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Sling Psychrometer Related terms:

In the classical Sling Psychrometer (wet and dry bulb Hygrometer) [18–21] evaporation cools the
wet bulb more than the dry bulb, and the humidity is obtained as a function of change in Cooling Tower, Submarines,
temperature. Adiabatic Saturation
From: Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, 2015 Temperature
, Dry Bulb Temperature,
Psychrometric Chart,
Wet-Bulb Temperature,
Dew Point, Barometric Pressure
, Kg Dry Air, Measurer

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Mixtures of Gases and Vapors Heat pumps in the drying industry(1)

Robert T. Balmer, in Modern Engineering Thermodynamics, 2011
12.6 The Sling Psychrometer
Figure 12.3 illustrates a simple device for determining air humidity,
called a sling psychrometer. It contains two thermometers, one of
which is covered with a wick saturated with ambient temperature
liquid water. These two thermometers are called dry bulb and wet
bulb. When the sling psychrometer is spun rapidly in the air, the
evaporation of the water from the wick causes the wet bulb
thermometer to read lower than the dry bulb thermometer. After the
psychrometer has been spun long enough for the thermometers to
reach equilibrium temperatures, the unit is stopped and the two
thermometers are quickly read. A psychrometric chart (or table) is
then used to convert the dry bulb temperature TDB and the wet bulb
temperature TWB into humidity information. The wet bulb
temperature is approximately equal to the adiabatic saturation
temperature, so TWB ≈ T2 = T3 in Eq. (12.31).
Wetbulbthermometer
Watersoaked Drybulb
(wet)wick thermometer
Andriy Redko, ... Ronald DiPippo, in
Low-Temperature Energy Systems with Applications of Renewable Energy,
2020
4.1 Introduction and overview of drying using heat
pumps
One of the main thrusts of this book is the use of heat pumps for a
broad range of applications. Currently the range of heat pump
capacities are typically from 1 to 5 MWth, with the highest thermal
power of a single heat pump being 35 MWth. Heat pumps are capable
of providing working fluids at temperatures up to 100 °C for many
applications including heating, hot water supply, and various
technological needs in industry. Using heat pumps for applications
above 100 °C is problematic, and the industry has obstacles to
overcome in this area. Even with these limitations, more than 10
million heat pumps units, from very small to very large, have been
installed so far in Europe.
The main obstacles limiting the use of heat pumps in industry are high
initial capital cost which might lead to uneconomic returns on
investment and perceived risk on the part of industrialists who may
view heat pump technology as new and not sufficiently proven in
Swivel
commerce and having limited examples of successful applications.
Thus, to expand the adoption of heat pumps for a wide application of

Handle
technologies, it is necessary to remove structural barriers in industry;
apply
Read intensive
more energy saving methodology; integrate capabilities and
Sign in to download full-size image responsibilities in their implementation from an overall system
perspective that will optimize industrial processes and commercial
Figure 12.3. A sling psychrometer. View chapter Explore book
applications.
Figure 4.1 shows the wide spectrum of thermal demand (heat energy)
Critical Thinking in various industries. The demand is broken down into heat over
A sling psychrometer can be used to determine the humidity of the temperature bands. Of this huge energy demand, heat pumps provide
surrounding air because its wet bulb temperature is nearly the same 174 TWh-th or 8.7% of all industrial needs [1,2].
as the adiabatic saturation temperature, and Eq. (12.31) can then be
Building energy metering and environmental
used to find ω1 = ωair in Figure 12.2. The combined heat and mass monitoring – A state-of-the-art review and
transfer rate analysis of a wet bulb thermometer yields the directions for future research
following result:
Muhammad Waseem Ahmad, ... Yacine Rezgui, in Energy and Buildings, 2016
ω ω ω ω

3.6 Relative humidity

where ωadiabatic = ω3 in Figure 12.2, ωWB is the humidity ratio in the Humidity is defined as the water vapour content in the air or other
vicinity of the wet bulb, Tair = TDB = T1 in Figure 12.2, Pr = cp µ/k is the gases. It is generally measured in terms of absolute humidity, dew
Prandtl number, and Sc = µ/(ρD) is the Schmidt number. Pr and Sc point or relative humidity (RH) [63], but all three measures can be
are traditional dimensionless numbers composed of viscosity µ, calculated from each other if the air temperature is known. One of the
constant pressure specific heat cp, specific heat ratio k, density ρ, oldest used instrument for determining relative humidity is the
and mass diffusivity D. From the equation, we see that TWB = whirling hygrometer (or sling psychrometer). Whirling hygrometer
Tadiabatic only if (Pr/Sc)2/3 = 1. It turns out that, for water vapor in air, consists of two thermometers that are turned by vigorously swinging
Sign in to download full-size image
the Prandtl to Schmidt number ratio is about 1.0, so the wet bulb the handle and exposing the thermometers to rapid air movement.
and adiabatic saturation temperatures are about the same. However, The bulb
Fig. 4.1. of one
Spectrum thermometer
of heat is placed
demand in industry in and
by sector direct contactrange,
temperature with the[1].room
after

for any other chemical vapor–air mixture, (Pr/Sc)2/3 generally is not air to measure dry-bulb temperature. The bulb of the other
According to Ref. [3], among the first applications of heat pumps for
equal to 1, and the wet bulb and adiabatic saturation temperatures thermometer is covered with a silk or muslin sleeve that is kept moist
drying and dehydration was the work of Sulzer on the dehydration
are not equal. to record the wet bulb temperature. The atmospheric humidity is
and drying of underground cavities in Germany in 1943 and a grain
Suppose you had a serious leak or spill of a dangerous liquid determined by calculations, steam tables, or using a psychrometric
dryer developed in the USA in 1950. A significant part of the work
chemical, like a refrigerant that subsequently evaporated into the air chart (considering the difference in reading between the two
involving the use of heat pumps is connected not only with
of a closed room, and you wanted to use a sling psychrometer to thermometers) and, therefore, the use of these devices for monitoring
convection drying, but also with freeze-drying [4,5], in which
estimate the resulting concentration of the chemical in the air. Is it purposes is very limited [37].
refrigerating equipment is used to freeze the product. Particularly
possible to use this equation to correct the wet bulb temperature Modern electronic devices use change in electrical capacitance or
important drying materials with heat pumps are described in Refs. [6–
(with the bulb wetted with the spilled liquid) so that it could be resistance to measure humidity differences. Capacitive type sensors
11]. The most famous and widespread application of heat pumps in
used with a psychrometric chart (or Eq. (12.31)) to give an estimate consist of a substrate (typically glass, ceramic, or silicon) on which a
Read more drying is the drying of wood (sawn timber) in chambers
convection
of the concentration of the spilled chemical in the air? thin film of polymer or metal oxide is deposited between two
with closed air circulation and condensation moisture removal.
conductive electrodes. The incremental change in the dielectric
There
Viewis no doubt that drying is one of the most energy intensive
article
Figure 12.4 illustrates the major characteristics of a psychrometric constant of the sensor is nearly directly proportional to the relative
industrial processes. In developed countries, about 10% of fuel
chart. Larger charts of professional engineering quality can be found in humidity of the surrounding environment. Resistive sensors usually
consumption is used for drying various products of industry [12]. One
Charts D.5 and D.6 of Thermodynamic Tables to accompany Modern consist of noble metal electrodes either deposited on a substrate by
of the common processes of drying plants is the use of convection in
Engineering Thermodynamics. Note that the dry bulb temperature is photoresist techniques or wire-wound electrodes on a plastic or glass
which preheated air passes over the surface of a product. In an open
just the temperature registered on any ordinary thermometer and the cylinder. Resistive humidity sensors measure the change in electrical
psychrometric chart is just part of the p-T diagram for saturated and Opto-electronic
system,
impedance
a mixture of air with
of a hygroscopichumidity
medium such sensor:
moisture taken A review
from the
as a conductive
product is
polymer,
discharged to the atmosphere, carrying away the heat expended on
superheated water vapor in the low-pressure region. When the salt or treated substrate [59]. The materials used in humidity sensors
evaporation
S. of the
Sikarwar, B.C. moisture.
Yadav, in SensorsTheand
outlet air temperature
Actuators A: Physical, may
2015 range
mixture is saturated with water vapor (ϕ = 100%), no water can that exploit variations of electrical parameters can be classified into
from 30 to 70 °C.
evaporate from the wet bulb wick and TWB = TDB = TDP. Note also that a electrolytes,
1.2 organic polymers
Measurement of and ceramics [64]. Commercially
humidity
Dryers can be either (1) continuous, i.e., the product is fed into the
psychrometric chart is drawn for a fixed total pressure, thus Charts D.5 developed humidity sensors are
inmainly made of of air
polymer films
The amount of vapour present unit volume is called theand
chamber and is removed continuously, or (2) periodic, i.e., the product
and D.6 are valid only for mixtures at 1 atm total pressure. porous
absoluteceramic [65].
of Thick film technology, in definition
particular,ofoffers
humidity air. The commonly used relative
is loaded into the chamber, dried, and after reaching a certain
advantages of cost efficiency,isrobustness
humidity (RH) by physicists as follows:and flexibility in device
moisture level, the material is removed, new material loaded, and the
design [66]. Thermal conductivity sensors (also known as absolute
process is repeated. Method (2) is often called “batch” processing.
humidity sensors) are mostly used to measure absolute humidity even
Theoretically, it is possible to reduce energy consumption by
at high temperatures or in polluted environments by means of a
increasing
It is generally
air expressed
recirculation,
as percentage.
which will be discussed later. There are
system that employs two thermistors in a bridge connection [59].
trade-offs
RH can be involved
measuredthat by various
form thetechniques.
basis of anInoptimization
the classicalstudy.
Sling
In addition to heating
Psychrometer (wet andthe
dry
airbulb
for the
Hygrometer)
drying process,
[18–21]the
evaporation
supplied
energy
cools the
is wet
spent
bulb
to compensate
more than the
fordry
heat
bulb,
losses
andthrough
the humidity
the enclosing
is
structures,
obtained asthe
a function
losses ofofhot
change
air due
in temperature.
to poor seals, In
andDew
losses
Point
when
heating is done
Temperature Hygrometers
in radiators.[22–24],
Energy the
is also
temperature
spent on the
corresponding
motor drive to
of
the fan. According
condensation at a cooled
to Ref. surface
[13], thevaries
effectiveness
with humidity
of suchwhereas
dryers isinvery
a
Sign in to download full-size image low. Energy consumption
Gravimetric Hygrometer [25],
reaches
the increase
23 MJ/kgin
ofweight
evaporated
of a powerful
moisture,
which is almost
desiccant caused10
bytimes
absorption
more than
of water
the heat
fromofhumid
evaporation.
air directly gives
Figure 12.4. The elements of a psychrometric chart. The intersection of the dry bulb and wet
bulb constant temperature lines determine the state of the water vapor in the system, from We amount
the now present
of humidity
eight systems
presentfor
incarrying
it. In a Piezoelectric
out the drying
Hygrometer
process:
which TDP, pw, ϕ, and ω can then be found. Casesthe
[26], A–H.
hygroscopic coating changes the crystal frequency with
4.1.1 Case
change A: Basic open
in humidity. Somesystem using ambient
inexpensive air hygrometers [27–
hygroscopic
The simplest
29], use the extension
unit is anof
open,
a natural
flow-through
or synthetic
arrangement
fibre, the length
where of
Example 12.7
ambient
which is air
proportional
is introduced
to the
to the
surrounding
drying chamber,
water vapour
passesconcentration.
over the moist
Wet and dry bulb temperature measurements made outside on a
product,
Fig. 2 shows
evaporates
various the
types
moisture,
of humidity
and is
sensors/hygrometers
discharged to the available
cold day reveal that TDB = 5.0°C and TWB = 4.0°C. Using the
in the market. A heater is built in to boost the ambient air temperature
surroundings.
psychrometric chart, determine
asRead moreSee Fig. 4.2A. The figure also shows a recuperated system
needed.
a. ϕ, ω, TDP, and pw for the outside air (B) that will be described shortly.
b. The values of ϕ, ω, TWB, and pw if this mixture is heated at
View article
constant pressure to 25.0°C.

Solution

a. From Chart D.6 at TDB1 = 5.0°C and TWB1 = 4.0°C, we read ϕ1 =

80.%, ω1 = 0.004 kg of water vapor per kg of dry air, TDP1 = 20°C,
and pw1 = 700. N/m2. Sign in to download full-size image
b. Now the mixture is heated at constant pressure until its dry bulb
Fig. 4.2. Schematic diagram of a (A) basic drying plant and (B) one with a heat recuperator.
temperature increases to 25.0°C. Note that, when the
temperature is stated without a modifier (i.e., “wet” or “dry”), we
Before moving on to more complex systems, we present a graphical
presume it is the ordinary, or dry bulb, temperature. Then, Chart
method to analyze the basic case. Consider the adiabatic drying
D.6 gives ϕ2 ≈ 20.%, ω2 = ω1, TWB2 = 13°C, TDP2 = TDP1, and pw2 =
process which takes place in a dryer operating on the basic scheme
pw1.
(Fig. 4.2A), i.e., the air is heated in an air heater and then makes a
This is shown in Figure 12.5. Sign in to
single download
pass throughfull-size image chamber. The processes may be
the drying
visualized in a psychrometric
Fig. 2. Some commonly used methods ofchart (PC)humidity.
measuring (Fig. 4.3) that presents the
properties of moist air in coordinates of moisture content (ordinate)
versus
The most
thecommon
dry-bulbsensors
temperature
are those
(abscissa)
that measure
[14,15]. the
Thechange
curvedin
lines
that fan out and
capacitance of a dielectric
upward frommaterial
the lower
[30] or
leftthe
represent
change in
lines
resistance
of
constantof
[31–34] relative
a conductive
humidity,
material
with the
as ahighest
function
one
of being
RH. The
100%.
principal
In this
figure, point
sensor groups1 for
is determined
humidity sensing
from the
thus
properties
include many
of theresistive
ambient air.
Assume that
ceramics [35–38],
the ambient
organicair
polymers
temperature,
[39,40]t and
= 20resistive
°C and moisture
content is 0.10 kg/kg
polyelectrolytes [41].dry
Although
air; from
polymer
the PCsensors
one can[27,29,39,40]
read that theare
relative
of
humidity
simple is ∼70%.and
structure Thelow
process
cost but
of heating
they can
the
measure
air prior
only
to the
a limited
dryer is
represented
range of moisture
by linecontent
1 → 2′,and
where
show
point
hysteresis
2′ is determined
and drift at
byhigh
the
assumed temperature
humidity and they are trelatively
= 49 °C and
sensitive
a constant
to chemical
moisture
interference
content ofand
0.10 kg/kg
dust deposition.
dry air.Electrolytic
Process 2′→2″
sensors
is an
[41]
adiabatic
requireprocess
a constant
of cooling
flow rate
and
humidifying
for measurement
the air
andin also
the dryer
the cell
that
in follows
which measurements
a line of constant
are to be
enthalpy
carried out
to requires
the outlet
regular-regeneration.
temperature of the air,
Thisincell
thiscan
example,
be destroyed
∼28.3
by accidental
°C. It can
water
be seen that the outlet relative humidity is ∼78% and
immersion.
the absolute
Infrared spectroscopy
moisture can
is 0.19
also
kg/kg
be used
dry to
air.measure
In an ideal
RH.adiabatic
In infrared
saturation process,
hygrometer [42,43]point
absorption
2″ would
due move
to water
to the
vapour
100%takes
relative
place
humidity
at
Sign in to download full-size image
line.µm
2.6 In practice,
and split the
beamdry-
is used
and wet-bulb
to compare
temperatures
sample cellof
and
thereference.
incoming
Figure 12.5. Example 12.7. air canother
Some be measured
methodsusing
for humidity
a “sling measurement
psychrometer,”are
andbased
the PC
oncan
surface
then
be used to
acoustic wave
determine
(SAW) [44–47]
the relative
and humidity,
on microwave
absolute
attenuation.
humidity and
Notice that, under these conditions, the relative humidity and the specific
Also there
enthalpy.
are certain parameters which decide the efficiency of a
wet and dry bulb temperatures change, but none of the other particular sensor at a particular place. These parameters depend upon
characteristics change. This is because the amount of water vapor the type of sensing element. Some material that is efficient for a
and the amount of air present do not change. particular place may not be as good for some other place. Table 2
Exercises defines these parameters of the humidity sensing.
15. Determine the values of ϕ, ω, TWB, and pw when the mixture in
Example 12.7 is reheated to 20.0°C rather than 25.0°C and all the
Table 2. Parameters of humidity sensing.
other variables remain the same. Answer: ϕ = 28%, ω = 0.004 kg
H2O per kg of dry air, TWB = 11°C, and pw = 700. N/m2.
16. If the dry bulb temperature in Example 12.7 is 8.0°C rather than
5.0°C and all the other variables remain the same, determine ϕ, Sensitivity The ratio of the change in output signal to that of input signal

ω, and pw for the outside air. Answer: ϕ = 50%, ω = 0.0035 kg H2O Accuracy Conformity to a standardized reference signal
per kg of dry air, and pw = 550 N/m2.
Response time The time required to reach 10% of the final sensor output after
17. Rework Example 12.7 for a dry bulb temperature of 10.0°C and a
stepwise ramping the humidity
wet bulb temperature of 8.0°C. Answer: (a) ϕ = 75%, ω = 0.006 kg
H2O per kg of dry air, TDP = 6.0°C, and pw = 900 N/m2; and (b) ϕ = Drift Change of the sensor output signal with time at constant input

30%, ω = 0.006 kg H2O per kg of dry air, TWB = 14°C, and pw = 900 Sign in to download full-size image
signal

N/m2. Repeatability
Fig. The
4.3. Psychrometric distribution
chart for typicalofvalues
sensorof outputs after processes
a basic dryer: when performing
1 → 2′→2″.

consecutive readings under similar conditions

If a sling psychrometer is spun such that the air velocity over the wick 4.1.2 Case B: Open system using ambient air with a heat
Reproducibility The distribution of sensor outputs when measuring the same
is greater than 3.0 m/s, then the wet bulb temperature is essentially recuperator
under different conditions
equal to the adiabatic saturation temperature T2 in Eq. (12.31). The The next simplest system involves the use of a heater and a heat
following example illustrates this point. exchanger
Hysteresis (recuperator) in which
The difference in outputthe inlet
signal airmeasured
when is preheated by the and
for a up-trace

outlet flow of drying air (Fig.

down-trace of the4.2B). The psychrometric chart (Fig. 4.3)
input signal

Example 12.8 shows the process of preheating the air in the recuperator 1 → 2 and
Temperature The variation of sensor output with temperature at constant
The wet and dry bulb temperatures measured in a dormitory room continued heating in the heat exchanger 2 → 2′. For the example
dependence humidity
are 60.0°F and 70.0°F, respectively, when the barometric pressure is chosen, the recuperator covers the temperature increase from 20 to
14.7 psia. Assuming that the wet bulb temperature is equal to the 25 °C while the heater (using external heat) takes care of the heating
adiabatic saturation temperature, use Eq. (12.31) to find the from 25 to 49 °C. Without the recuperator, heat energy of about
humidity ratio (ω) in the room and compare your answer with that 30.5 kJ/kg of dry air is needed to reach the desired dryer inlet
obtained from the psychrometric chart, Chart D.5. condition; with it, the energy requirement is reduced to about
Solution 17.5 kJ/kg, a significant energy reduction of about 13 kJ/kg, or a 43%
Here, we have TWB = 60.0°F and TDB = 70.0°F. Then, from Table C.1a in reduction. Process 3 → 4 is explained below.
Thermodynamic Tables to accompany Modern Engineering Rotary regenerative heat exchangers – typical air preheaters used in
Thermodynamics, we find many industrial facilities – can also be used. The efficiency of using
recuperative and regenerative heat exchangers in some drying plants
is shown in Refs. [16,17]. By using them, it is possible to achieve 15–
20% savings of primary energy spent on drying.
and
4.1.3 Case C: Open system using ambient air with a heat pump
The use of vapor-compression heat pumps (VCHPs) (Fig. 4.4C) [18] is a
promising way to improve the efficiency of heat regeneration systems
Then, Eq. (12.26a) gives in drying plants. In a dryer equipped with a heat pump (HP), the
discharge air from the drying chamber enters the evaporator, where it
heats and vaporizes a low-boiling-temperature working fluid (a
and, from Eq. (12.31), we get6 refrigerant). The refrigerant vapor is compressed in the compressor
and enters the condenser. As the vapor condenses, it heats up the
ambient air entering the dryer.

which, with TWB = 60.0°F and TDB = 70.0°F, the psychrometric chart,
Chart D.5, gives approximately

which is essentially the same as that calculated from Eq. (12.31).

Exercises Sign in to download full-size image

18. If the dry bulb temperature in the room discussed in Example
12.8 is 80.0°F rather than 70.0°F, calculate the humidity ratio in
the room and compare your answer with that obtained from the
psychrometric chart. Answer: ω1 = 45.2 grains of water per lbm
of dry air.
19. Rework Example 12.8 for wet and dry bulb temperatures of
65.0°F and 85.0°F, respectively. Answer: ω1 = 60.2 grains of water
per lbm of dry air.
20. Using the method of your choice, determine the relative
humidity ratio in the room discussed in Example 12.8 when the
wet and dry bulb temperatures are 18.0°C and 22.0°C,
respectively. Answer: ω = 0.0115 kg of water per kg of dry air.
Equation (12.31) gives essentially the same values as obtained from
the psychrometric chart, but the chart is much easier and quicker to
use.
Read less
View chapter Explore book
Fig. 4.4. Schematic diagram of a drying plant with a (C) heat pump and a (D) heat pump and
an auxiliary heater.
4.1.4 Case D: Open system using ambient air with a heat pump and
auxiliary heater
If it is impossible to heat the air to the required temperature in the
condenser using the VCHP system in Case C, a supplementary electric
heater is installed (Fig. 4.4D).
4.1.5 Case E: Closed-air system with a HP and dehumidification-
recirculation
Dryers with VCHP may be configured so that the drying air is not
discharged but recirculated. Such closed circuits are the most widely
developed and implemented. The system also incorporates
dehumidification (Fig. 4.5E) which removes the moisture acquired by
the air as it passes over the product in the drying chamber. In the
evaporator, the humid air cools down below the dew point,
condensing the moisture which is drained away. The dried air is then
blown across the condenser of the heat pump where it heats up to the
required drying temperature and repeats the cycle. The process
involved with condensation of moisture for this case is shown on the
PC in Fig. 4.3 as process 3 → 4.

Evaluation of cold weather clothing using

manikins
E.A. McCullough, in Textiles for Cold Weather Apparel, 2009

11.5.3 Moisture permeability index Sign in to download full-size image

The permeability index (im) indicates the maximum evaporative heat
transfer permitted by a clothing system as compared to ideal
maximum from an uncovered surface (i.e., a slung psychrometer). It
was defined by Woodcock (1962) as
11.7
where im = permeability index and LR = the Lewis relation, commonly
given the value of 16.65 °C/kPa. The permeability index usually ranges
from about 0.50 for a nude manikin to about 0.05 for an impermeable
single-layer ensemble with a low thermal resistance and high
evaporative resistance.
View chapter Explore book
PLANT MICROCLIMATE
M.B. JONES, in
Techniques in Bioproductivity and Photosynthesis (Second Edition), 1985
Fig. 4.5. Schematic diagram of a drying plant with a (E) HP dehumidifier and (F) HP
dehumidifier with a bypass controlled by the 3-way valve.
4.1.6 Case F: Closed-air system with a HP, dehumidification-
recirculation and bypass
An alternative to Case E includes a bypass line that allows a portion of
the air to bypass the HP evaporator, Case F (Fig. 4.5F). Since the rate of
moisture release from the product, i.e., the drying rate, is less than the
drying speed of the circulating air, Case F may be used with partial
bypass of air in the heat pump. The main part of the air (3′) enters the
HP evaporator, where it cools, its moisture condenses and is removed.
The two air streams (3′ and 3″) remix before passing over the
condenser. As a result of the bypass, the air temperature entering the
condenser is higher since the bypass air is not cooled in the
evaporator; this reduces the heating load on the condenser. However,
only a portion of the moisture acquired by the drying air is removed in
this case which means that the air returning to the dryer carries more
moisture than in Case E.
The efficiency of Case F operation is determined by the value of the
bypass ratio α, defined as the volume ratio of the bypass air to air
passing through the evaporator, i.e.,

(4.1)
3.4.3 Measurements
Many different devices can be used to measure the humidity of the air.
with reference to Fig. 4.5F.
They are based on several principles including the electrical properties
The heat pump dryer with recirculation of the drying agent provides a
of sulphonated polystyrene or thin-film solid state semiconductors;
significant reduction in the specific energy consumption (SEC)
wet-bulb depression; condensation of water vapour on a surface
compared to the traditional dryer Case A.
cooled to the dew-point; and infra-red absorption. Some of the
The SEC of a heat pump dryer with recirculation, i.e., Case C, Fig. 4.4C
instruments more widely used in the field are considered here.
with a flow line from state 3 to state 2, is lower than the SEC of a
A psychrometer is a pair of identically shaped thermometers, one of
traditional dryer with recirculation (Case G) by about 50%. From
which is covered with a wet sleeve. Evaporation cools the wetted
Figs. 4.8 and 4.9, bypassing part of the air around the heat pump
sensor to the wet-bulb temperature, and the vapour pressure (e) is
evaporator (Case F) increases the energy efficiency of the drying plant
calculated as:
by 30–40% for different types of wood (Fig. 4.7).

where T' and T are the wet- and dry-bulb temperatures respectively,
es,T' is the saturated vapour pressure at the wet-bulb temperature, and
γ is the psychometric constant (equal to 66 Pa °C−1 at sea level in a
ventilated psychrometer). Several types of psychrometers are available
as commercial units, the best of which ensure efficient radiation
shielding of the thermometers and minimise heat conduction along
Sign in to download full-size image
the stem of the thermometer2. The Assman psychrometer is a
ventilated psychrometer containing matched thermometers; it is used Fig. 4.6. Schematic diagram of a basic open system drying plant with partial recirculation (G),
Read
for more humidity measurements. Smaller ventilated
standard and partial recirculation and bypassing (Case H). V , t , d – entrance of atmospheric air; V , t ,
d – removal of exhaust air; MC – mixing chamber.
psychrometers are now available for use above and within plant
canopies (DeltaT Devices,
View chapter Cambridge).
Explore book The handheld whirling or sling
psychrometers are the simplest and cheapest ventilated units. In order
to achieve an aspiration rate of 3 m s they have to be rotated at
about two revolutions per second.
Many materials show a change of physical dimensions when they
absorb water, andpublications
Recommended this property can be used to make instruments that
measure humidity. For example, the length of animal hair increases as
the air becomes wetter and decreases as the air dries; this property is
used in simple hygrometers.
Sensors Provided
and Actuators an allowance is made for the
A: Physical
effect of temperature, Sign in to download full-size image
Journal hair hygrometers are usually accurate to within
5% over most of the humidity range.
Fig. 4.7. Dependence of the specific energy consumption on the bypass ratio α for wood
The change in electrical properties of materials as they absorb water is drying using Case F: 1 = pine at ϕ = 75%; 2 = oak with ϕ = 70%; 3 = larch at ϕ = 85%.
used in several humidity sensors. Until recently the lithium chloride
Applied
sensor was the most Energy
common type of electrical sensor. Lithium 4.1.7 Case G and Case H: Basic open system using ambient air with
Journal
chloride is hygroscopic and the moisture content of the air determines partial recirculation (Case G) and partial recirculation and HP
how much water is absorbed, which in turn influences the AC bypassing (Case H)
resistance of the sensor. This type of sensor is susceptible to A peculiarity of this scheme (Case G, Fig. 4.6(G)) is that, with the fact
contamination by dust and other hygroscopic particles, and it suffers that under constant temperature operation of the heat pump, the
Journal of Environmental Management
from a certain amount of hysteresis when wetting or drying. More operation of the dryer is possible only with a certain value of the
Journal
recently, capacitance hygrometers, which measure the change in recirculation coefficient that depends on the maximum air
electrical capacitance caused by water-absorption into a dielectric, temperature that can be provided by the heat pump at the outlet of
have become commercially available (Humicap, manufactured by the condenser.
Vaisala, Helsinki, Finland)Engineering
Gas Turbine and are less temperature
Handbook sensitive
(Fourth Edition) and Bypassing the heat pump (Case H, Fig. 4.6(H)) is an effective means of
show less hysteresis than other electric sensors.
Book • 2011 increasing the energy efficiency of the heat pump with recirculation
Dewpoint meters measure the temperature at which dew forms on a and reducing the specific energy consumption for evaporation of
cooled surface. Dewpoint is usually determined by cooling a surface to moisture from 40% for pine to 60% for oak (Fig. 4.7).
below the point of saturation, allowing water to condense onto it, and Cases E and F are used when the amount of moisture to be removed is
Browse
then books
gradually andthe
raising journals
temperature until the film of condensation small and the air is completely dried when cooled in the heat pump
starts to evaporate. The temperature at which this change occurs is evaporator.
taken as the dewpoint temperature, and the presence of the film can If the removed amount of moisture is large, then Cases G and H are
be detected optically or electrically. Dewpoint temperatures must be used in which part of the high-humidity air is removed from the
corrected for changes in atmospheric pressure if they are converted drying chamber and part is dried in the heat pump evaporator, which
into vapour pressure. is then mixed with dry atmospheric air in the mixing chamber MC.
Infra red gas analysis can measure water vapour concentration of air as During the drying process, when the rate of moisture removal is
well as CO (Chapter 6). The instruments are expensive but they are reduced (final stage), bypass mode is used to reduce the heat pump
accurate andAbout
respond quickly. WithRemote
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access systems
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type of instrument is almost always employed to measure For Case G, it is convenient to define another ratio to help understand
concentration
Wedifferences,
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