10/07/2019 Hygrometer - Wikipedia

Hygrometer
A hygrometer is an instrument used to measure the amount of humidity
and water vapour in the atmosphere, in soil, or in confined spaces.
Humidity measurement instruments usually rely on measurements of
some other quantity such as temperature, pressure, mass, a mechanical or
electrical change in a substance as moisture is absorbed. By calibration and
calculation, these measured quantities can lead to a measurement of
humidity. Modern electronic devices use temperature of condensation
(called the dew point), or changes in electrical capacitance or resistance to
measure humidity differences. The first crude hygrometer was invented by
the Italian Renaissance polymath Leonardo da Vinci in 1480 and a more
modern version was created by Swiss polymath Johann Heinrich Lambert
in 1755. Later in the year 1783, Swiss physicist and Geologist, Horace A hair tension dial hygrometer with a
Benedict De Saussure invented the first hygrometer using human hair to nonlinear scale.
measure humidity.

The maximum amount of water vapor that can be held in a given volume of Humidity and
air (saturation) varies greatly by temperature; cold air can hold less mass hygrometry
of water per unit volume than hot air. Temperature can change humidity.
Specific concepts
Most instruments respond to (or are calibrated to read) relative humidity
(RH), which is the amount of water relative to the maximum at a particular Absolute / Specific / Relative
temperature expressed as percent. Dew point (depression)
Psychrometrics
General concepts
Contents Air · Concentration · Density ·
Classical hygrometer Dew · Evaporation · Humidity
Ancient hygrometers buffering
Metal-paper coil type
Hair tension hygrometers (Atm.) Pressure · Liquid water ·
Psychrometer (wet-and-dry-bulb thermometer) Avogadro's law · Nucleation ·
Sling psychrometer
Thermodynamic equilibrium
Chilled mirror dew point hygrometer
Measures and Instruments
Modern hygrometers
Capacitive Heat index · Sat. vap. density ·
Resistive Mixing ratio · Water activity · H.
Thermal indicator (card) · Hygrometer ·
Gravimetric Dry/Wet-bulb temperature
Optical
Applications
Difficulty of accurate humidity measurement
Calibration standards
Psychrometer calibration
Saturated salt calibration
See also
References
External links
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygrometer 1/7
10/07/2019 Hygrometer - Wikipedia

Classical hygrometer

Ancient hygrometers
Prototype hygrometers were devised and developed during the Western Han dynasty in Ancient China to study
weather.[1] The Chinese used a bar of charcoal and a lump of earth: its dry weight was taken, then compared with its
damp weight after being exposed in the air. The differences in weight were used to tally the humidity level.

Other techniques were applied using mass to measure humidity, such as when the air was dry, the bar of charcoal
would be light, while when the air was humid, the bar of charcoal would be heavy. By hanging a lump of earth and a
bar of charcoal on the two ends of a staff separately and adding a fixed lifting string on the middle point to make the
staff horizontal in dry air, an ancient hygrometer was made.[2][1]

Metal-paper coil type

The metal-paper coil hygrometer is useful for giving a dial indication of humidity changes. It appears most often in
inexpensive devices, and its accuracy is limited, with variations of 10% or more. In these devices, water vapor is
absorbed by a salt-impregnated paper strip attached to a metal coil, causing the coil to change shape. These changes
(analogous to those in a bimetallic thermometer) cause an indication on a dial. There is usually a metal needle on the
front of the gauge that will change where it points to.

Hair tension hygrometers

These devices use a human or animal hair under some tension. The hair is
hygroscopic (tending toward retaining moisture); its length changes with
humidity, and the length change may be magnified by a mechanism and indicated
on a dial or scale. In the late 17th century, such devices were called by some
scientists hygroscopes; that word is no longer in current use, but hygroscopic and
hygroscopy, which derive from it, still are. The traditional folk art device known
as a weather house works on this principle. Whale bone and other materials may
be used in place of hair.

In 1783, Swiss physicist and geologist Horace Bénédict de Saussure built the first
Deluc's hair tension
hair-tension hygrometer using human hair. whalebone hygrometer (MHS
Geneva)
It consists of a human hair eight to ten inches[3] long, b c, Fig. 37,
fastened at one extremity to a screw, a, and at the other passing
over a pulley, c, being strained tight by a silk thread and weight, d.

— John William Draper, A Textbook on Chemistry

The pulley is connected to an index which moves over a graduated scale (e). The instrument can be made more
sensitive by removing oils from the hair, such as by first soaking the hair in diethyl ether.[4]

Psychrometer (wet-and-dry-bulb thermometer)

A psychrometer, or a wet and dry-bulb thermometer, consists of two thermometers, one that is dry and one that is
kept moist with distilled water on a sock or wick.[5] At temperatures above the freezing point of water, evaporation of
water from the wick lowers the temperature, such that the wet-bulb thermometer usually shows a lower temperature

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygrometer 2/7
10/07/2019 Hygrometer - Wikipedia

than that of the dry-bulb thermometer. When the air temperature is below
freezing, however, the wet-bulb is covered with a thin coating of ice and
may be warmer than the dry bulb.

Relative humidity (RH) is computed

Psychrometer probably made
in Switzerland circa 1850 by
Kappeller (MHS Geneva)
from the ambient temperature, shown
by the dry-bulb thermometer and the
difference in temperatures as shown
by the wet-bulb and dry-bulb
thermometers. Relative humidity can The interior of a Stevenson screen
also be determined by locating the showing a motorized psychrometer
intersection of the wet and dry-bulb
temperatures on a psychrometric
chart. The two thermometers coincide when the air is fully saturated, and the
greater the difference the drier the air. Psychrometers are commonly used in
meteorology, and in the HVAC industry for proper refrigerant charging of
residential and commercial air conditioning systems.

Sling psychrometer
A sling psychrometer,which uses thermometers attached to a handle or
length of rope and spun in the air for about one minute, is sometimes used
for field measurements, but is being replaced by more convenient
electronic sensors. A whirling psychrometer uses the same principle, but
the two thermometers are fitted into a device that resembles a ratchet or
football rattle.

Chilled mirror dew point hygrometer

A sling psychrometer for outdoor
Dew point is the temperature at which a sample of moist air (or any other use
water vapor) at constant pressure reaches water vapor saturation. At this
saturation temperature, further cooling results in condensation of water.
Chilled mirror dewpoint hygrometers are some of the most precise instruments commonly available. They use a
chilled mirror and optoelectronic mechanism to detect condensation on the mirror's surface. The temperature of the
mirror is controlled by electronic feedback to maintain a dynamic equilibrium between evaporation and condensation,
thus closely measuring the dew point temperature. An accuracy of 0.2 °C is attainable with these devices, which
correlates at typical office environments to a relative humidity accuracy of about ±1.2%. These devices need frequent
cleaning, a skilled operator and periodic calibration to attain these levels of accuracy. Even so, they are prone to heavy
drifting in environments where smoke or otherwise impure air may be present.

More recently, spectroscopic chilled-mirrors have been introduced. Using this method, the dew point is determined
with spectroscopic light detection which ascertains the nature of the condensation. This method avoids many of the
pitfalls of the previous chilled-mirrors and is capable of operating drift free.

Modern hygrometers

Capacitive

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygrometer 3/7
10/07/2019 Hygrometer - Wikipedia

For applications where cost, space, or fragility are relevant, other types of electronic sensors are used, at the price of a
lower accuracy. In capacitive hygrometers, the effect of humidity on the dielectric constant of a polymer or metal oxide
material is measured. With calibration, these sensors have an accuracy of ±2% RH in the range 5–95% RH. Without
calibration, the accuracy is 2 to 3 times worse. Capacitive sensors are robust against effects such as condensation and
temporary high temperatures.[6] Capacitive sensors are subject to contamination, drift and aging effects, but they are
suitable for many applications.

Resistive
In resistive hygrometers, the change in electrical resistance of a material due to humidity is measured.[6] Typical
materials are salts and conductive polymers. Resistive sensors are less sensitive than capacitive sensors – the change
in material properties is less, so they require more complex circuitry. The material properties also tend to depend both
on humidity and temperature, which means in practice that the sensor must be combined with a temperature sensor.
The accuracy and robustness against condensation vary depending on the chosen resistive material. Robust,
condensation-resistant sensors exist with an accuracy of up to ±3% RH (relative humidity).

Thermal
In thermal hygrometers, the change in thermal conductivity of air due to humidity is measured. These sensors
measure absolute humidity rather than relative humidity.[6]

Gravimetric
A Gravimetric hygrometer measures the mass of an air sample compared to an equal volume of dry air. This is
considered the most accurate primary method to determine the moisture content of the air.[7] National standards
based on this type of measurement have been developed in US, UK, EU and Japan. The inconvenience of using this
device means that it is usually only used to calibrate less accurate instruments, called Transfer Standards.

Optical
An optical hygrometer measures the absorption of light by water in the air.[8] A light emitter and a light detector are
arranged with a volume of air between them. The attenuation of the light, as seen by the detector, indicates the
humidity, according to the Beer–Lambert law. Types include the Lyman-alpha hygrometer (using Lyman-alpha light
emitted by hydrogen), the krypton hygrometer (using 123.58 nm light emitted by krypton), and the differential
absorption hygrometer (using light emitted by two lasers operating at different wavelengths, one absorbed by
humidity and the other not).

Applications
Aside from greenhouses and industrial spaces, hygrometers are also used in some incubators, saunas, humidors and
museums. They are also used in the care of wooden musical instruments such as pianos, guitars, violins, and harps
which can be damaged by improper humidity conditions. Hygrometers play a big part in firefighting as the lower the
relative humidity, the more vigorously fuels may burn.[9] In residential settings, hygrometers are used to assist in
humidity control (too low humidity can damage human skin and body, while too high humidity favors growth of
mildew and dust mite). Hygrometers are also used in the coating industry because the application of paint and other
coatings may be very sensitive to humidity and dew point. With a growing demand on the amount of measurements
taken the psychrometer is now replaced by a dewpoint gauge known as a dewcheck. These devices make
measurements a lot faster but are often not allowed in explosive environments.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygrometer 4/7
10/07/2019 Hygrometer - Wikipedia

Difficulty of accurate humidity measurement

Humidity measurement is among the more difficult problems in basic metrology. According to the WMO Guide, "The
achievable accuracies [for humidity determination] listed in the table refer to good quality instruments that are well
operated and maintained. In practice, these are not easy to achieve." Two thermometers can be compared by
immersing them both in an insulated vessel of water (or alcohol, for temperatures below the freezing point of water)
and stirring vigorously to minimize temperature variations. A high-quality liquid-in-glass thermometer if handled
with care should remain stable for some years. Hygrometers must be calibrated in air, which is a much less effective
heat transfer medium than is water, and many types are subject to drift[10] so need regular recalibration. A further
difficulty is that most hygrometers sense relative humidity rather than the absolute amount of water present, but
relative humidity is a function of both temperature and absolute moisture content, so small temperature variations
within the air in a test chamber will translate into relative humidity variations.

In a cold and humid environment, sublimation of ice may occur on the sensor head, whether it is a hair, dew cell,
mirror, capacitance sensing element, or dry-bulb thermometer of an aspiration psychrometer. The ice on the probe
matches the reading to the saturation humidity with respect to ice at that temperature, i.e. the frost point. However, a
conventional hygrometer is unable to measure properly above the frost point, and the only way to go around this
fundamental problem is to use a heated humidity probe.[11]

Calibration standards

Psychrometer calibration
Accurate calibration of the thermometers used is fundamental to precise humidity determination by the wet-dry
method. The thermometers must be protected from radiant heat and must have a sufficiently high flow of air over the
wet bulb for the most accurate results. One of the most precise types of wet-dry bulb psychrometer was invented in the
late 19th century by Adolph Richard Aßmann (1845–1918);[12] in English-language references the device is usually
spelled "Assmann psychrometer." In this device, each thermometer is suspended within a vertical tube of polished
metal, and that tube is in turn suspended within a second metal tube of slightly larger diameter; these double tubes
serve to isolate the thermometers from radiant heating. Air is drawn through the tubes with a fan that is driven by a
clockwork mechanism to ensure a consistent speed (some modern versions use an electric fan with electronic speed
control).[13] According to Middleton, 1966, "an essential point is that air is drawn between the concentric tubes, as well
as through the inner one."[14]

It is very challenging, particularly at low relative humidity, to obtain the maximal theoretical depression of the wet-
bulb temperature; an Australian study in the late 1990s found that liquid-in-glass wet-bulb thermometers were
warmer than theory predicted even when considerable precautions were taken;[15] these could lead to RH value
readings that are 2 to 5 percent points too high.

One solution sometimes used for accurate humidity measurement when the air temperature is below freezing is to use
a thermostatically-controlled electric heater to raise the temperature of outside air to above freezing. In this
arrangement, a fan draws outside air past (1) a thermometer to measure the ambient dry-bulb temperature, (2) the
heating element, (3) a second thermometer to measure the dry-bulb temperature of the heated air, then finally (4) a
wet-bulb thermometer. According to the World Meteorological Organization Guide, "The principle of the heated
psychrometer is that the water vapor content of an air mass does not change if it is heated. This property may be
exploited to the advantage of the psychrometer by avoiding the need to maintain an ice bulb under freezing
conditions.".[16]

Since the humidity of the ambient air is calculated indirectly from three temperature measurements, in such a device
accurate thermometer calibration is even more important than for a two-bulb configuration.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygrometer 5/7
10/07/2019 Hygrometer - Wikipedia

Saturated salt calibration

Various researchers[17] have investigated the use of saturated salt solutions for calibrating hygrometers. Slushy
mixtures of certain pure salts and distilled water have the property that they maintain an approximately constant
humidity in a closed container. A saturated table salt (Sodium Chloride) bath will eventually give a reading of
approximately 75%. Other salts have other equilibrium humidity levels: Lithium Chloride ~11%; Magnesium Chloride
~33%; Potassium Carbonate ~43%; Potassium Sulfate ~97%. Salt solutions will vary somewhat in humidity with
temperature and they can take relatively long times to come to equilibrium, but their ease of use compensates
somewhat for these disadvantages in low precision applications, such as checking mechanical and electronic
hygrometers.

See also
Automated airport weather station
Dewcell
Humidistat
Moisture analysis

References
1. Hamblyn, Richard (2010). The Invention of Clouds: How an Amateur Meteorologist Forged the Language of the
Skies (https://books.google.com/books?id=HbajgFGBrTEC). Pan Macmillan (published June 4, 2010). pp. 16–17.
ISBN 978-0-330-39195-5.
2. Selin, Helaine (2008). Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western
Cultures (2nd ed.). Springer (published April 16, 2008). p. 736. ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2.
3. 8 to 10 in (20 to 25 cm)
4. Draper, John William (1861). A Textbook on Chemistry (https://books.google.com/books?id=HKwS7QDh5eMC).
p. 55.
5. Gorse, C.; Johnston, D.; Pritchard, M. (2012). A Dictionary of Construction, Surveying, and Civil Engineering (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=Z6tGBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT960). Oxford Quick Reference. OUP Oxford. p. 960.
ISBN 978-0-19-104494-6. Retrieved 13 September 2018.
6. D.K. Roveti. Choosing a Humidity Sensor: A Review of Three Technologies (http://www.sensorsmag.com/sensors/
humidity-moisture/choosing-a-humidity-sensor-a-review-three-technologies-840). Sensors Magazine (2001).
7. Wexler, Arnold; Hyland, Richard W. (May 1, 1964). "The NBS standard hygrometer" (https://archive.org/details/nb
sstandardhygro73wexl). www.nist.gov. National Bureau of Standards. Retrieved July 21, 2017.
8. "Spectral hygrometer - AMS Glossary" (http://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Spectral_hygrometer).
glossary.ametsoc.org. Retrieved 2019-01-16.
9. How Does Humidity Impact Firefighting?[1] (http://firefightertoolbox.com/humidity-impact-firefighting/)
10. catching the drift (http://www.veriteq.com/download/whitepaper/catching-the-drift.pdf) Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20080509094714/http://www.veriteq.com/download/whitepaper/catching-the-drift.pdf) May 9, 2008, at
the Wayback Machine
11. Makkonen, L., Laakso, T (2005) Humidity measurements in cold and humid environments. Boundary-Layer
Meteorology, 116: 131–147, doi 10.1007/s10546-004-7955-y
12. "Aßmann, Adolph Richard (http://www.uni-magdeburg.de/mbl/Biografien/1452.htm)" by Guido Heinrich
13. "Smithsonian Catalog of Meteorological Instruments in the Museum of History and Technology (http://www.sil.si.e
du/SmithsonianContributions/HistoryTechnology/text/SSHT-0002.txt)" Prepared by W. E. Knowles Middleton
14. A History of the Thermometer ISBN 0-8018-7153-0 by W. E. Knowles Middleton, Johns Hopkins Press 1966
15. J. Warne, The Practical Impacts of RTD and Thermometer Design on Wet and Dry Bulb Relative Humidity
Measurements (http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/www/IMOP/WebPortal-AWS/Tests/ITR648.pdf). Bureau of
Meteorology, Melbourne (1998).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygrometer 6/7
10/07/2019 Hygrometer - Wikipedia

16. " url="Archived copy" (https://www.webcitation.org/6E9CzPWoA?url=http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/gcos/docume

nts/gruanmanuals/CIMO/CIMO_Guide-7th_Edition-2008.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the original (http://www.wmo.in
t/pages/prog/gcos/documents/gruanmanuals/CIMO/CIMO_Guide-7th_Edition-2008.pdf) (PDF) on February 3,
2013. Retrieved February 3, 2013."Archived copy" (http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/gcos/documents/gruanmanual
s/CIMO/CIMO_Guide-7th_Edition-2008.pdf) (PDF). Retrieved February 3, 2013. archiveurl= WMO Guide To
Meteorological Instruments And Methods Of Observation (Seventh edition, 2008), Chapter 4: Humidity, section
4.2.5: Heated psychrometer." World Meteorological Organization
17. Salt Calibration of Hygrometers (http://www.omega.com/temperature/z/pdf/z103.pdf)

External links
IMA moisture measurement training site (https://web.archive.org/web/20090313042255/http://www.ima.co.uk/theo
ry.html)
USATODAY.com: How a Sling Psychrometer Works (https://www.usatoday.com/weather/wsling.htm)
NIST page on humidity calibration (https://web.archive.org/web/20071021203311/http://ts.nist.gov/MeasurementS
ervices/Calibrations/Humidity.cfm)
Article on difficulty of humidity calibration (http://www.veriteq.com/humidity/calibration.htm)
Article on RH sensors (http://www.padfield.org/tim/cfys/datalog/datlog4.php)
NOAA homepage for cryogenic chilled-mirror frostpoint hygrometers (http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ozwv/wvap/)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hygrometer&oldid=904281499"

This page was last edited on 1 July 2019, at 04:52 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using
this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygrometer 7/7