues to increase.
As the speed exceeds the take-off speed the airplane gets airborne and the main landing
gear wheels also leave the ground.
When the airplane has a tail wheel type of landing gear, the angle of attack is high at
the beginning of the take-off run. However, the tail wheel is lifted-off the ground as soon as
some speed is gained and the deflection of elevator can rotate the airplane about the main
wheels. This action reduces the angle of attack and consequently the drag of the airplane
during most of the ground run. As the take-off speed is approached the tail wheel is lowered
to get the incidence corresponding to CLT0. When VT0 is exceeded, the airplane gets
airborne. The point at which all the wheels have left the ground is called ‘Unstick point’.
The requirement of the elevator in the case of airplane with tricycle landing gear is
that it should produce enough pitching moment to cause rotation of airplane at V = 0.85 VTO
so that it (airplane) attains angle of attack corresponding to CLTO. The angular acceleration
for rotation of the airplane is about the main landing gear. This angular acceleration depends
on : (a) Elevator power (C ), mδe
(b) Area of h.tail (S ),
(c) H.tail arm (l t t),
(d) Distance between airplane c.g. and main landing gear,
(e) Airplane weight,
(f) Coefficient of friction between ground and tyres
(g) Moment of inertia of the airplane about y-axis.

4.11) Engine location

The engine output required is already known from the performance requirements like
Vmax, (R/C) max, Hmax and take-off distance.
The number of engines and their location need to be chosen. Airplanes have been
designed with one, two, three, four and eight engines. The following considerations decide
the number of engines used in the airplane.
(a) The ratings of the available engines.
(b) Cost of the engine.
(c) Ease of maintenance
(d) Performance and stability of the airplane with one engine being inoperative.

The low speed general aviation aircraft usually have a single engine. Similarly,
military airplanes in light weight and medium weight category also have a single engine.
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

The transport airplanes have two or more engines from the considerations of safety in the
event of failure of one engine.

Location of engines on different airplanes

The locations of engines in case of one, two, three and four engines are briefly dealt
with in this subsection. The airplanes with engine-propeller combination and jet engines are
considered.
A) Single engine-propeller combination
In this case, three arrangements are mainly used. These are:
(a) Tractor propeller ahead of engine located in nose of fuselage
(b) Pusher propeller behind the engine located at the rear end of the fuselage
(c) Pod mounted engine with tractor or pusher propeller.

In a tractor configuration the propeller is in front of the engine and is driven by a shaft
in tension. Below Figure shows such a configuration. In a pusher configuration the propeller
is mounted behind the engine so that the drive shaft is in compression.

An amphibian airplane can land and take-off both on land and on water. In such airplanes
the propeller should be away from the surface of water. In some amphibian airplanes the
propeller is mounted on a pod above the fuselage.
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

(i) Suggests other possible locations for single engine with propeller. Like engine
nacelle mounted on top of vertical tail with either tractor or pusher configuration
(ii) The relative advantages and disadvantages of tractor and pusher propeller
configurations are as follows. For obvious reasons a tractor installation moves the c.g. of the
airplane forward and pusher installations moves the c.g. rearwards.
(a) The contribution of a tractor propeller is destabilizing to longitudinal, directional
and lateral stability. Whereas, the contribution of a pusher propeller is stabilizing
(b) A pusher propeller is in the wake of the wing and fuselage. Consequently, it is
slightly less efficient than a tractor propeller
(iii) Many military airplanes have a single jet engine. In these cases the engine is
located in the rear part of the fuselage. The air intakes are generally located on the sides of
fuselage. The location of engine, in military airplanes, inside the fuselage has two
advantages. (a) The engine is less vulnerable to enemy attack.(b) The fuselage is elongated
which results in slender fuselage and provides longer tail arms for horizontal and vertical
tails.

(B) Twin engine configuration

Twin engine configurations with propellers may be driven by piston engines or
turboprop engines. The engines are commonly mounted on the wings with tractor propellers.
The configuration with pusher propellers mounted on rear fuselage has also been used
In the twin engine passenger airplanes with jet engines, the engines are located on
pylons on the wings or mounted on rear fuselage. Fig shows a typical configuration with wing
mounted engines.
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

(C) Configurations with three engines

Some jet airplanes have 3 engines. In this case two engines are located with pylons
on the wing. The third engine is located at the rear end of fuselage.

(D) Four engine airplanes

There have been four engined airplanes with piston engines. Presently, the four
engined airplanes are either with turboprop engines or jet engines. the turboprop engines
are more economical than the turbofan engines. Hence, the turboprop engines are utilised
on airplanes flying at Mach numbers from 0.5 to 0.7. Figure shows the Lockheed C-130
Hercules airplane with four turboprop engines mounted in nacelles attached to the wing.
In the case of jet transport airplanes the engines are mounted in nacelles attached
through pylons to the wings (Fig.1.8a and b) or near the rear end of fuselage. In a few cases
like HS Nimrod the engines are buried in the wing root. Figure 6.15 shows an image of this
airplane.

Image of a jet airplane with engines buried in wing root

 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

Image of a jet airplane with four engines mounted on pylons near the rear end of fuselage

Configuration with engines under the wing seems to be the most preferred
one. The advantages and disadvantages of the above three configurations are pointed
out below.

a) Engines held by pylons on wing:

The Advantages are as follows.
I) The engines act as a relieving load on the wing and the weight of the wing
structure could be decreased by about 15 percent.
II) The space inside the wing can be fully utilized for fuel.
III) Easy access for maintenance, inspection and replacement of engines.
The disadvantages are as follows.
I) Smaller ground clearance increases the possibility of foreign objects being
ingested in the engines.
II) Failure of outboard engine creates a large yawing moment. To counteract this
moment requires larger vertical tail area and rudder deflection as compared to other
locations of engines. These result in higher structural weight and drag.
III) Noise level in the cabin is higher as compared to airplanes with engines mounted
on rear fuselage.

b) Engines located in the wing root

The Advantages are as follows.
I)There is very little increase in frontal area of the airplane due to installation of power
plants.
II) Almost the entire wing span can be utilized for ailerons and high lift devices.
 UNIT 4 - DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE

The disadvantages are as follows.

I) The space in the root section of the wing cannot be used for accommodating fuel.
II) The intake is located at a place where the boundary layer on the fuselage affects
the flow in it (intake).
III) The weight of the wing structure is increased due to presence of the cuts in wing
spars.

c) Engines located on the rear fuselage

The advantages are as follows.
I) There is less engine noise in the cabin.
II) The entire wing space can be used for storing fuel and for high lift devices.
III) The flow over the wing is clean due to absence of pylons.
The disadvantages are as follows.
I) The fuel is located far from the engines, therefore the length of the pipeline is
increased and special fuel pumps are needed.
II) Due to engines being located at rear, the c.g. of the airplane moves aft.
Consequently, the tail arms of the horizontal and vertical tails are reduced.

Location of nacelle relative to wing leading edge

It is observed that nacelle of the wing mounted engine projects beyond the leading
edge of the wing. The following considerations need to be taken into account.
(a) The interference between wing and nacelle should minimise loss of lift of wing
and increase of drag of airplane as a whole.
(b) In case of engines with propellers the slipstream of the propeller passes over the
wing. The slip stream has a dynamic pressure higher than the free stream dynamic
pressure and would result in increase in wing lift. The increase in dynamic pressure
would be higher when the propeller is farther ahead of the wing. However, an
overhanging nacelle would need a heavier engine mount. The optimum overhang of
the nacelle would have to be decided after detailed aerodynamic and structural
calculation.
 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

5.1) Landing gear

Landing Gear Types Aircraft landing gear supports the entire weight of an aircraft
during landing and ground operations. They are attached to primary structural members of
the aircraft. The type of gear depends on the aircraft design and its intended use.
Most landing gear has wheels to facilitate operation to and from hard surfaces, such
as airport runways. The landing gear is also called undercarriage or alighting gear.
The following three types of landing gears are mainly used on airplanes.
(i) Tail wheel type landing gear (also known as conventional gear),
(ii) tricycle-type landing gear.
(iii) Bicycle with outrigger wheels on wings.
(iv)Tandem landing gear
i) Tail Wheel-Type Landing Gear
Tail wheel-type landing gear is also known as conventional gear because many early
aircraft use this type of arrangement. The main gear are located forward of the center of
gravity, causing the tail to require support from a third wheel assembly. A few early aircraft
designs use a skid rather than a tail wheel. This helps slow the aircraft upon landing and
provides directional stability. The resulting angle of the aircraft fuselage, when fitted with
conventional gear, allows the use of a long propeller that compensates for older,
underpowered engine design. The increased clearance of the forward fuselage offered by
tail wheel-type landing gear is also advantageous when operating in and out of non-paved
runways.
Today, aircraft are manufactured with conventional gear for this reason and for the
weight savings accompanying the relatively light tail wheel assembly. The proliferation of
hard surface runways has rendered the tail skid obsolete in favour of the tail wheel.
Directional control is maintained through differential braking until the speed of the aircraft
enables control with the rudder. A steerable tail wheel, connected by cables to the rudder or
rudder pedals, is also a common design. Springs are incorporated for dampening.

Tail wheel configuration landing gear

 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

ii) Tricycle-Type Landing Gear

The most commonly used landing gear arrangement is the tricycle-type landing gear.
It is comprised of main gear and nose gear. Tricycle-type landing gear is used on large and
small aircraft with the following benefits:
1. Allows more forceful application of the brakes without nosing over when braking,
which enables higher landing speeds.
2. Provides better visibility from the flight deck, especially during landing and ground
maneuvering.
3. Prevents ground-looping of the aircraft. Since the aircraft center of gravity is
forward of the main gear, forces acting on the center of gravity tend to keep the aircraft
moving forward rather than looping, such as with a tail wheel-type landing gear.
The nose gear of a few aircraft with tricycle-type landing gear is not controllable. It
simply casters as steering is accomplished with differential braking during taxi. However,
nearly all aircraft have steerable nose gear. On light aircraft, the nose gear is directed
through mechanical linkage to the rudder pedals. Heavy aircraft typically utilize hydraulic
power to steer the nose gear. Control is achieved through an independent tiller in the flight
deck.
The main gear on a tricycle-type landing gear arrangement is attached to reinforced
wing structure or fuselage structure. The number and location of wheels on the main gear
vary. Many main gear have two or more wheels. Multiple wheels spread the weight of the
aircraft over a larger area. They also provide a safety margin should one tire fail.
Heavy aircraft may use four or more wheel assemblies on each main gear. When
more than two wheels are attached to a landing gear strut, the attaching mechanism is
known as a bogie. The number of wheels included in the bogie is a function of the gross
design weight of the aircraft and the surface type on which the loaded aircraft is required to
land. The tricycle-type landing gear arrangement consists of many parts and assemblies.
These include air/oil shock struts, gear alignment units, support units, retraction and safety
devices, steering systems, wheel and brake assemblies, etc.

Tricycle-type landing gear

 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

Triple bogie main landing gear assembly

iii) Tandem Landing Gear

Few aircraft are designed with tandem landing gear. As the name implies, this type of
landing gear has the main gear and tail gear aligned on the longitudinal axis of the aircraft.
Sailplanes commonly use tandem gear, although many only have one actual gear forward
on the fuselage with a skid under the tail.
The VTOL Harrier has tandem gear but uses small outrigger gear under the wings
for support. Generally, placing the gear only under the fuselage facilitates the use of very
flexible wings.

iv) Bicycle type landing gear

In this type of landing gear the front and rear wheel(s) are located on the fuselage
centre line. Outrigger wheels are provided on wing tips to prevent the airplane from toppling
sideways.

Image of an airplane with bicycle type landing gear; the outrigger wheel on right wing is also seen
 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

Other important parameters: i) Other types of landing gears (ii) retraction mechanism (iii) tyre
sizes and pressures (iv)Height of landing gear, wheel base and wheel track and (v) books on
landing gear design.

5.2) Configuration of Landing gear

i) Fixed and Retractable Landing Gear

Further classification of aircraft landing gear can be made into two categories: fixed
and retractable. Many small, single engine light aircraft have fixed landing gear, as do a few
light twins. This means the gear is attached to the airframe and remains exposed to the
slipstream as the aircraft is flown.
As the speed of an aircraft increases, so does parasite drag. Mechanisms to retract
and stow the landing gear to eliminate parasite drag add weight to the aircraft. On slow
aircraft, the penalty of this added weight is not overcome by the reduction of drag, so fixed
gear is used. As the speed of the aircraft increases, the drag caused by the landing gear
becomes greater and a means to retract the gear to eliminate parasite drag is required,
despite the weight of the mechanism.
A great deal of the parasite drag caused by light aircraft landing gear can be reduced
by building gear as aerodynamically as possible and by adding fairings or wheel pants to
streamline the airflow past the protruding assemblies. A small, smooth profile to the
oncoming wind greatly reduces landing gear parasite drag.
The thin cross section of the spring steel struts combine with the fairings over the
wheel and brake assemblies to raise performance of the fixed landing gear by keeping
parasite drag to a minimum. Retractable landing gear STOW in fuselage or wing
compartments while in flight. Once in these wheel wells, gear is out of the slipstream and
does not cause parasite drag. Most retractable gear have a close fitting panel attached to
them that fairs with the aircraft skin when the gear is fully retracted.
NOTE: The parasite drag caused by extended landing gear can be used by the pilot
to slow the aircraft. The extension and retraction of most landing gear is usually
accomplished with hydraulics.

ii) Shock Absorbing and Non-Shock Absorbing Landing Gear

In addition to supporting the aircraft for taxi, the forces of impact on an aircraft during
landing must be controlled by the landing gear. This is done in two ways:
1) The shock energy is altered and transferred throughout the airframe at a different
rate and time than the single strong pulse of impact,
2) The shock is absorbed by converting the energy into heat energy.
 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

a) Leaf-Type Spring Gear

Many aircraft utilize flexible spring steel, aluminum, or composite struts that receive
the impact of landing and return it to the airframe to dissipate at a rate that is not harmful.
The gear flexes initially and forces are transferred as it returns to its original position. The
most common example of this type of non-shock absorbing landing gear are the thousands
of single-engine Cessna aircraft that use it. Landing gear struts of this type made from
composite materials are lighter in weight with greater flexibility and do not corrode.
b) Rigid
Before the development of curved spring steel landing struts, many early aircraft
were designed with rigid, welded steel landing gear struts. Shock load transfer to the
airframe is direct with this design. Use of pneumatic tires aids in softening the impact loads.
Modern aircraft that use skid-type landing gear make use of rigid landing gear with no
significant ill effects. Rotorcraft, for example, typically experience low impact landings that
are able to be directly absorbed by the airframe through the rigid gear (skids).

Rigid type

c) Bungee Cord
The use of bungee cords on non-shock absorbing landing gear is common. The
geometry of the gear allows the strut assembly to flex upon landing impact. Bungee cords
are positioned between the rigid airframe structure and the flexing gear assembly to take up
the loads and return them to the airframe at a non-damaging rate. The bungees are made of
many individual small strands of elastic rubber that must be inspected for condition. Solid,
donut-type rubber cushions are also used on some aircraft landing gear.
 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

d) Shock Struts
True shock absorption occurs when the shock energy of landing impact is converted
into heat energy, as in a shock strut landing gear. This is the most common method of
landing shock dissipation in aviation. It is used on aircraft of all sizes. Shock struts are self-
contained hydraulic units that support an aircraft while on the ground and protect the
structure during landing. They must be inspected and serviced regularly to ensure proper
operation.
 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

There are many different designs of shock struts, but most operate in a similar
manner. A typical pneumatic/hydraulic shock strut uses compressed air or nitrogen
combined with hydraulic fluid to absorb and dissipate shock loads. It is sometimes referred
to as an air/oil or oleo strut. A shock strut is constructed of two telescoping cylinders or tubes
that are closed on the external ends. The upper cylinder is fixed to the aircraft and does not
move. The lower cylinder is called the piston and is free to slide in and out of the upper
cylinder. Two chambers are formed. The lower chamber is always filled with hydraulic fluid
and the upper chamber is filled with compressed air or nitrogen.
An orifice located between the two cylinders provides a passage for the fluid from
the bottom chamber to enter the top cylinder chamber when the strut is compressed. Most
shock struts employ a metering pin similar to that shown for controlling the rate of fluid flow
from the lower chamber into the upper chamber. During the compression stroke, the rate of
fluid flow is not constant. It is automatically controlled by the taper of the metering pin in the
orifice. When a narrow portion of the pin is in the orifice, more fluid can pass to the upper
chamber. As the diameter of the portion of the metering pin in the orifice increases, less fluid
passes. Pressure build-up caused by strut compression and the hydraulic fluid being forced
through the metered orifice causes heat. This heat is converted impact energy. It is
dissipated through the structure of the strut.
On some types of shock struts, a metering tube is used. The operational concept is
the same as that in shock struts with metering pins, except the holes in the metering tube
control the flow of fluid from the bottom chamber to the top chamber during compression.
Upon lift off or rebound from compression, the shock strut tends to extend rapidly. This could
result in a sharp impact at the end of the stroke and damage to the strut.
It is typical for shock struts to be equipped with a damping or snubbing device to
prevent this. A recoil valve on the piston or a recoil tube restricts the flow of fluid during the
extension stroke, which slows the motion and prevents damaging impact forces.
 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

Most shock struts are equipped with an axle as part of the lower cylinder to provide
installation of the aircraft wheels. Shock struts without an integral axle have provisions on
the end of the lower cylinder for installation of the axle assembly. Suitable connections are
provided on all shock strut upper cylinders to attach the strut to the airframe.
The upper cylinder of a shock strut typically contains a valve fitting assembly. It is
located at or near the top of the cylinder. The valve provides a means of filling the strut with
hydraulic fluid and inflating it with air or nitrogen as specified by the manufacturer. A packing
gland is employed to seal the sliding joint between the upper and lower telescoping
cylinders. It is installed in the open end of the outer cylinder. To keep the piston and wheels
aligned, most shock struts are equipped with torque links or torque arms. One end of the
links is attached to the fixed upper cylinder. The other end is attached to the lower cylinder
(piston) so it cannot rotate. This keeps the wheels aligned. The links also retain the piston
in the end of the upper cylinder when the strut is extended, such as after takeoff.
 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

5.3) Elements of Computer aided and Design

 A set of methods and tools to assist product designers in

 Creating a geometrical representation of the artefacts they are designing
 Dimensioning, Tolerance
 Configuration Management (changes)
 Archiving
 Exchanging part and assembly information between teams organization
 Feeding subsequent design steps
 Analysis (CAE)
 Manufacturing (CAM)

Elements of CAD

CAD consist of 3levels namely drafting modelling analysis and blended of two main
factors i.e. Machine and human factor, working together to achieve the optimum design, the
computer graphic capability and computer power allows the design to test their ideas.
Interactively in real time without creating a real prototype as in traditional methods of design.

Human Factor:

The human factors are the key factor in their success of CAD system. This concern the
training of the designer or the engineer, without whom the CAD system becomes redundant.
The trained designer may be actively involved in CAD process due to the following factors

 Computer Aided analysis

 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

 Computer Aided Visualization

 Computer Aided Synthesis

Computer Aided Analysis:

The computer is highly useful in solving of analytical problems consisting of higher

order of variables. This is also useful to solve numerous equations in a short span of time.
This not only helps design engineers to work on the analytical part but also saves time to
work on the other aspects of the product. The result interpretation will also get improved if
the designer is left with some more time to analyze it.

Computer Aided Visualization:

A Designer needs a better visualization to analyze the overall development of the

product. A designer can visualize hr product by:

 An automobile drafting tool and presentation of graphics.

 A means for presenting numerical data in form of graphical sheets such as
graphs and pie charts.
 Animating a product in virtual space to visualize the working of the product in
actual cycle.
 Visualizing the aesthetic look by creating a 3D material properties.

The effecting visualization not only saves time money effort but also improves the
quality of work. The designer not only looks at product from one points but is free to look for
all the possible directions.

Computer Aided Synthesis:

The synthesis process is carried out with the help of the computer is carried out with
the help of the computer. The preliminary design ideas for similar products are created in a
common database. This common database can be used by other elements of CAE to
perform the computer aided synthesis. The evaluation of the various preliminary design need
to develop the various model for the problem and thus computer aided synthesis helps to
develop the model in real time and evaluate the performance of the design.

System Factor: The system of Cad consist of two components namely hardware and the
software.
 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

Advantages of CAD

 Increases productivity
 Higher quality designs
 Reuse and easily change designs
 Designing physical objects in a virtual workspace.

Disadvantage of CAD

 Work can be lost because of the sudden breakdown of computer

 Work is prone to viruses
 Work could be easily hacked

Application

 It is used for manufacturing, planning, computer aided analysis. When it

comes to materials requirements, CAD inventory control and production
planning and it also used in purchasing.

5.4) STABILITY ASPECTS ON THE DESIGN OF CONTROL SURFACES

STABILITY AND CONTROL:

Aircraft stability deals with the ability to keep an aircraft in the air in the
chosen flight attitude. Aircraft control deals with the ability to change the flight direction and
attitude of an aircraft. Both these issues must be investigated during the preliminary design
process.

FLIGHT MECHANICS:

 Stability and control are collectively referred to as flight mechanics.

 The study of mechanics and dynamics of the flights is the means by which:
 We can design an airplane to accomplish efficiently a specific task
 We can make the task of the pilot easier by ensuring good handling
qualities
 We can avoid unwanted or unexpected phenomena that can be
encountered in flight
 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

AIRCRAFT DESCRIPTION:

The pilot has direct control only of the flight control system. However, he tailor his
inputs to the FCS by observing the airplane’s response while always keeping an eye on the
task at hand.

CONTROL SURFACES:

 Aircraft control is accomplished through control surfaces and power

 Control deflections were first developed by the Wright brothers from watching bird
 Aircraft flight control surfaces are aerodynamic devices allowing a pilot to adjust and
control the aircraft’s flight attitude. Development of an effective set of flight control
surfaces was a critical advance in the development of aircraft.
 The main control surfaces are,
a) Ailerons
b) Rudder
c) Elevators
 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

AILERONS:

Ailerons are mounted on the trailing edge of each wing near the wingtips and move in
opposite directions. When the pilot moves the stick left, or turns the wheel counter-
clockwise, the left aileron goes up and the right aileron goes down. A raised aileron reduces
lift on that wing and a lowered one increases lift, so moving the stick left causes the left wing
to drop and the right wing to rise. This causes the aircraft to roll to the left and begin to turn
to the left. Centering the stick returns the ailerons to neutral maintaining the bank angle.
The aircraft will continue to turn until opposite aileron motion returns the bank angle to zero
to fly straight.

ELEVATORS:

The elevator is the moveable part of the horizontal stabilizer, hinged to the back of
the fixed part of the horizontal tail. The elevators move up and down together.

When the pilot pulls the stick backward, the elevators go up. Pushing the stick
forward causes the elevators to go down. Raised elevators push down on the tail and cause
the nose to pitch up. This makes the wings fly at a higher angle of attack, which generates
more lift and more drag. Centering the stick returns the elevators to neutral and stops the
change of pitch.

In the canard arrangement, the elevators are hinged to the rear of the fore plane and
move in the opposite sense, for example when the pilot pulls the stick back the elevators go
down to increase the lift at the front and lift the nose up.

RUDDER:

The rudder is typically mounted on the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer, part of
the empennage. When the pilot pushes the left pedal, the rudder deflects left. Pushing the
right pedal causes the rudder to deflect right. Deflecting the rudder right pushes the tail left
and causes the nose to yaw to the right. Centering the rudder pedals returns the rudder to
neutral and stops the yaw.
 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

MODERN CONTROL SURFACES:

OTHER DEVICES:

AXES OF MOTION:

Aircraft principal axes

Rotation around the three axes

 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

An aircraft is free to rotate around three axes that are perpendicular to each other
and intersect at its center of gravity (CG). To control position and direction a pilot must be
able to control rotation about each of them.

TRANSVERSE AXIS:

The transverse axis, also known as lateral axis passes through an aircraft from
wingtip to wingtip. Rotation about this axis is called pitch. Pitch changes the vertical direction
that the aircraft’s nose is pointing. The elevators are the primary control surfaces for pitch.

LONGITUDINAL AXIS:

The longitudinal axis passes through the aircraft from nose to tail. Rotation about this
axis is called roll. The angular displacement about this axis is called bank. The pilot changes
bank angle by increasing the lift on one wing and decreasing it on the other. This differential
lift causes rotation around the longitudinal axis. The ailerons are primary control of bank. The
rudder also has the secondary effect on bank.

VERTICAL AXIS:

The vertical axis passes through an aircraft from top to bottom. Rotation about this
axis is called yaw. Yaw changes the direction the aircraft’s nose is pointing, left or right. The
primary control of yaw is with the rudder. Ailerons also have a secondary effect on yaw.

AIRCRAFT DEGREES OF FREEDOM:

Six degrees of freedom:

 3 displacements
 x: horizontal motion
 y: side motion
 z:vertical motion
 3 rotations
 x: roll
 y:pitch
 z:yaw

V: resultant linear velocity, cg: center of gravity, ω: resultant angular velocity

 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

STATIC STABILITY:

 Most aircraft (apart from higher performance fighters) are statically stable
 Static stability implies:
 All the forces and moments around the aircraft’s cg at a fixed flight condition and
attitude are balanced
 After any small perturbation in flight attitude the aircraft returns to its
equilibrium position
 The equilibrium position is usually called the trim position and is adjusted
using the trim tabs

AERODYNAMIC REFERENCE CENTRES

 Centre of pressure (cp): The point at which the resultant aerodynamic forces
F acts. There is no aerodynamic moment around the cp.
 Half-chord: The point at which the aerodynamic force due to camber, Fc, acts
 Quarter-chord ( or aerodynamic centre ): The point at which the aerodynamic
force due to angle of attack , Fa, acts. The aerodynamic moment around the
quarter-chord, Mo, is constant with the angle of attack.

AIRPLANE GEOMETRY:
 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

AIRPLANE REFERENCES (1) :

AIRPLANE REFERENCES (2):

AIRPLANE REFERENCES (3):

 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

AIRFOIL WITH CENTRES:

By placing all of the lift and drag on the aerodynamic centre we move the lift and drag
due to camber from the half-chord to the quarter chord. This is balanced by the moment Mo.

PITCHING MOMENT EQUATION:

EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS:
 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

STABLE OR UN STABLE ?

DEGREE OF STABILITY:

PITCHING MOMENT STABILITY (1):

 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

PITCHING MOMENT STABILITY (2):

WING-TAIL FLOW GEOMETRY:

PITCHING MOMENT STABILITY (3):

 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

PITCHING MOMENT STABILITY (4):

CONTROLS FIXED STABILITY:

STABILITY MARGIN:
 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

CONTROLS FREE STABILITY:

 Pilots don’t want to hold the controls throughout the flight.

 The trim tab can be adjusted such that, if the elevator is allowed to float
freely, it will at an angle corresponding to the desired trim condition.
 This is sometimes called a hands-off trim condition.
 Therefore the pilot can take his hands off the elevator control and the aircraft
will remain in trim.

CONTROLS FREE STABILITY MARGIN:

 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

CONTROLS FREE NEUTRAL POINT:

SUMMARY OF LONGITUDINAL STABILITY:

 As with controls fixed stability margin, the controls free stability margin is
positive when the aircraft is stable.
 Similaly, the centre of gravity position must be ahead of the contols free
nuetral point if the aircraft is to be stable.

 Usually,the constants of the elevator and tab are such that

 An aircraft that is stable controls fixed will usually be also stable controls free

LATERAL STABLITY:

 There are two types of lateral motion for an aircraft:

 Roll
 Yaw
 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

 The aircraft must be stable in both of these directions of motion

ROLL STABILITY MECHANISM:

 There is no active stabilizing mechanism for lateral stability (e.g. tail for
longitudinal stabilty, rudder for yaw stability)
 Wing dihedral, Γ , is the only stabilizing mechanism
 The higher the dihedral angle, the more stable the aircraft
 As usual, too much stability can be a bad thing

ROLL MOTION:

SIDESLIP ANGLE:
 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

HIGH WING AIRCRAFT:

LOW WING AIRCRAFT:

DIHEDRAL:
 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

RESTORING MOMENT:

ROLL STABILITY:

ROLL CONTROL:
 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

AILERON ADVERSE YAW:

 Increasing the lift also increases drag and vice versa.

 When deflecting ailerons, there is a net yawing moment in an opposite
direction to the rolling moment.
 When rolling left ( in order to turn left), there is a yawing
moment to the right
 This can make turning very difficult, especially for high
aspect ratio wings

ROLL CONTROL BY SPOILERS:

 Another way of performing roll control is by deforming a spoiler on the

wing towards which we want to turn. To turn left:

FRISE AILERONS:

This idea is counteract the higher lift induced drag of the down wing with
higher profile drag on the up wing. Frise ailerons are especially designed to create very high
profile drag when deflected upwards. When deflected downwards the profile drag is kept
low. Thus, they alleviate or, even, eliminate adverse yaw.
 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

DIFFERENTIAL AILERON DEFLECTION:

The roll rate of the aircraft depends on the mean aileron deflection angle. The

individual deflection and do not have to be equal.

YAW STABILITY:
 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

FIN MOMENT:

The lift coefficient of the fin can be expressed as

YAW STABILITY:

 The stability condition for yaw motion is then

 Note that, in this case, it makes no sense to differentiate the yawing moment by the lift
since the two are independent.

 The side wash factor, , is very difficult to estimate.

SIDEWASH FACTOR:

 There are three main contributions to side wash:

 Fuselage: it acts as a lifting body when at a yaw angle
 Wing: the flow over the wing is asymmetric. The resulting side wash is more pronounced
for low aspect ratio sweptback wings.
 Propeller: the flow behind the propeller is also yawed, causing additional asymmetry.
 Side wash factors can be estimated most accurately by carefully designed wind tunnel
experiments.

YAW CONTROL:

 During most flight conditions the yaw angle must be zero-this minimizes drag
 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

 This is achieved through the deflection of the rudder

 Rudder power: rate of change of fin moment with rudder angle

 This quantity must be large enough to maintain zero yaw even at the most extreme flight
conditions.

TAKEOFF AND LANDING (1):

 During cruise, aircraft tend to turn towards the wind in order to minimize their drag.
Therefore, the objective is to achieve 0̊ yaw.
 At take-off and landing this is not possible. The aircraft must remain aligned with the
runway, even in the presence of a very strong side wind.
 Therefore, the rudder must be able to provide a moment that can keep the aircraft
aligned with the runway.

TAKEOFF AND LANDING (2):

ROLL-YAW COUPLING:

 Roll and yaw are always coupled.

 There several reasons for the coupling:
 Rolling produces sideslip
 Ailerons causes adverse yaw
 Dihedral causes additional coupling
 Sweepback causes additional coupling
 The fin causes additional coupling
 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

MODES OF VIBRATION OF AIRCRAFT:

 Stability must also be investigated in a dynamic sense

 Aircraft have several modes of vibration:
 Longitudinal modes:
 Short period oscillation
 Phugoid
 Lateral modes:
 Spiral mode
 Roll subsidence
 Dutch roll

PHUGOID OSCILLATIONS:

 Phugoids are long period oscillations that occur only in the longitudinal direction
 The angle of attack is constant; the aircraft climbs and descends in an oscillatory
manner.
 Phugoids are also very lightly damped.
 Phugoid periods:
 Microlight aircraft: 15-25s
 Light aircraft: over 30s
 Jet aircraft: minutes
 Phugoids are neutralized by re-trimming the aircraft in the new flight condition.

PHUGOID APPROXIMATION:

The lanchester approximation states that the phugoid damping ratio and frequency
are given by:
 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

MORE ABOUT PHUGOIDS:

 Phugoid period increases with airspeed. Phugoid damping increases with

airspeed.
 Compressibility effects

Nhalf= number of periods until the amplitude is halved

SHORT PERIOD OSCILLATIONS:

 Short period oscillations have a much higher frequency than phugoids.

 They are driven by the angle of attack
 Speed changes are negligible
 They occur after abrupt input changes. Slower input changes do not cause significant
short period oscillations

SHORT PERIOD DEPENDENCIES:

 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

 The period generally decreases with airspeed. The damping can either decrease or
increase
 Compressibility effects
 Period and damping for Boeing 747 at several altitudes and Mach numbers

SPIRAL MODE:

 This mode is quite visible in the impulse response of the lateral equations
 It is the non-oscillatory mode with large time constant
 It is mainly a yaw movement with a little roll
 This mode can be stable or unstable. It is unstable quit often but that is not a problem
because of its large time constant
 The typically half-life of the spiral is of the order of a minute
 The spiral movement is usually stopped by a corrective control input

ROLL SUBSIDENCE:

 An impulse aileron input will start the aircraft rolling.

 In general, the aircraft will stop rolling with time ( i.e. the roll rate becomes zero after
sufficient time)
 The aircraft will find itself at a roll angle which depends on how fast the roll rate tends
to zero.
 This phenomenon is called roll subsidence

DUTCH ROLL:

 The name Dutch roll is due to the fact that the phenomenon resembles an ice skating
figure called Dutch roll.
 The centre of gravity remains on a straight trajectory while the roll and yaw angles
oscillates.
 The roll velocity also oscillates but the yaw velocity is very low.
 The Dutch roll damping increases with airspeed while its period first increases and
then decreases with airspeed.
 The typical period of a Dutch roll is in the order of 5 to 10 seconds.

SUMMARY ON CONTROL SURFACES:

 Elevators contribute to pitch stability and control pitch angle.

 Rudder contributes to yaw stability and controls yaw angle.
 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

 Ailerons do not contribute stability. Furthermore, they control the roll rate, not the roll
angle. There is no moment balance the effect of the ailerons: they provide a constant
moment that causes continuous roll rotation, whose rate also depends on the
moment of inertia of the aircraft.

5.5) SPECIAL CONSIDERATION IN CONFIGURATION LAY-OUT

 Elevons contribute to stability and control of both pitch and roll. They are ailerons
that can also move up or down in unison, just like elevators
 Flaperons contribute to stability and control of both pitch and roll. They are ailerons
that can also move downwards only, just like flaps.
 Spoilerons contribute to stability and control of both pitch and roll. They are ailerons
that can also move upwards only, just like spoilers.

5.6) LOADS ON LANDING GEAR

The loads imposed on the landing gear has become increasingly important in the
structural design of airplanes . Prediction of dynamic structural loads on the landing gear and
on the airplane is possible by a number of methods of dynamic analysis which permit
reasonable accuracy in the calculation of the dynamic response when the forcing functions
are known.
In order to obtain information on these forcing functions, the ground forces imposed
on the main landing gear of a large airplane under actual landing conditions were measured.
The main landing gear of this airplane was equipped with strain gages and linear and
angular accelerometers in order to measure ground-reaction forces during landing impacts.
The airplane was equipped with various types of special and standard flight
instruments to determine the landing- impact and landing-approach conditions. Symbols
 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

The quantities measured for the purpose of defining both the landing-approach
conditions and the impact and spin-up conditions are as follows :
UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE
 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

The strain gages were also located in the same lateral position in the horizontal
plane. The strain-gage bridges located in the vertical plane measure the bending moment at
 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

stations 1 and 2 due to the vertical component of force applied at the axle and the moment
due to side force.
Similarly, the strain gages in the horizontal plane measure the bending moments due
to the horizontal component of force at the axle and the moment contributed by the side
force when it is out of the vertical plane. The linear accelerometers mounted on the outer
brake shoe were used to determine the horizontal and vertical inertia forces. Angular
accelerometers mounted inside the outboard wheels were used to measure angular
acceleration of the outboard wheels.
The mean tire deflections for each pair of wheels were obtained by means of a slide-
wire position recorder connected to a trailing arm which was mounted between the wheels.
The vertical velocity of each truck was measured by an electromagnetic generator attached
to the trailing arm, similar to the arrangement described in reference 1. The angular velocity
of each wheel was measured by a tachometer mounted on the outer brake shoe and geared
to the wheel. The instruments used to measure the approach conditions presented in the
foregoing table, except for drift angle, were standard NACA flight recording instruments. The
drift angle was measured by means of a 16- millimetre motion-picture camera mounted on
the bottom of the airplane fuselage to photograph the runway directly below the camera. The
shutter to appear as streaks on the film when the airplane was in motion. The angle of these
streaks relative to the edge of the picture was a measure of drift angle.
The magnitude of a force, regardless of its lateral position , could be determined by
measuring the moment at two positions located a known distance apart . As a result of inter
action (effects of vertical forces on horizontal strain gages and vice versa) and misalignment
of the strain gages, the final equations for measuring axle forces had the form :

The ground-reaction forces, both vertical and drag, were obtained by adding inertia
corrections to the axle forces. The inertia term was the product of the mass outboard of the
strain-gage stations (wheel, brakes, instruments, etc.) and the vertical or horizontal
acceleration of the center of this mass. The accelerometers used to measure the vertical and
horizontal accelerations could not be located at the mass center but were located as close
as possible to the mass center on the vertical axis and horizontal axis, respectively. Owing to
the frequency response
 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

characteristics of the instrumentation, the inertia corrections are in error when the
force is changing very rapidly, such as occurs in some cases of spring back when the drag
force goes from a large positive (rearward) value to some negative (forward) value. Because
of the nature of the axle and housing structure it was virtually impossible to locate strain
gages which were primarily sensitive to side force. It became necessary to evaluate the side
force Fs for each wheel by means of the bending moment Mv, 2 produced by the side force
and the vertical force on the axle.

The order of magnitude of Ks was determined from results presented in reference 2.

The value of the product Ks Fv was small in comparison with the value of rd so that the
actual value of Ks was not critical.
The side-force results are believed to indicate qualitatively the nature of side-force
build-up and variation with drift angle and vertical force.
The drag force Fh was determined from strain-gage measurements for all of the
wheels and also from angular - accelerometer measurements for the outboard wheels of
each truck. The angular -accelerometer method involved the use of the expression
T = Fh rd = Ie S,
This expression neglects the torque produced by the vertical force Fv acting through
some forward or rearward displacement relative to the axle center line. Although the forces
are of the same order of magnitude Fh = ~v, the moment arm of the vertical force is a small
percentage of the moment arm of the drag force. This method of measuring Fh is similar to
that used, where the agreement with simultaneous dynamometer measurements was good.
On the basis of calibration loading data and of comparisons of Fh determined from
both the strain-gage and angular-accelerometer measurements for the outboard wheels, the
drag-force data determined from the angular-accelerometer method were felt to be the most
reliable. The strain-gage drag-force data for the outboard wheels were generally in good
agreement with the angular-accelerometer drag-force data but the strain-gage drag-force
 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

data for the inboard wheels were considered unreliable in magnitude but usable to indicate
the shape of the drag-force time history for the impact. In presenting the coefficient-of-friction
data, only Fh obtained by the angular-accelerometer method was used.

Vertical Force
an unequal division of vertical force Fv between two wheels of the same truck, which
is a result of one or more factors, such as airplane roll attitude, landing-gear inclination (in
roll plane) due to wing bending, or differences in tire diameter. During this particular landing,
the value of Fv was low and only the inboard wheel spun up during the first impact while the
outboard wheel partially spun up and then spun up completely during the second impact.
This landing, in which one wheel completed its spin-up during the second impact, was typical
of a number of landings encountered in this test program.
The effect of the sudden release of the shock strut on the vertical force time history is
to decrease the rate of vertical-force build-up and in some cases even to reduce the vertical
force for a short time.
The variation of maximum vertical force on the truck with vertical velocity was
calculated by a numerical integration method similar to that discussed. In order to simplify
the calculations, a symmetrical impact was assumed, the airplane was assumed to be rigid,
the lower or unsprung mass was neglected, the pneumatic force was assumed to be
constant, and a linear approximation of the actual static-force-deflection characteristics of
the tire was used. The physical characteristics of the shock strut of the airplane used in
these tests were used in these calculations,

Drag Force
Typical time histories of drag force, which are presented in figure 4 for a range of
vertical velocities, show that in most cases the drag force builds up to a maximum value as
the wheel comes up to 80 or 90 percent of the free rolling speed. The drag force then drops
rapidly to zero and then negative as the wheel comes up to and then overshoots the free
rolling speed . In some cases, for the left inboard wheel, the drag force starts to build up,
then to decrease, and then to increase again. This type of variation was found in s everal
other impacts, not shown here, in which the drag force near the middle of the spin-up period
was greater than that when the wheel was near 80 or 90 percent of the free rolling speed.
Since the changes in drag force are generally attributable to corresponding vertical-force
variations.
The unequal division of vertical force on two wheels of the same truck results in
unsymmetrical drag forces, particularly at the time when one wheel has spun up and its drag
force has decreased while the other wheel is approaching maximum drag force. This
 UNIT V - DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE

distribution of drag force results in a severe yawing moment about the vertical axis of the
truck and the resulting yawing oscillation has been observed in slow-motion pictures of the
trucks during impact.
Coefficient of friction:
At the instant of contact the angular velocity of the wheel was zero and the slip ratio
was 1 .0; as the wheel velocity approaches the free rolling velocity, the slip ratio approaches
O. The forces were too small to give reliable values of ~ until the slip ratio had decreased to
approximately 0.9. As the wheel comes up to free rolling speed, the value of ~ gradually
increases to a maximum value of 0.73 at a slip ratio of 0.11. The variation from ~max to zero
slip ratio is not shown because the drag force dropped so rapidly in this range that the
values of ~ are unreliable and the slip ratio is difficult to measure accurately in this range.
The mean value of ~ for the dry runway increased gradually from a value of 0.40
near the beginning of spin-up (slip ratio of 0.90) to a maximum value of 0 .72 at a slip ratio of
0.13. The mean value of ~ for the wet runway varied from 0. 20 near the beginning of spin-
up to a maximum value of 0.41 at a slip ratio of 0.07.
The differences in the variation of ~ among landings is believed to be caused
primarily by differences in the condition of the runway surface - for example , for the dry
runway the presence of skid marks, oil, dirt, etc. and for the wet runway by these same
effects and the amount of water present on the runway.

Side Force
The side force builds up gradually during the first part of the spin-up, and, as the
wheel approaches the free rolling speed, the side force increases more rapidly to the full
value after spin-up. The data indicate that generally at the time of maximum drag force the
side force is about 30 to 50 per cent of the maximum value. There were cases where
maximum side force and maximum vertical force occurred Simultaneously and there were
several instances in which maximum drag force and maximum vertical force occurred
Simultaneously . However, it would appear unlikely that all three forces would reach their
maximum value simultaneously.
The side force after spin-up is almost the same for each wheel of the truck while the
vertical load is much greater for the outboard wheel; this indicates, for this higher range of
Fv, that the side force is dependent on drift angle rather than on vertical load. This fact is
more clearly indicated in which presents the variation of side force with drift angle for
constant values of vertical force.

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