DESIGN OF 1-SEATER MILITARY FIGHTER AIRCRAFT

AE8713-Aircraft Design Project II

Submitted By

MANOJ RASAILY 730919101048

MANISH KUMAR DUBEY 730919101047

MD TARIQUE MAHMOOD 730919101052

In partial fulfilment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

IN

AERONAUTICAL ENGNEERING

EXCEL ENGINEERING COLLEG

(Autonomous)
KOMARAPALAYAM:637303

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

NOVEMBER 2022

1
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this Aircraft design project-II report “DESIGN OF 1-SEATER

MILITARY FIGHTER AIRCRAFT” is the bonafide work of

“MANOJ RASAILY (730919101048), MANISH KUMAR DUBEY

(730919101047), MD. TARIQUE MAHMOOD (730919101052)” who carried

out the Aircraft Design Project -II work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE
Dr. S.P. VENKATESAN., Ph.D.,
HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT
Department of Aeronautical
Engineering
Excel Engineering College
Komarapalayam, 637303.
SIGNATURE
Mr. N. SREENIVASARAJA.,
M.E.,
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
Department of Aeronautical
Engineering
Excel Engineering College
Komarapalayam, 637303.

Submitted for Anna University Aircraft Design Project-II Examination held

on_____________

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We thank the almighty for endowing his immense blessing that

helped us each step of our progress successful completion and provide

us with necessary infrastructure to complete our Aircraft Design Project-I.

We are greatly indebted to our Chairman Prof. Dr. A.K. NATESAN.,

M.Com., MBA., M. Phill., Ph.D., FTA., and Vice Chairman Dr. N. MATHAN

KARTHICK., MBBS., MHSC., PHF., For his constant support and

encouragement we express our heartly thanks to Principal Dr. K.

BOMMANNA RAJA., Ph.D., for his valuable suggestion in our entire

endeavor.

We thank Dr. S.P. VENKATESAN., Ph.D., Head of the Department,

Aeronautical Engineering for his guidance and constant inspiration we

express our gratitude to our coordinator Mr. N. SREENIVASARAJA., M.E.,

and Mr. S.R. ARUN., M. Tech., for their encouragement and dedicated

guidance.

We take privilege to record our everlasting and loving thanks to our

parents for their kind help and support which render in bringing our

Aircraft Design Project-II fruitful manner.

3
 ABSTRACT

The purpose of this Aircraft Design Project-II is to design the structural

part of the 1-seater military fighter aircraft. The design has been carried
out for Schenk’s curve, detailed design of aircraft wing and fuselage
with shear flow diagrams of an aircraft. Then the design of wing-root
attachment, control surfaces and landing gear and then the detailed
design report with CAD drawing is prepared for a supersonic military
fighter aircraft.

4
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
ABSTRACT i
LIST OF SYMBOLS ii
LIST OF FIGURES iv
LIST OF GRAPHS v
LIST OF TABLES vi

1. PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT WING- 1

SHRENCK’SCURVE, STRUCTURAL LOAD
DISTRIBUTION, SHEAR FORCE, BENDING MOMENT
AND TORQUE DIAGRAMS.
SCHRENK’S CURVE 1
LINEAR LIFT DISTRIBUTION 1
LIFT AT ROOT 1
LIFT AT TIP 2
ELLIPTICAL LIFT DISTRIBUTION 3
EQUATION OF ELLIPTIC LIFT 4
DISTRIBUTION
CONSTRUCTION OF SCHRENK’S CURVE 5
LOAD ESTIMATION ON WING 6
DESCRIPTION 6
LOADS ACTING ON WING 6
SELF-WEIGHT OF THE WING (Y3) 6
POWER PLANT WEIGHT 7
FUEL WEIGHT 8

REACTION FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT 10

SHEAR FORCE 11
BENDING MOMENT 12

5
2. DETAILED DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT WING-DESIGN
14 OF SPARS AND STRINGERS, BENDING STRESS AND SHEAR FLOW
CALCULATIONS-BUCKLING ANALYSIS OF WING PANELS.

a. WING DESIGN 14
2.1.1FUNCTION OF THE STRUCTURE 14
2.1.2 WING STRUCTURAL LAYOUT 14
2.1.3 BASIC FUNCTIONS OF WING 16

STRUCTURAL MEMBERS
b. SPAR SELECTION 18
MAXIMUM BENDING 18
LOAD FACTOR 18
BENDING STRESS 18
c. SHEAR FLOW CALCULATION 19

d. PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT 22

FUSELAGE-LOAD DISTRIBUTION ON AN AIRCRAFT
FUSELAGE.

a. LOADS AND ITS DISTRIBUTION 22

i. INTRODUCTION 22

ii. LOADS IN FUSELAGE 23

iii. COG CALCULATION 23

6
 b. SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT 24

e. DETAILED DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT FUSELAGE- 26

DESIGN OF BULKHEADS AND LONGERONS- BENDING STRESS
AND SHEAR FLOW CALCULATIONS-BUCKLING ANALYSIS OF
FUSELAGE PANELS.
FUSELAGE STRUCTURE 26
FUSELAGE LAYOUT CONCEPTS 27
MASS BOOM & LONGERON LAYOUT 27
SEMI-MONOCOQUE LAYOUT 28
FUSELAGE STRESS ANALYSIS 30
FUSELAGE SHEAR FLOW 31
OPEN SECTION 32
CLOSED SECTION 35
f. DESIGN OF CONTROL SURFACES-BALANCING AND 39
MANEUVERING LOADS ON THE TAIL PLANE AND
AILERON, RUDDER LOADS.
MANEUVERING LOADS ON AIRCRAFT 39
CONTROL SURFACES
MANEUVER LOADS 41
STABILIZER 43

STABILITY 46
g. DESIGN OF WING-ROOT ATTATCHEMENT. 51
GEOMETRY OF THE WING 51
DETERMINATION OF THE MAC 53
h. LANDING GEAR DESIGN. 54
INTRODUCTION 54
TRICYCLE-TYPE LANDING GEAR 54
7.1.2 NOSE LANDING GEAR 54

7.1.3 MAIN LANDING GEAR 55

7.1.4 FUEL TANK 56

7
 TIRE SELECTION 56

i. TIRE SIZING 56

ii. NOSE WHEEL CALCULATION 57

7.2.3 MAIN WHEEL 58

i. PREPARATION OD DETAILED REPORT WITH CAD 61

DRAWINGS.

8.1 INTRODUCTION 61

8.1.1 DESIGN CONSTRAINTS 61

DESIGN ASPECTS 63

DESIGN PROCESS AND SIMULATION 65

PRELIMINARY DESIGN PHASE 66

DETAIL DESIGN PHASE 66

j. CONCLUSION 67

k. REFERENCE 68

8
 LIST OF SYMBOLS

W Weight of aircraft

W0 Overall weight

Wf Weight of fuel

We Empty weight

L Lift of aircraft

D Drag of the aircraft

CL Coefficient of lift

CD Coefficient of drag

S Wing area

B Wingspan

T Thrust

T/W Thrust loading

W/S Wing loading

9
 A.R Aspect ratio

Cr, Ct Chord length of root, tip

T r, T t Thickness of root, tip

Sπ Wetted surface area

Coefficient of drag of wetted

CDπ surface

area
ΛL.E Sweep angle of the leading edge

ß Dihedral angle

10
 LISTS OF FIGURES

FIGURE. CONTENT
NO PAGE. NO
1.1 Fighter aircraft wing as a cantilever 32
beam.
1.2 Wing component. 39
1.3 Spars. 43
1.4 Semi Monocoque type. 49
1.5 Aircraft body axes and positive 58
moment direction.
1.6 Landing gear arrangement. 66
1.7 Front View. 68
1.8 Side View. 68
1.9 Top View. 69

11
 LISTS OF GRAPHS

GRAPH. CONTENT PAGE.

NO NO
2.1 Linear lift distribution. 20
2.2 Linear lift distribution curve. 21
2.3 Elliptical lift distribution. 22
2.4 Elliptical lift distribution curve. 24
2.5 Load distribution on wing. 26
2.6 Self-weight of wing. 28
2.7 Slope of the fuel weight. 29
2.8 Fuel distribution. 31
2.9 Load simplified as point load. 31
2.10 Shear force acting on wing. 34
2.11 Bending moment acting on wing. 35
2.12 Torque due to normal force. 37
2.13 Fuselage shear and moment diagram. 54

12
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE. NO CONTENT PAGE. NO

3.1 Mission requirement. 16
3.2 Configuration. 16
3.3 Performance characteristics. 17
3.4 Specifications of designed aircraft. 17
3.5 Linear lift distribution wing. 21
3.6 Elliptical lift distribution wing. 23
3.7 Shrenk’s curve calculations. 25
3.8 Self-weight of wing(Y3) 27
3.9 Fuel weight on wing. 30
3.10 Curve/component. 32
3.11 Load acting on fuselage. 51
3.12 Landing gear tabulations. 65
3.13 Tyre selection-nose wheel. 66

13
 INTRODUCTION

Aircraft Design Project-II is a continuation of Aircraft Design

Project-I. As mentioned in our earlier project, military aviation is of prime
importance for every country and with this in mind we have designed a
supersonic fighter aircraft. In our Aircraft Design Project-I, we have
performed a preliminary and conceptual analysis. We have carried out a
weight estimation, engine selection, weapon loading and aerodynamic
parameter selection and analysis. Apart from these, we have also
determined performance parameters such lift, drag, range, endurance,
thrust and power requirements.

The purpose of ADP-II is to enhance the knowledge in continuation

of the design project given in ADP-I. Also, Aircraft Design Project-II deals
with a more in-depth study and analysis of aircraft performance and
structural characteristics. In the following pages we have carried out
structural analysis of fuselage and wings and the appropriate materials
have been chosen to give our aircraft adequate structural integrity. The
determination the landing gear position, retraction and other
accompanying systems and mechanisms have also been done.

Thus, by imposing all the performance parameters in our ADP-I,

structural analysis of our bomber is done in this project. The two major
members that need to be considered for the structural design of an
airplane are the wings and the fuselage. As far as the wing design is
concerned, the most significant load is the bending load. So, the primary
load bearing component in the wing structure is the spar (the front and
the rear spars) whose cross section is an I- section. Apart from the spar
to take the bending loads, suitable stringers need to be provided to take
the shear loads acting on the wing.
Unlike the wing, which is subjected mainly to unsymmetrical
bending load, the fuselage is much simpler for structural analysis due to
its symmetrical cross section as well as symmetrical loading. The main
14
load in the case of fuselage is only shear because the load acting on the
wing is transferred to the fuselage skin in the form of shear only. The
structural design of both the wing and the fuselage begins with shear
force and the bending moment diagrams for the respective members.
The maximum bending stress produced in each of them is checked to
be less than the yield stress of the material chosen for the respective
member.

REQUIRED DATAS FROM ADP-I:

An airplane is a hybrid of various aspects of airplane design viz.,

airplane dynamics, propulsion, structures, stability and control. The
airplane emerges as a compromise of several conditions directed by the
specifications for which it is being designed. The project deals with the
design of supersonic fighter aircraft. This aircraft design project-2 is
basically a continuation of aircraft design project-I.

In design project-I the following were done

Mission specifications
Literature survey
Weight estimation
Engine selection
Airfoil selection
Landing gear selection
Drag estimation
In Aircraft Design Project-II taking the values obtained in design
project-I as input, the load distribution on the wing and the fuselage is
found and the shear force diagram and the bending moment diagram
for the wing and the fuselage are drawn and the internal structure
design is also done.

15
 The following values are taken from the aircraft design project-1
and are used in the aircraft design project-II

Retrieved data from aircraft design project-I

MISSION REQUIREMENTS:
Results from aircraft Design Project I

PARAMETERS VALUES
CREW 1 (ONE)
ROLE Air Superiority, Bomber
ENDURANCE 5 hrs.
PAYLOAD 15,000 kg
TYPE OF PAYLOAD Missiles, Bombs &
Rockets
COMBAT TIME 2 hrs.

TABLE 3.1
CONFIGURATION:

Results from aircraft Design Project I

PARAMETERS SHAPES
FUSELAGE Conventional
WING Delta Wing, Mid Wing
TAIL V- Tail
LANDING GEAR Tri Cycle
ENGINE Turbo Fan Engine

TABLE 3.2

16
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS:

Results from aircraft Design Project I

PARAMETERS VALUES
MAXIMUM SPEED 2.1 Mach
CRUISE SPEED 2300 ft/s
SERVICE CEILING 60000 ft
RATE OF CLIMB 1000 ft/s

TABLE 3.3

SPECIFICATION OF DESIGNED AIRCRAFT

Results from aircraft Design Project I

DESIGN POINT PARAMETERS VALUES

Overall, Weight 66711.88 lbs.
Empty Weight 35518.95 lbs.
Fuel Weight 22041.82 lbs.
Weight Payload Weight 31069.33 lbs.
Cruise speed 1621.28 ft/s

Performance Maximum Speed 2100 ft/s

Range 16400000 ft
Thrust Required 76549.127 lbs.
Area 252.72ft
Span 49.87 ft
Root Chord 25.60 ft
Tip Chord 7.67 ft
Aero foil NACA 632-215
Wing

17
 TABLE 3.4

CHAPTER-1

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT WING

AIM:

To estimate the Shrenck’s curve, structural load distribution, shear

force, bending moment and torque graph for the wing.

WING LOAD DISTRIBUTION

While performing a structural analysis of the aircraft, it is

necessary to investigate all the various loads acting on the aircraft that
will help us in determining the shear force and bending moment
distribution.

Wing load distribution is an important phase in the structural

design of the aircraft. This is because, wing is the component that
enables the aircraft to fly and any damages to the wing during flight due
to over stressing can drastically reduce the lift by sections of wing or the
entire wing being ripped off and the aircraft plummets into the ground or
sea.

So, this structural analysis is important during design. In this

section we will see the shear force and bending moment distribution
along the wingspan.

The major loads acting on the aircraft’s wing are lift, weight of the
wing, weight of fuel, engines, landing gear etc.,

LOADS ACTING ON WING:

As both the wings are symmetric, let us consider the starboard
wing at first. There are three primary loads acting on a wing structure in
transverse direction which can cause considerable shear forces and
bending moments on it.
18
They are as follows:
Lift force (given by Schrenk’s curve)
Self-weight of the wing
Weight of the power plant
Weight of the fuel in the wing

SCHRENK’S CURVE:
Lift varies along the wing span due to the variation in chord length,
angle of attack and sweep along the span. Schrenk’s curve defines this
lift distribution over the wing span of an aircraft, also called simply as
Lift Distribution Curve. Schrenk’s curve is an approximation for the lift
distribution along the span for the wing. The equation of the curve is
obtained by taking the average of the trapezoidal and elliptic lift
distributions.
Schrenk’s Curve is given by

Where;
y1 is Linear Variation of lift along semi wing span also named
as L1 y2 is Elliptic Lift Distribution along the wing span also
named as L2
LINEAR LIFT DISTRIBUTION:

Density, D = 1.225 kg/m3

Root chord of the wing, Cr = 8.054 m

Tip chord of the wing, Ct = 2.013 m
S=126.66 m2
Area of the wing planform
Wing span, b=25.16 m

Lift at root

19
Lift at tip

By representing this lift at sections of root and tip we can get the
equation for the wing.

GRAPH 2.1 Linear lift distribution

y1 = Lroot – * x
y1 = 37952.46532 – * x
y1 = 35517.42964 – 5983.653 x

SEMI SPAN LINEAR LIFT DISTRIBUTION

WING
0 37952.4

20
0.28536 36244.9
0.57073 34537.4
0.85609 32829.8
1.14146 31122.3
1.42682 29414.8
1.71219 27707.3
1.99755 25999.7
2.28292 24292.2
2.56828 22584.7
2.85365 20877.2
3.13901 19169.6
3.42438 17462.1
3.70974 15754.6
3.99511 14047.1
4.28047 12339.5
4.56584 10632.0
4.85120 8924.53
5.13657 7217.01
5.42193 5509.48
5.7073 3801.96

TABLE 3.5

21
 Linear Variation of Lift along Wing Semi Span
40000

35000
Lin
30000
ea
r 25000
lift
(N 20000
/m Linear Lift distribution Curve
15000

10000

5000

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Wing Semi Span (m)

GRAPH 2.2 Linear Lift distribution curve.

ELLIPTIC LIFT DISTRIBUTION:

Twice the area under the curve or line will give the lift which will be
required to overcome weight.
Considering an elliptic lift distribution, we get

Where,
b1= Actual lift at root
a a= wing semi span
W = Gross Weight in kg

22
 GRAPH 2.3 Elliptic lift distribution.

EQUATION OF ELLIPTIC LIFT DISTRIBUTION:

WING SPAN ELLIPTIC LIFT DISTRIBUTION

WING
0 6581.28
0.28536 6573.05
0.57073 6548.3
0.85609 6506.82
1.14146 6448.32
1.42682 6372.30
1.71219 6278.15

23
 1.99755 6165.02
2.28292 6031.85
2.56828 5877.27
2.85365 5699.56
3.13901 5496.46
3.42438 5265.03
3.70974 5001.34
3.99511 4699.98
4.28047 4353.11

TABLE 3.6

Elliptical Variationof Lift along Wing Semi Span

Ell
ipt
7000
ica
l
6000
Lif
t 5000
Di
str4000
ib
uti3000 Ellipticallift Distribution curve
on
2000
(N
/
1000

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Wing Semi Span (m)

GRAPH 2.4 Elliptic Lift distribution curve.

24
CONSTRUCTION OF SCHRENK’S CURVE:
Schrenk’s Curve is given by

Y=

WING SPAN Y2 Y2 Y
0 37952.4 6581.28 22266.8
0.28536 36244.9 6573.05 21409
0.57073 34537.4 6548.3 20542.8
0.85609 32829.8 6506.82 19668.3
1.14146 31122.3 6448.32 18785.3
1.42682 29414.8 6372.30 17893.5
1.71219 27707.3 6278.15 16992.7
1.99755 25999.7 6165.02 16082.4
2.28292 24292.2 6031.85 15162.0
2.56828 22584.7 5877.27 14231.0
2.85365 20877.2 5699.56 13288.3
3.13901 19169.6 5496.46 12333.0
3.42438 17462.1 5265.03 11363.6

25
 3.70974 15754.6 5001.34 10377.9
3.99511 14047.1 4699.98 9373.54
4.28047 12339.5 4353.11 8346.35
4.56584 10632.0 3948.77 7290.41
4.85120 8924.53 3466.90 6195.72
5.13657 7217.01 2868.21 5042.86
5.42193 5509.48 2055.00 3782.24
5.7073 3801.96 0 1900.98

TABLE 3.7

Schrenk's Curve
40000

35000
lift
Dis30000
tri
bu 25000
tio
n 20000 LINEAR CURVE
(N ELLIPTICAL CURVE
/m15000
SCHRENK CURVE
10000

5000

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Wing Semi Span (m)

GRAPH 2.5 Load distribution on wing.

SELF-WEIGHT OF WING (Y3):

For this preliminary analysis, the structural weight of the wing is
assumed to vary parabolically along the span, with zero weight per unit
span at the wingtips.
26
 Again, the area enclosed between the weight distribution curve
and the semi span axis should be equal to wing structural weight. Self-
weight of the wing,

W(wing) = 0.0759 x 29500.64726 x 9.81

W(wing) = 21965.56244N

W(Port wing)= - 10982.78122 N (Acting Downwards)

W(Starboard)= - 10982.78122 N (Acting Downwards)

Assuming parabolic weight distribution

Where,

K = -177.23173
Y3= -177.23173(x-5.7073) ²

SEMI SPAN
WEIGHT OF EMPTY WING
0 -5060.532949
0.8386 -4408.33654
1.6772 -3801.115496
2.5158 -3238.869815
3.3544 -2721.599498
4.193 -2249.304545
5.0316 -1821.984956
5.8702 -1439.64073
6.7088 -1102.271869
27
 7.5474 -809.8783721
8.386 -562.4602388
9.2246 -360.0174696
10.0632 -202.5500642
10.9018 -90.05802286
11.7404 -22.54134544
12.579 -3.19768E-05

TABLE 3.8

Self Weight
0
W 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Eig-1000
ht
of
-2000
em
pt
y -3000
wi
ng -4000
(N
/m
-5000

-6000

-7000
Span wise location (m)

GRAPH 2.6 Self weight of wing

28
FUEL WEIGHT:
This design has fuel in the wing so we have to consider the
weight of the fuel in one the wing.

GRAPH 2.7 Shows slope of the Fuel Weight.

29
 Again, by using general formula for straight line
y= mx + c

we get,

dy = 1.426825 x

Dy= (5210.148434-dy)

Where, m=

Solving this equation,

SEMI SPAN LOAD ACTING ON WING

0 -11937.2032
0.8386 -10611.30214
1.6772 -9285.401078
2.5158 -7959.500017
3.3544 -6633.598956
4.193 -5307.697895
5.0316 -3981.796834
5.8702 -2655.895773
6.7088 -1329.994712
7.5474 -4.093651259
8.386 1321.80741
9.2246 2647.708471
10.0632 3973.609532
10.9018 5299.510593
30
 11.7404 6625.411654
12.579 7951.312715

TABLE 3.9

Fuel distribution
0
Lo 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
ad -500
act-1000
ing
-1500
on
wi -2000
ng -2500
(N
/m-3000
) -3500
-4000
-4500
-5000
Span wise location (m)

GRAPH 2.8 Fuel Distribution.

31
 Load distribution
45000
40000
35000
Lo
30000
ad
act 25000
ing 20000
on
15000
wi
ng 10000
(N 5000
/m 0
) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-5000
-10000
Span wise location (m)

linear elliptical self weight of wing fuel weight

GRAPH 2.9 Loads simplified as point loads.

Curve / component Area enclosed / Centroid (from wing

structural weight (N) root)
y1/2 119152.5073 3.631640234 m
y2/2 14750.32319 2.422253351 m
Wing 10982.78122 1.426825 m
Fuel 49665.61261 1.71219 m

TABLE 3.10

REACTION FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT CALCULATIONS:

The wing is fixed at one end and free at another end.

32
 FIGURE 1.1 Fighter Aircraft Wing as Cantilever beam
Σ v,

Then,

VA-119152.5073-14750.32319+10982.78122+49665.61261=0

VA= 73254.43666 N

ΣM ,

Then,

MA-(119152.5073x3.631640234) -(14750.32319x2.422253351) +
(10982.78122x1.426825) + (49665.61261x1.71219) = 0

MA = 367740.5881N/m

Now we know VA and MA, using this we can find out shear force and
Bending moment.

SHEAR FORCE:

33
By using the corresponding values of x in appropriate equations we get
the plot of shear force.

GRAPH 2.10 Shear Force Acting on wing

34
BENDING MOMENT:

By using the corresponding values of x in appropriate equations we get

the plot of bending moment.

GRAPH 2.11 Bending moment acting on wing

TORQUE:

35
 In the aircraft wing, at any section, the net aerodynamic force
always acts at the center of pressure. For convenience, we assume the
aerodynamic force to act through the aerodynamic center since this
point is fixed for a given airfoil section and does not depend on factors
like angle of attack. Along with the force, we also have a moment about
the aerodynamic center Mac which has a constant value. Since the
center of pressure is always located behind the aerodynamic
center, Mac is always a nose-down moment.
In this section, we analyze the torque or twist distribution along
the wing semi-span. It is known that when a force acts through the
shear center of a section no rotation is produced in the section. Applying
this concept, we shift

the aerodynamic forces to the shear center. In performing this shift, in

addition to the existing Mac, an additional moment due to the shifting is
also to considered.
The variation of net moment per unit span about the section wise shear
center is investigated in this section.
We resolve the aerodynamic forces acting on each section of the
wing into components normal and parallel to the chord. Since the
parallel component passes through the shear center, it does not
contribute to any torque. Only the normal force component contributes
to section torque. For the preliminary analysis, we assume the shear
center to lie at 0.35c from the leading edge. Since this location is very
close to the C.G location, and because weight is a relieving force as far
as section twist is concerned, we neglect the contribution of weight
towards torque distribution.

36
Torque due to normal force:
T’ = Cn
T’ = 0.017
Co-efficient of force along the normal direction,

= 0.0648 cos (50) + 0.011 sin (50)

=0.065512129
T’ = 0.017*0.065512129*1.2256*333.332 c2
T’ = 151.6590026
c2
For the wing, we have the variation of chord is given by
C = 2.013 + 0.640222575 x

Therefore torque

T’ = 151.6590026
T’ = 151.6590026
T’ = 151.6590026
3 2
T’ = 20.72091474 x + 195.4532761 x + 614.5479089 x

GRAPH 2.12 Torque due to normal forces.

37
RESULT:
Thus, the structural load distribution is estimated, shrink’s curve,
shear force, bending moment and torque graph for the wing are plotted.
CHAPTER-2

DETAILED DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT WING

AIM:

To design a spar and stringer, bending stress and shear flow

calculation, buckling analysis for a wing panel.
AIRCRAFT WING:
The aircraft wings are the primary lift producing device for an
aircraft. The aircraft wings are designed aerodynamically to generate lift
force which is required in order for an aircraft to fly. Besides generating
the necessary lift force, the aircraft wings are used to carry the fuel

38
required for the mission by the aircraft, can have mounted engines or
can carry extra fuel tanks or other armaments. The basic goal of the
wing is to generate lift and minimize drag as far as possible. When the
airflow passes the wing at any suitable angle of attack, a pressure
differential is created. A region of lower pressure is created over the top
surface of the wing while, a region of higher pressure is created below
the surface of the wing. This difference in pressure creates a differential
force which acts upward which is called lift. For most aircrafts, where,
the wings are the primary structures to generate lift, the aircrafts wings
must generate sufficient lift to carry the entire weight of an aircraft. In
modern commercial, fighter and jet aircrafts, the aircraft wings are not
only designed to provide the necessary lift during the different phases of
flight, but also have a variety of other roles and functions. In fighter
aircrafts, weapon systems, missiles and extra fuel tanks or other
armament is normally mounted below the wing surface using weapon-
pods. These pods are normally attached to the wing spars running
through the wing span. During the flight, the aircraft wing has to deal
with aerodynamic, gust, wind and turbulence loads. Also, the aircraft
wings have to deal with aero-elastic and structural loads as well.

FIGURE 1.2 Wing components

39
DESIGN OF WING COMPONENT – SPAR:
The wing spars are the main load carrying structural member of
the aircraft wing. The wing spars are used to carry the loads that occur
during the flight
(Flight loads) as well as carry the weight of the aircraft wing while on the
ground (ground loads). The wing spars run throughout the root to the tip
and can be placed perpendicularly or at an angle. Commercial aircrafts
sometimes have a smaller number of wing spars than fighter aircrafts,
this is due to the fact that, the fighter aircrafts have to deal with much
higher flight loads. Therefore, the analysis has to be very accurate. The
structural analysis of the wing by defining the primary load carrying
member Spars is done below.
Spars are members which are basically used to carry the bending
and shear loads acting on the wing during flight. There are two spars,
one located at 15-20% of the chord known as the front spar, the other
located at 60-70% of the chord known as the rear spar. Some of the
functions of the spar include:
The spar flange takes up the bending loads whereas the web
carries the shear loads.
The rear spar provides a means of attaching the control
surfaces on the wing.

The loads taken by the wing spars include bending loads mainly,
as well as part of the shear force. The spar is responsible for resisting
nearly 90% of the bending. The common section for the spar is the I-
section, in which the flanges resist bending moments while the webs
resist shear forces. For the front and rear spars in the wings, the
material used is Al2024 alloy. This material is selected for its high
strength, relatively high strength to weight ratio, as well as smooth
elastic properties.

40
For this Al 2024 alloy, the properties are listed below:

Ultimate tensile strength : 530.896

Yield tensile strength MPa

Yield compressive strength : 455.05 MPa

: 525.1 MPa
Ultimate shear strength
: 206.84 MPa
Young’s modulus : 73.1 GPa
Shear modulus : 21.48 GPa
3
Density : 2800 kg/m

Considering these functions, the locations of the front and rear

spar are fixed at 0.20c and 0.65c from the leading edge respectively.
This location satisfies the condition of locating the front spar
close to the maximum thickness position in the wing as well as the fuel
space requirement.
In this section, we design the spars for the critical bending
moment developed at the wing root. Hence, we take a section close to
the wing root and design the spar based on it.
The airfoil selected for the aircraft is the NACA 63210. The section
selected for this analysis has a chord of 5.032 m, and the critical
bending moment developed at this section is approximately N-m.
At the spar locations, the distance between the top and bottom
surfaces of the wing are:
Height of front spar, h1 = 0.20c = (0.20*5.032) = 1.0064 m
Height of rear spar, h2 = 0.65c = (0.65*5.032) = 3.2708 m

The bending moment is assumed to be shared between the front

and rear spar in the ratio
41
 M1/M2=h12/h22

M1/M2=1.00642/3.27082

M1+M2=Mmax

From the above two equations,

Mf = 165713.5568 Nm
Mr = 1750349.443 Nm

We use the Euler bending theory to find the areas of the spar caps.
The design is carried out assuming that when this moment is resisted,
the stress in the material reaches the yield stress value
Also, we use the lumped mass analysis with the assumption that
the areas of the top and bottom caps are the same. With this
assumption, the location of the neutral surface of each spar lies midway
between the top and bottom surfaces.
Using the above assumptions, we have the following formulae:
σy=m/az
Where M – bending moment taken by each spar
A – flange area of each spar
Z – centroid distance

Front spar:
Using Euler bending theory,
σy=m1/a1 z1

M1=bending moment @front spar

A1=Area of the spar

Z1=centroid

Z1=h1/2
42
 Z1 = 0.5032 m
Area of front spar, Af = 0.00072369 m2
Thickness of front spar tf = 14% of Ct
tf = 0.28182 m
Length of front angle section, lf = 6t = (6*0.28182)
lf = 1.69092 m
Height of the front angle section, hf = 5t = (5*0.28182) = 1.4091 m

Rear spar:
Using Euler bending theory,
σy=m2/a2 z2
M2=bending moment@ rear spar

A2= area of rear spar

Z2=centroid

Z2=h2/2

Z2 = 1.6354 m
2
Area of rear spar, Ar = 0.0023519 m
Thickness of rear spar tr = 14% of Cr
tr = 0.12756 m
Length of rear angle section, lr = 8t = (8*0.12756)
lr = 1.02048 m
Height of the rear angle section, hr = 3.5t = (3.5*0.12759)
hr = 0.44646 m
Now to determine the thickness of the web portion, the ultimate
shear stress of Al 2024 alloy is 206.84 MPa. The shear force at the spar
supports are found to be
Vf = 13649682.3 N
Vr = 3830940.904 N
43
 FIGURE 1.3 Spars.

We know that,
Where V – shear force at the spar

1.69092
1.02048

1.4091 0.4464

0.19671 0.016987

0.28182
0.12756
Frontspar Rear spar

t – thickness of the web

Q = A*Z
2
I = A*Z

Thus,

Where factor of safety, FOS = 1.5

Thus, the thicknesses of the web portion are,

For front spar,
tf = 0.19671 m
For rear spar,
tr = 0.016987 m

All dimensions are in m.

44
SHEAR FLOW:
The shear flow can be considered for the two cells in the airfoil
cross section. The shear flow will be due to the torque as well as due to
the bending moments. These are computed separately and summed up
to obtain the net shear flow pattern for the wing cross section.
The shear flow due to bending is calculated using the formula,
q=(vxIXX-VYIXY/IXY2-IXXIYY)ΣAX+( vyIyy-VxIXY/IXY2-IXXIYY)ΣAY

Vx = 186287.512 N
Vy = 1588540.96 N
Ixx = 2.499*10-3 m4
Iyy = 9.998*10-3 m4
Ixy = 3.749*10-3 m4
With these values, we have the equation for open section shear
flow through the sections as
9 10
q = 1.104*10 + 1.340958*10
The above equation is modified by adding a constant term while
closing the cuts.
The shear flow due to torque,
T = 2*A*Q
Where, A = area of each cell
Q = shear flow due to the torque

The shear flow from the two cases is superimposed, using which
the net shear flow through the wing section is computed. Using this
distribution, we have the maximum value of shear flow in the skin
without any stringers to be in the segment between the front and rear
spar on the top surface of the wing.
qmax = 3259165.159 N/m
With this value of shear flow, we obtain the skin thickness required
from the strength as well as buckling aspects. For strength

45
requirements, we have the relation
Using the above relation, we have t = 0.0158 m
For the buckling analysis, we consider the wing panel with the
maximum shear flow. The relation used to determine the thickness
required is
Where Kb – constant based on the panel supports and aspect ratio
ν – Poisson’s ratio
b – shorter edge of the panel
for the panel considered,
Kb = 32
Using the above relation, we have t = 3.0848 m
Selecting the higher of the two values computed we have the
required thickness of the wing skin without stiffening stringers as
3.0848 m.
DESIGN OF STRINGER:
The thickness of the skin determined above is too high for the skin
of an aircraft. Therefore, in order to reduce skin thickness and
redistribute the shear flow in the wing skin, stringers are added. The
number of stringers can be determined by evaluating the amount by
which the skin thickness should be reduced.

The section selected for the stringers is the Z‐section with end
tabs. This section is selected as it gives the maximum area moment of
inertia for the minimum cross section area. The properties of the
stringer section selected are given below:

h=0.2406m

t=0.01m

A = 0.004812 m2

For the wing root chord of 5.032 m, we select the number of

stringers to be 12. There are no stringers in cell 3 as the region has

46
other components like control surfaces, and the space restriction makes
it difficult to insert stringers in this portion.

Ixx=(h3t/3) = (0.24063) *(0.01)/3=4.642*10-5m4

Iyy=(h3t/12) = (0.24063)*(0.01)/12=1.160*10-

5
m4

Ixy =(h3t/8) =(0.24063)*(0.01)/8=1.741*10-5m4

q=(vxIXX-VYIXY/IXY2-IXXIYY)ΣAX+( vyIyy-VxIXY/IXY2-IXXIYY) ΣAy

10 10
q = -2.50135*10 - 6.45117*10
Once again superimposing the shear flows due to bending and
torsion, we evaluate the shear flow and identify the wing skin panel with
the maximum value of shear flow. This panel is located between the
rear spar and the adjacent stringer on the top surface, and is of size
0.2376 m x 0.6 m. The shear flow in this panel is calculated as

qmax = 3259165.159 N/m

From the strength point of analysis, we have

Τutl=qmax/t

Using the above relation, we have

t = 0.1666 m
For the buckling analysis, using the relation
q/t=(πkbE)/(12[1-v2])*[t/b]2

Using the above relation, we have

t = 0.07 m
It is seen that there is a 60.4% reduction in skin thickness due to
the addition of stiffening stringers. The values of stringer number and

47
dimensions are arrived at after several iterations, changing the area and
section of each stringer. An important factor to be considered
simultaneously while designing the stringers is whether the stringers will
buckle due to the compressive stress which is exerted on them as a
result of wing bending.

BENDING STRESS FOR WING:

An important factor to be considered simultaneously while

designing the stringers is whether the stringers will buckle due to the
compressive stress

which is exerted on them as a result of wing bending. To calculate the

bending stress exerted at different locations on the wing section, we
use the relation
σb=(MX IYY-MY IXY/IXY2-IXXIYY)Y+( My IXX-Mx IXY/IXY2-IXXIYY) X

Mx = 2846175.788 N/m

My = 985047.2371 N/m

Using the above relation,

10 10
σb=6.741*10 y+1.628*10 x

The stringer subjected to maximum stress is identified as the

stringer one away from the top flange of the rear spar. The stress value
acting on this stringer is calculated as

σexerted=1.755*1010Pa

Since the stringer is assumed to be simply supported between ribs,

the buckling stress for each stringer segment is calculated using the
formula

σcr=π2EI/AL2

48
Using the data for stringer dimensions and the above equation, we have
σcr=7.260*1010 Pa.

RESULT:

Thus the spar and stringer was designed, bending stress and
shear flow calculation, buckling analysis for a wing panel are estimated.
CHAPTER-3

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT FUSELAGE

AIM:

To estimate the various loads on fuselage and plot the shear force
and bending moment diagram.

FUSELAGE DESIGN:

The fuselage is the main structure or body of the fixed-wing

aircraft. It provides space for cargo, controls, accessories, passengers,
and other equipment. In single-engine aircraft, the fuselage houses the
power plant. In multiengine aircraft, the engines may be either in the
fuselage, attached to the fuselage, or suspended from the wing
structure. There are two general types of fuselage construction: truss
and monocoque.

A truss is a rigid framework made up of members, such as beams,

struts, and bars to resist deformation by applied loads. The truss-
framed fuselage is generally covered with fabric. The truss-type
fuselage frame is usually constructed of steel tubing welded together in
such a manner that all members of the truss can carry both tension and
compression loads. In some aircraft, principally the light, single engine,
49
truss fuselage frames may be constructed of aluminum alloy and may
be riveted or bolted into one piece, with cross-bracing achieved by using
solid rods or tubes Monocoque Type

The monocoque (single shell) fuselage relies largely on the

strength of the skin or covering to carry the primary loads. The design
may be divided into two classes:

Monocoque
Semi monocoque
Different portions of the same fuselage may belong to either of
the two classes, but most modern aircraft are considered to be of semi
monocoque type construction. The true monocoque construction uses
formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads to give shape to the fuselage.
The heaviest of these structural members are located at intervals to
carry concentrated loads and at points where fittings are used to attach
other units such as wings, power plants, and stabilizers. Thus, the
biggest problem involved in monocoque construction is maintaining
enough strength while keeping the weight within allowable limits.

Semi-monocoque Type:

To overcome the strength/weight problem of monocoque

construction, a modification called semi monocoque construction was
developed. It also consists of frame assemblies, bulkheads, and formers
as used in the monocoque design but, additionally, the skin is reinforced
by longitudinal members called longerons. Longerons usually extend
across several frame members and help the skin support primary
bending loads. They are typically made of aluminium alloy either of a
single piece or a built-up construction.

50
 FIGURE 1.4 Semi monocoque Type.

Stringers are also used in the semi-monocoque fuselage.

This is accomplished with gussets, rivets, nuts and bolts, screws,
and even friction stir welding. A gusset is a type of connection
bracket that adds strengthen of the skin. Stringers and longerons
together prevent tension and compression from bending the
fuselages summarize, in semi-monocoque fuselages, the strong,
heavy longerons hold the bulkheads and formers, and these, in turn,
hold the stringers, braces, web members, etc.

Description:

Fuselage contributes very little to lift and produces more

drag but it is an important structural member/component. It is the
connecting member to all load producing components such as
wing, horizontal tail, vertical tail, landing gear etc. and thus
redistributes the load. It also serves the purpose of housing or
accommodating practically all equipment, accessories and
systems in addition to carrying the payload. Because of large
amount of equipment inside the fuselage, it is necessary to
provide sufficient number of cutouts and discontinuities result in
the fuselage for access and inspection purposes. These cutouts
51
and discontinuities result in fuselage design being more
complicated, less precise and often less efficient in design. As a
common member to which other components are attached,
thereby transmitting the loads, fuselage can be considered as a
long hollow beam. The reactions produced by the wing, tail or
landing gear may be considered as concentrated loads at the
respective attachment points. The balancing reactions are
provided by the inertia force contributed by the weight of the
fuselage structure and the various components inside the fuselage.
This is much simpler for structural analysis due to its
symmetrical cross-section and symmetrical bending. The main
load in the case of fuselage is the shear load because the load
acting on the wing is transferred to the fuselage skin in the form of
shear only. The structural design of both wing and fuselage begins
with shear force and bending moment diagrams for the respective
members. The maximum bending stress produced in each of them
is checked to be less than the yield stress of the material chosen
for the respective member.

Loads and its distribution:

To find out the loads and their distribution, consider the different
cases. The main components of the fuselage loading diagram are:

Weight of the fuselage

Engine weight
Weight of the horizontal and vertical stabilizers
Tail lift
Weight of crew, payload and landing gear
Systems, equipment, accessories

52
 Values for the different component’s weights are obtained from
aerodynamic design calculations.
Loads acting on fuselage:

s.no Components Distance load

from
reference
line (m)

1 Crew 3.04 7.22 KN/m

2 nose landing gear 6.8 122.176 KN
3 Pay load 12.17 158.82 KN
4 Fuselage mass 15.88 109 KN
5 Main landing gear 18.52 1099.9 KN
6 Horizontal 21.32 20.356KN/m
Stabilizer
7 Vertical stabilizer 24.82 24.435KN/m

TABLE 3.11

SHEAR FORCE FOR FUSELAGE

Shear force at I = RB

Therefore, Shear force at I = 1489.21 KN

Shear force at H = RB – 303.238

Shear force at H = 1185.972 KN

Shear force at G = RB – 303.238 - 216.994

Shear force at G = 969.978 KN

Shear force at F = RB – 303.238 – 216.994 – 1099.9

53
Shear force at F = -130.922 KN

Shear force at E = RB - 303.238 – 216.994 – 1099.9 – 109 Shear force at

E = -239.922 KN

Shear force at D = RB – 303.238 – 216.994 – 1099.9 – 109 – 158.82

Shear force at D = -398.742 KN

Shear force at C = RB – 303.238 – 216.994 – 1099.9 – 109 – 158.82 –

122.176

Shear force at C = -520.918 KN

Shear force at A = RB–303.238–216.994–1099.9 – 109 – 158.82 –

122.176
–10.9744

Shear force at A = -561.8924 KN

BENDING MOMENT FOR FUSELAGE

Moment at B = 0

Bending moment at I = (RB * 24.82)

Bending moment at I = 36962.1922 N-m

Bending moment at H = (RB * 24.82) – (303.238*21.32)

Bending moment at H = 30497.15804 N-m

Bending moment at G = (RB * 24.82) – (303.238*21.32) –

(216.994*18.52)

Bending moment at G = 26478.42916 N-m

Bending moment at F = (RB*24.82) – (303.238*21.32) – (216.994*18.52)

54
–(1099.9*15.88)

Bending moment at F = -9012.01716 N-m

Bending moment at E = (RB*24.82) – (303.238*21.32) – (216.994*18.52)

–(1099.9*15.88) – (109*12.17)
Bending moment at E = -7685.48716 N-m

Bending moment at D = (RB*24.82) – (303.238*21.32) – (216.994*18.52)

–(1099.9*15.88) – (109*12.17) – (158.82*6.8)

Bending moment at D = -6605.5116 N-m

Bending moment at C = (RB*24.82) – (303.238*21.32) – (216.994*18.52)

–(1099.9*15.88) – (109*12.17) – (158.82*6.8) – (122.176*6.8)

Bending moment at C = -5774.71436

Bending moment at A = (RB*24.82) – (303.238*21.32) – (216.994*18.52)

–(1099.9*15.88) – (109*12.17) – (158.82*6.8) – (122.176*6.8) –
(10.9744*3.04)

Bending moment at A = -5741.352184 N-m

55
 GRAPH 2. 13 Fuselage shear and moment diagram

RESULT:

Thus, the various loads on fuselage is estimated and the shear

56
force and bending moment diagram are plotted.

CHAPTER-4

DETAILED DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT FUSELAGE

AIM:

To design bulkheads and longerons, bending stress and shear flow

calculations of an aircraft fuselage.

BULKHEAD:

From reference aircraft

Radius (R) = 2m

Fuselage section length = 32.84 m

Longeron height = 33mm

Longeron width = 20mm

Longeron thickness = 1mm

(top) no. followers = 8

(bottom) no.of.longerons = 8

Fineness ratio= (length of the body)/(max width of body)

Fineness ratio=32.84/41.16

Fineness ratio=0.7978

57
Shear flow distribution

Bulkhead:

Boom area:

58
Shear flow distribution:

59
RESULT:

The design of bulkheads and lingering, bending stress and shear

flow calculations of an aircraft fuselage is done.

60
 CHAPTER-5

BALANCING AND MANOEUVRING LOADS (TAIL PLANE, RUDDER AND

AILERON)

BALANCING LOADS:
A horizontal surface balancing load is a load necessary to
maintain equilibrium in any specified flight condition with no pitching
acceleration horizontal balancing surface must be designed for the
balancing loads occurring at any point on the limit maneuvering
envelope and in the flap Conditions it is not required to balance the
rudder because it will not deflect due to gravity aileron will defect in
vice versa direction so it doesn’t require balancing load.

FIGURE 1.5 Aircraft Body Axes and Positive Moment Directions.

61
MANOEUVERING LOADS:
Each horizontal surface and its supporting structure, and the main
wing of a canard or tandem wing configuration, if that surface has pitch
control, must be designed for the maneuvering loads imposed by the
following conditions:
a) A sudden movement of the pitching control, at the speed VA, to the
maximum aft movement, and the maximum forward movement, as
limited by the control stops, or pilot effort, whichever is critical.
b) A sudden aft movement of the pitching control at speeds above VA,
followed by a forward movement of the pitching control resulting in
the foll owing combinations of normal and angular acceleration. At
speeds up to VA, the vertical surfaces must be designed to withstand
the following conditions. In computing the loads, the yawing velocity
may be assumed to be zero.
c) With the airplane in unaccelerated flight at zero yaw, it is assumed
that the rudder control is suddenly displaced to the maximum
deflection, as limited by the control stops or by limit pilot forces.
d) With the rudder deflected, it is assumed that the airplane yaws to the
over swing sideslip angle. In lieu of a rational analysis, an over swing
angle equal to 1.5 times the static sideslip angle may be assumed.
e) A yaw angle of 15 degrees with the rudder control maintained in the
neutral position (except as limited by pilot strength)
The airplane must be yawed to the largest attainable steady state
side slip angle, with the rudder at maximum deflection caused by any
one of the following:
Control surface stops
Maximum available booster effort
Maximum pilot rudder force
The rudder must be suddenly displaced from the maximum

62
 deflection to the neutral position
The yaw angles may be reduced if the yaw angle chosen for a
particular speed cannot be exceeded in:
Steady slip conditions
Uncoordinated rolls from steep banks or
Sudden failure of the critical engine with delayed corrective
action.
The ailerons must be designed for the loads to which they are subjected:
In the neutral position during symmetrical flight conditions;
and
By the following deflections (except as limited by pilot effort),
during unsymmetrical flight conditions
Sudden maximum displacement of the aileron control at VA.
Suitable allowance may be made for control system
deflections.
Sufficient deflection at VC, where VC is more than VA, to
produce a rate of roll not less than obtained.
Sufficient deflection at VD, to produce a rate of roll not less
than one-third of that obtained.

(a)Symmetric maneuvering conditions:

Where sudden displacement of a control is specified, the assumed
rate of control surface displacement may not be less than the rate that
could be applied by the pilot through the control system. In determining
elevator angles and chord wise load distribution in the maneuvering
conditions, the effect of corresponding pitching velocities must be taken
into account. The in-trim and out-of-trim flight conditions must be
considered.
(b)Maneuvering balanced conditions:
Assuming the airplane to be in equilibrium with zero pitching
acceleration, the maneuvering conditions on the maneuvering envelope

63
must be investigated. (c) Pitch maneuver conditions:

The movement of the pitch control surfaces may be adjusted to take

into account limitations imposed by the maximum pilot effort, control
system stop and any indirect effect imposed by limitations in the output
side of the control

system (for example, stalling torque or maximum rate) obtainable by a

power control system.
Maximum pitch control displacement at VA:
The airplane is assumed to be flying in steady level flight and the
cockpit pitch control is suddenly moved to obtain extreme nose up
pitching acceleration. In defining the tail load, the response of the
airplane must be taken into account.
Airplane loads that occur subsequent to the time when normal
acceleration at the
c.g. exceeds the positive limit maneuvering load or the resulting tail
plane normal load reaches its maximum, whichever occurs first, need
not be considered.
Specified control displacement:
A checked maneuver, based on a rational pitching control motion vs.
time profile, must be established in which the design limit load factor
will not be exceeded. Unless lesser values cannot be exceeded, the
airplane response must result in pitching accelerations not less than the
following:
a) A positive pitching acceleration (nose up) is assumed to be reached
concurrently with the airplane load factor of 1.0. The positive
acceleration must be equal to at least 39n(n-1)/v, (rad/sec).Where,
“n” is the positive load factor at the speed under consideration; and V
is the airplane equivalent speed in knots.
b) A negative pitching acceleration (nose down) is assumed to be
reached on currently with the positive maneuvering load factor. This
negative pitching acceleration must be equal to at least -26n(n-1)/v,

64
 (rad/sec).

RESULT:
Thus, the balancing and maneuvering load in tail planes, aileron
and rudders was studied.
CHAPTER-6
DESIGN OF WING ROOT ATTACHMENT

AIM:

To design the wing root attachment for the designed aircraft.

WING ROOT FAIRINGS:

Wing root fairings have substantially improved low speed

and high speed – load flying Characteristics. The design
process and result are described in hidden drag.

For us low and slow fliers, it is convenient to consider the

total drag of an airplane to be composed of parasite drag and
induced drag. Parasite drag is the resistance produced by
irregular surfaces. The airflow is disrupted by such surface and
becomes turbulent. Bending of smooth airflows creates
induced drag.

It is easy to see the causes of parasite drag. For example, un faired

65
gear legs and external antennas are indicators. Induced drag is harder to
identify. A sleek-looking airplane may have lot of induced drag and thus
may not fly fast.
This is a story about hidden drag.

The fairings solve the three problems mentioned at the beginning.

A small attitude change no longer causes sudden

deterioration of airspeed.
Power-off glide is stable and the sink rate is much reduced.
The plane no longer requires nose-up attitude in level flight
when heavily load.
There are additional benefits, such as improved climb rate, increased
cruise speed and reduced stall speed.

If the fuselage expands and contracts over the wings, as it does

for the 601 HDS, then this increases drag and reduces lift, particularly
for large payloads or high angle of attack. The negative effects can be
mitigated by a fairing that simulates a constant width fuselage.

The fairings significantly improve climb rate, ceiling, stall speed,

sink rate at low speeds, optimum glide ratio, minimum power to stay
aloft, and stability of the plane when CG is close to the rear limit.

Generally the required angle of attack in level flight is significantly

reduced at or below cruise power settings. This manifests itself by a
much lower nose, particularly at gross weight.

The design of the fairings is not difficult. One draws on the

fuselage the points of attachment of the fairing in a reasonable curve.
On the wing, ne draws a straight line that is at 90 deg with the spar and
that just touches the fuselage at its widest point. Now ne connects the
line on the wing with the curve on the fuselage, thus getting a surface.
The fairings must have that surface.

66
 For creation of the fairings, one protects the wing and the
fuselage with masking tape, then establishing the fairing surface
using plaster. Once the plaster is cured and dried, one lays the
fibreglass. When the resin has set, the fairing is removed,
trimmed, and the fairing surface is finished using lightweight filler.
Of course, the plaster and masking tape are removed as well.

The finishing fairing is riveted to sidewall and wing surface,

and then painted. Overall, one should aim for very light weight
fairings that together do not exceed 4lbs when painted.

RESULT:

Thus, the design of wing root attachment is studied.

CHAPTER-7
DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR

AIM:

To design the landing gear supports the aircraft when it is not

flying, allowing it to take off, land and usually to taxi without damage.
Landing gear placement is essential for ground stability and
controllability. A good landing gear position must provide superior
handling characteristics and must not allow over-balancing during
takeoff or landing.

LANDING GEAR ARRANGEMENT:

Landing gears normally come in two types: conventional or
"taildragger" landing gear, where there are two main wheels towards the
front of the aircraft and a single, much smaller, wheel or skid at the rear;
or tricycle landing gear, where there are two main wheels (or wheel
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assemblies) under the wings and a third smaller wheel in the nose.
To decrease drag in flight some undercarriages retract into the
wings and/or fuselage with wheels flush against the surface or
concealed behind doors; this is called retractable gear. With a tricycle
landing gear, the c.g is ahead of the main wheels, so the aircraft is
stable on the ground. It improves forward visibility on the ground and
permits a flat cabin floor for passengers and cargo loading.
Thus, retractable tricycle landing gear system is selected.
TYRE SIZING:
The “wheel” is the circular metal object upon which the rubber
“tyre” is mounted. The “brake” inside the wheel slows the aircraft by
increasing the rolling friction. However, the term “wheel” is frequently
used to mean the entire wheel/brake/tyre assembly.

The tyres are sized to carry the weight of the aircraft. Typically the
main tyres carry about 90% of the total aircraft weight. Nose tyres carry
only about 10% of the static load but experience higher dynamic loads
during landing.
The nose gear is of double‐bogey type with two wheels. The main
gear consists of two sets of wheels (wing‐retracted) each of
multi‐bogey type with 4 wheels each.

NOSE GEAR:
Load on nose gear = 0.1W0
= 0.1*65000
= 56500 kg

MAIN LANDING GEAR:

Load on main gear = 0.9W0
= 0.9*65000

Nose landing gear Main landing gear

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 No. of wheel 1 2
Total load 5700 51300
Load by each wheel 5700 25650
Pressure type (psi) 200 200
Pressure type (bar) 13.78 13.78
= 58500kg

TABLE: 3.12

Tyre Selection – Nose Wheel

Nose wheel load WW = 56548 N
From Reymer book,

For fighter aircraft Diameter Width

A 1.59 0.0989
B 0.302 0.467

TABLE: 3.13

Wheel diameter = A WWB

d = 1.59(56548)0.315
d = 51.19 inch = 1.30 m
Wheel Width = A WWB
w = 0.1043(56548)0.48
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 w = 19.92 inch = 0.506 m

Contact Area:
WW = Ap * P
AP = 0.04103 m2
Rt = 0.628 m
Tyre Selection – Main Wheel
Main wheel load = 254468.5 N
Wheel diameter = A WWB
d = 1.63(254468.5)0.315
d = 82.21 inch = 2.08 m
B
Wheel Width = A WW
0.48
w = 0.1043(254468.5)

w = 41.01 inch = 1.04 m

Contact Area:

WW = Ap * P

2
AP = 0.1846 m

Rt = 0.985 m

RUNWAY LOADING:
For main wheel,
Runway loading = 1.37848 N/m2
For nose wheel,
Runway loading = 1.37821 N/m2

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 FIGURE: 1.6 Landing gear arrangement.

RESULT:
Thus, the tyre is selected and the landing gear is designed.
CHAPTER-8

DETAIL DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT

AIM:

To prepare a detailed design of an aircraft.

Front view:

71
 Figure 1.8: Front view
Side view:

Figure:1.8 Side view

Top view:

72
 Figure:1.9 Top view

RESULT:
Thus, the detail design of an aircraft is prepared.
CONCLUSION

Design is a fine blend of science, presence of mind and the

application of each one of them at the appropriate time.
Design of anything needs experience and an optimistic progress
toward the ideal system the scientific society always looks for the
best product design.
This involves a strong fundamental and their skill full application
which is a tough job endowed upon the designer, we had put
enough had work to best of our knowledge for this design.
A design never gets completed in a flutter sense but it is one
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further step towards the ideal system. But during the design of
this fighter aircraft, we learnt a lot about AERONAUTICS and its
implication when applied to an aircraft design.

74
 REFERENCES

1. www.airliners.net
2. www.google.com
3. www.rcgroups.com
4. 3dcadbrowser.com
5. Introduction to flight- J.D. Anderson
6. Design of Aircraft- Thomas N Corke
7. Roskam, J. (1985) Airplane Designs, Roskam Aviation and
Engineering Corp., Ottawa, Kansas
8. Daniel p. Raymer, “Aircraft conceptual design,” seventh edition.
9. L.M. Milne – Thomson, “Theoretical Aerodynamics”; second edition

10. J.D Anderson, “Aircraft Performance”

11. Ira h. Abbott, Albert e. Von Doenhoff, and Louis S. Stivers, Jr,”
Summary of Airfoil Data”, National advisory committee for
aeronautics, 1947.
12. John T.Lowry., “Performance of Light Aircraft”, American institute of
aeronautics and astronautics, Washington.D.C, 1935.
13. Dr.lng.S.F.Hoerner,” Fluid –Dynamic Drag”, Hoerner fluid dynamics.
1992.
14. J.B. Russell, “Performance and Stability of Aircraft”. ISBN 0-340-
63170-8. Arnold 1996.
15. Anderson, John D. Jr., (1999) Aircraft Performance and Design,
McGraw- Hill, New York .

16. Anderson, John D. Jr., (2001) Introduction to Flight, McGraw-Hill ,

New York.
17. Ref 3, C. And Hage, R. (1949) Airplane Performance, Stability and
Control, Wiley, New York.
18. Raymer, Daniel P. (1992) Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach,
AIAA Education series, Washington, DC.

19. Roskam, J. (1985) Airplane Design, Roskam Aviation and

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 Engineering Corp., Ottawa, Kansas.
20. Engine specifications details -
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/rollsroyce/Snecma_Olympus_593

21. Airfoil data - airfoiltools.com

22. Goodyear tyre data book

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