AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT - II

DESIGN OF INTERCEPTOR AIRCRAFT

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

MOHAMED MAZHAR D 110518101016

SAM JOSHUA M 110518101023
BALAMANIKANDAN S 110518101006
SUDHARSON M 110518101027

In partial fulfilment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

GOJAN SCHOOL OF BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGY

EDAPALAYAM, REDHILLS, CH-52

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

DECEMBER 2021

I
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this Aircraft Design project-II report titled DESIGN OF

INTERCEPTOR AIRCRAFT is the bonafied work of Mohamed Mazhar D
(110518101016), Sam Joshua M (110518101023), Balamanikandan S
(110518101006), and Sudharson M (110518101027) who carried out the
project work under my supervision. Certified further that to the best of my
knowledge the work reported here is not a part of any other project work.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
HEAD OF DEPARTMENT, INTERNAL GUIDE,
Mr. L. SURESH RAJ, M.E., Mr.Y.Nokesh
Mr. Babu,M.E.,
L. SURESH RAJ, M.E.,
Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Department of Aeronautical engineering,
Gojan School of Business Gojan School of Business
And Technology, And Technology,
80 ft road, Edapalayam, 80 ft road, Edapalayam,
Redhills, Ch-52 Redhills, Ch-52

The Aircraft Design Project-2Viva Voice Examination held on

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

II
MOHAMED MAZHAR D

Department of Aeronautical Engineering

Gojan School of Business and Technology

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the Aircraft Design project-2 entitled “DESIGN OF AN

INTERCEPTOR AIRCRAFT” submitted by us to Anna University in
December 2021 for the award of degree of Bachelor of Engineering in
Aeronautical Engineering is the original and independent team work carried
out by me under the guidance of Mr. L. SURESH RAJ, M.E., Assistant
professor, and that it has not been formed basis fully or partially for the award
of any degree, diploma or other similar titles earlier and no part of above
project work has been published or sent for the publication at the time of
submission.

Place: Chennai Signature

Date :

III
SAM JOSHUA M

Department of Aeronautical Engineering

Gojan School of Business and Technology

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the Aircraft Design project-2 entitled “DESIGN OF AN

INTERCEPTOR AIRCRAFT” submitted by us to Anna University in
December 2021 for the award of degree of Bachelor of Engineering in
Aeronautical Engineering is the original and independent team work carried
out by me under the guidance of Mr. L. SURESH RAJ, M.E., Assistant
professor, and that it has not been formed basis fully or partially for the award
of any degree, diploma or other similar titles earlier and no part of above
project work has been published or sent for the publication at the time of
submission.

Place: Chennai Signature

Date :

IV
BALAMANIIKANDAN S

Department of Aeronautical Engineering

Gojan School of Business and Technology

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the Aircraft Design project-2 entitled “DESIGN OF AN

INTERCEPTOR AIRCRAFT” submitted by us to Anna University in
December 2021 for the award of degree of Bachelor of Engineering in
Aeronautical Engineering is the original and independent team work carried
out by me under the guidance of Mr. L. SURESH RAJ, M.E., Assistant
professor, and that it has not been formed basis fully or partially for the award
of any degree, diploma or other similar titles earlier and no part of above
project work has been published or sent for the publication at the time of
submission.

Place: Chennai Signature

Date :

V
SUDHARSON M

Department of Aeronautical Engineering

Gojan School of Business and Technology

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the Aircraft Design project-2 entitled “DESIGN OF AN

INTERCEPTOR AIRCRAFT” submitted by us to Anna University in
December 2021 for the award of degree of Bachelor of Engineering in
Aeronautical Engineering is the original and independent team work carried
out by me under the guidance of Mr. L. SURESH RAJ, M.E., Assistant
professor, and that it has not been formed basis fully or partially for the award
of any degree, diploma or other similar titles earlier and no part of above
project work has been published or sent for the publication at the time of
submission

Place: Chennai Signature

Date :

VI
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We express our deepest gratitude to our Chairman Dr. G. Natarajan, Ph.D., and
Chairperson Mrs. Brindha Natarajan, B. Com, for their valuable guidance and
blessings.

We are deeply indebted to our beloved Principal Dr. C. Selvakumar, Ph.D., Gojan
School of Business and Technology, for providing us an excellent environment to
carry out our course successfully.

We also express our thanks to our Head of the Department Ms. L. Suresh raj,
M.E., Assistant Professor, who has been a constant source of inspiration and
guidance in the course of the project.

We record our sincere thanks to our Supervisor Mr. L. SURESH RAJ, M.E.,
Assistant Professor, for being instrumental in the completion of our project with
his exemplary guidance.

We thank all the Staff Members of our department for their valuable support and
assistance at various stages of our project development.

Finally, we take this opportunity to extend our deep sense of gratitude and
appreciation to our family and friends for all that they meant to us during the crucial
times of the completion of our project.

VII
 ABSTRACT
The purpose of the project is to design an INTERCEPTOR AIRCRAFT, along with its
all-detailed specifications includes the V-n Diagram, Preliminary design of aircraft wing (shear
force, bending moment and torque diagram), Preliminary and detailed design of aircraft fuselage,
design of landing gear Such an aircraft must possess a narrow body configuration to provide single
seating capacity. It must possess Turbofan engines to provide the required amount of speed, range,
and fuel economy for the operator. The aircraft will possess two engines.
To meet the preferences of the pilot, which include the following amenities. The main
purpose of the Interceptor Aircraft is to defend the attacks of Bomber and Fighter Aircraft.

VIII
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
NO.
NO
LIST OF TABLES IV

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVATION V

Introduction 1
1.

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Result from ADP 1 2
1.3 Phases of Aircraft Design 3
1.4 Conceptual Design 3
1.5 Preliminary Design 3
1.6 Detailed Design 4
1.7 Outline of Aircraft Design Project 4

5
2. Preliminary Design of Aircraft Wing

2.1 v-n diagram 5

2.2 Critical Loading Performance 5

2.3 Final v-n diagram 5

2.4 Gust and Manoeuvrability Envelope 7

2.5 Structural Design: Theory Approach 9

3. Detailed Design of Aircraft Wings 10

3.1 Scherenck’s curve 10

3.2 Linear lift Distribution 13

3.3 Shear Force Diagram 16

i
 Design of Aircraft Fuselage 17
4.

4.1 Fuselage Structure Layout

4.1.1 Fuselage Layout Concepts
4.1.2 Mass boom and Longerons Layout
4.1.3 Semi monocoque Layout
4.2 Fuselage Stress Analysis 18

5. Design of Control Surface 19

5.1 Aileron 19

5.1.1 Factors Affecting Aileron Design

5.2 Aileron Design Constraints 20

5.3 Elevator 21

5.4 Manoeuvring Loads 23

5.4.1 Load Source 23
5.4.2 Load Factor 23
5.4.3 Manoeuvring Loads 23

6. Design of Wing Root Attachment 24

6.1 Wing Structure Layout 25

6.2 Basic Function of

Wing Structural Members 25
6.2.1 Spars
6.2.2 Particular
6.2.3 Skin
6.2.4 Stringer
6.2.5 Ribs

7. Landing Gear Configuration 28

7.1 Retractable Landing Gear 28

7.1.1 Positioning of Under Carriage
7.1.2 Differential Braking
7.1.3 Tiller Steering

ii
 8. Structural Fitting and Connection Study 28

8.1 Bolts 28

8.1.1 Aircraft Bolts

8.2 Nuts 29

9. Three View Diagram 30

10. CONCLUSION 31

REFERENCES 32

iii
LIST OF SYMBOLS USED IN THE DESIGN PROCEDURE:

Symbols Meaning
aw Slope of wing curve
b Wing span in m
Cr Root chord in m

Ct Tip chord in m
Cmean Mean aerodynamic chord in m
l Length of the aircraft in m
L Lift in N
D Drag in N
dfus Fuselage diameter in m
Lfus Overall length of the fuselage in m
S Wing area in m2
t/c Thickness to chord ratio
WT. O Take-off weight of the aircraft in Kg
VS Stalling velocity in m/s
Vcr Cruising velocity in m/s
VD Dive velocity in m/s
n Load factor
nmax Maximum load factor
ρcr Density at cruising altitude in kg/m
M Bending moment in N-m
AS Area of stringers and spars in m2

σult Ultimate stress in N/m2

Wf Weight of the Fuselage in kg

tf Thickness of the flange in m
tw Thickness of the web in m
B Width of the flange in m
qs Shear flow in N/m
VV Vertical velocity during landing of the aircraft in m/s
Ζ Shock strut reaction factor
ηMS Efficiency of the shock absorber (80%)

iv
δMS Maximum vertical deflection of the tire in m
δMT Maximum vertical deflection of the shock strut in m
K Gust effectiveness
FOS Factor of safety
mL Weight of the aircraft during landing in kg
F Distance between the Nose landing gear and main landing gear.
N Distance between the Nose landing gear and aft c.g of the aircraft.
L Distance between the Nose landing gear and forward c.g of the aircraft
M Distance between the main landing gear and aft c.g of the aircraft.

v
 CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The structural design of an airplane actually begins with the flight envelope
or the V-n diagram, which clearly limits the maximum load factors that the airplane
can withstand at any particular flight velocity. But, in normal practice the airplane
might experience loads that are much higher than the design loads. Some of the
factors that lead to structural overload of an airplane are high gust velocities, sudden
movement of the controls, fatigue loads and in some cases, bird strikes or lightning
strikes. So, to add some inherent ability to withstand these rare but large loads, a
safety factor of 1.5 is provided during the structural design.
The two major members that need to be considered for the structural design
of an airplane are the wings and the fuselage. As far as the wing design is concerned,
the most significant load is the bending load. So, the primary load bearing component
in the wing structure is the spar (the front and the rear spars) whose cross section is
an I- section. Apart from the spar to take the bending loads, suitable stringers need
to be provided to take the shear loads acting on the wing.
Unlike the wing, which is subjected mainly to unsymmetrical bending load,
the fuselage is much simpler for structural analysis due to its symmetrical cross
section as well as symmetrical loading. The main load in the case of fuselage is only
shear because the load acting on the wing is transferred to the fuselage skin in the
form of shear only. The structural design of both the wing and the fuselage begins
with shear force and the bending moment diagrams for the respective members. The
maximum bending stress produced in each in each of them is checked to be less than
the yield stress of the material chosen for the respective member

1
1.2 RESULTS FROM ADP–I

General Characteristics: -

Dimensions:

Aspect Ratio: 4.84

Wing Span: 12 m

Wing Area: 440 sq. ft

Length: 17.3 m

Air foil: NACA 64 A203

Weight: -

Total Weight: 38581 lbs

Fuel Weight: 3571.50 lbs

Performance: -

Velocity: 330 m/s

Range: 5400 Km

Wing Loading: 357 Kg/m2

Power plant: -

Engine: Klimov RD-33MK Afterburning Turbofan

Weight: 52 KN

SFC: 0.44 km/l

Thrust: 88.2 KN (2 engines used)

2
 1.3 PHASES OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN

The complete design process goes through three distinct phases that are
carried out in a sequence. They are

 Conceptual Design
 Preliminary Design
 Detailed Design

1.4 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

The design process starts with a set of specification for a new aircraft or much
less frequently as the response to the desire to implement some pioneering,
innovative ideas and technology. The first step towards achieving that goal constitute
the conceptual design phase.

Here latitude, overall shape, size, weight and performance of the new design are
determined

The product of the conceptual design phase is a layout on the paper or on a

computer screen of aircraft configuration. The conceptual design phase determines
fundamental aspects like shape of the wing, location of the wings, shape and location
of the horizontal and vertical tail, engine size and placement etc., the major drives
during the conceptual design process are aerodynamics, propulsion and flight
performance.

1.5 PRELIMINARY DESIGN

In the preliminary design phase, only minor changes are made to the
configuration layout. If major changes were demanded during this phase, the
conceptual design process has been actually flawed. During this phase substantial
wind tunnel testing are carried out and major computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
calculations of the fluid flow over the new aircraft configuration are done.

The end of the preliminary design phase brings a major concept to commit
the manufacture of airplane or not. The important of this decision points for the
modern aircraft manufacture cannot be understood, considering the tremendous cost
involved in design and manufacture of new airplane

3
1.6 DETAILED DESIGN

The detailed design phase is literally the nut and bolt phase of an aircraft
design. The aerodynamics, propulsion, structural performance and flight control
have all been finished in preliminary design phase. At this stage, flight simulation
for the aircraft are developed.

1.7 OUTLINE OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN PEOJECT–II

The structural design of the aircraft is done in Aircraft Design Project–II

involves:

1. V-n Diagram for design study

2. Gust and Manoeuvrability loads
3. Critical loading performance
4. Schrenk’s curve
5. Centre of gravity
6. Structural layouts
7. Three view diagrams
8. Conclusion

4
 CHAPTER–2

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF AIRCRAFT WING

2.1 V-n DIAGRAM

The V-n Diagram limits the various external loads that any airplane can
withstand at any particular velocity. i.e the graph plotted between the load factor
versus velocity is known as v-n diagram. Generally, the airplane experiences much
higher loads than the design values.
Hence a safety factor is used in the structural design.

Cruising Velocity, Vcr = 223.52m/s

Drift Velocity, VD = Vcr + 100 m/s
VD = 323.52 m/s

V S+
𝜌.𝑠.𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥

VS+ = 80.35 m/s

Table-1 calculation of nmax

S.NO VELOCITY nmax =(V/VS)2

1 35.04 7
2 44.28 12
3 169.44 42

2.2 CRITICAL LOADING PERFORMANCE AND FINAL V-n GRAPH

CALCULATION:
Load factor is the ratio of the lift on an aircraft to the weight of the aircraft.
The load factor is expressed in multiples of g where one g represents conditions in
straight and level flight. In straight and level flight the lift is equal to the weight so
the ratio of lift to weight is one, and the load factor is one g. Load factors greater than
one, and less than one, are achieved by manoeuvring of the aircraft by the pilot, and
by atmospheric gusts.

5
 Excessive load factor must be avoided because of the possibility of exceeding
the structural strength of the aircraft. The maximum load factors for different classes
of airplane are typically:
 In airline airplanes, from -1g to +2.5g

 In light airplanes, from -1.5g to +3.8g

 In aerobatic airplanes, from -3g to +6g

When the load factor is +1g, all occupants of the aircraft feel that their weight is normal.
When the load factor is greater than +1g all occupants feel heavier than usual. For
example, in a +2g manoeuvre all occupants feel that their weight is twice normal. When
the load factor is zero, or very small, all occupants feel weightless. When the load factor
is negative, all occupants feel they are upside down.

Table 2- calculation of load factor

Load Factor
S. No Type
Maximum Minimum

1 Semi Aerobatic +4 -2

2 Normal +2.5 -1

3 Acrobatic +6 -3

Human beings have limited ability to withstand a load factor significantly

greater than 1g, both positive and negative. For our aircraft we take normal load
factor `ranging from.
Graph 1-V-n DIAGRAM

6
 2.3 GUST AND MANEUVERABILITY ENVELOPES:

For level flight at unit load factor the value of V corresponding to C Lmax
would be stalling speed of airplane.
When the airplane is in level flight the load factor is unity before striking the
gust. The change in load factor delta n must be considered with the unit load factor to
obtain the total gust load factor. Aviation specification recommend gust effectiveness
K between 0.6 - 1.2

Δn = K*(0.5/2) *(57.3ρUVa)/(w/s)

Where,
K = Gust effectiveness =0.875
aw = Slope of the wing curve = 0.1
W = 32274.826 Kg
S = 80.687 m2

ρcr = 0.2908Kg/m3

Δn = 0.1304

Table-3 calculation of V m/s and U m/s

S. No V m/s U m/s

1. (VS) = 80.35 7

2. (Vcr) = 199.35 21.52

3. (VD) = 130.50 15.11

For, V=VS = 80.35 m/s

U = 5 m/s
∆n = 0.1304

1+∆n = 1.1304

1-∆n = 0.8696

7
 Table-4- calculation of result for gust envelope

S. No V m/s U m/s ∆n 1+∆n 1- ∆n

1. (VS) =80.35 7 0.1304 1.1304 0.8696

2. (Vcr) =199.35 21.52 1.1304 0.8696

0.1304

3. (VD) =130.50 15.11 1.1304 0.8696

0.1304

GRAPH-2 V-n DIAGRAM FOR GUST ENVELOPE

8
2.4 STRUCTURAL DESIGN: THEORY APPROACH

The structural design of any aircraft includes the following calculation

1. The V-n diagram and Gust manoeuvre calculation.

2. Wing design:

 The wing design and calculation of the lift distribution.

 Calculating the load intensity of the wing along the span.

 Design of spars and stringers.

 Drawing the bending moment and shear flow diagram.

 Calculating the shear flow for the wing.

3. Fuselage design:

 Fuselage bending moment calculations.

 Stringer’s calculation.

 Calculating the shear flow of the wing.

 Drawing the bending moment and shear flow diagram.

4. Landing gear design.

`5. Design of miscellaneous member.

9
 CHAPTER – 3
DETAILED DESIGN OF AIRCRAFT WING

3.1 SCHRENK’S CURVE

According to classical wing theory, the span wise lift or load distribution is
proportional to the circulation at each span station. A vortex lifting-line calculation
will yield the span wise lift distribution for an elliptical plan form wing, the lift and
load distribution are of elliptical shape as shown in Fig-1.

For a non-elliptical wing, a good semi empirical method for span wise load
estimate is known as Schrenk‟s approximation method. This method assumes that
the load distribution on an untwisted wing or tail has a shape that is the average of
the actual plan from shape and an elliptic shape of the same span and area. The total
area under the lift load curve must sum to the required total lift.

a. spanwise lift distribution b. chordwise lift distribution

Fig 1: Wing load distribution

10
From ADP-1,

Tip chord (Ct) = 0.82 m

Root chord (Cr) = 10.31 m

Span (b) = 14.48 m

Plan from area = 𝜋𝑎𝑏/4 =82.29 𝑚2

Where,

b/2= 7.25 m
b= + Tip chord = = 10.277 m

Table 5-Schrenk’s Curve Data

SL.NO θ (DEG) a COS θ b SIN θ

1 0 7.24 0

2 10 7.130 1.784

3 20 6.803 3.514

4 30 6.270 5.138

5 40 5.546 6.605

6 50 4.653 7.872

7 60 3.62 8.90

8 70 2.476 9.657

9 80 1.257 10.210

10 90 0 10.277

11
 Graph 3: Schrenk’s Curve

Formula required:

3. C CL

4. CL, local = C CL ÷ Cwing

5. W = C L, local

12
 Historical data:

Wing area = 440 sq. ft

Max. Weight = 8471.738 lbs

Aspect ratio = 4.84

Cwing, Wing mean chord

Schrenk‟s curve calculation is given by Y=

Where,

Y1 is linear variation of lift along semi span also named as L1

Y2 is elliptic lift distribution along wing span also named as L2

Wing tip = 0.5 ρclmaxv2cr

Wingroot = 0.5 ρclmaxv2ct

3.2 LINEAR LIFT DISTRIBUTION CURVE

The known values of the

Aircraft, Tip chord (Ct) = 8.93 m

Root chord (Cr) = 9.9 m

Span (b) = 12 m

Wing area (S) = 440 sq. ft

Density (ρ) = 1.225 kg/𝑚3

Coefficient of lift (CL) = 1.6

Velocity (V∞) = 1.3 Vmax

Vmax = 350 m/s

Therefore,

V∞ = 250 m/s

13
 Substituting the known values in equations,

Lift at wing root, Lroot = 0.5 ρCLmaxv2Croot

Lroot = 2008556.55 N

Lift at wing tip, Ltip = 0.5 ρCLmaxv2Ctip

Ltip = 1811758.585 N

y1 = 2008556.55 – 1811758.585x

Table-6: Linear Lift Distribution

S.NO Wing Semi Span y

1 0 28208.55

2 0.45 26513.21

3 0.9 24817.88

4 1.35 23122.54

5 1.80 21427.21

6 2.25 19731.88

7 2.65 18224.91

8 3.15 16341.20

9 4.15 12573.79

10 5.65 6922.68

11 6.15 5038.97

12 7.0 1836.68

14
 Graph -4 Wing semi span vs Lift Distribution

3.3 SHEAR FORCE DIAGRAM

The shear force at the section of the beam is the forced that along sum of all
force including the reaction acting normal to the axis of the beam either to left or right
of the beam. The loads acting in the aircraft are converted into point loads

Table -7: Net Load Distribution

S.NO COMPONENT NET LOAD

1. Linear lift 28208.55 N

2. Self-weight 15388.62 N

3. Power Plant 14.46975 N

4. Fuel Weight 1606.878 N

15
Shear Force Calculation:
Σv = 0
VA – 28208.55-15388.62-14.46975-1606.878 = 0
VA = 45218.51 N
MA = 28208.55 x 44.65
MA = 1259511.75 Nm

Y = [((28208.55x– 3767.41x2) + (11283.44x– 3767.41x2) / 2)]

= 19745.98x – 3767.41x2

Table -8: Wing semi span and Shear Force Values

S.NO Wing Semi Span Shear Force

1 0.45 8122.79

2 0.9 14719.77

3 1.35 19790.96

4 1.80 23336.35

5 2.25 25355.94

6 2.65 2870.21

7 3.15 2481771

8 4.15 17091.59

Graph
Wing semi span vs Shear Force

16
 CHAPTER – 4
DESIGN OF AIRCRAFT FUSELAGE

4 .1 FUSELAGE STRUCTURAL LAYOUT

The fundamental purpose of the fuselage structure is to provide Envelope to

support the payload, crew, equipment, systems and (possibly) the power plant.
Furthermore, it must react against the in-flight manoeuvre, pressurization and gust
loads; also, the landing gear and possibly any power plant loads. Finally, it must be
able to transmit control and trimming loads from the stability and control surfaces
throughout the rest of the structure.

4.1.1 Fuselage layout concepts

There are two main categories of layout concept in common use:

• Mass boom and longeron layout

• Semi-monocoque layout

4.1.2 Mass Boom & Longeron Layout

This is fundamentally very similar to the mass-boom wing-box concept. It is

used when the overall structural loading is relatively low or when there are extensive
cut-outs in the shell. The concept comprises four or more continuous heavy booms
(longerons) reacting against any direct stresses caused by applied vertical and lateral
bending loads. Frames or solid section bulkheads are used at positions where there
are distinct direction changes and possibly elsewhere along the lengths of the
longeron members. The outer shell helps to support the longerons against the applied
compression loads and also helps in the shear carrying. Floors are needed. Where
there are substantial cut-outs and the skin is stabilized against buckling by the use of
frames and bulkheads.
4.1.3 Semi Monocoque Layout

This is the most common layout, especially for transport types of aircraft,
with a relatively small number and size of cut-outs in use. The skin carries most of
the loading with the skin thickness determined by pressurization, shear loading
&fatigue considerations. Longitudinal stringers provide skin stabilization and also
contribute to the overall load carrying capacity. Increased stringer cross-section sizes
and skin thick necessary often used around edges of cut-outs.

17
 Less integral machining is possible than on an equivalent wing structure, Frames
are used to stabilize the resultant skin-stringer elements and also to transmit shear lo
ads into the structure. They may also help to react against any pressurization loads
present. They are usually manufactured as pressings with reinforced edges their
spacing (pitch) is usually determined by damage tolerance considerations, i.e., crack-
stopping requirements. The frames are usually in direct contact with the skin;
stringers pass through them and are seated into place as shown in Fig-2.

Fig-2 Semi monocoque structure of aircraft

4.2 FUSELAGE STRESS ANALYSIS

The cross-sectional area of each stringer and the vertical distances given in
the Fig-3 are measured from the mid-line of the section wall at the corresponding
stringer position. The fuselage is subjected to a bending moment applied in the
vertical plane of symmetry. We will now be determining the direct stress distribution
at each stringer. The section is first idealized. As an approximation we shall assume
that the skin between adjacent stringers is flat so that we may use the following
equations to determine the boom areas.

Fig-3 FUSELAGE STRESS ANALYSIS

18
 CHAPTER – 5
DESIGN OF CONTROL SURFACES

5.1 AILERON

The primary function of the aileron is the lateral (roll) control of an aircraft
which is shown in Fig-4 ; However, it also affects the directional control. Due to this
aileron and rudder are usually designed concurrently. Aileron is structurally a part of
wing located on the trailing edge of the wing. Both ailerons are identical and have
same geometry. The generated rolling moment is the function of aileron size, aileron
deflection, and its distance from the aircraft fuselage centre. Any change in aileron
geometry will change the roll rate.

Fig -4 Geometry of aileron

5.1.1 Factors affecting aileron design:

1. The required hinge moment

2. Aileron effectiveness
3. Aerodynamics and mass balancing
4. Flap geometry
5. Aircraft structure
6. Cost

5.2 AILERON DESIGN CONSTRAINS

a) Aileron Reversal

A number of aircraft when flying near their maximum speed are subjected to
an important aero-elasticity phenomenon as shown in Fig-5. No real structure is
ideally rigid, it has both static and dynamic stability. Aileron reversal is not

19
 acceptable within flight envelop; hence they must be considered during design
process. Number of solutions are there for such problems they are,

1. Making the wing stiffer

2. Limit the range of aileron deflections at high speed
3. Reduce aileron chord
4. Using spoiler for roll control

Fig -5 Aileron Reversal

b) Adverse Yaw
When an aircraft is banked to execute a turn, it is desired that aircraft
yaws and roll simultaneously. However, the aileron deflection simultaneously alters
the induced drag of right and left wing differently. The phenomena of adverse yaw
impose constraint on the aileron design. To avoid such undesirable yawing motion
(adverse yaw), there are three solutions they are,

1. Differential ailerons
2. Employ fries aileron
3. Employ spoilers

c) Flaps the wing trailing edge in aircraft is a home for two control surfaces, 1.
Aileron and 2. Flaps. As aileron and flaps are next to each other along wing trailing
edge, they impose a span limit on one another. The balance between aileron span
and flap span is a function of the priority of roll control over the take-off / landing
performance. To improve the roll control power, the ailerons are to be placed on
the outboard and the flaps on the inboard part of the wing sections.
The application of high list applies another constraint on the aileron design
which must be dealt within the aircraft design process. If small inboard aileron is
provided for gentle manoeuvres, the effective span of flaps is reduced.

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5.2 ELEVATOR
The primary function of the elevator is the pitch control of an aircraft;
However, it also affects the longitudinal control. Elevator is structurally a part of wing
located on the trailing edge of the wing. Both ailerons are identical and have same
geometry.

5.3 MANEUVERING LOADS

Aircraft load estimation combines aerodynamics, structurers and weight.

Load estimation remains a critical area because an error will result in structural
failure when real loads are encountered during flight. Loads acting on the aircraft can
be classified according,

1. Air Loads
• Gust
• Control deflection
• Buffet

2. Landing Loads
• Vertical load factor
• Spin up
• Barking
3. Inertial Loads
• Acceleration
• Rotation
• Vibration
• Flutter
4. Powerplant Loads
• Thrust
• Torque
• Vibration
• Duct pressure
5. Other Loads
• Crash
• Pressurization

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5.3.1 Load source:
There are generally two cases of load source they are,
1. Manoeuvrability cases
2. Environmental cases

a. Manoeuvrability Cases

The load which acts on aircraft due to pilot’s actions like pull up, pull down
etc

b. Environmental Cases

The loads imposed by the environment on the aircraft where it operates like
turbulence, kinetic heating etc.

5.3.2 Load Factor:

Any force applied to the aircraft to deflect its flight from straight line produce
a stress on the structure, this force is termed as load factor. It is the ratio of total air
loading on the aircraft to the gross weight of the aircraft.

n = L/W

Table-9 calculation of limited load

CATEGORY LIMIT LOAD

Normal 3.8 to -1.25

Utility 4.4 to -1.76

Acrobatic 6.6 to -3.0

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5.3.3 Manoeuvring Loads:

The greatest air loads on aircraft usually come from the generation of lift
during high manoeuvre. Aircraft load factor (n) express the manoeuvring of an
aircraft as a multiple of the standard acceleration due to gravity.

a. Manoeuvring Load on Aileron

In level flight, the centripetal force required to turn the total lift of the wing
is „n‟ times the weight of the aircraft

Turn Rate (𝑇) = g x (n2)0.5/V

(𝑇) = 9.84 •/ s

b. Manoeuvring Load on Elevator

Operation of the control surface produce air load, the greatest impact is in the
elevator hence the limit load factor should not exceed 2 to 2.5 in the elevator.

c. Manoeuvring Load on Rudder

In flight yaw control is provided by the rudder and the directional stability by
the vertical stabilizer. The rudder deflections, necessary to achieve these yawing
moments and the resulting sideslip angles places significant aerodynamic load on the
rudder and vertical stabilizer.

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 CHAPTER 6

DESIGN OF WING ROOT ATTACHMENT

6.1 WING STRUCTURAL LAYOUT

The specified structural roles of the wings (or main plane) are:

To transmit: wing lift to the root via the main span wise beam as shown in fig

• Inertia loads from the power plants, undercarriage, etc., to main beam.
• Aerodynamic loads generated on the aerofoil control surface & flaps to the main beam.

To react against:

• Landing loads at attachment point

• Loads from pylons / stores
• Wing drag and thrust loads

To provide:

• Fuel tank age space

• Torsional rigidity to satisfy stiffness and aero – elastic requirements.
• To fulfil these specific roles, a wing layout will conventionally compromise
• Span wise members(ribs)
• A covering skins
• Stringers

Fig-6
Rib structure

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 –

6.2 BASIC FUNCTIONS OF WING STRUCTRAL MEMBERS:

The structural functions of each of this type of members may be considered independently as:

6.2.1 Spars

• Forms the main span wise beam

• Transmit bending and Torsional loads
• Produce a closed-cell structure to provide resistance to torsion, shear and tension loads.

6.2.2 In particular

• Webs – resist shear and Torsional loads and help to stabilize the skin.
• Flanges – resist the compressive loads caused by wing bending.

6.2.3 Skin

• To form impermeable aerodynamic surface

• Transmit aerodynamic forces to ribs & stringers
• Resist shear torsion loads (with spar webs).
• React axial bending loads (with stringers).

6.2.4 Stringers

• Increase skin panel buckling strength by dividing into smaller length sections.
• React axial bending loads

6.2.5 Ribs

• Maintain the aerodynamic shape

• Act along with the skin to resist the distributed aerodynamic pressure loads
• Distribute concentrated loads into the structure & redistribute stress around any discontinuities
as shown in fig
• Increase the column bulking strength of the stringers through end restraint
• Increase the skin panel bulking strength

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 –

CHAPTER 7

LANDING GEAR CONFIGURATION

7.1 RECTRACTABLE LANDING GEAR

To decrease drag in flight some undercarriage reacts into the wings and/or fuselage with wheels
flush against the surface or concealed behind doors; this is called retractable gear. Our aircraft is
designed to use retractable landing gear as shown in Fig-7.

Fig-7 Landing Gear Assembly

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 –

7.1.1 POSITIONING OF UNDER CARRIAGE:

Tricycle gear describes an aircraft undercarriage, or landing gear, arranged in a tricycle fashion.
The tricycle arrangement has one wheel in the front, called the nose wheels, and two or more main wheel
slightly aft of the centre of the gravity. Because of the ease operating tricycle gear aircraft on the ground,
the configuration is the most widely used on the aircraft.

Tricycle gear aircraft are easier to land because the altitude is required to land on the main gear
is the same as the required in the flare, and they are less vulnerable to crosswinds. As a result, the
majority of modern aircraft are fitted with tricycle gear. Almost all the jet powered aircraft have been
fitted with tricycle landing gear, to avoid the blast of hot, high – speed gases causing damage to the
ground surface, in particular runways and taxiways. Taking these factors into consideration we have
incorporated tricycle landing gear pattern.

7.1.2 DIFFRENTIAL BRAKING:

Differential braking depends on asymmetric application of the brakes on the main gear wheels
to turn the aircraft. For this, the aircraft must be equipped with separate controls for the right and left
brake (usually on the rudder pedals). The nose or tail wheel usually not equipped with brakes.
Differential braking requires considerable skill. In aircraft with several methods of steering that includes
differential braking, differential braking may be avoided because of the wear it puts on the braking
mechanisms.

7.1.3 TILLER STEERING:

A tiller in an aircraft is a small wheel or lever, sometimes accessible to one pilot and sometimes
duplicated for the both pilots, that controls the steering of the aircraft while it is on the ground. The tiller
may be designed to work in the combination with other controls such as the rudder or yoke.

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 –

CHAPTER 8

STRUCTURAL FITTINGS AND CONNECTION STUDY

8.1 BOLTS

General requirements of repair, maintenance and storage are of four main units such as fittings,
bolts, rivets, welds. No doubt that main or primary fitting involves more weight and cost per unit
volume than any other parts of aerospace structure.

8.1.1 AIRCRAFT BOLTS:

Bolts are used to transfer relatively large shear or tension loads from one structure to another.
Hexagon head bolts is Army-Navy bolt made from SAE 2330-3.5% m steel as shown in Fig-8.

Fig 8: Aircraft Bolts

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 –

8.2 NUTS:

Nut material should be more ductile than bolts material, thus when nut is tightened the thread will
deflect to seat on the bolt thread. It develops the max strength of the bolts.

Bolts threads should not be placed on the shear or Bearing. The length of the bolt shank should be not
more than thread below surface fitting as shown in Fig-9. There are four types of nuts they are,

• Castel Nuts
• Shear Nuts
• Plain Nuts
• Self-locking Nuts

Fig 9: Aircraft Nuts

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 –

CHAPTER – 9

THREE VIEW DIAGRAMS OF INTERCEPTOR AIRCRAFT

Fig-10 Three view diagram of Interceptor aircraft

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 CHAPTER – 10

CONCLUSION

An Interceptor aircraft has been designed with necessary specification. Design, analysis of various
components is performed. Using various steps and calculations every step is calculated with optimum and
aerodynamics characteristics. Structural design, centre of gravity, loading performance, manoeuvring
performance are done successfully. Thus, the aim of the project has been fulfilled.

31
 REFERENCE

1. “ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES” by E. F. Bruhn.

2. “AIRCRAFT DESIGN: A CONCEPTUAL APPROACH” by Daniel P. Raymer, AIAA

Education Series.

3. “AIRCRAFT LANDING GEAR DESIGN: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES” by Norman S.

Currey, AIAA Education Series.

4. “AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS” by T. H. G. MEGSON.

5. Aircraft Design by Mohammad Sadraey.

6. Theory of Wing section by IRA H. Abbot and Albert E. von Doenhoff.

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