10/07/2019 Altimeter - Wikipedia

Altimeter
An altimeter or an altitude meter is an instrument used to measure the
altitude of an object above a fixed level. The measurement of altitude is
called altimetry, which is related to the term bathymetry, the
measurement of depth under water.

Contents
Pressure altimeter
Use in hiking, climbing and skiing
Skydiving
Use in aircraft
Diagram showing the face of the
Use in ground effect vehicle
"three-pointer" sensitive aircraft
Sonic altimeter altimeter displaying an altitude of
Radar altimeter 10,180 feet.
Global Positioning System
Other modes of transport
See also
References
External links

Pressure altimeter
Altitude can be determined based on the measurement of atmospheric
pressure. The greater the altitude, the lower the pressure. When a
barometer is supplied with a nonlinear calibration so as to indicate
altitude, the instrument is called a pressure altimeter or barometric
altimeter. A pressure altimeter is the altimeter found in most aircraft, and
skydivers use wrist-mounted versions for similar purposes. Hikers and
mountain climbers use wrist-mounted or hand-held altimeters, in addition
to other navigational tools such as a map, magnetic compass, or GPS
receiver.
Digital barometric pressure sensor
The calibration of an altimeter follows the equation
for altitude measurement in
consumer electronic applications
[1]

where c is a constant, T is the absolute temperature, P is the pressure at altitude z, and Po is the pressure at sea level.
The constant c depends on the acceleration of gravity and the molar mass of the air. However, one must be aware that
this type of altimeter relies on "density altitude" and its readings can vary by hundreds of feet owing to a sudden
change in air pressure, such as from a cold front, without any actual change in altitude.[2]

Use in hiking, climbing and skiing

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A barometric altimeter, used along with a topographic map, can help to verify one's location. It is more reliable, and
often more accurate, than a GPS receiver for measuring altitude; the GPS signal may be unavailable, for example,
when one is deep in a canyon, or it may give wildly inaccurate altitudes when all available satellites are near the
horizon. Because barometric pressure changes with the weather, hikers must periodically re-calibrate their altimeters
when they reach a known altitude, such as a trail junction or peak marked on a topographical map.

Skydiving
An altimeter is the most important piece of skydiving equipment, after the
parachute itself. Altitude awareness is crucial at all times during the jump,
and determines the appropriate response to maintain safety.

Since altitude awareness is so important in skydiving, there is a wide

variety of altimeter designs made specifically for use in the sport, and a
non-student skydiver will typically use two or more altimeters in a single
jump:[3]
Digital wrist-mounted skydiving
Hand, wrist or chest-mounted mechanical analogue visual altimeter in logbook mode,
altimeters. This is the most basic and common type, and is used by displaying the last recorded jump
(and commonly mandated for) virtually all student skydivers. The profile.
common design has a face marked from 0 to 4000 m (or 0 to 12000 ft,
mimicking the clock face), on which an arrow points to the current
altitude. The face plate sports sections prominently marked with yellow
and red respectively, signifying the recommended deployment altitude,
as well as emergency procedure decision altitude (commonly known
as "hard deck"). A mechanical altimeter has a knob that needs to be
manually adjusted to make it point to 0 on the ground before jump,
and if the landing spot is not at the same altitude as the takeoff spot,
the user needs to adjust it appropriately. Some advanced electronic
altimeters are also available which make use of the familiar analogue
display, despite internally operating digitally.
Digital visual altimeters, mounted on the wrist or hand. This type
always operates electronically, and conveys the altitude as a number,
rather than a pointer on a dial. Since these altimeters already contain
all the electronic circuitry necessary for altitude calculation, they are Skydiver in free fall, making use of a
commonly equipped with auxiliary functions such as electronic
hand-mounted altimeter. The
logbook, real-time jump profile replay, speed indication, simulator
mode for use in ground training, etc. An electronic altimeter is analogue face is visible, showing
activated on the ground before the jump, and calibrates automatically colour-coded decision altitudes. The
to point to 0. It is thus essential that the user not turn it on earlier than depicted altimeter is electronic,
necessary to avoid, for example, the drive to a dropzone located at a despite using an analogue display.
different altitude than one's home which could cause a potentially fatal
false reading. If the intended landing zone is at a different elevation
than the takeoff point, the user needs to input the appropriate offset by
using a designated function.
Audible altimeters (also known as "dytters", a genericised trademark of the first such product on the market).
These are inserted into one's helmet, and emit a warning tone at a predefined altitude. Contemporary audibles
have evolved significantly from their crude beginnings, and sport a vast array of functions, such as multiple tones
at different altitudes, multiple saved profiles that can be switched quickly, electronic logbook with data transfer to a
PC for later analysis, distinct free fall and canopy modes with different warning altitudes, swoop approach guiding
tones, etc. Audibles are strictly auxiliary devices, and do not replace, but complement a visual altimeter which
remains the primary tool for maintaining altitude awareness. The advent of modern skydiving disciplines such as
freeflying, in which the ground might not be in one's field of view for long periods of time, has made the use of
audibles nearly universal, and virtually all skydiving helmets come with one or more built-in ports in which an
audible might be placed. Audibles are not recommended and often banned from use by student skydivers, who
need to build up a proper altitude awareness regime for themselves.
Auxiliary visual altimeters. These do not show the precise altitude, but rather help maintain a general indicator
in one's peripheral vision. They might either operate in tandem with an audible equipped with an appropriate port,
in which case they emit warning flashes complementing the audible tones, or be standalone and use another
display mode, such as showing either green or red light depending on the altitude.

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Speaking altimeters (also known as voice altimeters). Another type

of altimeter that combines both audible and visual altimeter functions.
Unit has all necessary altitudes used in Skydiving and announces it as
a number in Skydiver's native language. These are also inserted into
helmet (the same pocket size as for audibles), but emit voice with
automatic volume adjustment depend on the speed to clear hearing.
Speaking altimeters usually has software configuration via mobile
application. Main goal of this type of altimeter is strong security feature
for experienced skydivers, so they always know own current position
that very useful for FS load organizers or AFF instructors as well.
The exact choice of altimeters depends heavily on the individual skydiver's
preferences, experience level, primary disciplines, as well as the type of the Speaking Altimeter with helmet for
jump.[4] On one end of the spectrum, a low-altitude demonstration jump skydiving
with water landing and no free fall might waive the mandated use of
altimeters and use none at all. In contrast, a jumper doing freeflying jumps
and flying a high performance canopy might use a mechanical analogue altimeter for easy reference in free fall, an in-
helmet audible for breakaway altitude warning, additionally programmed with swoop guide tones for canopy flying, as
well as a digital altimeter on an armband for quickly glancing the precise altitude on approach. Another skydiver doing
similar types of jumps might wear a digital altimeter for their primary visual one, preferring the direct altitude readout
of a numeric display.

Use in aircraft
In aircraft, an aneroid barometer measures the atmospheric pressure from
a static port outside the aircraft. Air pressure decreases with an increase of
altitude—approximately 100 hectopascals per 800 meters or one inch of
mercury per 1000 feet near sea level.

The aneroid altimeter is calibrated to show the pressure directly as an

altitude above mean sea level, in accordance with a mathematical model
atmosphere defined by the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA).
Older aircraft used a simple aneroid barometer where the needle made less
than one revolution around the face from zero to full scale. This design
evolved to altimeters with a primary needle and one or more secondary
needles that show the number of revolutions, similar to a clock face. In Schematic of a drum-type aircraft
other words, each needle points to a different digit of the current altitude altimeter, showing the small
measurement. However this design has fallen out of favor due to the risk of Kollsman windows at the bottom left
misreading in stressful situations. The design evolved further to drum-type and bottom right of the face.
altimeters, the final step in analogue instrumentation, where each
revolution of a single needle accounted for 1,000 feet (300 metres), with
thousand foot increments recorded on a numerical odometer-type drum.
To determine altitude, a pilot had first to read the drum to determine the
thousands of feet, then look at the needle for the hundreds of feet. Modern
analogue altimeters in transport aircraft are typically drum-type. The latest
development in clarity is an Electronic flight instrument system with
integrated digital altimeter displays. This technology has trickled down
from airliners and military planes until it is now standard in many general
aviation aircraft. An old Aircraft Altimeter

Modern aircraft use a "sensitive altimeter". On a sensitive altimeter, the

sea-level reference pressure can be adjusted with a setting knob. The reference pressure, in inches of mercury in
Canada and the United States, and hectopascals (previously millibars) elsewhere, is displayed in the small Kollsman

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window,[5] on the face of the aircraft altimeter. This is necessary, since sea level reference atmospheric pressure at a
given location varies over time with temperature and the movement of pressure systems in the atmosphere.

In aviation terminology, the regional or local air pressure at mean sea level
(MSL) is called the QNH or "altimeter setting", and the pressure that will
calibrate the altimeter to show the height above ground at a given airfield is
called the QFE of the field. An altimeter cannot, however, be adjusted for
variations in air temperature. Differences in temperature from the ISA
model will accordingly cause errors in indicated altitude.

In aerospace, the mechanical stand-alone altimeters which are based on

diaphragm bellows were replaced by integrated measurement systems
Diagram showing the internal
components of the sensitive aircraft which are called air data computers (ADC). This module measures altitude,
altimeter. speed of flight and outside temperature to provide more precise output
data allowing automatic flight control and flight level division. Multiple
altimeters can be used to design a pressure reference system to provide
information about the airplane's position angles to further support inertial navigation system calculations.

Use in ground effect vehicle

After extensive research and experimentation, it has been shown that "phase radio-altimeters" are most suitable for
ground effect vehicles, as compared to laser, isotropic or ultrasonic altimeters.[6]

Sonic altimeter
In 1931, the US Army Air Corps and General Electric tested a sonic altimeter for aircraft, which was considered
more reliable and accurate than one that relied on air pressure when heavy fog or rain was present. The new altimeter
used a series of high-pitched sounds like those made by a bat to measure the distance from the aircraft to the surface,
which on return to the aircraft was converted to feet shown on a gauge inside the aircraft cockpit.[7]

Radar altimeter
A radar altimeter measures altitude more directly, using the time taken for a radio signal to reflect from the surface
back to the aircraft. Alternatively, Frequency Modulated Continuous-wave radar can be used. The greater the
frequency shift the further the distance traveled. This method can achieve much better accuracy than the pulsed radar
for the same outlay and radar altimeters that use frequency modulation are industry standard. The radar altimeter is
used to measure height above ground level during landing in commercial and military aircraft. Radar altimeters are
also a component of terrain avoidance warning systems, warning the pilot if the aircraft is flying too low, or if there is
rising terrain ahead. Radar altimeter technology is also used in terrain-following radar allowing fighter aircraft to fly at
very low altitude.

Global Positioning System

Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers can also determine altitude by trilateration with four or more satellites. In
aircraft, altitude determined using autonomous GPS is not reliable enough to supersede the pressure altimeter without
using some method of augmentation.[8] In hiking and climbing, it is common to find that the altitude measured by
GPS is off by as much as 400 feet (120 metres) depending on satellite orientation.[9]

Other modes of transport

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The altimeter is an instrument optional in off-road vehicles to aid in

navigation. Some high-performance luxury cars that were never intended
to leave paved roads, such as the Duesenberg in the 1930s, have also been
equipped with altimeters.

Hikers and mountaineers use hand-held or wrist-mounted barometric

altimeters, as do skydivers.

Diesel submarines have barometers installed on them to monitor vacuum

The altimeter on this Piper PA-28 is
being pulled in the event that the snorkel closes while the diesels are seen on the top row of instruments,
running and, as a consequence, sucking the air out of the boat. second from right

See also
Acronyms and abbreviations in avionics
Flight instruments
Flight level
Hypsometer
Jason-1 and Ocean Surface Topography Mission (Jason-2) are satellite missions that use altimeters to measure
sea surface height
Level sensor
Lidar
Pressure sensor
Primary flight display
Radar altimeter
Satellite geodesy
Turkish Airlines Flight 1951, an accident attributed to a malfunctioning radio altimeter
United Airlines Flight 389, an accident attributed to misreading of an altimeter
Variometer, a gauge measuring the change of altitude

References
1. Crocker, Graham Jackson, Chris. "The use of altimeters in height measurement" (http://www.hills-database.co.uk/
altim.html). www.hills-database.co.uk. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20171025075434/http://www.hills-dat
abase.co.uk/altim.html) from the original on 25 October 2017. Retrieved 29 April 2018.
2. "How Aircraft Instruments Work." (https://books.google.com/books?id=0SkDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA118) Popular
Science, March 1944, p. 118.
3. "What's a Skydiving Altimeter (and How Does It Work?)" (http://skydivethewasatch.com/about/articles/whats-a-sky
diving-altimeter-and-how-does-it-work/). Skydive The Wasatch. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201504230
00923/http://skydivethewasatch.com/about/articles/whats-a-skydiving-altimeter-and-how-does-it-work) from the
original on 23 April 2015. Retrieved 2 February 2015.
4. Hawke, John. "Digital or Analog Altimeter" (http://www.dropzone.com/safety/Gear_and_Equipment/Digital_or_Ana
log_Altimeter_1042.html). Dropzone.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150206181256/http://www.dro
pzone.com/safety/Gear_and_Equipment/Digital_or_Analog_Altimeter_1042.html) from the original on 6 February
2015. Retrieved 2 February 2015.
5. "Archived copy" (http://www.stolaf.edu/people/hansonr/soaring/altimetr.htm). Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20060625001617/http://www.stolaf.edu/people/hansonr/soaring/altimetr.htm) from the original on 2006-06-25.
Retrieved 2006-06-15.
6. Nebylov, Prof. Alexander and Sharan Sukrit. "Comparative Analysis Of Design Variants For Low Altitude Flight
Parameters Measuring System". 17th IFAC Symposium for Automatic Control.
7. "Meter Gives Elevation" (https://books.google.com/books?id=9ycDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA35), Popular Science,
March 1931

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8. Albéri, Matteo; Baldoncini, Marica; Bottardi, Carlo; Chiarelli, Enrico; Fiorentini, Giovanni; Raptis, Kassandra Giulia
Cristina; Realini, Eugenio; Reguzzoni, Mirko; Rossi, Lorenzo; Sampietro, Daniele; Strati, Virginia; Mantovani,
Fabio (16 August 2017). "Accuracy of Flight Altitude Measured with Low-Cost GNSS, Radar and Barometer
Sensors: Implications for Airborne Radiometric Surveys". Sensors. 17 (8): 1889. doi:10.3390/s17081889 (https://d
oi.org/10.3390%2Fs17081889).
9. "Official Garmin Support - United States - Support Center" (https://support.garmin.com/support/searchSupport/cas
e.faces?caseId=%7B66f1b0a0-4cd6-11dc-4733-000000000000%7D). support.garmin.com. Archived (https://web.
archive.org/web/20160304044725/https://support.garmin.com/support/searchSupport/case.faces?caseId=%7B66f
1b0a0-4cd6-11dc-4733-000000000000%7D) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 29 April 2018.

External links
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