Serial TITLE Page

No. No.
1. Abstract
2. Introduction to Aircraft Design
3. Literature Survey
4. Comparative Study
5. Selection of Main Parameters
6. Weight Estimation
7. Selection of Aerofoil
8. Selection of Wing and Control surfaces
9. Power plant Selection
10. Landing gear selection
11. Preparation of layout Drawing,
construction of balance and three-view
diagram of airplane under consideration
12. Conclusion
13. References
 LIST OF FIGURES

Serial DIAGRAMS Page

No. No.
1. Comparative Graphs

2. Mission profile

3. Cross section of Wing

4. Drag polar

5. Power Plant

6. Nose Landing Gear

7. Main Landing Gear

8. V-n Diagram

9. Stability Diagram

10. Three View Diagram

 ABSTRACT
Aircraft Design Project-I is a continuation of Aircraft Design Project-II. In
our Aircraft Design Project-I, we have performed a preliminary and conceptual
analysis. We have carried out a weight estimation, engine selection, weapon loading
and aerodynamic parameter selection and analysis. Apart from these, we have also
determined performance parameters such lift, drag, range, endurance, thrust and power
requirements.

The purpose of ADP-II is to enhance the knowledge continuation of the

design project given in ADP-I. Also, Aircraft Design Project-II deals with a more in-
depth study and analysis of aircraft performance and structural characteristics. In the
following pages we have carried out structural analysis of fuselage and wings and V-n
diagram, the appropriate materials have been chosen to give our aircraft adequate
structural integrity. The determination the landing gear position, retraction and other
accompanying systems and mechanisms have also been done.

Thus, by imposing all the performance parameters in our ADP-I, structural

analysis of our aircraft is done in this project. Hence, a lot of attention is given to
calculations in this report.
LIST OF SYMBOLS, ABBREVIATIONS AND NOMENCLATURE

1. CD-Drag coefficient
2. CDO-Zero lift drag coefficient
3. Cj-Specific fuel consumption for jet engine
4. CL-Lift coefficient
5. Cp –Specific fuel consumption for propeller driven aircraft
6. e-Ostwald efficiency factor
7. g-Acceleration due to gravity
8. L/D-Lift to drag ratio
9. Mff-Mission fuel fraction
10. N-time increment for free roll just after touchdown, before brakes are applied
11. R/C-Rate of climb
12. R-Range of the aircraft
13. sa –Approach distance
14. sf –Flare distance
15. sg –ground roll
16. S-Wing area
17. V∞-Free stream velocity
18. Vf-Flare velocity
19. Vstall-Stall velocity
20. W/S-Wing loading
21. WF(res)-Reserve fuel weight
22. WF(used)-Weight of the fuel used during the mission
23. WTFO-Trapped fuel weight
24. WTO-Takeoff weight
25. ηp -Propeller efficiency
26. A.R. - Aspect Ratio
27. B - Wing Span (m)
28. C - Chord of the Airfoil (m)
29. C root - Chord at Root (m)
30. C tip - Chord at Tip (m)
31. Mean Aerodynamic Chord (m)
32. D - Drag (N)
33. E - Endurance (hr.)
34. L - Lift (N)
35. (L/D)loiter - Lift-to-drag ratio at loiter
36. (L/D)cruise - Lift-to-drag ratio at cruise
37. M - Mach number of aircraft
38. Mff - Mission fuel fraction
39. R - Range (km)
40. Re - Reynolds Number
41. S - Wing Area (m²)
42. Sref - Reference surface area
43. Swet - Wetted surface area
44. Sa - Approach distance (m)
45. Sf - Flare Distance (m)
46. Sfr - Free roll Distance (m)
47. Sg - Ground roll Distance (m)
48. T - Thrust (N)
49. Tcruise - Thrust at cruise (N)
50. Ttake-off - Thrust at take-off (N)
51. (T/W)loiter - Thrust-to-weight ratio at loiter
52. (T/W)cruise - Thrust-to-weight ratio at cruise
53. (T/W)take-off - Thrust-to-weight ratio at take-off
54. Vcruise - Velocity at cruise (m/s)
55. Vstall - Velocity at stall (m/s)
56. Vt - Velocity at touch down (m/s)
57. Wcrew - Crew weight (kg)
58. Wempty - Empty weight of aircraft (kg)
59. Wfuel - Weight of fuel (kg)
60. Wpayload - Payload of aircraft (kg)
61. W0 - Overall weight of aircraft (kg)
62. W/S - Wing loading (kg/m²)
63. ρ - Density of air (kg/m³)
64. μ- Dynamic viscosity (Ns/m²)
65. λ - Tapered ratio
66. µr - Co-efficient of rolling friction
67. θOB - Angle between flight path and take-off
68. β - Turning angle
69. ϕ -Gliding angle
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT DESIGN

AIM:

To make a brief study of aircraft designing process with the aid of computer
software and to analyze the results of fighter jet aircraft in three view diagram.

INTRODUCTION:

Airplane design is an art with scientifically approach. It requires both intellectual

engineering and creative with sensible assumptions. A design is an ‘iterative effort’
that are set by prior design trade studies. Now-a-days fighter aircraft is one of the most
popular forms of transport aircraft.

The aircraft design process is the engineering design process by which aircraft are
designed. These depend on many factors such as customer and manufacturer demand,
safety protocols, physical and economic constraints etc. For some types of aircraft, the
design process is regulated by national airworthiness authorities. This article deals
with powered aircraft such as airplanes and helicopter designs.

Aircraft design is a compromise between many competing factors and constraints and
accounts for existing designs and market requirements to produce the best aircraft.

AIRCRAFT PURPOSE:
The starting point of any new aircraft is to clearly identify its purpose. The humans
made aircrafts by seeing the birds flying high in the air without even falling onto the
ground. Many people tried to fly in the air with the help of artificial wings but they
have flown only for few minutes later, many developments in building an airplane that
can sustain for many hours in the air is made by WRIGHT BROTHER. They made it
successfully after series of failures. Now, the world without an aircraft is
unimaginable. The purpose of the aircraft is grouped into different categories based on
the work they do. Such categories include combat aircraft, fighter aircraft and general
aviation aircraft.

DESIGN PROCESS:

The aircraft design process is the engineering design process by which aircraft are
designed by specific trained design engineers. The design process is made by any
changes in the previous design aircraft and required result is made. In the early years
of aircraft design, designers used analytical theory to do the various engineering
calculation that go into the design process along with a lot of experimentation. The
recent development made in design process is that designs are made in computer and
any changes can also be made easily. The designing software named “COMPUTER-
AIDED DESIGN”. In this software any aircraft design can be made with ease efforts
and results also provided in an accurate manner. The various advanced software is
Auto CAD, Catia, Ansys, CFD, Nastran, Creo etc.2D, 3D and analysis can be made
with great accuracy for designing an aircraft.

“Great Design Is Not Just a Solution, It is the Elimination of the Problem”

-M. Cobanli

STEPS FOR DESIGNING AN AIRCRAFT:

Every Airplane goes through many changes in design before it is finally built. These
steps enable the design engineer to make a flawless design process with accuracy.
Along the way, it has four main areas of aeronautics in which a designer should
concentrate to make a successful aircraft design. These are Aerodynamics, Propulsion,
Structures and Materials, Stability and control.

Aerodynamics is the study of motion of air, particularly its interaction with a solid
object. It is derived from Greek Word Air + Dynamics. Studying the motion of air
around an object allow us to measure the forces of lift, gravity and drag. The four main
forces of the aircraft which helps to fly in the atmosphere are Lift, Thrust, Weight and
Drag.

Propulsion means to push forward or drive an object forward. The term is derived
from two Latin words PRO meaning forward or before and PELLERE meaning to
drive. A propulsion system consists of source of mechanical power and converting this
power into a propulsive force which drives the aircraft in forward motion with the help
of aerodynamics.

Structures and Materials is the study of how strong the airplane is and what materials
can be used to withstand the weight of the entire airplane in atmosphere. It is very
important that airplane should be light as possible so that it can fly with ease effort but
designing an aircraft with less weight is quite impossible. So the choosing of materials
like composites makes a difference in weight and can produce desired performance
efficiently.

Stability and Control is the study of how an airplane handles and interacts to pilot
input and feed. The pilot needs to be able to process the correct data quickly, and to
make designs in an appropriate situation. In earlier days, the cockpit was made to work
mechanically rather than electrically but, today the flight controls are made in fly-by-
wire systems which has made the pilot effort much easier.

DESIGN OF AN AIRPLANE:
Airplane design is both an art and a science. It’s the intellectual engineering process of
creating on paper (or on a computer screen) a flying machine to

 meet certain specifications and requirements established by potential users (or

as perceived by the manufacturer) and

 Pioneer innovative, new ideas and technology.

PHASES OF AIRPLANE DESIGN:

The complete design process has gone through three distinct phases that are carried out
in sequence. They are:

 Conceptual design

 Preliminary design

 Detailed design

CONCEPTUAL DESIGN:
The design process starts with a set of specifications (requirements) for a new airplane,
or much less frequently as the response to the desire to implement some pioneering,
innovative new ideas and technology. In either case, there is a rather concrete good
towards which the designers are aiming. The first steps towards achieving that goal
constitute the conceptual design phase. Here, within a certain somewhat fuzzy latitude,
the overall shape, size, weight and performance of the new design are determined.
The product of the conceptual design phase is a layout on a paper or on a computer
screen) of the airplane configuration. But one has to visualize this drawing as one with
flexible lines, capable of being slightly changed during the preliminary design phase.
However, the conceptual design phase determines such fundamental aspects as the
shape of the wings (swept back, swept forward or straight), the location of the wings
related to the fuselage, the shape and location of the horizontal and vertical tail, the use
of an engine size and placement etc., the major drivers during the conceptual design
process are aerodynamics, propulsion and flight performance.

Structural and context system considerations are not dealt with in any detail. However,
they are not totally absent. During the conceptual design phase, the designer is
influenced by such qualitative as the increased structural loads imposed by a high
horizontal tail location trough the fuselage, and the difficulties associated with cutouts
in the wing structure if the landing gear are to be retracted into the wing rather than the
fuselage or engine nacelle. No part of the design is ever carried out in a total vacuum
unrelated to the other parts.

PRELIMINARY DESIGN:
In the preliminary design phase, only minor changes are made to the configuration
layout (indeed, if major changes were demanded during this phase, the conceptual
design process have been actually flawed to begin with. It is in the preliminary design
phase that serious structural and control system analysis and design take place.

During the phase also, substantial wind tunnel testing will be carried out and major
computational fluid dynamics (CFD). Calculations of the computer flow fluid over the
airplane configurations, it’s possible that the wind tunnel tests the CFD calculations
will in cover some undesirable aerodynamic interference or some unexpected stability
problems which will promote change to the configuration layout. The end of the
preliminary design phase brings a major concept to commit the manufacture of the
airplane or not. The importance of this decision point for modern aircraft
manufacturers cannot be understated, considering the tremendous costs involved in the
design and manufacture of a new airplane. This is no better illustrated.

DETAIL DESIGN:
The detail design phase is literally the nuts and bolts phase of airplane design. The
aerodynamic, propulsion, structures performance and flight control analysis have all
been finished with the preliminary design phase. For detail design. The airplane is now
simply a machine to be fabricated. The pressure design of each. Individual rib, spar
and section of skin now take place. The size of number and location of fastness are
determined. At this stage, flight simulators for the airplane are developed. And these
are just a few of the many detailed requirements during the detail design phase. At the
end of this phase, the aircraft is ready to be fabricated.

THE SEVEN INTELLECTUAL PIVOT POINTS FOR

CONCEPTUAL DESIGN:
The design process is an art of creativity and like all creative creatures, there is no one
correct and absolute method to carry it out. However conceptual design can be
imagined at an array of the seven points at strategic locations in some kind of
intellectual space, and these pivot points are connected by a verb of detailed
approaches. The web constructed by different people would be different, although the
pivot points should be the same, due to their fundamental significance.
REQUIREMENTS:
Requirements for a new airplane design are as unique and different from one
airplane to another as fingerprints are from one. However, being to another. Hence
we cannot stipulate in this section a specific, standard form to use to write
requirements there is none.

For any new airplane design. There must be some established requirements which
serve as the jumping off point for the design process, and which serve as the focused
goal for the completed design. Typical aspects are frequently stipulated in the
requirements are some combination of the following,

 RANGE,

 TAKE OFF DISTANCE,

 STALLING VELOCITY,

 ENDURANCE,

 MAXIMUM VELOCITY,

 RATE OF CLIMB,

 MAXIMUM LOAD FACTOR,

 SERVICE CEILING.
CRITICAL PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS:
Requirements stipulate the performance of the new aircraft. The critical parameters are:
 Maximum lift coefficient.
 Lift to drag ratio (L/D).
 Thrust to weight ratio (T/W).
Therefore, the next step is to make first estimates of W/S and T/W to achieve the
performance as stipulated by requirements.
CONFIGURATION LAYOUT:
The configuration layout is a drawing of the shape and size of the airplane as evolved
till stage. The critical performance parameters along with first weight estimate helps to
draw the configuration and approximate the size of the aircraft.

BETTER WEIGHT ESTIMATE:

The overall size and shape of the airplane are better known now. There is now an
improved estimate of weight based on performance parameters. A more detailed
estimate of fuel is required now.

PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS:
This is the point where the configuration is judged if it can meet all original
specifications. An interactive process is initiated where the configuration is modified.
The critical performance parameters are adjusted for improving performance. In this
stage, some mature decisions should be made as the specifications or cost or unavailable
technology.

Hence some specifications might be relaxed so that others might get higher
priority.

OPTIMIZATION:
When iterative process is over, it has produced a viable airplane. This leads to
optimization. The optimization analysis is carried out may be carried out by a systematic
variation of different parameters T/W, W/S and plotting the performance of graphs
which can be found using a sizing matrix or a carpet plot from which optimum design
can be found.
WEIGHT OF AIRPLANE – FIRST ESTIMATE:
No airplane can take off the ground unless it produces a lift greater than its weight.
There should be a first estimate of gross takeoff weight. The weight estimate is the next
pivot point after the requirements. Lilienthal, Langley and Wright brothers knew more
weight means more drag. This needed an engine with greater power and hence more
weight.

CONSTRAINT DIAGRAM:
A constraint diagram is constructed which identifies allowable solution space for
airplane design. A constraint diagram consists of plots of the sea – level thrust to takeoff
weight ratio versus wing loading at takeoff weight ratio TO/WO versus wing loading at
takeoff WO /S determined by intellectual pivot point.

THE DESIGN WHEEL

SIZING AND
TRADE
STUDIES

REQUIREMENTS
DESIGN
ANALYSIS

DESIGN
CONCEPT
CLASSIFICATION OF AIRPLANES:
1. FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATIONS
a) Civil Airplanes.
b) Military Airplanes.
Civil Airplanes Military Airplanes
Cargo transport Strategic fighters
Passenger travel Interceptors
Mail distribution Escort fighters
Agricultural Tactical bombers
Ambulance Strategic bombers
Executive transport Ground attack airplanes
Training Photo-reconnaissance airplanes
Sports Multipurpose airplanes
Air taxi & charter
Forestry
Fish and wildlife sanctuary
Construction
Aerial photography
Off- shore drilling

2. CLASSIFICATION BY POWER PLANT

a) Types of engine
i. Piston Engines.
ii. Turbo-Prop Engines.
iii. Turbo-jet Engines.
iv. Ram-jet Engines.
v. Rockets.
b) Number of engines
 i. Single Engine.
ii. Twin Engine.
iii. Multi-Engine.
c) Location of power plant
i. Engine (with propeller) located in fuselage nose.
ii. Pusher Engine located in the rear fuselage.
iii. Engines (jet) submerged in the wing,
1. At the root.
2. Along the span.
iv. Engines (jet) in nacelles suspended under the wing (pod mountings).
v. Engines (jet) located on the rear fuselage.
vi. Engines (jet) located within the rear fuselage.

3. CLASSIFICATION BY CONFIGURATION
a. Shape and position of wing.
b. Type of fuselage.
c. Location of horizontal tail surfaces.
d. Types of Landing gear
 DESIGN SEQUENCE

1. Collection of existing similar aircraft data

2. Retrivel of data
3. Design graphs
4. Preparation of design data sheet
5. Mission specification
6. Weight estimation
 Mission fuel weight estimation
 Operating tentative weight estimation
 Operating empty weight estimation
 Empty weight estimation
 Payload weight estimation
 Overall takeoff weight estimation
7. Airfoil selection
8. Wing loading estimation
 Based on stall velocity
 Based on Landing distance
 Calculation of wing area
9. Thrust to weight ratio estimation
 Based on takeoff distance
 Based on max rate of climb
 Based on max velocity
 Calculation of thrust
10.Power plant selection
CONCLUSION:

Thus, the design process and the various factors associated with it were studied
briefly. We are sure that these points will help in the design of our aircraft.
 Chapter 2: LITERATURE SURVEY

AIM:

To do a brief Literature study on the existing airplanes and about their merits and
demerits.

It’s the collection of data of various airplanes to consolidate the data for the airplane
that we design. Around 21 airplanes with their design parameters are compared.

AIRCRAFT FOR REFERENCE:

 F22 Raptor  Tejas

 Falcon F16  Eagle F15
 MIG 29  Mitsubishi F2
 Thunderbolt A10  CAC F7
 Eurofighter typhoon  Finback F8
 Chengdu J10  FBC
 Harrier  Jaguar
 Mirrage 2000D  AMX
 Rafale  Lightning F35
 Super hornet F18  Sukhoi 25
 Gripen
LOCKHEED MARTIN F22 RAPTOR

S.NO PARAMETER VALUE

1. Max Take-off weight(kg) 27216
2. Wing loading(kg/m2) 348.7
3. Wing span(m) 13.56
4. Thrust(kN) 156
5. Thrust to weight ratio 1.09
6. Cruise speed(mach no) 2.25
7. Rate of climb(m/min)
8. Service ceiling(m) 15240
9. Range(km) 2960
10. Crew 1
11. Climb speed(km/hr) 2449.42

FALCON 16
 S.NO PARAMETER VALUE
1. Max Take-off weight(kg) 19,200
2. Wing loading(kg/m2) 431
3. Wing span(m) 9.96
4. Thrust(kN) 127
5. Thrust to weight ratio 1.095
6. Cruise speed(mach no) 2
7. Rate of climb(m/min) 15240
8. Service ceiling(m) 18000
9. Range(km) 3222.5
10. Crew 1
11. Climb speed(km/hr) 2414

MIG 29
 S.NO PARAMETER VALUE
1. Max Take-off weight(kg) 15300
2. Wing loading(kg/m2) 442
3. Wing span(m) 11.1
4. Thrust(kN) 86.4
5. Thrust to weight ratio 1.09
6. Cruise speed(mach no) 2.25
7. Rate of climb(m/min) 15120
8. Service ceiling(m) 18013
9. Range(km) 1430
10. Crew 1
11. Climb speed(km/hr) 2430.1

THUNDERBOLT A10
 S.NO PARAMETER VALUE
1. Max Take-off weight(kg) 23133.2
2. Wing loading(kg/m2) 482
3. Wing span(m) 17.6
4. Thrust(kN) 40.34
5. Thrust to weight ratio 0.36
6. Cruise speed(mach no) 1.65
7. Rate of climb(m/min) 1828.8
8. Service ceiling(m) 13700
9. Range(km) 1287.48
10. Crew 1
11. Climb speed(km/hr) 675.9

TYPHOON
 S.NO PARAMETER VALUE
1. Max Take-off weight(kg) 23500
2. Wing loading(kg/m2) 312
3. Wing span(m) 10.95
4. Thrust(kN) 90
5. Thrust to weight ratio 1.15
6. Cruise speed(mach no) 2
7. Rate of climb(m/min) 18897.6
8. Service ceiling(m) 19810
9. Range(km) 2900
10. Crew 1
11. Climb speed(km/hr) 2386.7

MIRRAGE
S.NO PARAMETER VALUE
1. Max Take-off weight(kg) 17500
2. Wing loading(kg/m2) 414.6
3. Wing span(m) 9.13
4. Thrust(kN) 64.3
5. Thrust to weight ratio 0.91
6. Cruise speed(Mach no) 2.2
7. Rate of climb(m/min) 17068.8
8. Service ceiling(m) 17060
9. Range(km) 1550
10. Crew 1
11. Climb speed(km/hr)
HORNET

S.NO PARAMETER VALUE

1. Max Take-off weight(kg) 25401.2
2. Wing loading(kg/m2) 454
3. Wing span(m) 12.3
4. Thrust(kN) 80.1
5. Thrust to weight ratio 0.96
6. Cruise speed(mach no) 1.8
7. Rate of climb(m/min) 13716
8. Service ceiling(m) 75240
9. Range(km) 2000
10. Crew 1
11. Climb speed(km/hr)
CONCLUSION:

Thus, the design process and the various factors associated with it were studied
briefly. We are sure that these points will help us in the design of our aircraft.

Chapter 3: COMPARATIVE STUDY

AIM:

To determine the values of design parameters by using the values of existing

aircraft by preparing a comparative data sheet.

INTRODUCTION:

The values of the comparative data sheet mainly focus on the major design
parameters for obtaining the essential data for designing the aircraft. These
comparative data help in obtaining the approximate values for designing an aircraft.
These comparative data sheet focuses mainly on certain parameters like

 Length
 Range
 Cruising speed
 Aspect ratio
 Wing span
 Wing loading
 Take-off weight
 Empty weight
 Gross weight
 Service ceiling
The following aircrafts are considered for designing a fighter aircraft and to prepare a
comparative data sheet

GEOMETRIC SPECIFICATIONS
Sl. Name of the Aspect Wing Length Wing Wing

No. Aircraft Ratio Span (m) Area Loading

(m) (m2) (Kg/m2)
1. Eurofighter 2.09 10.95 15.96 51.2 312
Typhoon
2. F/A-18 Hornet 3.98 12.3 17.1 38 454
3. F-16 Fighting
Falcon 3.56 9.96 15.06 28 431
4. HAL Tejas 1.75 8.2 13.2 38.4 255.2
5. Lockheed F-
22 Raptor 2.36 13.56 18.9 78.04 377
6. MiG-29 3.42 11.4 17.37 38 403
7. Mirage 2000 2.03 9.13 14.36 41 337
8. Mitsubishi F-2 3.56 11.13 15.52 34.84 634.3
9. Rafale 2.55 10.8 15.27 45.7 328
10. Su-35 3.78 15.3 21.9 62 500.8
WEIGHT SPECIFICATIONS

Sl. Empty Gross Maximum

Name of the Aircraft Weight Weight Take-off
No.
(Kg) (Kg) Weight (Kg)
1. Eurofighter Typhoon 11000 16000 23500
2. F/A-18 Hornet 10433 16769 23541
3. F-16 Fighting Falcon 8573 12020 19187
4. HAL Tejas 6560 9800 13300
5. Lockheed F-22
Raptor 19700 29410 38000
6. MiG-29 11000 14900 18000
7. Mirage 2000 7500 Number
13800
Sl. Power 17000
or
8. Mitsubishi F-2
Name of the Type of9527 of 13459 22100
Thrust per
No.
9. Rafale 10300 15000 24500
10. Aircraft
Su-35 Engine19000 Engines Engine34500
(KN)
25300
1. 2Eurofighter Typhoon Turbofan 2 90
POWER
2. 3F/A-18 Hornet Turbofan 2 79
3. 4F-16 Fighting Falcon Turbofan 1 129.7
PLANT
4. 6HAL Tejas Turbofan 1 90
5. Lockheed F-22
9Raptor Turbofan 2 156

6. 1MiG-29 Turbofan 2 81.59

0
7. 1Mirage 2000 Turbofan 1 95.1
3
8. 1Mitsubishi F-2 Turbofan 1 131
4
9. 1Rafale Turbofan 2 75
5
10. 1Su-35 Turbofan 2 142
7
SPECIFICATIONS
PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS

Sl. Cruising Service Range

Name of Maximum speed ceiling (Km)
No
the speed (km/hr) (m)
Aircraft (km/hr)
1. 2Eurofighter 2495 1060 19812 2900
Typhoon
2. 3F/A-18 Hornet 1915 347.22 15000 2017
3. 4F-16 Fighting 1482 670.54 18000 1950
Falcon
4. 6HAL Tejas 1375 383.33 15000 3200

5. Lockheed F- 670.56
922 1963 20000 3000
Raptor
6. 1 MiG-29 2400 666.21 18000 1430
0
7. 1 Mirage 2000 2336 649.44 17060 1550
3
8. 1 Mitsubishi F-2 2124 590 18000 834
4
9. 1 Rafale 1,912 385.83 15,235 3,700
5
10.1 Su-35 2390 510.42 18000 3600
7
COMPARATIVE GRAPHS:

Maximum speed (Km/hr) vs Service ceiling (m)

Maximum speed(Km/hr) vs Service ceiling(Km)

25000

20000
Service ceiling(Km)

15000

10000

5000

0
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800

Maximum speed(Km/hr)

Maximum speed (Km/hr) vs Range (Km)

Maximum speed (km/hr) vs Range(Km)

4000
3500
3000
2500
Range(Km)

2000
1500
1000
500
0
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800
Maximum speed(Km/hr)
Range (Km) vs Cruising speed (Km/hr)

Range(Km) vs Cruising speed(Km/hr)

800
700
Cruising speed(Km/hr)

600
500
400
300
200
100
0
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Range(Km)

Range (Km) vs Service ceiling (m)

Range(Km) vs Service ceiling(m)

25000

20000
Service ceiling(m)

15000

10000

5000

0
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Range(Km)
Cruising speed (Km/hr) vs Service ceiling (m)

Cruising speed(Km/hr) vs Service ceiling(m)

25000

20000
Service ceiling(m)

15000

10000

5000

0
300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700
Cruising speed(Km/hr)

Maximum speed (Km/Hr) vs Aspect ratio

Maximum speed(m/s) vs Aspect ratio

4.5
4
3.5
3
Aspect ratio

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800
Maximum speed(Km/Hr)
Maximum speed (Km/hr) vs Wing span (m)

Maximum speed(Km/hr) vs Wing span(m)

18
16
14
12
Wing span(m)

10
8
6
4
2
0
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800
Maximum speedKm/hr)

Maximum speed (Km/hr) vs Takeoff weight (Kg)

Maximum speed(Km/hr) vs Takeoff weight(Kg)

40000
35000
30000
Takeoff weight(Kg)

25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800
Maximum speed(Km/hr)
Maximum speed (Km/hr) vs Wing loading (Kg/m2)

Maximum speed (Km/hr) vs Wing loading (Kg/m2)

700

600
Wing loading (Kg/m2)

500

400

300

200

100

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Maximum speed(km/hr)

Conclusion:

Thus the data from similar types of existing aircrafts was studied, and the
comparative data sheet was prepared and parameters were compared.
 Chapter 4: SELECTION OF MAIN PARAMETERS

AIM:

To select the primary design aspects value from the plots and the comparative data
sheet.

INTRODUCTION:

For designing any aircraft there would be certain requirements which the designer
should meet for designing any aircraft. These requirements may be given by the
customers or should be the designer itself. These values are usually estimated from
the values of graph.
Serial Design Parameters Value Unit
No.
1. Length 19.13 m
2. Wing span 13.545 m
3. Height 4.9 m
4. Wing area 52.5 m2
5. Maximum speed 2485 Km/hr
6. Range 3000 Km
7. Rate of climb 230 m/s
8. Wing loading 400 Kg/m2
9. Thrust/weight 0.89 No unit
10. Aspect ratio 2.25 No unit
11. Crew members 2 No unit
12. Power plant 2 No unit
13. Estimated weight 23,725 Kg
CONCLUSION:

Thus the design parameters required for designing aircraft is selected from the
comparative data sheet and the plots.
 Chapter 5: WEIGHT ESTIMATION

PRIMARY WEIGHT ESTIMATION

The purpose of this section is to introduce a technique to obtain the first

estimate of the maximum take-off weight for an aircraft before it is designed and
built. The word estimation is intentionally selected to indicate the degree of the
accuracy and reliability of the output. Hence, the value for the maximum take-off
weight is not final and must be revised in the later design phases. The result of this
step may have up to about 20% inaccuracies, since it is not based on its own aircraft
data. But the calculation relies on the other aircraft data with similar configuration
and mission. Thus, we are adopting the past history as the major source of the
information for the calculation in this step. At the end of the preliminary design
phase, the take-off weight estimation is repeated by using another more accurate
technique.

An aircraft has a range of weights from minimum to maximum depending

upon the number of pilots and crew, fuel, and payloads (passengers, loads, luggage,
and cargo). As the aircraft flies, the fuel is burning and the aircraft weight is
decreasing. The most important weight in the design of an aircraft is the maximum
allowable weight of the aircraft during take-off operation. It is also referred to as all
up weight. The design maximum take-off weight (MTOW or WTO) is the total
weight of an aircraft when it begins the mission for which it is designed. The
maximum design take-off weight is not necessarily the same as the maximum
nominal take-off weight, since some aircraft can be overloaded beyond design weight
in an emergency situation, but will suffer a reduced performance and reduced
stability. Unless specifically stated, maximum take-off weight is the design weight. It
means every aircraft component (e.g. wing, tail) is designed to support this weight.

The major factor that determines the whole design of aircraft especially the
selection of overall weight, airfoil and power plant of the aircraft.
Total weight of an airplane is given by, WTO =WC+WPL+WF+WE

Where,
WTO = Design takeoff weight of the aircraft
WC = crew weight
WPL = weight of the payload WF = weight of the fuel
WE = empty weight
To simplify the calculation, both fuel and empty weights can be expressed as fractions
of the total takeoff weight, i.e., WF/WO. Equation

WTO = WC+WPL+ ( ) WTO+ ( ) WTO

This can be solved for WTO as follows:

WTO ─ ( ) WTO ─ ( ) WTO = WC+WPL

WTO = ( )

Now WTO can be determined if (WF/WTO) and (WE/WTO) can be estimated.

MISSION PROFILE:

CONSOLIDATED DATA

1. NAME : TWO SEATER FIGHTER AIRCRAFT

2. RANGE : 3000km
3. CREW :2
4. MACH NO : 2.25
5. SERVICE CELING : 19000 m
6. MAXIMUM SPEED : 2485 km/hr
7. RATE OF CLIMB : 230 m/s
8. T/W RATIO : 0.89
9. THRUST : 156 KN with aft/burn
10.WING SPAN : 13.545 m
11.WING LOADING : 400 kg/m2

12.TAKE OFF WEIGHT : 23725 kg

MISSION SPECIFICATION:
Pay load: bombs, carried externally and 800kg of ammunition and 3000 kg bombs
Crew: Two pilot
Cruise speed: Mach 2.25 at sea level
Takeoff and landing: ground of less than x at sea level and an x day
Power plants: two turbo fan engines
Certification base: Military
For supersonic fighter aircraft weight fuel fraction (WF/WO) is,

(W7/W0) = (W1/WTO) * (W2/W1) * (W3/W2) * (W4/W3) * (W5/W4) *

(W6/W5) * (W7/W6)

APPROXIMATE WEIGHT ESTIMATION:

Weight fraction for each profile in mission segment,
Phase 1: Engine start, warm up and takeoff
 Begin weight is WTO. End weight is W1 the fuel fraction for this phase is by above definition
given by W1/WTO. From the suggested fuel fraction table for military fighters

W1/WTO = 0.97

Phase 2: Climb

Begin weight is W1. End weight is W2. The fuel fraction for this phase is W 2/W1. From the
suggested fuel fraction for military fighters

W2/W1 = 0.985

Phase 3: Cruise

Begin weight is W2. End weight is W3. The fuel fraction for this phase is W3/W2. From the
suggested fuel fraction for military fighters.

R=3000 *103 m

C=0.8 1/hr. =0.00022 1/s

V=2485 km/hr=690.28 m/s

L/D=14.722

W3/W2=e [-RC/VL/D] =e-0.018

W3/W2 = 0.93

Phase 4: Loiter

Begin weight is W3. End weight is W4. From the suggested fuel fraction for military fighters

E=3 hrs. =10,800s

C=0.7 = 0.00019 1/s

L/D=17

W4/W3=e [-EC/L/D] =e-0.12

 W4/W3 = 0.88

Phase 5: Cruise

Begin weight is W4. End weight is W5. The fuel fraction for this phase is W5/W4. From the
suggested fuel fraction for military fighters.

R=3000 *103 m

C=0.8 1/hr. =0.00022 1/s

V=2485 km/hr=690.28 m/s

L/D=14.722

W3/W2=e [-RC/VL/D] =e-0.018

W3/W2 = 0.93= W5/W4

Phase 6: Loiter

Begin weight is W5. End weight is W6. From the suggested fuel fraction for military fighters

E=1/3 hrs. =1200s

C=0.7 = 0.00019 1/s

L/D=17

W6/W5=e [-EC/L/D] =e-0.013

W6/W5 = 0.986

Phase 7: Land

Begin weight is W6. End weight is W7. The fuel fraction for this phase is W 7/W6. From the
suggested fuel fraction for military fighters from the table,

W7/W6 = 0.995

(W7/WTO) = (W1/W0) * (W2/W1) * (W3/W2) * (W4/W3) * (W5/W4) * (W6/W5) * (W7/W6)

(W7/WTO) = (0.97) *(0.985)*(0.93)*(0.88)*(0.93)*(0.986)*(0.995)
(W7/WTO) = 0.71
Then,

( ) =1.06(1-(W7/WT0)

( ) =0.29

Assume Empty Weight fraction,

( ) =AWT0c

( ) =2.34*WT0-0.13

So, overall weight,

WTO = ( )

WC+WPL =4000 Kg WC =200Kg, WPL =3800Kg

ITERATION WTO(Guess) WTO(Approx.)

( )

1. 23725 0.63 50000

2. 50000 0.57 28571.43

3. 28571.43 0.61 40000

4. 40000 0.59 33333.33

 5. 33333.33 0.60 36363.63

6. 36363.63 0.59 35389.23

7. 35389.23 0.59 35389.23

Approximate Overall weight (WTO) = 35389.23kg=347.17KN

Fuel weight (WF) =10262.87 kg=100.68KN

Empty weight (WE) =20879.64kg=204.83KN

RESULT:
Thus the final Takeoff weight of the proposed aircraft was estimated using fuel
fraction method were as follows,
 WTO (APPROXIMATE) = 35389.23kg=347.17KN

Chapter 6: SELECTION OF AEROFOIL

WING DESIGN:

This chapter focuses on the detail design of the wing. The wing may be
considered as the most important component of an aircraft, since a fixed-wing aircraft
is not able to fly without it. Since the wing geometry and its features are influencing all
other aircraft components, we begin the detail design process by wing design. The
primary function of the wing is to generate sufficient lift force or simply lift (L).
However, the wing has two other productions, namely drag force or drag (D) and nose-
down pitching moment (M). While a wing designer is looking to maximize the lift, the
other two (drag and pitching moment) must be minimized. In fact, wing is assumed ad
a lifting surface that lift is produced due to the pressure difference between lower and
upper surfaces.

During the wing design process, eighteen parameters must be determined. They are
as follows:

1.Wing reference (or planform) area (SW or Sref or S)

2.Number of the wings
3.Vertical position relative to the fuselage (high, mid, or low wing)
4.Horizontal position relative to the fuselage
5.Cross section (or airfoil)
6.Aspect ratio (AR)
7.Taper ratio
8.Tip chord (Ct)
9.Root chord (Cr)
10. Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC or C)
 11. Span (b)
12. Twist angle
13. Sweep angle
14. Dihedral angle
15. Incidence (iw)
16. High lifting devices such as flap
17. Aileron
18. Other wing accessories

The airfoil, in many respects, is the heart of the airplane. The airfoil affects the
cruise speed, take- off and landing distances, stall speed, handling qualities, and
overall aerodynamic efficiency during all phases of flight. The design of the airfoil is a
complex and time consuming process.

Much of the Wright brother’s success can be traced to their development of airfoils
using a wind tunnel of their own design, and the in-flight validation of those airfoils in
their glider experiments if 1901-1902. More recently, the low speed airfoils develop by
peter Lissaman contributed much to the success of the man-powered Gosssmer
Condor, and the airfoils designed by John Rontz were instrumental to the success of
Burt Rutan’s radical designs.

Airfoil geometric parameters

 b. large angle of attack

Flow around an airfoil

NACA 65-410

Thickness: 10.0%
Camber: 2.2%
Trailing edge
9.2o
angle:
Lower flatness: 77.6%
Leading edge 1.1%
radius:
Max CL: 1.0
Max CL angle: 11
Max L/D: 41.2
Max L/D angle: 3.5
Max L/D CL: 0.7
Stall angle: 3.5
Zero-lift angle: -3.0
NACA 65-210

Thickness: 10.0%
Camber: 1.1%
Trailing edge angle: 9.3o
Lower flatness: 63.2%
Leading edge radius: 1.1%
Max CL: 0.85
Max CL angle: 11.5

Max L/D: 31.146

Max L/D angle: 3.0

Max L/D CL: 0.547

Stall angle: 3.0

Zero-lift angle: -1.5
RESULT:

From the above analysis NACA 65-410 series type airfoil was selected for our
aircraft design.
 Chapter 6: POWERPLANT SELECTION
• Thrust to weight ratio
• Thrust matching
• Engine rating
• Rubber sizing of the engine
• Number of the engines
Thrust to weight ratio:
T/W directly affects the performance of the aircraft. An aircraft with a higher
T/W will accelerate more quickly, climb more rapidly, reach a higher maximum
speed, and sustain higher turn rates. On the other hand, the larger engines will
consume more fuel throughout the mission, which will drive up the aircraft up the
aircraft’s takeoff gross weight to perform the design mission.

T/W is not a constant. The weight of the aircraft varies during the flight as fuel
is burned. Also, the engine’s thrust varies with altitude and velocity (as does the
horsepower and propeller efficiency, (ηp).When the designers speak of an aircraft’s
thrust-to-weight ratio they generally refer to the T/W during sea-level static (zero
velocity), standard-day conditions.
T/WTO Ratio for General Aviation- Twin engine is 0.89. Overall weight of aircraft
WTO =35389.23kg=347.17KN. Then,
T=0.89×347.17×103=309KN
So, the thrust needed=309KN
From the literature survey the nearest value of the thrust corresponding aircraft
is Jet engine The Jet engine has the following characteristics,
• Thrust per engine = 154.5KN
• Number of engine = 2
• Type of engine= Turbofan
• Total thrust=309 KN

PRATT & WHITNEY F119 ENGINE

The Pratt & Whitney F119, company designation PW5000,[1] is

an afterburning turbofan engine developed by Pratt & Whitney for the Lockheed
Martin F-22 Raptor advanced tactical fighter.

The engine delivers thrust in the 35,000 lbf (156 kN) class, and is designed
for super cruise. Delivering almost 22% more thrust with 40% fewer parts than
its F100 predecessor, the F119 allows sustained super cruise speeds of up to Mach
1.8.[2][3] The F119's nozzles incorporate 2D thrust vectoring technology that enable
them to direct the engine thrust ±20° in the pitch axis to give the F-22 enhanced
maneuverability.

The F119 is a twin-spool axial-flow low-bypass turbofan. It has a three-stage

fan driven by a single-stage low pressure turbine and six-stage high pressure
compressor driven by single-stage high pressure turbine. The shroud-less fan has
wide-chord, low aspect ratio hollow titanium fan blades that are linear-friction
welded to the disks to form single-piece IBRs. The compressor stators and thrust-
vectoring nozzle use burn-resistant titanium alloy called Alloy C, with the first row
of stators variable in order to increase surge margin. The Float wall annular
combustor ensures the clean burning of the fuel and reduced NO x generation. The
high-pressure turbine blades are made of single-crystal super alloys and impingement
cooled using air from the high-pressure compressor.

The two spools are counter-rotating, which results in weight savings due to the
elimination of a row of stators. The requirement for the ATF to super cruise, or fly
supersonic without afterburners, results in a very low bypass ratio of 0.3 for the
F119-PW-100 in order to achieve high specific thrust. The F119 has dual-redundant
full authority digital engine control (FADEC).
The three-zone afterburner, or augmentor, contributes to the stealth of the aircraft by
having fuel injectors integrated into thick curved vanes coated with ceramic radar-
absorbent materials (RAM). These vanes replace the traditional fuel spray bars and
flame holders and block line-of-sight of the turbines. The nozzle can vector ±20° in
the pitch axis to improve aircraft maneuverability and consists two wedge-shaped
flaps for stealth. The nozzles also contribute to lower infrared (IR) signature by
flattening the exhaust plume and facilitating its mixing with ambient air through shed
vortices. The engine has a design life of 8,650 total accumulated cycles.

RESULT:
• Name of engine selected = Pratt & Whitney F119 Turbofan
• Number of engine =2

• Total thrust = 309 KN