AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT - I

100 SEATED PASSENGER

AIRCRAFT

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by,
BALASASTHA P
BALAGANESAN M
ADNAN KHAN M
in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
in

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

NEHRU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY,THIRUMALAYAMPALAYAM

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

MARCH 2022
 ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “100 SEATED PASSENGER

AIRCRAFT” is the bonafide work of BALASASTHA P (721419101015),

BALAGANESAN M (721419101012) and ADNAN KHAN M

(721419101003) who carried out the project work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Internal Examiner External Examiner

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We owe a debt of gratitude to Mr. B.R. SENTHIL KUMAR, Head of the

Department, Department of Aeronautical Engineering, for being a source of

constant encouragement and a pillar of support in all that we do, be it academic

or extracurricular.

We would like to extend our heartfelt thanks to Mr. J. KARTHIKEYAN for

his constant help, erudite guidance and immense passion which enthused us to

do the project better.

A warm token of appreciation to the management at NEHRU INSTITUTE OF

ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, Thirumalayampalyam for

providing us with the amenities and a congenial atmosphere to work in.

 ABSTRACT

The aim of this report is to design and conceptualize a STOL commuter

aircraft which can caters the need of Indian civil aircraft market. This aircraft
design is made to run on STOL based technology describing a passenger
aircraft, for transporting a group of passengers or wealthy individuals. The
report involves the design of a STOL commuter aircraft which runs on a
turboprop engine, with an accommodation of 100-seater providing the
amenities and the desired comfort level that a commuter aircraft is expected
to provide while incorporating the design specifications and performance
parameters of a long range commercial airliner. The aircraft allows for
average range transport aircraft with better efficiency and reduced fuel
consumption. To reduce runway distance, a calculation of takeoff and
landing ground roll has been taken out. Thrust reversers are also a part taker
in boosting the STOL of the aircraft. All the parameters considered are taken
in account in calculating the desire aerodynamic values.
TABLE OF CONTENTS:

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO

ABSTRACT iv
LIST OF TABLES vii
LIST OF FIGURES viii
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND x
ABBREVIATIONS

1. INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN 1

1.1 Defining a new design 5

1.1.1 Aircraft Purpose 6

1.2 Design Motivation 7

1.3 Design Process 9

1.4 Conceptual Design 11

1.5 Design Process Breakdown 12

2. INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS JETS 13

2.1 Classification of Business Jets 14

2.2 Need for Business Jets 16

3. COMMON COMPARATIVE STUDY 19

4. COMPARATIVE DATA SHEET 20

5. COMPARATIVE GRAPHS 22
 6. WEIGHT ESTIMATION 32

7. WING LOADING 38

8. AIRFOIL SELECTION 42

9. DRAG ESTIMATION 54

10. POWERPLANT SELECTION 58

11. LANDING GEAR DESIGN 64

12. PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS 68

13. CENTRE OF GRAVITY ESTIMATION 73

14. STABILITY AND CONTROL 83

15. 3-VIEW DIAGRAM 92

16. FINALIZED DESIGN PARAMETERS 94

17. CONCLUSION 95

18. REFERENCES 96
List of Tables Page no.
1. Design Process breakdown 12

2. Common Comparative study 19

3. Comparative Data Sheet (Business Jets) 20

4. Gross Weight Iteration Table 36

5. Wing Parameters 53

6. Comparison of Turbofan Engines 58

7. Performance Parameters 72

8. Approximate Group Weights Method 75

9. Wing Location and c.g. of the Airplane 81

10. Finalized Design Parameters 94

List of Figures Page no.

1. Design Process flow chart 10

2. Cruise Speed vs. Range 22

3. Cruise speed vs. Altitude 23

4. Cruise Speed vs. Wing Loading 24

5. Cruise Speed vs. Gross Weight 25

6. Cruise Speed vs. Aspect Ratio 26

7. Range vs. Aspect ratio 27

8. Wing loading vs. Aspect ratio 28

9. Wing Loading vs. Takeoff run 29

10. Wing Loading vs. R/C max 30

11. Aspect ratio vs. R/C max 31

12. Mission Profile 32

13. Weight Distribution Chart 37

14. Wing loading 41

15. Airfoil Geometry 42

16. Angle of Attack 42

17. NACA 63A-514 (Root airfoil) 45

18. NACA 63-512 (Midspan airfoil) 46

18. NACA 63-310 (Tip airfoil) 47

19. Maximum Thickness 48

20. Taper Ratio 49

21. Wing Sweep 50

22. Effective Mach no. 51

23. Winglets 52

24. Pratt & Whitney PW1000G 60

25. Landing Gear System 65

26. Performance Characteristics

a. climbing flight 69
 b. gliding flight 71

27. Static Longitudinal Stability 82

28. Longitudinal stability 84

29. Fuselage directional stability coefficient 87

30. Directional stability 89

31. Lateral stability 91

32. 3 View Diagram 92

List of Symbols and Abbreviations

 - Angle of attack

 - Climb angle

 - Density factor

 - Density of air

 - Dihedral angle

 - Glide angle

 - Turn angle

 - Turn rate
 - Wing thickness ratio correction factor

 - Yaw angle

1/4 - Quarter chord sweep angle

Cm/e - Elevator control power

Cn/r - Rudder control power

fuel - Density of fuel

(L/D)cruise - Lift-to-drag ratio at cruise

(L/D)loiter - Lift-to-drag ratio at loiter

ac - Aerodynamic centre

APU - Auxiliary Power Unit

AR - Wing aspect ratio

at - Lift curve slope of tail

av - Lift curve slope of vertical tail

aw - Lift curve slope of wing

b - Wing span

c - Chord length

ĉ - Mean chord

c.g. - Centre of gravity

CAEP - Committee of Aviation Environmental Protection

CD - Drag coefficient

CD0 - Zero lift drag co-efficient

Cfe - Skin friction coefficient

Cl - Rolling moment coefficient

Clf - Function of airfoil chord over which the flow in laminar

CLmax - Maximum Lift coefficient

Cm - Pitching moment coefficient

Cn - Yawing moment coefficient

cR - Root chord

cT - Tip chord

D - Drag force

d - Tire diameter
E – Endurance

e - Oswald efficiency factor

g - Acceleration due to gravity

Ktf - Factor allowed for trapped fuel

L - Lift force

LE - Leading edge of wing

lf - Length of fuselage

Lt - Load on tyre

lv - Aerodynamic center of vertical tail to the airplane’s center of gravity

M - Mach number

MTOW - Maximum Takeoff Weight

N0 - Neutral point

Ne - Number of engines located on top surface of wing

q - Dynamic pressure

R - Turn radius

R/C - Rate of climb

Rr - Rolling radius of tyre

S - Wing area

SFC - Specific Fuel Consumption

SLO - Takeoff run distance

Sref - Wing reference area STD -

Landing run distance Swet - Wing

wetted area

T - Thrust force

t/c - Wing thickness ratio

T/W - Thrust loading

Tf - A factor which is unity for streamlined

shape V - Velocity of air/aircraft

Vcruise - Velocity at cruise

Vf - Volume of fuel

Vstall - Velocity at stall

w - Tyre width

W/S - Wing loading

W0 - Gross weight of aircraft

Wcrew - Crew weight

We - Empty weight of aircraft

Wf - Weight of fuel

Wpayload – Aircraft payload weight

xlew - Distance of location of wing from nose of the aircraft

λ - Taper ratio of wing

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 1.INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN

Modern aircraft are a complex combination of aerodynamic performance,

lightweight durable structures and advanced systems engineering. Air

passengers demand more comfort and more environmentally friendly aircraft.

Hence many technical challenges need to be balanced for an aircraft to

economically achieve its design specification. Aircraft design is a complex and

laborious undertaking with a number of factors and details that are required to

be checked to obtain optimum the final envisioned product. The design process

begins from scratch and involves a number of calculations, logistic planning,

design and real world considerations, and a level head to meet any hurdle head

on.

Every airplane goes through many changes in design before it is finally built in

a factory. These steps between the first ideas for an airplane and the time when

it is actually flown make up the design process. Along the way, engineers think

about four main areas of aeronautics: Aerodynamics, Propulsion, Structures and

Materials, and Stability and Control.

Aerodynamics is the study of how air flows around an airplane. In order for an

airplane to fly at all, air must flow over and under its wings. The more

aerodynamic, or streamlined the airplane is, the less resistance it has against the

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air. If air can move around the airplane easier, the airplane's engines have less

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work to do. This means the engines do not have to be as big or eat up as much

fuel which makes the airplane more lightweight and easier to fly. Engineers

have to think about what type of airplane they are designing because certain

airplanes need to be aerodynamic in certain ways. For example, fighter jets

maneuver and turn quickly and fly faster than sound (supersonic flight) over

short distances. Most passenger airplanes, on the other hand, fly below the

speed of sound (subsonic flight) for long periods of time.

Propulsion is the study of what kind of engine and power an airplane needs. An

airplane needs to have the right kind of engine for the kind of job that it has. A

passenger jet carries many passengers and a lot of heavy cargo over long

distances so its engines need to use fuel very efficiently. Engineers are also

trying to make airplane engines quieter so they do not bother the passengers

onboard or the neighborhoods they are flying over. Another important concern

is making the exhaust cleaner and more environmentally friendly. Just like

automobiles, airplane exhaust contains chemicals that can damage the earth's

environment.

Structures and Materials is the study of how strong the airplane is and what

materials will be used to build it. It is really important for an airplane to be as

lightweight as possible. The less weight an airplane has, the less work the

engines have to do and the farther it can fly. It is tough designing an airplane

that is lightweight and strong at the same time. In the past, airplanes were
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usually made out of lightweight metals like aluminum, but today a lot of

engineers are thinking about using composites in their designs. Composites look

and feel like plastic, but are stronger than most metals. Engineers also need to

make sure that airplanes not only fly well, but are also easy to build and

maintain.

Stability and Control is the study of how an airplane handles and interacts to

pilot input and feed. Pilots in the cockpit have a lot of data to read from the

airplane's computers or displays. Some of this information could include the

airplane's speed, altitude, direction, and fuel levels as well as upcoming weather

conditions and other instructions from ground control. The pilot needs to be

able to process the correct data quickly, to think about what kind of action needs

to be taken, and to react in an appropriate way. Meanwhile, the airplane should

display information to the pilot in an easy-to-read and easy-to-understand way.

The controls in the cockpit should be within easy reach and just where the pilot

expects them to be. It is also important that the airplane responds quickly and

accurately to the pilot's instructions and maneuvers.

“It is possible to fly without motors, but not without knowledge and skill.”

- Wright Brothers.

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When you look at aircraft, it is easy to observe that they have a number of

common features: wings, a tail with vertical and horizontal wing sections,

engines to propel them through the air, and a fuselage to carry passengers or

cargo. If, however, you take a more critical look beyond the gross features, you

also can see subtle, and sometimes not so subtle, differences. This is where

design comes into play. Each and every aircraft is built for a specific task, and

the design is worked around the requirement and need of the aircraft. The

design is modeled about the aircraft role and type and not the other way around.

Thus, this is why airplanes differ from each other and are conceptualized

differently. Aircrafts that fall in the same category may have similar

specifications and performance parameters, albeit with a few design changes.

Design is a pivotal part of any operation. Without a fixed idea or knowledge of

required aircraft, it is not possible to conceive the end product. Airplane design

is both an art and a science. In that respect it is difficult to learn by reading a

book; rather, it must be experienced and practiced. However, we can offer the

following definition and then attempt to explain it. Airplane design is the

intellectual engineering process of creating on paper (or on a computer screen) a

flying machine to (1) meet certain specifications and requirements established

by potential users (or as perceived by the manufacturer) and/or (2) pioneer

innovative, new ideas and technology. An example of the former is the design

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of most commercial transports, starting at least with the Douglas DC-1 in 1932,

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which was designed to meet or exceed various specifications by an airplane

company. (The airline was TWA, named Transcontinental and Western Air at

that time.) An example of the latter is the design of the rocket-powered Bell X-

1, the first airplane to exceed the speed of sound in level or climbing flight

(October 14, 1947). The design process is indeed an intellectual activity, but a

rather special one that is tempered by good intuition developed via experience,

by attention paid to successful airplane designs that have been used in the past,

and by (generally proprietary) design procedures and databases (handbooks, etc)

that are a part of every airplane manufacturer.

1.1 Defining a new design

The design of an aircraft draws on a number of basic areas of aerospace

engineering. These include aerodynamics, propulsion, light-weight structures

and control. Each of these areas involves parameters that govern the size, shape,

weight and performance of an aircraft. Although we generally try to seek

optimum in all these aspects, with an aircraft, this is practically impossible to

achieve. The reason is that in many cases, optimizing one characteristic

degrades another.

There are many performance aspects that can be specified by the mission

requirements. These include:

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  The aircraft purpose or mission profile

 The type(s) and amount of payload

 The cruise and maximum speeds

 The normal cruise altitude

 The range or radius with normal payload

 The endurance

 The take-off distance at the maximum weight

 The purchase cost

1.1.1Aircraft Purpose

The starting point of any new aircraft is to clearly identify its purpose. With

this, it is often possible to place a design into a general category. Such

categories include combat aircraft, passenger or cargo transports, and general

aviation aircraft. These may also be further refined into subcategories based on

particular design objectives such as range (short or long), take-off or landing

distances, maximum speed, etc. The process of categorizing is useful in

identifying any existing aircraft that might be used in making comparisons to a

proposed design. With modern military aircraft, the purpose for a new aircraft

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generally comes from a military program office. For example, the mission

specifications for the X-29 pictured in figure 1.1 came from a 1977 request for

proposals from the U.S. Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory in which they

were seeking a research aircraft that would explore the forward swept wing

concept and validate studies that indicated such a design could provide better

control and lift qualities in extreme maneuvers. With modern commercial

aircraft, a proposal for a new design usually comes as the response to internal

studies that aim to project future market needs. For example, the specifications

for the Boeing commercial aircraft (B-777) were based on the interest of

commercial airlines to have a twin-engine aircraft with a payload and range in

between those of the existing B-767 and B-747 aircraft. Since it is not usually

possible to optimize all of the performance aspects in an aircraft, defining the

purpose leads the way in setting which of these aspects will be the “design

drivers.” For example, with the B-777, two of the prominent design drivers

were range and payload.

1.2 Design Motivation

Fundamentally, an aircraft is a structure. Aircraft designers design structures.

The structures are shaped to give them desired aerodynamic characteristics, and

the materials and structures of their engines are chosen and shaped so they can

provide needed thrust. Even seats, control sticks, and windows are structures,

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all of which must be designed for optimum performance. Designing aircraft

structures is particularly challenging, because their weight must be kept to a

minimum. There is always a tradeoff between structural strength and weight.

A good aircraft structure is one which provides all the strength and rigidity to

allow the aircraft to meet all its design requirements, but which weighs no more

than necessary. Any excess structural weight often makes the aircraft cost more

to build and almost always makes it cost more to operate. As with small

excesses of aircraft drag, a small percentage of total aircraft weight used for

structure instead of payload can make the difference between a profitable

airliner or successful tactical fighter and a failure. Designing aircraft structures

involves determining the loads on the structure, planning the general shape and

layout, choosing materials, and then shaping, sizing and optimizing its many

components to give every part just enough strength without excess weight.

Since aircraft structures have relatively low densities, much of their interiors are

typically empty space which in the complete aircraft is filled with equipment,

payload, and fuel. Careful layout of the aircraft structure ensures structural

components are placed within the interior of the structure so they carry the

required loads efficiently and do not interfere with placement of other

components and payload within the space. Choice of materials for the structure

can profoundly influence weight, cost, and manufacturing difficulty. The

extreme complexity of modern aircraft structures makes optimal sizing of

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individual components particularly challenging. An understanding of basic

structural concepts and techniques for designing efficient structures is essential

to every aircraft designer

1.3 Design Process

The process of designing an aircraft and taking it to the point of a flight test

article consists of a sequence of steps, as illustrated in the figure. It starts by

identifying a need or capability for a new aircraft that is brought about by (1) a

perceived market potential and (2) technological advances made through

research and development. The former will include a market-share forecast,

which attempts to examine factors that might impact future sales of a new

design. These factors include the need for a new design of a specific size and

performance, the number of competing designs, and the commonality of

features with existing aircraft. As a rule, a new design with competitive

performance and cost will have an equal share of new sales with existing

competitors. The needs and capabilities of a new aircraft that are determined in

a market survey go to define the mission requirements for a conceptual aircraft.

These are compiled in the form of a design proposal that includes (1) the

motivation for initiating a new design and (2) the “technology readiness” of new

technology for incorporation into a new design. It is essential that the mission

requirements be defined before the design can be started. Based on these, the

most important performance aspects or “design drivers” can be identified and

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optimized above all others. Following the design proposal, the next step is to

produce a conceptual design. The conceptual design develops the first general

size and configuration for a new aircraft. It involves the estimates of the weights

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and the choice of aerodynamic characteristics that will be best suited to the

mission requirements stated in the design proposal.

Research, Development and Market Analysis

Mission Requirements

Conceptual Design

No

Requirements Satisfied

Yes
Preliminary Design

Stop

Final Evaluation

Go
Detailed Design

Test Article Fabrication

Flight Test

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Design Process flow chart

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The conceptual design is driven by the mission requirements, which are set in the
design proposal. In some cases, these may not be attainable so that the requirement
may need to be relaxed in one or more areas. This is shown in the iterative loop in the
flow chart. When the mission requirements are satisfied, the design moves to the next
phase, which is the preliminary design.

1.4 Conceptual Design

This article deals with the steps involved in the conceptual design of an aircraft. It is
broken down in to several elements, which are followed in order. These consist of:

1. Literature survey
2. Preliminary data acquisition
3. Estimation of aircraft weight
a. Maximum take-off weight
b. Empty weight of the aircraft
c. Weight of the fuel
d. Fuel tank capacity
4. Estimation of critical performance parameters
a. Wing area
b. Lift and drag coefficients
c. Wing loading
d. Power loading
e. Thrust to weight ratio
5. Engine selection
6. Performance curves
7. 3 View diagrams

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1.5 Design Process Breakdown

• Conceptual Design:

- Competing concepts evaluated What drives the design?

- Performance goals established Will it work/meet requirement?

- Preferred concept selected What does it look like?

• Preliminary Design:

- Refined sizing of preferred concept Do serious wind tunnel tests

tests

- Design examined data/establish parameters Make actual cost estimate

- Some changes allowed

• Detail Design:

- Final detail design Certification process

- Drawings released Component/systems tests

- Detailed performance Manufacturing

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 Flight control system design
- Only “tweaking” of design allowed

2. INTRODUCTION TO 100 SEATED PASSENGER

AIRCRAFT

The design, having an aircraft mainly depended on its wing configuration,

estimation and selection. All the aircraft components must be considered in airfoil
shape including from wing to rudder, elevators. But in the case of STOL, we
should prefer NACA 6 series for getting sufficient thickness to chord ratio and the
most prominent thing is the payload that is about how many passengers the aircraft
can carry along with other stuffs. So, it is required to have a 100-seater commuter
aircraft which can accommodated payload for an STOL aircraft. It is also
important to keep in mind that the range is to be sufficient as normally a passenger
aircraft do have. So, the range should come around 3000-3500 km for good
providence given to the passengers. Coming to the engine selection, the most
preferred is turboprop, it is because for short distance takeoff turboprops are more
fuel efficient than jets. Here the propeller can be feathered to minimize drag in the
event of engine failure, which is not possible for jet or turbofan engines. Here we
had placed engine above the wing and a T-tail is selected for reducing the
interference disturbance of airflow to the elevators.

The mastering of design has to deal with weight estimation, wing and
empennage selection, fuselage design, engine selection and range calculation. For
STOL characteristic, the need of high lift devices is more. It is because for STOL
aircraft, we need high lift at short runway. And also, a major role played is by wing
design describing in what design the aircraft should achieve STOL. The thrust
reversal mechanisms in STOL aircraft plays a key role, it reduces wear on the

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brakes. Apart from turboprops, other engines can also implement STOL
technology according to its requirements and feasibility.

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 There are many performance aspects that can be as specified by the mission
requirements. These include:

 The aircraft purpose or mission profile

 The type(s) and amount of payload
 The cruise and maximum speeds
 The normal cruise altitude
 L/D ratio
 The takeoff distance at max weight
 The range with normal payload

2.1 Classification of passenger aircrafts

It is classified into four types

1.Jumbo Passenger Jets

These aircraft are fast, comfortable, and can accommodate a medium-sized
group.
Number of Passengers: Above 500 passengers
Sample Aircraft:

Boeing 747

2. Mid-size passenger jet

Combining flight distance, speed and comfort, these mid-sized jets are ideal for
intimate trips.
Number of passengers: Above 350 passengers
Sample Aircraft:
Airbus 350-1000

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3.Light passenger jets
The smaller size of light passenger jets makes them the ideal choice for
economy airlines. The seating is evenly divided into two sections on each side
of a center aisle.
Number of Passengers: 60-100 passengers
Sample Aircraft:
Embraer 175

100 Seated Passenger Aircraft:

These airplanes needed a seating capacity of 100 seats and with other services
for passengers
No of Passengers: 100
Sample Aircraft:
Sud-Aviation Caravelle, Fokker F-28

2.2 Need for 100 seated passenger airplanes

Expectations are running high among 100-seat aircraft manufacturers. Embraer

is expected to officially launch its second-generation E-Jet during the Paris air show
and Bombardier is poised to conduct the first flight of its CSeries shortly thereafter.

The airframers are betting big on the segment. They have wagered their scarce
development funds on these two products and the future of the market, which
launched the iconic Boeing 737 and Douglas DC-9 lines but also sports numerous
failed attempts.

"The 100- to 149-seat aircraft segment will enjoy the strongest growth in terms of
deliveries," says Bombardier in its market forecast through 2031. "Thanks to 'step
change' engine technology, the arrival of new aircraft specifically designed for this

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 segment will invigorate market demand to further optimise airline route networks and
profitability."

3.COMMON COMPARATIVE STUDY

Parameters Airbus A220- Antono AN - De havilland Comac ARJ21- Embraer E-

100 148-100E Canada dash 8- 700 jet E2 family-
Q400 E190

Dimensions:

Length(m) 35 29.13 32.8 33.46 36.25

Height (m) 11.5 8 8.4 8.44 10.96

Wing span (m) 35.1 28.91 28.4 27.28 33.72

Aspect ratio 10.97 9.57 12.6 9.31 11.04

Wing area (m2) 112.3 87.23 64 79.86 103

Specifications:

Empty weight (lb) 31951 22000 17819 24955 33000

MTOW (kg) 58000 43700 30481 40500 56400

Gross weight 63048 43654 30480 43500 56400

Performance:

Max.speed (km/hr) 840 850 667 870 1012

Range (km) 6390 4400 2040 2200 5280

Max. (R/C) (m/s) 10.16 24.9 8.128 8.2 17.6

Max. (W/S) (kg/m2) 561.43 500.45 476.26 544.7 547.57

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Service ceiling 12497 12200 8229 11900 12000

Parameters Sukhoi Superjet Boeing 707 - Fokker 100 Bombardier Sud Aviation
100 - 95LR 120B CRJ700 Caravelle 12

Dimensions:

Length (m) 29.4 44.2 35.3 32.3 36.23

Height (m) 10.28 12.7 10.51 7.6 9.02

Wing span (m) 27.8 39.88 28.08 23.2 34.29

Aspect ratio 9.22 3.57 8.43 7.62 8.01

Wing area (m2) 83.8 226 93.5 70.6 146.7

Specifications:

Empty weight (lb) 25100 30600 24375 20069 29500

MTOW (kg) 49450 50000 43090 34019 27215

Gross weight 49450 116844 45800 34018 58000

Performance:

Max.speed (km/hr) 590 870 1000 845 876

Range (km) 4578 6700 2700 2553 3200

Max. (R/C) (m/s) 84.83 10.16 15.24 17.7 2.38

Max. (W/S) (kg/m2) 590.09 517.01 489.94 481.85 395.36

Service ceiling 12500 11000 11000 12497 12000

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