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Air temperature and canopy cover of impacted and conserved mangrove

ecosystems: A study of a subtropical estuary in Brazil

Article in Journal of Coastal Research · January 2013

DOI: 10.2112/SI65-195.1

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 Air temperature and canopy cover of mangrove ecosystem 1

Air temperature and canopy cover of impacted and conserved

mangrove ecosystems: a study in a subtropical estuary in Brazil
Nádia Gilma Beserra de Lima†, Emerson Galvani†, Rita Monteiro Falcão† and Marília Cunha-Lignon‡,∞

† Laboratório de Climatologia e ‡ Universidade Federal de São Paulo

Biogeografia, Departamento de
Geografia,
Universidade de São Paulo (USP)
Av. Lineu Prestes, 338
São Paulo - SP - Brazil
nadia.lima@usp.br
egalvani@usp.br
rita.falcao@usp.br
(UNIFESP)
www.cerf-jcr.org
Diadema, SP, Brazil
cunha.lignon@unifesp.br
∞ Instituto BiomaBrasil (IBB)
São Paulo, SP, Brazil
marilia.cunha@biomabrasil.org

ABSTRACT

Lima, N. G.B, Galvani, E., Falcão, R. M. and Cunha-Lignon, M., 2013. Air temperature and canopy cover of impacted
and conserved mangrove ecosystems: a study in a subtropical estuary in Brazil. In: Conley, D.C., Masselink, G.,
Russell, P.E. and O’Hare, T.J. (eds.), Proceedings 12th International Coastal Symposium (Plymouth, England), Journal
of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 65, pp. xxx-xxx, ISSN 0749-0208.

www.JCRonline.org The aim of this study is to analyze and compare the variation of air temperature between impacted and conserved
mangrove areas through monitoring the microclimate and the canopy cover of mangrove forests in the southern coast of
São Paulo State, Brazil. Data, September 2011 to April 2012, have been obtained from meteorological towers installed
in both areas, at 2m high, below the canopy. To analyze the canopy, hemispherical photographs were processed to
acquire the canopy opening and LAI (Leaf Area Index), which quantifies the area with leaves, trunks and branches.
Mangrove vegetation structure was characterized in permanent plots in conserved and impacted areas. All plants were
identified and described. Temperature data were tested using Pearson linear correlation, T Paired test and Wilcoxon test,
with a significance level of 5%, obtaining 94% of correlation, with r = 0.973. The vegetation development was
dominated by Rhizophora mangle (red mangrove) in both areas. While conserved mangrove forest presents continuous
recruitment of red mangrove samplings and saplings, the impacted mangrove forest is characterized by mangrove
associated species vegetation and aquatic macrophytes, indicating environmental alteration. The absolute maximum
temperature recorded in the impacted mangrove forest was 36.1°C, while in the conserved mangrove was 35.6°C.
Moreover, the impacted mangrove registered the lowest temperature, 8.6°C, and the conserved mangrove indicated
9.7°C. Conclusions are that the amplitudes are lower in the conserved mangrove (25.9°C) than in impacted mangrove
(27.5°C), and the condition of conservation the mangrove canopy contributes to the variation of temperature in the
environment.

ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS: monitoring, microclimate, mangrove forest, status of conservation, temperature
amplitude.

INTRODUCTION The development of mangroves occurs in accordance with

Mangroves are ecosystems that provide important goods and
services to human societies and coastal systems. The high carbon
sequestration, the retention of sediments, and the protection of
coastal zones against erosion are some services provided by the
mangrove forest to human communities (Donato et al., 2011).
However, mangrove areas have suffered enormous pressures by
human processes (Valiela et al., 2001; Alongi, 2002). According
to Duke et al. (2007), mangrove areas are becoming smaller or
fragmented and losing their ecosystem services over time.
Brazil has the third-largest area of mangrove coverage in the
world, corresponding to 962,683 ha (Giri et al., 2010). Mangrove
has been reduced, mainly along Brazil's northern and southern
coasts (FAO, 2007; Rovai et al., 2012).
These size reductions and degradations alters the vegetation
cover and consequently the microclimate (Galvani and Lima,
2010; Medellu et al, 2012).
adaptations of each species. These adaptations involve tolerances
and requirements by factors such as tide and salinity levels or the
influence of climatic conditions (Semeniuk, 1994; Schaeffer-
Novelli et al, 1990).
The climate can change forests, imposing limits on colonization,
growth and development.
Microclimate is an early indicator of changes in the structure of
forest and bordering environment (Medellu et al., 2012).
The mangrove canopy influences the microclimate within the
forest by providing a protected and shaded region where relative
humidity is elevated, wind is negligible, and sunlight is restricted
(Wolanski, 2008). However, researches on microclimate of
mangrove forest are very rare (Wolanski, 2008; Medellu et al.,
2012).
The aim of the current study is to analyze the variation of air
temperature in two mangrove areas in different conditions of

Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 65, 2013

 2 Lima et al.

Figure 1. Study area, the Cananéia-Iguape Costal System, located on the southern coast of São Paulo, Brazil. Red stars indicated
impacted (northern sector) and conserved (southern sector) areas.

conservation: an impacted mangrove forest; and a conserved
mangrove forest in a protected area.
METHODS
channel. However, the southern sector, which is less influenced by
the low salinity of the river waters carried by the artificial channel
to the coastal system, is considered the best conserved mangrove
area along the coast of the State of São Paulo (Cunha-Lignon et
al., 2011).

Study area
The study area, the Cananéia-Iguape Costal System, is located
on the southern coast of São Paulo, Brazil (Figure 1), consists of a
complex of lagoonal channels, located in a United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
Biosphere Reserve. Nevertheless, important environmental
changes have occurred in the last 150 yrs due to the opening of an
artificial channel connecting the Ribeira de Iguape River, the
biggest river drained to São Paulo’s coast, to the coastal system
(Mahiques et al., 2009).
This coastal system can be divided in two sectors, the northern
and the southern (Figure 1), based on geomorphology and
environmental conditions. In the northern sector, important
environmental changes resulted from the influence of this artificial
Instruments and Measurements
Two towers were installed to obtain an analysis of the variation
in climate attributes. The first tower was placed at the geographic
coordinates 24º38'01.4''S and 47º25'31.9''W, on the northern sector
(Figure 1) and contained two meteorological stations: one set
above the canopy on the edge of the tower at a height of 10 m and
the other set beneath the canopy at a height of 2 m. This paper will
analyze data obtained in the sensor located at a height of 2 m.
The second tower was installed at the geographic coordinates
25o04’47.20”S and 47o56’56.56”W, on the southern sector
(Figures 1 and 2) and contained one meteorological station,
placed at a height of 2 m. Data collection occurred from

Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 65, 2013

 Air temperature and canopy cover of mangrove ecosystem
Figure 2. CS215 sensor installed on the conserved mangrove
area.
25/09/2011 to 31/08/2012. The sensors were programmed to
record data every 10 min. The sensors air temperature used was
CS215 sensors (Campbell Scientific) (Figure 2).
The LAI (Leaf Area Index) and canopy opening data were
obtained by hemispherical photography (Figures 3A and 3B)
using a NIKON Model F-501 camera coupled to a NIKKOR 8
mm fish-eye lens with a viewing angle of 180°. The photographs
were processed using the software Gap Light Analyzer – GLA
version 2. In impacted mangrove, photographs were obtained on
05/02/2012, while the impacted mangrove photography was
obtained on 06/02/2012.
A)
Figure 3. Hemispherical photography of canopy obtained in the impacted (A) and conserved (B) mangrove forest.
For the statistical analysis was utilized Minitab software. The
data were applied Wilcoxon and T paired hypothesis test, Simple
Linear Regression and Correlation Linear Pearson.
Mangrove vegetation structure was defined delimitating
permanent plots, following methodology proposed by Cintrón and
Schaeffer-Novelli (1984). In each permanent plot, all plants were
Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 65, 2013
3
identified and Diameter at Breast Height (DBH), height, and
incidence of associated species were recorded. Mean height, basal
area dominance, and stem density were also assessed.
PRELIMINARY RESULTS
Mangrove forests with high structural development (DBH
>10cm) dominated by Rhizophora mangle (red mangrove) occur
in both study areas (Figure 4). On one hand, conserved area is
characterized by recruitment of red mangrove samplings and
saplings (Figure 4A). On the other hand, the impacted area has not
recruitment sampling and saplings and it has Laguncularia
racemosa (white mangrove) in an intermediate structural
development, with DBH between 2.5cm and 10cm and 28% of
dead trunks (Figure 4B). The impacted mangrove forest is
characterized by associated species vegetation, such as the
mangrove fern Acrostichum aureum, and aquatic macrophytes,
indicating environmental alteration.
With analysis of hemispherical photographs, was quantified
canopy openness and IVA for the two points. The impacted
mangrove in February has an opening canopy of 25.4% and LAI
of 1.48 (Figure 3A). While in conserved mangrove at the same
month, canopy openness was 35.3% with LAI 1.17 (Figure 3B).
Microclimatic data are presented below. The absolute maximum
temperature recorded in the impacted mangrove forest was
36.1°C, while in the conserved mangrove was 35.6°C. Moreover,
while the impacted mangrove registered 8.6°C, the lowest
temperature of the period, the conserved mangrove indicated
9.7°C. It was observed that the amplitudes are lower in the
conserved mangrove (25.9°C) than in impacted mangrove
(27.5°C). The conclusion was that the condition of conservation
the mangrove canopy contributes to the variation of temperature in
the environment.
The Pearson correlation coefficient indicated a high correlation
between the data, with R = 0.973. The simple linear regression
showed coefficient of determination (R²) of 0.94, equivalent to
B)
94% of associated data (Figure 5).
Figure 6 shows the daily variation average air temperature in
both environments. While Figure 7 shows the absolute maximum
and minimum air temperatures.
 4 Lima et al.

Figure 4. Mangrove vegetation structure in impacted (A) and conserved (B) areas. Mangrove species: Rh = Rhizophora mangle;
Lg = Laguncularia racemosa. DBH = Diameter at Breast Height.

30

28
y = 0.9884x + 0.0303
R² = 0.9486
26
Air temperature (°C) - impacted mangrove

24

22

20

18

16

14

12

10
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Air temperature (°C) - Conserved mangrove

Figure 5: Simple linear regression of average air temperature in the conserved and impacted mangrove in the period from 25/09/2011
to 31/08/2012.

Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 65, 2013

 Air temperature and canopy cover of mangrove ecosystem 5

30 3

2
25
2

Absolute deviation (°C)

20
Air temperature (°C)

15 0

-1
10
-1

-2
5
-2

0 -3
2011-09-25
2011-10-05
2011-10-15
2011-10-25
2011-11-04
2011-11-14
2011-11-24
2011-12-04
2011-12-14
2011-12-24
2012-01-03
2012-01-13
2012-01-23
2012-02-02
2012-02-12
2012-02-22
2012-03-03
2012-03-13
2012-03-23
2012-04-02
2012-04-12
2012-04-22
2012-05-02
2012-05-12
2012-05-22
2012-06-01
2012-06-11
2012-06-21
2012-07-01
2012-07-11
2012-07-21
2012-07-31
2012-08-10
2012-08-20
2012-08-30
Absolute Deviation (ºC) Conserved mangrove Impacted mangrove

Figure 6: Average air temperature for the period 25/09/11 to 31/08/12 of the conserved and impacted mangroves.

40

35
Absolute maximum (°C)

30

25
Air temperature (°C)

20

15

Absolute minimum (°C)

10

0
2011-09-25
2011-10-01
2011-10-07
2011-10-13
2011-10-19
2011-10-25
2011-10-31
2011-11-06
2011-11-12
2011-11-18
2011-11-24
2011-11-30
2011-12-06
2011-12-12
2011-12-18
2011-12-24
2011-12-30
2012-01-05
2012-01-11
2012-01-17
2012-01-23
2012-01-29
2012-02-04
2012-02-10
2012-02-16
2012-02-22
2012-02-28
2012-03-05
2012-03-11
2012-03-17
2012-03-23
2012-03-29
2012-04-04
2012-04-10
2012-04-16
2012-04-22
2012-04-28
2012-05-04
2012-05-10
2012-05-16
2012-05-22
2012-05-28
2012-06-03
2012-06-09
2012-06-15
2012-06-21
2012-06-27
2012-07-03
2012-07-09
2012-07-15
2012-07-21
2012-07-27
2012-08-02
2012-08-08
2012-08-14
2012-08-20
2012-08-26

Conserved (Absolute maxima) Impacted (Absolute maxima) Conserved (Absolute minimum) Impacted (Absolute minimum)

Figure 7: Absolute maximum and minimum air temperature in the period from 25/09/11 to 31/08/12 in the conserved and impacted
mangroves.

With the application of the T paired test hypothesis was proven The results indicated that the amplitudes were lower in the
that the difference between the air temperature in the conserved conserved environment, showing less variation in air temperature.
and impacted mangrove are expressive. The impacted mangroves showed lower values to minimum
The confidence interval obtained was positive (0.15 to 0.29), temperatures and higher values to maximum temperatures. During
which represents that the air average temperature was higher in the day, open canopies permits more energy reaching and heating
conserved mangrove. the mangrove soil. During the night period, open canopies
So much for the absolute maximum air temperature as to facilitate greater loss of energy in the environment.
absolute minimum, the differences between the data were The conserved mangrove presented outliers, showing that the
significant. period of analysis occur outliers when considering the entire series

Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 65, 2013

 6 Lima et al.
(Figure 8). The absolute minimum temperature recorded also
outliers for the two points, but with lower values in impacted
mangrove.
40
Maximum
35
30
Air temperature (ºC)
Medium
25
20
15
10
Conserved Impacted Conserved
Figure 8: Absolute maximum, absolute minimum and average air
temperature (° C) of the impacted and conserved mangrove -
south coast of São Paulo / Brazil, during the period 25/09/11 to
31/08/12.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The current article highlighted that the condition of status of
conservation the mangrove canopy contributes to the variation of
temperature in the environment. Mangrove forests with high
structural development dominated by Rhizophora mangle occured
in both study areas. The conserved area is characterized by
recruitment of red mangrove samplings and saplings. While, the
impacted area has not recruitment of sampling and saplings and it
is Laguncularia racemosa (white mangrove) in an intermediate
structural development. The impacted mangrove forest is
characterized by associated species vegetation, such as the
mangrove fern Acrostichum aureum, and aquatic macrophytes,
indicating environmental alteration.
The difference between the air temperature in the mangrove
conserved and in the impacted is significant. The results indicated
that the amplitudes were lower in the conserved environment,
showing less variation in air temperature. The impacted mangrove
forest showed values to lower temperatures and higher minimum
values to maximum temperatures.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study was undertaken with the financial supports of the
Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico
– CNPq (Brazil, Process 472473/2011-5 - Universal 14/2011 and
Process 142048/2011-9 GM/GD) and Fundação Grupo Boticário
(Brazil, Process BL0006_20121). This study had the precious help
of Fernando Alves de Godoy, Ana Lucia Gomes dos Santos and
Rogério Rozolen Alves in the field work, to whom we would like
to show our gratitude.
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