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Detailed Design of 120 Seater Passenger Aircraft _Aircraft Design Project-II
Thesis · November 2019

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.15108.48009
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DESIGN OF 120 SEATED PASSENGER
AIRCRAFT
AE6612 AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT – II
Submitted by
MOAZ HUSSAIN 730916101052
In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
In
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
EXCEL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
Komarapalayam -637303
ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI – 600 025.
NOVEMBER - 2019
ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI - 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this aircraft design project-II report “DESIGN OF 120

SEATED PASSENGER AIRCRAFT” is the work of “MOAZ HUSSAIN
(730916101052)” who carried out the project work under my supervision.
SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
Dr. Prof. A. SANKARAN Mr. N. SREENIVAS RAJA
Head of The Department (Ph.D.) Assistant Professor (M.E)
Department of Aeronautical Department of Aeronautical
Engineering, Engineering,
Komarapalayam Komarapalayam
Submitted for Anna University Aircraft design Project-I Examination held on

________________.
INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER
i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I thank the almighty for endowing his immense blessing
that helped me in each step of my progress towards successful completion of my
project. I thank Dr. Prof. A. SANKARAN, Ph.D. Head of Department,
Aeronautical Engineering, for his guidance. I express my gratitude to my coordinator
Mr. S. R. ARUN, M.Tech & Mr. N. SREENIVASRAJA, M.E, for their
encouragement and dedicated guidance.
I take privilege to record my everlasting and loving thanks to my parents for
their kind help and support which rendered in bringing my project in a fruitful
manner.
ii
ABSTRACT
This report provides data for preliminary and detailed design of wing,
fuselage, control surface and landing gear of a 120 seated passenger aircraft with the
knowledge of design data from previous design project. In this, the theoretical aspect
of aerodynamics, aircraft structure, propulsion, stability and control are given as per
the need for design. This report also deals with in depth study of structural
characteristics of aircraft components.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Content Page No.

Chapter
Bonafide Certificate i
Acknowledgement ii
Abstract iii
List of Figure vii
List of Tables vii
1 Introduction
1.1. Design of an airplane 2
1.2. Phases of airplane design 2
1.3. Outline aircraft design project 2 2
2 Load Estimation on Wings
2.1. Loads acting on wing 5
2.1.1. Shrenck's curve 5
2.1.2. Linear lift distribution 5
2.1.3. Elliptic Lift Distribution 7
2.1.4. Construction of schrenk’s curve 8
2.2. Self-weight of wing 8
2.3. Fuel weight 9
iv
2.4. Bending stress and shear flow in Wing 11
2.5. Shear force and Bending moment 13
3 Load Estimation on Fuselage
3.1. Load distribution on an aircraft fuselage 19
3.2. Bending stress and shear flow in fuselage 20
4 Detailed Design of an Aircraft Wing
4.1. Specific Roles of Wing Structure 24
4.2. Basic Functions of Wing Structural Members 24
4.3. Spar Definition 25
4.4. Assumptions 27
4.5. Torque diagrams 28
4.6. Buckling analysis 30
5 Detail Design of an Aircraft Fuselage
5.1. Fuselage Layout Concepts 34
5.2. Design of fuselage component-stringer 35
5.3. Buckling analysis 39
6 Design of Control Surfaces
6.1. High Lift Systems 42
6.2. Flaps 42
v
6.3. Slots and Slats 43
6.4. Deflected Slipstream and Jet Wash 45
7 Design of Wing-Root Attachment
7.1. Wing root 48
7.2. Wing configuration 49
7.3. Wing plan form 50
8 Landing Gear Design
8.1. Landing gear 55
8.2. Types of landing gear 55
Three View Diagram 59
Conclusion 60
Reference 61
vi
LIST OF FIGURE
Fig.No. Figure Page No.

2.1 Linear variation of lift along wing semi span 6
2.2 Elliptical variation of lift along semi span 7
2.3 Shrenck’s Curve along wing semi span 8
2.4 Self-Weight variation along wing semi span 9
2.5 Slope of the fuel weight 10
2.6 Fuel Weight variation along wing semi span 10
2.7 Components of wing structure 12
2.8 Shear force variation along wing span 14
2.9 Bending moment variation along wing span 15
3.1 Load variation along fuselage length 19
3.2 Shear force variation along fuselage length 21
3.3 Bending moment variation along fuselage 22
4.1 Design of spars and stringers 26
4.2 Spars with Dimension 28
4.3 Torque and power curve 29
4.4 Torque diagrams 30
4.5 Buckling of wing 31
5.1 Monocoque construction 34
5.2 Semi monocoque construction 35
5.3 Stringers with Dimension 39
5.4 Buckling of fuselage 40
vii
6.1 Double slotted flap 44
6.2 Motion of Double slotted Flap 45
7.1 Wing root 49
7.2 Types of wing 50
7.3 Swept wing 51
8.1 Landing Gear 58
LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Tables Page No.
1.1 Parameters taken from design project I 3

2.1 Calculation of centroid 13
2.2 Calculation of Shear force and Bending Moment 14
3.1 Loads acting on fuselage 18
3.2 Shear force and bending moment calculation 21
4.1 Moment on Front And Rear Spar 27
4.2 Area of front and rear spar 27
4.3 Dimension of front and rear spar 27
5.1 Dimension of stringers 38
viii
Design of 120 Seated Passenger Aircraft ADP-II
INTRODUCTION
1|Page EXCEL ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1. Introduction
1.1. Design of an airplane:
Airplane design is both an art and a science. It‟s the intellectual engineering process
of creating on paper (or on a computer screen) a flying machine to
 meet certain specifications and requirements established by potential users (or
as perceived by the manufacturer) and
 pioneer innovative, new ideas and technology.
The design process is indeed an intellectual activity that is rather specified one that
is tempered by good intuition developed via by attention paid to successful airplane
designs that have been used in the past, and by (generally proprietary) design procedure
and databases (hand books etc) that are a part of every airplane manufacturer.
1.2. Phases of airplane design:

The complete design process has gone through three distinct phases that are carried
out in sequence. They are
 Conceptual design
 Preliminary design
 Detailed design
1.3. Outline aircraft design project 2:

The structural design of the aircraft which is done in aircraft design project 2 involves:
 Determination of loads acting on aircraft
 Schrenk‟s Curve
 Critical loading performance
 Determination of loads acting on individual structures
 Structural design study – Theory approach
 Load estimation of wings
 Load estimation of fuselage.
 Material Selection for structural members

 Detailed structural layouts
 Design of some components of wings, fuselage
Table 1.1 Parameters taken from design project I
Parameters Values
Seating capacity 120

length of aircraft 38m
Height of aircraft 11m
Wing span 31.9m
Wing area 149 m2
Wing chord length Root – 8m
Mean-5.47m
Tip-1.5m
Wing taper ratio 0.18
t/c ratio 0.14
L/D max 22.68
L/D cruise 19.64
Wing sweep angle 25o
Cabin width 5
Fuselage width 5.5
Empty weight (lb) 28363.95
Max takeoff weight (lb) 76659.32244
Max fuel capacity (lb) 20605.33739
Speed 0.86 M
Range 2500nm

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LOAD ESTIMATION ON WINGS

2. Load Estimation on Wings

2.1. Loads acting on wing:
As both the wings are symmetric, let us consider the starboard wing at first. There
are three primary loads acting on a wing structure in transverse direction which can
cause considerable shear forces and bending moments on it. They are as follows:
 Lift force (given by Shrenck’s curve)
 Self-weight of the wing
 Weight of the power plant
 Weight of the fuel in the wing
2.1.1. Shrenck's curve

Shrenck’s Curve is used to obtain the Lift distribution along the span of an
Aircraft wing.
For designing an aircraft and its parts, it is necessary to study the loads and its
distribution over the surface of the aircraft. Especially for the structural design of a
wing, it is important to study the distribution of its main load, the lift distribution along
its span. Hence the lift distribution over the span of the wing is obtained by Shrenck’s
curve is an average of Trapezoidal Lift Distribution and Elliptic Lift Distribution.
Shrenck’s Curve is given by
Y1 +Y2
Y=
2
Where,
Y1 is Linear Variation of lift along semi wing span also named as L1,
Y2 is Elliptic Lift Distribution along the wing span also named as L2
2.1.2. Linear lift distribution:

Lift at root
ρV2 CL CRoot
LRoot =
2

(1.225)(257.711)²(0.2409)(8)
LRoot =
2
LRoot = 86727.02 (N/m)
Lift at tip
ρV2 CL CRoot
LTip =
2
(1.225)(257.711)² (0.2409)(1.5)
LTip =
2
LTip = 16261.31 (N/m)
By representing this lift at sections of root and tip we can get the equation for the wing.
Equation of linear lift distribution for starboard wing
Y1 = mx+c
Y1 = (-4782.66454) x + 86727.02
Equation of linear lift distribution for port wing we have to replace x by –x in general,
x Y1
86727.02 Linear Lift Distribution
0
1 81944.36
100000
2 77161.69
72379.03 90000
3
4 67596.36 80000
5 62813.70 70000
Lift (N)
6 58031.03 60000
7 53248.37 50000
8 48465.70
40000
9 43683.04
30000
10 38900.37
20000
11 34117.71
29335.05 10000
12
24552.38 0
13 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
14 19769.72 Wing Semi Span (m)
15 14987.05
Fig-2.1 Linear variation of lift along wing semi span

2.1.3. Elliptic Lift Distribution:

Twice the area under the curve or line will give the lift which will be required to
overcome weight. Considering an elliptic lift distribution we get,
L W πab1
= =
2 2 4
πab1
A=
4
Where,
b1 - is Actual lift at root
a - is wing semi span
4W
Lift at tip b=
2πa
b = 13617.84 N/m
2b
Y2 = √(a2 -x2 )
a
2*13617.84
Y2 = (√(15.952 -x2 ))
15.95
x y2
0 27235.69 Elliptial lift distribution
1 27182.1 30000
2 27020.72
3 26749.59 25000
4 26365.32
5 25862.87 20000
6 25235.18
Lift (N)
7 24472.62 15000
8 23562.1
9 22485.64 10000
10 21218.02
11 19722.39 5000
12 17941.84
13 15780.22 0
14 13049.48 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
15 9259.121 Wing Semi Span (m)
15.95 0
Fig-2.2 Elliptical variation of lift along wing semi span

2.1.4. Construction of schrenk’s curve:

Shrenck’s Curve is given by,
Y1 +Y2
Y=
2
(-4782.66454) x + 86727.02)+ (1707.566√(15.952 -x2 ))
Y=
2
x y
0 155850.2 Shrenck's curve
100000
1 147979.8
90000 Linear Lift
2 140055.5
3 132076.4 80000 Eliptical Lift
4 124040.7 70000 Shrenck Curve
5 115945.9
60000
6 107788.5
Lift (N)
7 99563.64 50000
8 91264.81 40000
9 82883.01 30000
10 74405.63
20000
11 65814.25
10000
12 57080.4
13 48156.02 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
14 38947.08
Wing Semi Span (m)
15 29208.33
Fig-2.3 Shrenck’s Curve along wing semi span

2.2. Self-weight of wing (𝒀𝟑):
Self-weight of the wing,
wwing
= 0.349
wTo
W (wing) = 0.349*341011.2208
w (wing) = 119012.9161 N
w (Port wing) = -59506.45 N (Acting Downwards)
w (Starboard) = -59506.45 N (Acting Downwards)
Assuming parabolic weight distribution

b 2
Y3 = k (x- )
2
15.95
b 2
-59506.45 = ∫ k (x- )
0 2
x(15.95)3
- 427961.25=
3
k = -43.99499709
x Y3
0 -11192.4 0
Self Weight Variation
1 -9832.99 0 5 10 15
2 -8561.54 -1500
3 -7378.07
-3000
4 -6282.6
5 -5275.11 -4500
Weight (N)
6 -4355.61
7 -3524.11 -6000
8 -2780.59
-7500
9 -2125.07
10 -1557.53 -9000
11 -1077.99
12 -686.432 -10500
13 -382.866 -12000
14 -167.291 Wing Semi Span (m)
15 -39.7055
Fig-2.4 Self Weight variation along wing semi span

2.3. Fuel weight:
This design has fuel in the wing so we have to consider the weight of the fuel in
one the wing.
W(Fuel Wing) 91660.75

=
2 2
W(Fuel Weight ) = 45830.37 N

Fig-2.5 Slope of the fuel weight

Again by using general formula for straight line y=mx+c we get,
dy = 1740.39 Dy = (5917.33-dy)
Where,
5917.33-1740.39m
m=
13.5575
4176.93
m= m = 436.46 N⁄ 2
13.5575 m
Solving these equation,
Yf =436.46 x – 5917.33
x Yf
Fuel Weight
0 -5917.33 0
1 -5480.87 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
2 -5044.4 -1000
3 -4607.94
4 -4171.48 -2000
5 -3735.02
Weight (N)
6 -3298.56
-3000
7 -2862.1
8 -2425.63
-4000
9 -1989.17
10 -1552.71
-5000
11 -1116.25
12 -679.789
13 -243.327 -6000
13.5575 0 Wing Semi Span
Fig-2.6 Fuel Weight variation along wing semi span
10 | P a g e EXCEL ENGINEERING COLLEGE

2.4. Bending stress and shear flow in Wing

The solution methods which follow Euler's beam bending theory (σ/y=M/I=E/R)
use the bending moment values to determine the stresses developed at a particular
section of the beam due to the combination of aerodynamic and structural loads in the
transverse direction. Most engineering solution methods for structural mechanics
problems (both exact and approximate methods) use the shear force and bending moment
equations to determine the deflection and slope at a particular section of the beam.
Therefore, these equations are to be obtained as analytical expressions in terms of span
wise location. The bending moment produced here is about the longitudinal (x) axis. As
both the wings are symmetric, let us consider the starboard wing at first. There are three
primary loads acting on a wing structure in transverse direction which can cause
considerable shear forces and bending moments on it. They are as follows
 Lift force and Self-weight of the wings.

 Weight of the power plant.
2.4.1. Component of wing structure
The wings are airfoils attached to each side of the fuselage and are the main lifting
surfaces that support the airplane in flight. There are numerous wing designs, sizes, and
a shape used by the various manufacturers. Each fulfills a certain need with respect to
the expected performance for the particular airplane. Wings may be attached at the top,
middle, or lower portion of the fuselage. These designs are referred to as high, mid, and
low-wing, respectively. The number of wings can also vary. Airplanes with a single set
of wings are referred to as monoplanes, while those with two sets are called biplanes.
Many high-wing airplanes have external braces, or wing struts, which transmit the flight
and landing loads through the struts to the main fuselage structure. Since the wing struts
are usually attached approximately halfway out on the wing, this type of wing structure
is called semi-cantilever. A few high-wing and most low-wing airplanes have a full
cantilever wing designed to carry the loads without external struts. The principal
structural parts of the wing are spars, ribs, and stringers.

Fig-2.7 Components of wing structure
These are reinforced by trusses, I-beams, tubing, or other devices, including the
skin. The wing ribs determine the shape and thickness of the wing (airfoil). Attached to
the rear, or trailing, edges of the wings are two types of control surfaces referred to as
ailerons and flaps. Ailerons extend from about the midpoint of each wing outward
toward the tip and move in opposite directions create aerodynamic forces that cause the
airplane to roll. Flaps extend outward from the fuselage to near the midpoint of each
wing. The flaps are normally flush with the wing surface during cruising flight. When
extended, the flaps move simultaneously downward to increase the lifting force of the
wing for takeoffs and landings.
2.4.2. Forces
Some of the forces acting on a wing spar are:
 Upward bending loads resulting from the wing lift force that supports the
fuselage in flight. These forces are often offset by carrying fuel in the wings or
employing wing-tip-mounted fuel tanks; the Cessna 310 is an example of this
design feature.
 Downward bending loads while stationary on the ground due to the weight of
the structure, fuel carried in the wings, and wing-mounted engines if used.

 Drag loads dependent on airspeed and inertia. Rolling inertia loads.

 Chord wise twisting loads due to aerodynamic effects at high airspeeds often
associated with washout, and the use of ailerons resulting in control reversal.
Further twisting loads are induced by changes of thrust settings to under wing-
mounted engines.
Table 2.1 Calculation of centroid
Sl. No Curve/component Area/Structural Weight (N) Centroid (m)
1 Y1/2 821332.0246 10.168125
2 Y2/2 170592.0933 6.77875
3 Wing 59506.45804 3.9875
4 Fuel 91660.7535 4.785
ΣV=0
VA - 821332.02 - 170592.09 + 59506.45 + 91660.75 = 0
VA = 840756.91 N
ΣM = 0
MA - (821332.02*10.168) - (170592.09*6.7787) + (59506.45*3.987) + (91660.75*4.785) = 0
MA = 8831929.13 N⁄m
Now we know VA and MA, using this we can find out shear force and bending moment.
2.5. Shear force and Bending moment
y1 + y2
SF = ∫ ( - y3 ) dx- VA + 2 ∗ ∫ yf dx − 𝑊𝑓
2
𝑥 𝑥
SF = 14.67𝑥 3 − 4187.04𝑥 2 + 130652.08𝑥 + √254.4 − 𝑥 2 + 127.2 sin−1 − 262733.25
2 15.95
y1 + y2
BCBC = [∬ ( - y3 ) dx - VA ] dx2 + MA + 2 ∗ ∬ yf dx2 + 𝑊𝑓 ∗ 𝑥
2

Table 2.2 Calculation of Shear force and Bending Moment
x Shear Force Bending Moment

-10.1681 0 0
-10.1681 821332.0246 -8351406.693
-6.77875 170592.1 -1156401.153
-4.785 91660.75 -438596.7055

-3.9875 59506.46 -237282.0014
0 109797.8 0
3.9875 59506.46 -237282.0014
4.785 91660.75 -438596.7055
6.77875 170592.1 -1156401.153
10.16813 821332.0246 -8351406.693
10.16813 0 0
Shear Force Distribution

1000000
821332.0246 900000 821332.0246
800000
700000
Shear Force
600000
500000
400000
170592.0933 170592.0933
300000
59506.45804 109797.8094
200000 59506.45804
0 100000 0
91660.7535 91660.7535
0
-12 -8 -4 0 4 8 12
Wing Span
Fig-2.8 Shear force variation along wing span

0
Bending Moment
0
Distribution 0
-438596.7055 -438596.7055
0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
-1000000
-237282.0014 -237282.0014
-2000000
-1156401.153 -1156401.153
Bendin Moment
-3000000
-4000000
-5000000
-6000000
-7000000
-8000000
-8351406.693 -8351406.693
-9000000
Wing Span
Fig-2.9 Bending moment variation along wing span
Result
Thus the preliminary design calculation of aircraft wing has been done and the
graphs are plotted.

LOAD ESTIMATION ON FUSELAGE

3. Load Estimation on Fuselage

Fuselage contributes very little to lift and produces more drag but it is an important
structural member/component. It is the connecting member to all load producing
components such as wing, horizontal tail, vertical tail, landing gear etc. and thus
redistributes the load. It also serves the purpose of housing or accommodating
practically all the equipments, accessories and systems in addition to carrying the
payload. Because of large amount of equipment inside the fuselage, it is necessary to
provide sufficient number of cutouts in the fuselage for access and inspection
purposes. These cutouts and discontinuities result in fuselage design being more
complicated, less precise and often less efficient in design. As a common member to
which other components are attached, thereby transmitting the loads, fuselage can be
considered as a long hollow beam. The reactions produced by the wing, tail or landing
gear may be considered as concentrated loads at the respective attachment points.
The balancing reactions are provided by the inertia forces contributed by the weight
of the fuselage structure and the various components inside the fuselage. These
reaction forces are distributed all along the length of the fuselage, though need not be
uniformly .Unlike the wing, which is subjected to mainly unsymmetrical load, the
fuselage is much simpler for structural analysis due to its symmetrical cross-section
and symmetrical loading.
The main load in the case of fuselage is the shear load because the load acting on
the wing is transferred to the fuselage skin in the form of shear only. The structural
design of both wing and fuselage begin with shear force and bending moment
diagrams for the respective members
To find out the loads and their distribution, consider the different cases. The main
components of the fuselage loading diagram are:
 Weight of the fuselage
 Engine weight
 Weight of the horizontal and vertical stabilizers

 Tail lift
 Weight of crew, payload and landing gear
 Systems, equipment, accessories
Symmetric flight condition, steady and level flight: (Downward forces negative)
Values for the different component weights are obtained from aerodynamic design
calculations.
Table 3.1 Loads acting on fuselage
Condition Full Payload and Full Fuel
Distance
from Moment
S.No Component Mass (lb) Weight (N)
reference (Nm)
line (m)
1 Crew 2.356 1234.97 5495.63 12947.72
2 Nose Landing Gear 5.206 992.73 4417.68 22998.47
3 Payload bay 1 9.5 12460.51 55449.27 526768.15
4 Fixed Equipment 14.44 1191.28 5301.22 76549.67
5 Fuselage Mass 17.708 8934.64 39759.17 704055.52
6 Main Landing Gear 17.746 2481.84 11044.21 195990.65

Assembly 1
7 Main Landing Gear 23.56 2481.84 11044.21 260201.73
Assembly 2
8 Payload bay 2 23.75 13994.5 62275.70 1479047.99
9 Horizontal stabilizer 35.53 2382.57 10602.44 376704.95
10 Vertical Stabilizer 37.126 1389.83 6184.761 229615.43
TOTAL 189998.32 1680619.97 3884880.25
CG from Nose (m) 18.36177334

3.1. Load distribution on an aircraft fuselage:
Load distribution improves the distribution of workloads across multiple

computing resources, such as computers, a computer cluster, network links, central
processing units, or disk drives. Load balancing aims to optimize resource use, maximize
throughput, minimize response time, and avoid overload of any single resource.
Using multiple components with load balancing instead of a single component

may increase reliability and availability through redundancy. Load balancing usually
involves dedicated software or hardware, such as a multilayer switch or a Domain Name
System server process.
Load balancing differs from channel bonding in that load balancing divides traffic
between network interfaces on a network socket basis, while channel bonding implies a
division of traffic between physical interfaces at a lower level, either per packet or basis
with a protocol like shortest path bridging.
Load Distribution
250000
200000
150000
Load (N)
100000
50000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
-50000
-100000
Semi Span
Fig-3.1 Load variation along fuselage length

3.2. Bending stress and shear flow in fuselage:

redistributes the load. It also serves the purpose of housing or accommodating practically
all equipment, accessories and systems in addition to carrying the payload. Because of
large amount of equipment inside the fuselage, it is necessary to provide sufficient
number of cutouts in the fuselage for access and inspection purposes. These cutouts and
discontinuities result in fuselage design being more complicated, less precise and often
less efficient in design. As a common member to which other components are attached,
there by transmitting the loads, fuselage can be considered as a long hollow beam.
The actions produced by the wing, tail or landing gear may be considered as
concentrated loads at the respective attachment points. The balancing re actions are
provided by the inertia forces contributed by the weight of the fuselage structure and the
various components inside the fuselage. These reaction forces are distributed all along
the length of the fuselage, though need not be uniformly. Unlike the wing, which is
subjected to mainly unsymmetrical load, the fuselage is much simpler for structural
analysis due to its symmetrical cross-section and symmetrical loading. The main load in
the case of fuselage is the shear load because the load acting on the wing is transferred
to the fuselage skin in the form of shear only.
The structural design of both wing and fuselage begin with shear force and
bending moment diagrams for the respective members. The maximum bending stress
produced in each of them is checked to be less than the yield stress of the material chosen
for the respective member.

Table 3.2 Shear force and bending moment calculation
Sl.No Distance Load(N) Shear Force(N) Bending

Moment(Nm)
1 0 0 0 0
2 2.356 -5495.639698 -5495.639698 -12947.72713
3 5.206 -4417.686436 -9913.326135 -51608.77586
4 9.5 -55449.27947 -65362.6056 -620944.7532
5 14.44 -5301.223723 -70663.82933 -1020385.695
6 17.708 -39759.17793 -110423.0073 -1955370.612
7 17.746 -11044.21609 -121467.2233 -2155557.345
8 18.361773 211574.3498 90107.12642 1654526.632
9 23.56 -11044.21609 79062.91033 1862722.167
10 23.75 -62275.70187 16787.20846 398696.2009
11 35.53 -10602.44745 6184.761011 219744.5587
12 37.126 -6184.761011 0 0
Shear Force Distribution

150000
100000
shear force(N)
50000
0
0 10 20 30 40
-50000
-100000
-150000
Aircraft Length
Fig-3.2 Shear force variation along fuselage length

Bending Moment Distribution

2500000
2000000
1500000
bending moment(Nm)
1000000
500000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
-500000
-1000000
-1500000
-2000000
-2500000
Aircraft Length
Fig-3.3 Bending moment variation along fuselage length
Result
Thus the preliminary design calculation of aircraft fuselage has been done
and the graphs are plotted.

DETAILED DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT

WING

4. Detailed Design of an Aircraft Wing

4.1. Specific Roles of Wing Structure:
The specified structural roles of the wing (or main plane) are:
 To transmit:
 wing lift to the root via the main span wise beam
 Inertia loads from the power plants, undercarriage, etc., to the main beam.
 Aerodynamic loads generated on the aerofoil, control surfaces & flaps to the
main beam.
 To react against:
 Landing loads at attachment points
 Loads from pylons/stores
 Wing drag and thrust loads
 To provide:
 Fuel tank age space
 Torsional rigidity to satisfy stiffness and aero-elastic requirements.
 To fulfill these specific roles, a wing layout will conventionally compromise:
 Span wise members (known as spars or booms)
 Chord wise members(ribs)
 A covering skin
 Stringers
4.2. Basic Functions of Wing Structural Members
The structural functions of each of these types of members may be considered

independently as:
SPARS
 Form the main span wise beam

 Transmit bending and torsional loads

 Produce a closed-cell structure to provide resistance to torsion, shear and tension

loads.
In particular:
 Webs – resist shear and torsional loads and help to stabilize the skin.
 Flanges - resist the compressive loads caused by wing bending.
SKIN
 To form impermeable aerodynamics surface

 Transmit aerodynamic forces to ribs & stringers
 Resist shear torsion loads (with spar webs).
 React axial bending loads (with stringers).
STRINGERS
 Increase skin panel buckling strength by dividing into smaller length sections.
 React axial bending loads
RIBS
 Maintain the aerodynamic shape

 Act along with the skin to resist the distributed aerodynamic pressure loads
 Distribute concentrated loads into the structure & redistribute stress around any
discontinuities.
 Increase the column buckling strength of the stringers through end restraint.
 Increase the skin panel buckling strength.
4.3. Spar Definition
The maximum bending moment from previous section was found to be as
27392613.23 Nm. Therefore we define 2 Spars with front spar at 17% of chord, and rear
spar at 65% of chord. The position of the two spars from the leading edge of the root
chord can be found out as follows:

Fig-4.1 Design of spars and stringers
𝑀𝑓 ℎ𝑓 2
=( )
𝑀𝑟 ℎ𝑟
Where
hf - height of front spar {to be found out from aerofoil selection}
hr - height of rear spar
FOS = 1.5
M=Mmaz*FOS
𝑀𝑓 + 𝑀𝑟 = 𝑀(𝑚𝑎𝑥)
The yield tensile stress σy for Al Alloy (Al 7075) is 455.053962 MPa. The area of the
flanges is determined using the relation.
𝑀
𝜎𝑦 =
𝐴𝑧
Where
M is bending moment taken up by each spar,
A is the flange area of each spar,
z is the centroid distance of the area = h/2.
From above equations the value of Af and Ar are found out.

Table 4.1 Moment on Front And Rear Table 4.2 Area of front and rear
Spar spar
M max 27392613 Nm Material is Al 7075
FOS 1.5 - σy 455053962 N/m2
M total 41088920 Nm
Ar 0.217839828 m2
Mf/Mr 1.82294 -
Af 0.294119247 m2
Mf+Mr 41088920 Nm
Mf 26533554 Nm
Mr 14555365 Nm
4.4. Assumptions:
T sections are chosen for top and bottom flanges of front and rear spars. Both the
flanges are connected by a vertical stiffener through spot welding and the thickness to
width ratio of web is found to be 3.9591. Also from “Analysis and design of flight
vehicle structures by BRUHN”, the flange to web width ratio of the T section is 1.8.
𝑡𝑓
=1
𝑡𝑤
𝑡𝑤
= 3.9591
𝑏𝑤
𝑏𝑓
= 1.8
𝑏𝑤
By equating all the three values of the ratio in area of the section equation, the
dimensions of the spar can be found.
Table 4.3 Dimension of front and rear spar
Component Rear Front
bw 0.4330103 0.503143
Bf 0.1968676 0.228753
tf=tw 0.1093709 0.127085
Centroid
x 0.0984338 0.114377
y 0.325876 0.378657

Fig-4.2 Spars with Dimension
4.5. Torque diagrams

Torque, moment, or moment of force is the tendency of a force to rotate an object
about an axis, fulcrum, or pivot. Just as a force is a push or a pull, a torque can be thought
of as a twist to an object. Mathematically, torque is defined as the cross product of the
vector by which the force's application point is offset relative to the fixed suspension
point (distance vector) and the force vector, which tends to produce rotation.
Torque is a measure of the turning force on an object such as a bolt or a flywheel.
For example, pushing or pulling the handle of a wrench connected to a nut or bolt
produces a torque (turning force) that loosens or tightens the nut or bolt.
The symbol for torque is typically, the lowercase Greek letter When it is called
moment of force, it is commonly denoted by M.

Fig-4.3 Torque and power curve

4.5.1. Torque forces
The magnitude of torque depends on three quantities: the force applied, the length
of the lever arm connecting the axis to the point of force application, and the angle
between the force vector and the lever arm. In symbols:
Where,
 r is the position vector (a vector from the origin of the coordinate system defined
to the point where the force is applied), F is the force vector
 x denotes the cross product, is the angle between the force vector and the lever
arm vector
If clockwise bending moments are taken as negative, then a negative bending

moment within an element will cause "sagging", and a positive moment will cause
"hogging". It is therefore clear that a point of zero bending moment within abeam is a
point of contra flexure that is the point of transition from hogging to sagging or vice
versa.
Moments and torques are measured as a force multiplied by a distance so they
have as unit newton -meters (N-m), or pound-foot or foot-pound (ft-lb). The concept of
bending moment is very important in engineering (particularly in civil and mechanical
engineering) and physics.

Fig-4.4 Torque diagrams
4.6. Buckling analysis:

Two major causes which cause the sudden failure of a mechanical component are:
material failure and structural instability, which is often called buckling. For material
failures yield stress is considered as the design criteria for ductile materials and the
ultimate stress for brittle materials. Buckling refers to the loss of stability of a component
and is usually independent of material strength. The load at which buckling occurs will
depend upon the stiffness of a component, and is independent of strength of the material.
When a structure whose length is larger than either of its other two dimensions, is
subjected to axial compressive stress, due to its size its axial displacement is going to be
very small compared to its lateral deflection this phenomenon is called Buckling.
Buckling is a tendency of slender compression members to bow out, which causes
bending. When the combined bending stress and compressive stress exceeds the
buckling capacity failure occurs. Buckling effects all compression members, such as
columns, truss bars, bracing, etc. Buckling bends a column progressively.
When the aircraft is in flight, top portion will be under low pressure compared to
bottom portion. This causes the aircraft to lift upward. As a result of this wing will bend

upward causing the bottom skin under tension and top skin under compression. The
wings are prevented from folding over the fuselage by the resisting strength of the wing
structure. The bending action creates a tensile stresses on the bottom of the wings and a
compressive stresses on the top of the wings. As the top skin of the wing is subjected to
compression stress it may experience buckling at certain load value, and may lead to
failure. In this project buckling analysis of the wing is carried out. The main objective
of the work is to carry out the buckling analysis of the wing upper skin subjected to
compression with FEM approach and verification through analytical approach.
Fig-4.5 Buckling of wing
Result
Thus the detail design calculation of aircraft wing has been done and the values are
tabulated.

DETAIL DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT

FUSELAGE

5. Detail Design of an Aircraft Fuselage

The fundamental purpose of the fuselage structure is to provide an envelope to
support the payload, crew, equipment, systems and (possibly) the power-plant.
Furthermore, it must react against the in-flight manoeuvre, pressurisation and gust
loads; also the landing gear and possibly any power-plant loads. It must be also be
able to transmit control and trimming loads from the stability and control surfaces
throughout the rest of the structure.
redistributes the load. It also serves the purpose of housing or accommodating
practically all equipment, accessories and systems in addition to carrying the payload.
Because of large amount of equipment inside the fuselage, it is necessary to provide
sufficient number of cutouts in the fuselage for access and inspection purposes. These
cutouts and discontinuities result in fuselage design being more complicated, less
precise and often less efficient in design.
As a common member to which other components are attached, thereby
transmitting the loads, fuselage can be considered as a long hollow beam. The
reactions produced by the wing, tail or landing gear may be considered as
concentrated loads at the respective attachment points. The balancing reactions are
provided by the inertia forces contributed by the weight of the fuselage structure and
the various components inside the fuselage. These reaction forces are distributed all
along the length of the fuselage, though need not be uniformly. Unlike the wing,
which is subjected to mainly unsymmetrical load, the fuselage is much simpler for
structural analysis due to its symmetrical cross-section and symmetrical loading. The
main load in the case of fuselage is the shear load because the load acting on the wing
is transferred to the fuselage skin in the form of shear only. The structural design of
both wing and fuselage begin with shear force and bending moment diagrams for the

respective members. The maximum bending stress produced in each of them is

checked to be less than the yield stress of the material chosen for the respective
member.
5.1. Fuselage Layout Concepts
There are two main categories of layout concept in common use;
 Mass boom and longeron layout
 Semi-monocoque layout
5.1.1. Mass Boom & Longeron layout

This is fundamentally very similar to the mass-boom wing-box concept discussed
in previous section. It is used when the overall structural loading is relatively low or
when there are extensive cut-outs in the shell. The concept comprises four or more
continuous heavy booms (longeron), reacting against any direct stresses caused by
applied vertical and lateral bending loads. Frames or solid section.
Fig-5.1 Monocoque construction
5.1.2. Semi-Monocoque layout

The semi-monocoque is the most often used construction for modern, high-
performance aircraft. Semi-monocoque literally means half a single shell. Here,
internal braces as well as the skin itself carry the stress. The vertical structural
members are referred to as bulkheads, frames, and formers. The heavier vertical
members are located at intervals to allow for concentrated loads. These members are

also found at points where fittings are used to attach other units, such as the wings
and stabilizers.
Fig-5.2 Semi monocoque construction

Primary bending loads are taken by the longerons, which usually extend across
several points of support. The longerons are supplemented by other longitudinal
members known as stringers. Stringers are more numerous and lightweight than The
stringers are smaller and lighter than longerons and serve as fill-ins. They have some
rigidity but are chiefly used for giving shape and for attachment of skin.
5.2. Design of fuselage component-stringer
The circumference of the fuselage is 6.15752 m. To find the area of one stringer,
number of stringers per quadrant is assumed to be 2. I.e. the total number of stringers in
the fuselage is 4. The stringers are equally spaced around the circumference of the
fuselage.
5.2.1. Stringer Spacing
The stringers are symmetrically spaced on the fuselage with the spacing calculate
as shown below,
Circumference of the fuselage = π * d = 17.2787m
Total number of stringers = 4
17.2787
Therefore the stringers are spaced at the interval of = = 4.3196 m
4
5.2.2. Stringer area calculation
The stress induced in the each stringer is calculated with the area keeping constant
in the stress term. Then the maximum stress (i.e. one which has larger numerator) is
equated with the yield strength of the material. From this area of one stringer is
calculated.
The direct stress in each stringer produced by bending moments 𝑀𝑥 and 𝑀𝑦 is given by
the equation:
Mx Mz
σ= z+ x (N/m2 )
Ixx Izz
Where
Mx = 8351406.69 Nm
1
Mz = ( ρV2 St at Ψ) x
2
ρ is density =1.225 kg/m3

V is cruise velocity=257.711 m/s
St is the tail area=52 m2
at is the slope of the lift curve=0.031412/deg
Ψ is the angle of yaw for asymmetric flight
457.2
Ψ = 0.7 nmax +
VD
Ψ = 3.23 deg
x is the distance between the aircraft c.g position and horizontal tail c.g position
x = 17.16823 m
Then,
Mz = 3684659.344 Nm
Ixx = Iyy = Astinger D2

Where Astinger is the stringer area, D is the diameter of the fuselage = 5.5 m
Mx and My reach their maximum only from the stringer 1 to 4. Thus the stresses are high
only on this stringers. Calculating stress for stringers 1 to 4.
X=0, Z=2.75
Mx Mz
σ1 = z+ x (N/m2 )
Ixx Izz
Then,
759218.79 N
σ1 = ⁄m2
Astinger
X=0.91667, Z=2.619
Mx Mz
σ2 = z+ x (N/m2 )
Ixx Izz
Then,
834721.85 N
σ2 = ⁄m2
Astinger
X=1.8333, Z=1.8333
Mx Mz
σ3 = z+ x (N/m2 )
Ixx Izz
Then,
729458.54 N
σ3 = ⁄m2
Astinger
X=2.619, Z=0.91667
Mx Mz
σ4 = z+ x (N/m2 )
Ixx Izz
Then,

572091.05 N
σ4 = ⁄m2
Astinger
The allowable stress in the stringer is 455.053962 MPa for Al Alloy (Al 7075).
Maximum direct stress in the stringer 2 is
834721.85 N
σ1 = ⁄m2
Astinger
Therefore the required stringer area of cross section is the given by
834721.85
= 455.053962*106
Astinger
Astinger = 0.001834336 m2
Thus one stringer area is 0.001834336 m2. The stringer chosen is Z section.
The dimension of the stringer are obtained from the analysis and design of the flight
vechical structure by Remer book.
Table 5.1 Dimension of stringers

tf/tw 1
tf/bf 0.04444
bf/bw 0.5
tw=tf 0.007797 m
bf 0.175457 m
bw 0.350915 m
Centroid
X 0.171559 m
Y 0.183255 m

Fig-5.3 Stringers with Dimension

5.3. Buckling analysis:
Cylindrical shells are subjected to any combination of in plane, out of plane and shear
loads during application. Due to the geometry of these structures, buckling is one of the
most important failure criteria. Buckling failure mode of a stiffened cylindrical shell can
further be subdivided into global buckling, local skin buckling and stiffener crippling.
Global buckling is collapse of the whole structure, i.e. collapse of the stiffeners and the
shell as one unit. Local skin buckling and stiffeners crippling on the other hand are
localized failure modes involving local failure of only the skin in the first case and the
stiffener in the second case. A grid stiffened cylinder will fail in any of these failure
modes depending on the stiffener configuration, skin thickness, shell winding angle and
type of applied load. Several methods have so far been developed to predict the different
buckling loads and mode shapes of stiffened cylinders. The different approaches in
different literatures can broadly be classified as the discrete method, the branched shell
and plate approach and the smeared stiffeners approach.
The fibers in the stiffeners are oriented along the length of the stiffeners. Hence, three
different real constant tables were defined for the three stiffener orientations of 00, 600,
and –600.

A local cylindrical coordinate system was then defined for each element and
corresponding orthotropic properties aligned properly. The stiffeners were modeled
using 20-node, layered solid elements (SOLID 191).
Fig-5.4 Buckling of fuselage
Result
Thus the preliminary design calculation of aircraft fuselage has been
done and the graphs are plotted.

DESIGN OF CONTROL SURFACES

6. Design of Control Surfaces
6.1. High Lift Systems

A wing designed for efficient high-speed flight is often quite different from one
designed solely for take-off and landing. Take-off and landing distances are strongly
influenced by aircraft stalling speed, with lower stall speeds requiring lower acceleration
or deceleration and correspondingly shorter field lengths. It is always possible to reduce
stall speed by increasing wing area, but it is not desirable to cruise with hundreds of
square feet of extra wing area (and the associated weight and drag), area that is only
needed for a few minutes. Since the stalling speed is related to wing parameters by: It is
also possible to reduce stalling speed by reducing weight, increasing air density, or
increasing wing CLmax . The latter parameter is the most interesting. One can design a
wing airfoil that compromises cruise efficiency to obtain a good CLmax , but it is usually
more efficient to include movable leading and/or trailing edges so that one may obtain
good high speed performance while achieving a high CLmax at take-off and landing.
The primary goal of a high lift system is a high CLmax; however, it may also be desirable
to maintain low drag at take-off, or high drag on approach. It is also necessary to do this
with a system that has low weight and high reliability. This is generally achieved by
incorporating some form of trailing edge flap and perhaps a leading edge device such as
a slat.
6.2. Flaps
Wing flaps can be found on virtually every modern airplane. The effect of adding
flaps to the trailing edge of the wing is equivalent to increasing the camber of the wing.
Some flap designs also increase the chord length of the wing. This increases the area of
the wing so that more air is diverted, thus reducing the angle of attack needed for lift.
There are many types of flaps. In the 1930s and 1940s the split flap, shown in Figure
was introduced and was one of the first types of flap to appear in production airplanes.
Splitting the last 20 percent or so of the wing forms this type of flap. The top surface of

the wing does not move while the bottom surface lowers. The split flap is effective in
improving the lift, but it creates a great deal of form drag, as shown in the figure. The
last 20 percent or so of the inboard section of the wing is simply hinged so that it can
increase the camber. The first 20 degrees of flap extension increase the lift without
greatly increasing the drag of the wing at low speeds. Many airplanes extend their flaps
to 10 or 20 degrees on takeoff in order to shorten the takeoff distance. When the flaps
are extended greater than 20 degrees, the form drag increases rapidly with little or no
increase in lift. Increasing the drag increases the descent rate, which is desirable during
the approach for landing. Thus it is not uncommon for an airplane to land with the flaps
set at 40 degrees.
Multi slotted flaps are seen on many modern passenger jets, while large airplanes
use single-slotted flaps. Until the 1990s airplane performance was the key design
criterion. Airplane companies were proud of sophisticated triple-slotted flap systems.
During the 1990s a shift toward reducing cost as a key design criterion has pushed
airplane companies to maximize the performance of single-slotted flaps. One technique
that is used is to place vortex generators on the leading edge of the single slotted flap.
When the flap is retracted, the vortex generators on the flap are hidden in the wing. Thus,
the vortex generators do not penalize the airplane in cruise but are available for takeoff
and landing. The next times you fly a commercial airplane ask for a window seat behind
the wing. During the approach and landing phase of the flight, watch the wing unfold. It
is truly remarkable how the wing evolves into a high-lift wing from its normal cruise
configuration.
6.3. Slots and Slats

Leading-edge devices, like flaps, are sometimes used to increase the camber of
the wing and increase the stall angle of attack. But the details are somewhat different.
Other times, the purpose of the leading edge devices is much like that of the slot in a
slotted flap. These devices allow the high-energy air from below the wing to flow to the
upper surface of the wing. This energizes the boundary layer. Thus, the wing stalls at a

higher angle of attack and the maximum lift is increased. The simplest leading edge
device is the fixed slot shown in Figure. This is a permanent slot near the leading edge
of the wing. The high-pressure air below the wing is drawn up through the slot and flows
over the top of the wing. This energizes the boundary on top of the wing. A permanent
slot can increase the critical angle of attack significantly.
The disadvantage of the fixed slot is that it causes increased power consumption
and drag at cruise speeds. A device similar to the slot is the fixed slat, shown in Figure
3.32. It is added onto the wing, increasing the wings cord length as well as energizing
the boundary layer. Like the fixed slot, the fixed slat causes increased drag at cruise
speeds. The solution to the drag caused by fixed slots and slats is to design a slat that is
deployed only at slow speeds and causes little or no drag in cruise. The Handley-Page
retractable slat, shown in Figure extends to large droop angles to give the wing large
leading-edge camber. In cruise the slats are retracted and do not cause increased drag.
This type of slat is often designed so that they deploy by themselves at slow speeds and
high angles of attack and return to the flush position in cruise.
Fig-6.1 Double slotted flap

6.4. Deflected Slipstream and Jet Wash

One way to increase lift at slow flight speeds is to divert the propellers slipstream
or the jet engines exhaust down. To achieve a substantial lift increase with a slipstream,
the plane must have engines mounted on the wings with large propellers that generate a
slipstream over a substantial portion of the wing. The wing must also have a multi slotted
flap system to deflect the slipstream effectively. This technique has not found significant
commercial applications. The exhaust of a turbofan-powered airplane can be diverted
down to produce additional lift at low speeds. One way to produce the diversion is to
have the flaps extend down into the exhaust when fully extended. One problem with this
technique is that the flap extension into the jet exhaust exposed it to very high
temperatures, creating a significant design challenge. Another way to divert the jet
exhaust is to mount the engines on the top of the wing with the engine exhaust crossing
the top of the wing as in Figure. Flaps behind the engines use the Coanda effect to divert
the exhaust down when extended. This gives a substantial increase in lift for takeoff and
landing.
Slats operate rather differently from flaps in that they have little effect on the lift
at a given angle of attack. Rather, they extend the range of angles over which the flow
remains attached. This is shown in fig
Fig-6.2 Motion of Double slotted Flap

6.5. Leading Edge Devices

Leading edge devices such as nose flaps, Kruger flaps, and slats reduce the
pressure peak near the nose by changing the nose camber. Slots and slats permit a new
boundary layer to start on the main wing portion, eliminating the detrimental effect of
the initial adverse gradient.
6.6. Wing tips
Wing tips shape has two effects upon subsonic aerodynamic performance. The tip
shape affects the aircraft wetted area, but only to a small extent. A far more important
effect is the influence the tip shape has upon the lateral spacing of the tip vortices. This
is largely determined by the ease with which the higher-pressure air on the bottom of the
wing can escape around the tip to the bottom of the wing
A smoothly-rounded tip easily permits the air to flow around the tip. A tip with a
sharp edge makes it more difficult, thus reducing the induced drag. Most of the new low-
drag wing tips use some form of sharp edge. In fact, even a simple cut-off tip offers less
drag than a rounded-off tip, due to the sharp edges where the upper and lower surfaces
end. The mostly widely used low-drag wing tip is the Hoerner wingtip. This is a sharp-
edged wing tip with a upper surface continuing the upper surface of the wing. The lower
surface is “undercut” and canted approximately 30 deg to the horizontal. The lower
surface may also be “under cambered”.
Result
Thus the balancing and maneuvering loads on tail plane, aileron and rudder was
studied.

DESIGN OF WING-ROOT
ATTACHMENT

7. Design of Wing-Root Attachment
7.1. Wing root

The wing root is the part of the wing on a fixed-wing aircraft that is closest to the
fuselage. On a simple monoplane configuration, this is usually easy to identify. On
parasol wing or multiple boom aircraft, the wing may not have a clear root area.
Wing roots usually bear the highest bending forces in flight and during landing,
and they often have fairings (often named "wing fillets") to reduce interference drag
between the wing and the fuselage.
The basic idea is as follows. If the fuselage expands and contracts over the wings,
as it does for the 601 HDS, then this increases drag and reduces lift, particularly for
large payloads or high angles of attack. The negative effects can be mitigated by a
fairing that simulates a constant width fuselage. The fairings significantly improve
climb rate, ceiling, and stall speed, sink rate at low speeds, optimum glide ratio,
minimum power to stay aloft, and stability of the plane when CG is close to the rear
limit. Generally, the required angle of attack in level flight is significantly reduced at
or below cruise power settings. This manifests itself by a much lower nose, the design
of the fairing is not difficult.
One draws on the fuselage the points of attachment of the fairing in a reasonable
curve. On the wing, one draws a straight line that is at 90 deg with the spar and that
just touches the fuselage at its widest point. Now one connects the line on the wing
with the curve on the fuselage, thus getting a surface. The fairing must have that
surface.
For creation of the fairing, one protects the wing and fuselage with masking tape,
then establishes the fairing surface using plaster. Once the plaster is cured and dried,
one lays the fiberglass. When the resin has set, the fairing is removed, trimmed, and the
fairing surface is finished using light-weight filler. Of course, the plaster and masking
tape are removed as well. The finished fairing is riveted to sidewall and wing surface,

and then painted. Overall, one should aim for very lightweight fairings that together do
not exceed 4 lbs. when painted.
Fig-7.1 Wing root

7.2. Wing configuration
Fixed wing airplane popularly called aero planes, airplanes, or just planes, may be
built with many wing configurations.
This page provides a breakdown of types, allowing a full description of any
aircraft's wing configuration. For example, the super marine Spitfire wing may be
classified as a conventional low wing cantilever monoplane with straight elliptical
wings of moderate aspect ratio and slight dihedral.
Sometimes the distinction between types is blurred, for example the wings of
many modern combat aircraft may be described either as cropped compound deltas
with (forwards or backwards) swept trailing edge, or as sharply tapered swept wings
with large leading edge root extensions (or LERX).
All the configurations described have flown (if only very briefly) on full-size
aircraft, except as noted. Some variants may be duplicated under more than one
heading, due to their complex nature. This is particularly so for variable geometry and
combined (closed) wing types.
Note on terminology: Most fixed-wing aircraft have left hand (port) and right hand
(starboard) wings in a symmetrical arrangement. Strictly, such a pair of wings is called
a wing plane or just plain. However, in certain situations it is common to refer to a
plane as a wing, as in "a biplane has two wings", or to refer to the whole thing as a

wing, as in "a biplane wing has two planes". Where the meaning is clear, this article
follows common usage, only being more precise where needed to avoid real ambiguity
or incorrectness.
Fig-7.2 Types of wing
7.3. Wing plan form

7.3.1. Aspect ratio
The aspect ratio is the span divided by the mean or average chord. It is a measure
of how long and slender the wing appears when seen from above or below.
 Low aspect ratio: short and stubby wing. More efficient structurally and higher
instantaneous roll rate. They tend to be used by fighter aircraft, such as the
Lockheed F-104 Star fighter, and by very high-speed aircraft (e.g. North
American X-15).
 Moderate aspect ratio: general-purpose wing (e.g. the Lockheed P-80Shooting
Star).
 High aspect ratio: long and slender wing. More efficient aerodynamically, having
less induced drag. They tend to be used by high-altitude subsonic aircraft (e.g. the
Lockheed U-2), subsonic airliners (e.g. the Bombardier Dash and by high-
performance sailplanes (e.g. Glaser-Dirks DG-500).

7.3.2. Wing sweep

Wings may be swept back, or occasionally forwards, for a variety of reasons. A small
degree of sweep is sometimes used to adjust the center of lift when the wing cannot be
attached in the ideal position for some reason, such as a pilot's visibility from the
cockpit. Other uses are described below.
Fig-7.3 Swept wing

 Straight: extends at right angles to the line of flight. The most structurally-efficient
wing, it is common for low-speed designs, such as the P-80Shooting Star and
sailplanes.
 Swept back (aka "swept wing"): The wing sweeps rearwards from the root to the
tip. In early tailless examples, such as the Dunne aircraft, this allowed the outer
wing section to act like a conventional empennage (tail) to provide aerodynamic
stability. At transonic speeds swept wings have lower drag, but can handle badly
in or near a stall and require high stiffness to avoid aero elasticity at high speeds.
Common on high-subsonic and early supersonic designs e.g. the Hawker Hunter.
 Forward swept: the wing angles forward from the root. Benefits are similar to
backwards sweep, also it avoids the stall problems and has reduced tip losses
allowing a smaller wing, but requires even greater stiffness to avoid aero elastic
flutter as on the Sukhoi Su-47. The HFB-320Hansa Jet used forward sweep to
prevent the wing spar passing through the cabin. Small shoulder-wing aircraft may
use forward sweep to maintain a correct CoG.
7.3.3. Chord variation along span

The wing chord may be varied along the span of the wing, for both structural and
aerodynamic reasons.
 Constant chord: parallel leading & trailing edges. Simplest to make, and common
where low cost is important, e.g. in the Piper J-3 Cub but inefficient as the outer
section generates little lift while adding both weight and drag. Sometimes known
as the Hershey Bar wing in North America due to its similarity in shape to a
chocolate bar.
 Tapered: wing narrows towards the tip. Structurally and aerodynamically more
efficient than a constant chord wing, and easier to make than the elliptical type.
 Trapezoidal: a tapered wing with straight leading and trailing edges: may be wept
or swept. The straight tapered wing is one of the most common wing plan forms,
as seen on the Grumman F4F Wildcat.
 Inverse tapered: wing is widest near the tip. Structurally inefficient, leading to
high weight. Flown experimentally on the XF-91 Thunder captor in an attempt to
overcome the stall problems of swept wings.
 Compound tapered: taper reverses towards the root. Typically braced to maintain
stiffness. Used on the Westland Lysander army cooperation aircraft to increase
visibility for the crew.
 Constant chord with tapered outer section: common variant seen for example on
many Cessna types and the English Electric Canberra.
7.3.4. Dihedral and anhedral

Angling the wings up or down span wise from root to tip can help to resolve various
design issues, such as stability and control in flight.
 Dihedral: the tips are higher than the root as on the Boeing 737, giving a shallow
'V' shape when seen from the front. Adds lateral stability.

 Anhedral: the tips are lower than the root, as on the Ilyushin Il-76; the opposite of
dihedral. Used to reduce stability where some other feature results in too much
stability.
Some biplanes have different degrees of dihedral/Anhedral on different wings; e.g.

the Sop with Camel had a flat upper wing and dihedral on the lower wing, while the
Hanriot HD-1 had dihedral on the upper wing but none on the lower.
7.3.5. Wings vs bodies

Some designs have no clear join between wing and fuselage, or body. This may be
because one or other of these is missing, or because they merge into each other:
 Flying wing: the aircraft has no distinct fuselage or horizontal tail (although fins
and pods, blisters, etc. may be present) such as on the B-2stealth bomber.
 Blended body or blended wing-body: a smooth transition occurs between wing
and fuselage, with no hard dividing line. Reduces wetted area and can also reduce
interference between airflow over the wing root and any adjacent body, in both
cases reducing drag. The Lockheed SR-71spyplane exemplifies this approach.
Result
Thus the design of wing root attachment is studied and made.
LANDING GEAR DESIGN

8. Landing Gear Design
8.1. Landing gear

Landing gear is the undercarriage of an aircraft or spacecraft and is used in both
takeoff and landing.
For aircraft, the landing gear supports the craft when it is not flying, allowing it to
take off, land, and taxi without damage. Wheels are typically used but skids, skis, floats
or a combination of these and other elements can be deployed depending both on the
surface and on whether the craft only operates vertically (VTOL) or is able to taxi along
the surface. Faster aircraft usually have retractable undercarriages, which folds away
during flight to reduce air resistance or drag.
For launch vehicles and spacecraft landers, the landing gear is typically designed
to support the vehicle only post-flight, and are not used for takeoff or surface movement.
8.2. Types of landing gear

 Detachable landing gear
 Rearwards and sideways retraction
 Tandem layout
 Early shock absorption
 "Kneeling" gear
 Folding gear
 Light aircraft
 Mono wheel
8.2.1. Detachable landing gear

Some aircraft use wheels for takeoff and then jettison them soon afterwards for
improved aerodynamic streamlining without the complexity, weight and space
requirements of a retraction mechanism. In these cases, the wheels to be jettisoned are
sometimes mounted onto axles that are part of a separate "dolly" (for main wheels only)

or "trolley" (for a three-wheel set with a nose wheel) chassis. Landing is then
accomplished on skids or similar other simple devices.
Historical examples include the "dolly"-using Messerschmitt Me 163 rocket fighter
the Messerschmitt Me 321 Giant troop glider, and the first eight "trolley"-using
prototypes of the Arado Ar 234 jet reconnaissance bomber. The main disadvantage to
using the takeoff dolly/trolley and landing skid(s) system on German World War II
aircraft intended for a sizable number of late-war German jet and rocket-powered
military aircraft designs was that aircraft would likely be scattered all over a military
airfield after they had landed from a mission, and would be unable to taxi on their own
to an appropriately hidden "dispersal" location, which could easily leave them vulnerable
to being shot up by attacking Allied fighters.
8.2.2. Rearwards and sideways retraction

Some main landing gear struts on World War II aircraft, in order to allow a single-
leg main gear to more efficiently store the wheel within either the wing or an engine
nacelle, rotated the single gear strut through a 90° angle during the
Rearwards-retraction sequence to allow the main wheel to rest "flat" above the lower
end of the main gear strut, or flush within the wing or engine nacelles, when fully
retracted. Examples are the Vought F4U Corsair, Grumman F6F Hellcat,
"Messerschmitt Me 210 and Junkers Ju 88. The Aero Commander family of twin-engine
business aircraft also shares this feature on the main gears, which retract aft into the ends
of the engine nacelles. The rearward-retracting nose wheel strut and the forward-
retracting nose gear strut similarly rotated 90 degrees as they retracted.
8.2.3. Tandem layout

An unusual undercarriage configuration is found on which has two main wheels
in line astern under the fuselage (called a bicycle or tandem layout) and a smaller wheel
near the tip of each wing. On second generation Harriers, the wing is extended past the
outrigger wheels to allow greater wing-mounted munition loads to be carried.

A multiple tandem layout was used on some military jet aircraft during the 1950s,
pioneered by the Martin XB-51, and later used on such aircraft as the U-2, Yakovlev
Yak-25, because it allows room for a large internal bay between the main wheels. A
variation of the multi tandem layout is also used on the B-52 Strato fortress which has
four main wheel bogies (two forward and two aft) underneath the fuselage and a small
outrigger wheel supporting each wing-tip. This allows the landing gear to line up with
the runway and thus makes crosswind landings easier (using a technique called crab
landing. The challenge of designing a tandem-gear layout is that the aircraft has to sit
(on the ground) at the optimum flight angle for landing – when the plane is nearly in a
stalled attitude just before touchdown, both fore and aft wheels must be ready to contact
the runway. Otherwise there will be a vicious jolt as the higher wheel falls to the runway
at the stall.
8.2.4. Kneeling gear

Some early jet fighters were equipped with “kneeling” nose gear consisting of
small steerable auxiliary wheels on short struts located forward of the primary nose gear,
allowing the aircraft to be taxied tail-high with the primary nose gear retracted.
This feature was intended to enhance safety aboard aircraft carriers by redirecting
the hot exhaust blast upwards, and to reduce hangar space requirements by enabling the
aircraft to be parked with its nose underneath the tail of a similarly equipped jet.
Kneeling gear was used on the North American, but was found to be of little use
operationally, and was not used on later Navy fighters.
The nose wheel gear systems of some large cargo jets, like the Condor, kneel to
assist in loading and unloading of cargo using ramps through the forward, "tilt-up"
hinged fuselage nose while stationary on the ground.
8.2.5. Folding gear

In order to save precious space, various folding and splay able landing gear
designs have been created.

8.2.6. Light aircraft

For light aircraft a type of landing gear which is economical to produce is a simple
wooden arch laminated from ash, as used on some homebuilt aircraft. A similar arched
gear is often formed from spring steel. The Cessna Air master was among the first
aircraft to use spring steel landing gear. The main advantage of such gear is that no other
shock-absorbing device is needed; the deflecting leaf provides the shock absorption.
8.2.7. Monowheel
To minimize drag, modern gliders most usually have a single wheel, retractable
or fixed, centered under the fuselage, which is referred to as mono wheel gear or mono
wheel landing gear. Mono wheel gear is also used on some powered aircraft, where drag
reduction is a priority, such as the Much like the Me 163 rocket fighter, some gliders
from prior to the Second World War used a take-off dolly that was jettisoned on take-
off and then landed on a fixed skid.
Fig-8.1 Landing Gear
Result
Thus the design of landing gear is studied and made.

THREE VIEW DIAGRAM

Top View
Front View
Side View

CONCLUSION
The preliminary and detail design of a passenger aircraft was completed with
performance parameters required for calculation. The obtained design values are not
necessarily a definite reflection of the airplane's true and conceptualized design, but the
basic outlay of development has been obtained.
The detailed design provides desired considerations of passenger aircraft. The

required ideal design changes and improvements secured an optimum performance of an
aircraft.
The challenges faced in this design project-II have various phases. The
experience plays a vital role in successful design of any aircraft in future. Future
development can be implemented for perfect aircraft design.

REFERENCES
1. Anderson, John D. Jr., (1999) “Aircraft Performance and Design”, McGraw-Hill,

New York
2. Anderson, John D. Jr., (2001) “Introduction to Flight”, McGraw-Hill , New York
3. Perkins, C. and Hage, R. (1949) “Airplane Performance”, Stability and Control,

Wiley, New York
4. Raymer, Daniel P. (1992) “Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach”, AIAA

Education series, Washington, DC
5. Taylor, J. (2004) “Jane’s All the World’s Aircraft”, Jane’s, London, UK
6. Moaz Hussain (October 2019), “Aircraft Design Project (Detailed)_ Design of 100
Seater STOL Commuter Aircraft”, Bachelor of Engineering (Mini Project I),
DOI:10.13140/RG.2.2.35083.85284
7. Moaz Hussain (October 2019), “Design of 120 Seater Passenger Aircraft _Aircraft
Design Project-I”, Bachelor of Engineering (Mini Project II), DOI:
10.13140/RG.2.2.10075.31522
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Detailed Design of 120 Seater Passenger Aircraft _Aircraft Design Project-II

Thesis · November 2019

Performance Analysis of Jet-Engine View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

AE6612 AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT – II

MOAZ HUSSAIN 730916101052

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

EXCEL ENGINEERING COLLEGE

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI – 600 025.

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI - 600 025

Certified that this aircraft design project-II report “DESIGN OF 120

Submitted for Anna University Aircraft design Project-I Examination held on

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

I take privilege to record my everlasting and loving thanks to my parents for

characteristics of aircraft components.

Content Page No.

List of Figure vii

List of Tables vii

1.1. Design of an airplane 2

1.2. Phases of airplane design 2

1.3. Outline aircraft design project 2 2

2 Load Estimation on Wings

2.1. Loads acting on wing 5

2.1.1. Shrenck's curve 5

2.1.2. Linear lift distribution 5

2.1.3. Elliptic Lift Distribution 7

2.1.4. Construction of schrenk’s curve 8

2.2. Self-weight of wing 8

2.3. Fuel weight 9

2.5. Shear force and Bending moment 13

3 Load Estimation on Fuselage

3.1. Load distribution on an aircraft fuselage 19

3.2. Bending stress and shear flow in fuselage 20

4 Detailed Design of an Aircraft Wing

4.1. Specific Roles of Wing Structure 24

4.2. Basic Functions of Wing Structural Members 24

4.3. Spar Definition 25

4.5. Torque diagrams 28

4.6. Buckling analysis 30

5 Detail Design of an Aircraft Fuselage

5.1. Fuselage Layout Concepts 34

5.2. Design of fuselage component-stringer 35

5.3. Buckling analysis 39

6 Design of Control Surfaces

6.1. High Lift Systems 42

6.4. Deflected Slipstream and Jet Wash 45

7 Design of Wing-Root Attachment

7.1. Wing root 48

7.2. Wing configuration 49

7.3. Wing plan form 50

8 Landing Gear Design

8.1. Landing gear 55

8.2. Types of landing gear 55

Three View Diagram 59

Fig.No. Figure Page No.

Table No. Tables Page No.

1.1 Parameters taken from design project I 3

1|Page EXCEL ENGINEERING COLLEGE

1.2. Phases of airplane design:

1.3. Outline aircraft design project 2:

 Material Selection for structural members

Seating capacity 120