Chapter-1

Automatic Gear Shift Mechanism

1.1 Introduction

Modern automatic transmissions can trace their origins to an early “horseless carriage” gearbox
that was developed in 1904 by the Sturtevant brothers of boston, Mass achusetts. This unit had
two forward speeds, the ratio change being brought about by flyweights that were driven by the
engine. At higher engine speeds, high gear was engaged. As the vehicle slowed down and engine
RPM decreased, the gearbox would shift back to low. Unfortunately, the metallurgy of the time
wasn't up to the task, and owing to the abruptness of the gear change, the transmission would
often fail without warning.

The next significant phase in the automatic transmission's development occurred in 1908 with
the introduction of Henry Ford's remarkable Model T. The Model T, in addition to being cheap
and reliable by the standards of the day, featured a simple, two speed plus reverse planetary
transmission whose operation was manually controlled by the driver using pedals. The pedals
actuated the transmission's friction elements (bands and clutches) to select the desired gear. In
some respects, this type of transmission was less demanding of the driver's skills than the
contemporary, unsynchronized manual transmission, but still required that the driver know when
to make a shift, as well as how to get the car off to a smooth start.

In 1934, both REO and General Motors developed semi-automatic transmissions that were less
difficult to operate than a fully manual unit. These designs, however, continued to use a clutch to
engage the engine with the transmission. The General Motors unit, dubbed the "Automatic
Safety Transmission," was notable in that it employed a power-shifting planetary gearbox that
was hydraulically controlled and was sensitive to road speed, anticipating future development.

Parallel to the development in the 1930s of an automatically shifting gearbox was Chrysler's
work on adapting the fluid coupling to automotive use. Invented early in the 20th century, the

1
fluid coupling was the answer to the question of how to avoid stalling the engine when the
vehicle was stopped with the transmission in gear. Chrysler itself never used the fluid coupling
with any of its automatic transmissions, but did use it in conjunction with a hybrid manual
transmission called "Fluid Drive" (the similar Hy-Drive used a torque converter). These
developments in automatic gearbox and fluid coupling technology eventually culminated in the
introduction in 1939 of the General Motors Hydra-Matic, the world's first mass-produced
automatic transmission.

Available as an option on 1940 Oldsmobiles and later Cadillacs, the Hydra-Matic combined a
fluid coupling with three hydraulically controlled planetary gearsets to produce four forward
speeds plus reverse. The transmission was sensitive to engine throttle position and road speed,
producing fully automatic up- and down-shifting that varied according to operating conditions.

The Hydra-Matic was subsequently adopted by Cadillac and Pontiac, and was sold to various
other automakers, including Bentley, Hudson, Kaiser, Nash, and Rolls-Royce. It also found use
during World War II in some military vehicles. From 1950 to 1954, Lincoln cars were also
available with the Hydra-Matic. Mercedes-Benz subsequently devised a four-speed fluid
coupling transmission that was similar in principle to the Hydra-Matic, but of a different design.

Interestingly, the original Hydra-Matic incorporated two features which are widely emulated in
today's transmissions. The Hydra-Matic's ratio spread through the four gears produced excellent
"step-off" and acceleration in first, good spacing of intermediate gears, and the effect of an
overdrive in fourth, by virtue of the low numerical rear axle ratio used in the vehicles of the time.
In addition, in third and fourth gear, the fluid coupling only handled a portion of the engine's
torque, resulting in a high degree of efficiency. In this respect, the transmission's behavior was
similar to modern units incorporating a lock-up torque converter.

In 1956, GM introduced the "Jetaway" Hydra-Matic, which was different in design than the older
model. Addressing the issue of shift quality, which was an ongoing problem with the original
Hydra-Matic, the new transmission utilized two fluid couplings, the primary one that linked the

2
transmission to the engine, and a secondary one that replaced the clutch assembly that controlled
the forward gearset in the original. The result was much smoother shifting, especially from first
to second gear, but with a loss in efficiency and an increase in complexity. Another innovation
for this new style Hydra-Matic was the appearance of a Park position on the selector. The
original Hydra-Matic, which continued in production until the mid-1960s, still used the Reverse
position for parking pawl engagement.

The first torque converter automatic, Buick's Dynaflow, was introduced for the 1948 model year.
It was followed by Packard's Ultramatic in mid-1949 and Chevrolet's Powerglide for the 1950
model year. Each of these transmissions had only two forward speeds, relying on the converter
for additional torque multiplication. In the early 1950s, BorgWarner developed a series of three-
speed torque converter automatics for American Motors, Ford Motor Company, Studebaker, and
several other manufacturers in the US and other countries. Chrysler was late in developing its
own true automatic, introducing the two-speed torque converter PowerFlite in 1953, and the
three-speed TorqueFlite in 1956. The latter was the first to utilize the Simpson compound
planetary gearset.

General Motors produced multiple-turbine torque converters from 1954 to 1961. These included
the Twin-Turbine Dynaflow and the triple-turbine Turboglide transmissions. The shifting took
place in the torque converter, rather than through pressure valves and changes in planetary gear
connections. Each turbine was connected to the drive shaft through a different gear train. These
phased from one ratio to another according to demand, rather than shifting. The Turboglide
actually had two speed ratios in reverse, with one of the turbines rotating backwards.

By the late 1960s, most of the fluid-coupling four-speed and two-speed transmissions had
disappeared in favor of three-speed units with torque converters. Also around this time, whale oil
was removed from automatic transmission fluid By the early 1980s, these were being
supplemented and eventually replaced by overdrive-equipped transmissions providing four or
more forward speeds. Many transmissions also adopted the lock-up torque converter to improve
fuel economy.

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As computerized engine control units (ECUs) became more capable, much of the logic built into
the transmission's valve body was offloaded to the ECU. Some manufacturers use a separate
computer dedicated to the transmission called a transmission control unit (TCU), also known as
the transmission control module (TCM), which share information with the engine management
computer. In this case, solenoids turned on and off by the computer control shift patterns and
gear ratios, rather than the spring-loaded valves in the valve body. This allows for more precise
control of shift points, shift quality, lower shift times, and (on some newer cars) semi-automatic
control, where the driver tells the computer when to shift. The result is an impressive
combination of efficiency and smoothness. Some computers even identify the driver's style and
adapt to best suit it.

ZF Friedrichshafen and BMW were responsible for introducing the first six-speed (the ZF
6HP26 in the 2002 BMW E65 7-Series). Mercedes-Benz's 7G-Tronic was the first seven-speed
in 2003, with Toyota introducing an eight-speed in 2007 on the Lexus LS 460. Derived from the
7G-Tronic, Mercedes-Benz unveiled a semi-automatic transmission with the torque converter
replaced with a wet multi clutch called the AMG SPEEDSHIFT MCT. [5] The 2014 Jeep
Cherokee has the world's first nine-speed automatic transmission for a passenger vehicle to
market.

1.2 Transmission
A machine consists of a power source and a power transmission system, which provides
controlled application of the power. Merriam-Webster defines transmission as an assembly of
parts including the speed-changing gears and the propeller shaft by which the power is
transmitted from an engine to a live axle. Often transmission refers simply to the gearbox that
uses gears and gear trains to provide speed and torque conversions from a rotating power source
to another device.
In British English, the term transmission refers to the whole drivetrain, including clutch,
gearbox, prop shaft), differential, and final drive shafts. In American English, however, the term
refers more specifically to the gearbox alone, and the usage details are different.

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The most common use is in motor vehicles, where the transmission adapts the output of the
internal combustion engine to the drive wheels. Such engines need to operate at a relatively high
rotational speed, which is inappropriate for starting, stopping, and slower travel. The
transmission reduces the higher engine speed to the slower wheel speed, increasing torque in the
process. Transmissions are also used on pedal bicycles, fixed machines, and where different
rotational speeds and torques are adapted.
Often, a transmission has multiple gear ratios with the ability to switch between them as speed
varies. This switching may be done manually (by the operator), or automatically. Directional
control may also be provided. Single-ratio transmissions also exist, which simply change the
speed and torque (and sometimes direction) of motor output.

Fig 1.1 – transmission of power

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In motor vehicles, the transmission generally is connected to the engine crankshaft via a flywheel
and/or clutch and/or fluid coupling, partly because internal combustion engines cannot run below
a particular speed. The output of the transmission is transmitted via driveshaft to one or more
differentials, which in turn, drive the wheels. While a differential may also provide gear
reduction, its primary purpose is to permit the wheels at either end of an axle to rotate at different
speeds as it changes the direction of rotation.

1.3 Requirement of transmission system

 To provide for disconnecting the engine from the driving wheel
 When engine is running, connect the driving wheel to engine smoothly without shock
 Enable the driving wheels to rotate at a different speed
 Provide the relative movement between engine and driving wheel

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 Chapter 2
Function of transmission system
2.1 Introduction
A transmission is the part of an engine assembly that connects the engine to the wheels. It's
within this piece of machinery that the power produced by the engine is transferred into the
wheels. A level of precision is needed while doing this because each engine operates at its own
optimum RPM (revolutions per minute) range and it's the transmission that keeps everything in
balance.

Fig 2.1 – transmission system

2.2 Layout of transmission system

2.2.1 Front-wheel-drive layouts

Fig 2.2.1 – front wheel layout

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Front-wheel-drive layouts are those in which the front wheels of the vehicle are driven. The most
popular layout used in cars today is the front-engine, front-wheel drive, with the engine in front
of the front axle, driving the front wheels. This layout is typically chosen for its compact
packaging; since the engine and driven wheels are on the same side of the vehicle, there is no
need for a central tunnel through the passenger compartment to accommodate a prop-shaft
between the engine and the driven wheels.

As the steered wheels are also the driven wheels, FF cars are generally considered superior to FR
cars in conditions such as snow, mud, or wet tarmac. The weight of the engine over the driven
wheels also improves grip in such conditions. However, powerful cars rarely use the FF layout
because weight transference under acceleration reduces the weight on the front wheels and
reduces their traction, limiting the torque which can be utilized.

A transverse engine is commonly used in FF designs, in contrast to FR which uses a longitudinal

engine. The FF layout also restricts the size of the engine that can be placed in modern engine
compartments, as FF configurations usually have Inline-4 and V6 engines, while longer engines
such as Inline-6 and 90° V8 will rarely fit. This is another reason luxury/sports cars avoid the FF
layout. Exceptions do exist, such as the Volvo S80 which uses transversely mounted inline 6 and
V8 engines, and the Ford Taurus, available with a 60° V8 and all-wheel drive.

2.2.2 Rear wheel layout

Fig 2.2.2 – Rear wheel drive

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Rear-wheel drive (RWD) typically places the engine in the front of the vehicle and the driven
wheels are located at the rear, a configuration known as front-engine, rear-wheel drive layout
(FR layout). The front mid-engine, rear mid-engine and rear engine layouts are also used. This
was the traditional automobile layout for most vehicles up until the 1970s and 1980s. [20] Nearly
all motorcycles and bicycles use rear-wheel drive as well, either by driveshaft, chain, or belt,
since the front wheel is turned for steering, and it would be very difficult and cumbersome to
"bend" the drive mechanism around the turn of the front wheel. A relatively rare exception is
with the 'moving bottom bracket' type of recumbent bicycle, where the entire drivetrain,
including pedals and chain, pivot with the steering front wheel.

2.3 Types of transmission

2.3.1 Manual transmission

2.3.2 Automatic transmission

2.2.3 Bycycle gearing transmission

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 Chapter 3

Automatic transmission

3.1 Introduction

An automatic transmission (also called automatic gearbox, self-shifting gearbox or A/T) is a type
of motor vehicle transmission that can automatically change gear ratios as the vehicle moves,
freeing the driver from having to shift gears manually. Like other transmission systems on
vehicles, it allows an internal combustion engine, best suited to run at a relatively high rotational
speed, to provide a range of speed and torque outputs necessary for vehicular travel.
The most popular form found in automobiles is the hydraulic automatic transmission. Similar but
larger devices are also used for heavy-duty commercial and industrial vehicles and equipment.
This system uses a fluid coupling in place of a friction clutch, and accomplishes gear changes by
locking and unlocking a system of planetary gears. These systems have a defined set of gear
ranges, often with a parking pawl that locks the output shaft of the transmission to keep the
vehicle from rolling either forward or backward. Some machines with limited speed ranges or
fixed engine speeds, such as some forklifts and lawn mowers, only use a torque converter to
provide a variable gearing of the engine to the wheels.
Besides the traditional automatic transmissions, there are also other types of automated
transmissions, such as a continuously variable transmission (CVT) and semi-automatic
transmissions, that free the driver from having to shift gears manually, by using the
transmission's computer to change gear, if for example the driver were redlining the engine.
Despite superficial similarity to other transmissions, automatic transmissions differ significantly
in internal operation and driver's feel from semi-automatics and CVTs. In contrast to
conventional automatic transmissions, a CVT uses a belt or other torque transmission scheme to
allow an "infinite" number of gear ratios instead of a fixed number of gear ratios. A semi-
automatic retains a clutch like a manual transmission, but controls the clutch through
electrohydraulic means. The ability to shift gears manually, often via paddle shifters, can also be
found on certain automated transmissions), semi-automatics (BMW SMG), and CVTs.

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The automatic transmission was invented in 1921 by Alfred Horner Munro of Regina,
Saskatchewan, Canada, and patented under Canadian patent CA 235757 in 1923. (Munro
obtained UK patent GB215669 215,669 for his invention in 1924 and US patent 1,613,525 on 4
January 1927). (An earlier patent by Henry R. Hoffman of Chicago was filed on November 12,
1921 and patented on November 27, 1923. The Patent Office then approved two more Hoffman
patents that improved on his device in 1924 and 1925. Hoffman's invention had the clutch
arranged "to selectively engage and drive the differential shaft dependent upon the speed at
which the differential shaft operates being a steam engineer, Munro designed his device to use
compressed air rather than hydraulic fluid, and so it lacked power and never found commercial
application.[1] The first automatic transmission using hydraulic fluid may have been developed in
1932 by two Brazilian engineers, José Braz Araripe and Fernando Lehly Lemos; subsequently
the prototype and plans were sold to General Motors who introduced it in the 1940 Oldsmobile
as the "Hydra-Mastic" transmission.[2] They were incorporated into GM-built tanks during World
War II and, after the war, GM marketed them as being "battle-tested." However, a Wall Street
Journal article credits ZF Friedrichshafen with the invention, occurring shortly after World War
I. ZF's origins were in manufacturing gears for airship engines beginning in 1915; the company
was founded by Ferdinand von Zeppelin.

3.2 Types of automatic transmission

3.2.1Manumatic

Manumitted a portmanteau of the words manual and automatic, is a term referring to a class of
automotive transmission. Manumatic refers to an automatic transmission that allows convenient
driver control of gear selection. For most of automotive history, automatic transmissions already
allowed some control of gear selection using the console or column shifter. Manumatics
enhanced this feature by providing either steering wheel mounted paddle shifters or a modified
shift lever for more convenient operation. Different car manufacturers have been using a variety
of labels for their manumatic transmissions, such as 'Tip tronic', 'Gear tronic', 'Touch shift', 'Sport
tronic', 'clutchless -manual' and others.

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Some manumatic and semi-automatic transmissions allow the driver to have full control of gear
selection, while many will intervene by shifting automatically at the low end and/or high end of
the engine's operating range, depending on throttle position. Manumatics and most semi-
automatic transmissions also provide the option of operating in the same manner as a
conventional automatic transmission by allowing the transmission's computer to select gear
changes.

3.2.2 Semi-automatic transmission

A semi-automatic transmission (SAT) (also known as a clutchless manual transmission,
automated manual transmission, flappy-paddle gearbox, or paddle-shift gearbox) is an
automobile transmission that does not change gears automatically, but rather facilitates manual
gear changes by dispensing with the need to press a clutch pedal at the same time as changing
gears. It uses electronic sensors, pneumatics, processors and actuators to execute gear shifts on
input from the driver or by a computer. This removes the need for a clutch pedal which the driver
otherwise needs to depress before making a gear change, since the clutch itself is actuated by
electronic equipment which can synchronise the timing and torque required to make quick,
smooth gear shifts. The system was designed by automobile manufacturers to provide a better
driving experience through fast overtaking maneuvers on highways. Some motorcycles also use
a system with a conventional gearchange but without the need for manual clutch operation.

3.3.3 Dual-clutch transmission

A dual-clutch transmission, (DCT) (sometimes referred to as a twin-clutch transmission or

double-clutch transmission), is a type of automatic transmission or automated automotive
transmission. It uses two separate clutches[1] for odd and even gear sets. It can fundamentally be
described as two separate manual transmissions (with their respective clutches) contained within
one housing, and working as one unit. [2][3] They are usually operated in a fully automatic mode,
and many also have the ability to allow the driver to manually shift gears in semi-automatic
mode,[1] albeit still carried out by the transmission's electro-hydraulics.

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3.3.4 Continuously variable

A dual-clutch transmission, (DCT) (sometimes referred to as a twin-clutch transmission or

double-clutch transmission), is a type of automatic transmission or automated automotive
transmission. It uses two separate clutches for odd and even gear sets. It can fundamentally be
described as two separate manual transmissions (with their respective clutches) contained within
one housing, and working as one unit. They are usually operated in a fully automatic mode, and
many also have the ability to allow the driver to manually shift gears in semi-automatic mode,
albeit still carried out by the transmission's electro-hydraulics.

3.5 Parts of automatic transmission

 Planetary Gear sets
 Hydraulic system
 Torque converter
 Governer
 Propeller shft
 Universal joint
 Differential

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 Chapter 4
4.1 Planetary Gear sets
Automatic transmissions contain many gears in various combinations. In a manual transmission,
gears slide along shafts as you move the shift lever from one position to another, engaging
various sized gears as required in order to provide the correct gear ratio. In an automatic
transmission, however, the gears are never physically moved and are always engaged to the same
gears. This is accomplished through the use of planetary gear sets.

The basic planetary gear set consists of a sun gear, a ring gear and two or more planet gears, all
remaining in constant mesh. The planet gears are connected to each other through a common
carrier which allows the gears to spin on shafts called "pinions" which are attached to the carrier.
One example of a way that this system can be used is by connecting the ring gear to the input
shaft coming from the engine, connecting the planet carrier to the output shaft, and locking the
sun gear so that it can't move. In this scenario, when we turn the ring gear, the planets will
"walk" along the sun gear causing the planet carrier to turn the output shaft in the same direction
as the input shaft but at a slower speed causing gear reduction.
If we unlock the sun gear and lock any two elements together, this will cause all three elements
to turn at the same speed so that the output shaft will turn at the same rate of speed as the input
shaft. This is like a car that is in third or high gear. Another way that we can use a Planetary gear
set is by locking the planet carrier from moving, then applying power to the ring gear which will
cause the sun gear to turn in the opposite direction giving us reverse gear.
The illustration on the right shows how the simple system described above would look in an
actual transmission. The input shaft is connected to the ring gear The Output shaft is connected
to the planet carrier which is also connected to a "Multi-disk" clutch pack. The sun gear is
connected to a drum which is also connected to the other half of the clutch pack. Surrounding the
outside of the drum is a band (blue) that can be tightened around the drum when required to
prevent the drum with the attached sun gear from turning.

14
 Fig 4.1 – planetry grar sets

The clutch pack is used, in this instance, to lock the planet carrier with the sun gear, forcing both
to turn at the same speed. If both the clutch pack and the band were released, the system would
be in neutral. Turning the input shaft would turn the planet gears against the sun gear, but since
nothing is holding the sun gear, it will just spin free and have no effect on the output shaft. To
place the unit in first gear, the band is applied to hold the sun gear from moving. To shift from
first to high gear, the band is released and the clutch is applied causing the output shaft to turn at
the same speed as the input shaft.
Many more combinations are possible using two or more planetar sets connected in various ways
to provide the different forward speeds and reverse that are found in modern automatic
transmissions.
Some of the clever gear arrangements found in four and now, five, six and even seven-speed
automatics are complex enough to make a technically astute lay person's head spin trying to
understand the flow of power through the transmission as it shifts from first gear through top
gear while the vehicle accelerates to highway speed. On newer vehicles, the vehicle's computer
monitors and controls these shifts so that they are almost imperceptible.

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4.1.1 Clutch Packs

Fig 4.1.1 – Clutch packs

A clutch pack consists of alternating disks that fit inside a clutch drum. Half of the disks are steel
and have splines that fit into groves on the inside of the drum. The other half have a friction
material bonded to their surface and have splines on the inside edge that fit groves on the outer
surface of the adjoining hub. There is a piston inside the drum that is activated by oil pressure at
the appropriate time to squeeze the clutch pack together so that the two components become
locked and turn as one.
4.1.2 One-Way Clutch

A one-way clutch (also known as a "sprag" clutch) is a device that will allow a component such
as ring gear to turn freely in one direction but not in the other. This effect is just like that of a
bicycle, where the pedals will turn the wheel when pedaling forward, but will spin free when
pedaling backward.A common place where a one-way clutch is used is in first gear when the
shifter is in the drive position. When you begin to accelerate from a stop, the transmission starts
out in first gear. But have you ever noticed what happens if you release the gas while it is still in
first gear? The vehicle continues to coast as if you were in neutral. Now, shift into Low gear
instead of Drive. When you let go of the gas in this case, you will feel the engine slow you down
just like a standard shift car. The reason for this is that in Drive, a one-way clutch is used
whereas in Low, a clutch pack or a band is used.

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4.1.3 Bands
A band is a steel strap with friction material bonded to the inside surface. One end of the band is
anchored against the transmission case while the other end is connected to a servo. At the
appropriate time hydraulic oil is sent to the servo under pressure to tighten the band around the
drum to stop the drum from turning.

4.2 Planetary Gear set Components

Planetary gear sets contain three major components or members. They are:
• The Ring Gear or Annulus which has internal teeth and wraps around the entire assembly.
• The Sun Gear (shown above in orange) which is the smallest gear and sits in the center of the
Assembly . The planetary pinions orbit around the sun gear, hence the name of the gear set
• The Planetary Carrier (shown above in yellow) which holds a set of Planetary Pinion Gears.
The Pinion Gears (shown above in green) interact with the Ring Gear and the Sun Gear at the
same time.

Fig 4.2 – Planetary gear sets

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Inside the automatic transmission, the planetary gear set provides the necessary forward and
reverse gear ratios. Some transmissions use more than one planetary gear set.
The layout of planetary gears is similar to the solar system, with planet pinion gears orbiting
around a sun gear. The ring gear surrounds the entire gear set.

4.3 Planetary Gear Set Controls

Each member of a Planetary Gear Set can be the input (drive), output (driven) or held
component. To achieve this, devices such as Bands servos and Clutches must be used.

4.3.1 Transmission Bands

Transmission Bands are used as braking or holding devices to slow or stop a planetary gear set
member. The band is placed around a drum that is either stationary or rotating. The inside of the
band is lined with friction material. Each band in the transmission is held in place by a band
anchor and applied by a servo. Typically, if the band will be holding a low-speed drum, the
lining material of a band is a semi-metalli compound. If the band is designed to hold a high
speed drum, it will have a paper-based lining.

Fig 4.3.1 - Band

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4.3.2 Transmission Servos

Fig 4.3.2 – transmission servo

A Servo assembly is used to apply a band. The servo is applied by hydraulic force. It converts
that force into mechanical motion. Pressurized transmission fluid enters the servo cover behind
the servo piston. The piston and band apply pin then move against the return spring pressure,
compressing the spring. The band apply pin pushes against the band, squeezing it around a drum.

4.3.3 Clutches
Clutch is a device used in the transmission system of a motor vehicle to engage and disengage
the engine to the transmission. Thus the clutch is located between the engine and the
transmission. Typically a clutch consits of clutch fork, thrust bearing, diaphragm, cover, pressure
plate, clutch plate, and a flywheel as shown below in the figure.

Fig 4.3.3 - clutches

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4.4 Functions of a clutch

When the clutch is engaged, the power flows from the engine to the rear wheels through the
transmission system and the vehicle moves.

 When the clutch is disengaged, the power is not transmitted to the rear wheels and the
vehicles stops while the engine is still running.
 The clutch is disengaged when starting the engine, when shifting the gears, when
stopping the vehicle and when idling the engine.
 The clutch is kept engaged when the vehicle is moving.
 The clutch also permits the gradual taking up of the load. When properly operated, it
prevents jerky motion of the vehicle.

4.5 Principle of Operation of Clutch

The clutch works on the principle of friction. When two friction surfaces are brought in contacts
with each other and pressed they are united due to the friction between them. If one is revolved,
the other will also revolve. The friction between the two surfaces depends upon the area of the
surfaces, pressure applied upon them and coefficient of friction of the surface materials. The two
surfaces can be separated and brought into contact when required.
One surface is considered as driving member and the other as driven member, the driving
member is kept rotating. When the driven member is brought in contact with the driving
member, it also starts rotating. When the driven member, it also starts rotating. When the driven
member is separated from the driving member it does not revolve.

4.6 Types of clutches

4.6.1 Over running Clutches

An overrunning clutch allows rotation in only one direction and operates at all times. Two types
of overrunning clutches can be used inside the automatic transmission to hold or drive a
planetary gear set member.

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4.6.2 Sprag-Type One Way Clutch

A one-way sprag clutch consists of a hub and drum separated by figure-eight-shaped metal
pieces called sprags. The sprags are shaped so that they lock between the races when a race is
turned in one direction only.

Fig 4.7.2 – Sprag type one way clutch

4.6.3 Roller-Type One Way Clutch

Fig 4.7.3 – Roller type one way clutch

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In a roller type, roller bearings are held in place by springs to separate the inner and outer races
of the clutch assembly. One of the races is normally held by the transmission case and is unable
to rotate. Around the inside of the outer race are several cam-shaped indentations. The rollers
and springs are located in these pockets. Rotation of one race in one direction locks the rollers
between the two races, preventing the race from moving. When the race is rotated in the opposite
direction, the roller bearings move into the pockets and are not locked and the race is free to
rotate.

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 Chapter 5
Hydraulic system

5.1 Introduction

hydraulic transmission, device employing a liquid to transmit and modify linear or rotary motion
and linear or turning force (torque). There are two main types of hydraulic power transmission
systems: hydrokinetic, such as the hydraulic coupling and the hydraulic torque converter, which
use the kinetic energy of the liquid; and hydrostatic, which use the pressure energy of the liquid

Fig 5.1 – Hydraulic system

The hydraulic coupling is a device that links two rotatable shafts. It consists of a vaned impeller
on the drive shaft facing a similarly vaned runner on the driven shaft, both impeller and runner
being enclosed in a casing containing a liquid, usually oil. If there is no resistance to the turning
of the driven shaft, rotation of the drive shaft will cause the driven shaft to rotate at the same

23
speed. A load applied to the driven shaft will slow it down, and a torque, or turning moment, that
has the same magnitude on both shafts will be developed. In a properly designed hydraulic
coupling, under normal loading conditions, the speed of the driven shaft is about 3 percent less
than the speed of the drive shaft. By means of a scoop tube, the quantity of liquid in a coupling
and the speed of the driven shaft can be varied. Since there is no mechanical connection between
the impeller and the runner, a hydraulic coupling does not transmit shocks and vibrations.

5.2 Components of hydraulic system

5.2.1 Hydraulic pump

5.2.1.1 Oil Pump

The transmission oil pump is responsible for producing all the oil pressure that is required in the
transmission. The oil pump is mounted to the front of the transmission case and is directly
connected to the hub of the torque converter housing. Since the torque converter housing is
directly connected to the engine crankshaft, the pump will produce pressure whenever the engine
is running as long as there is a sufficient amount of transmission fluid available. The oil enters
the pump through a filter that is located at the bottom of the transmission oil pan and travels up a
pickup tube directly to the oil pump. The oil is then sent under pressure to the pressure regulator,
the valve body, and the rest of the components as required.

Fig 5.2 – Oil pump

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Hydraulic pumps supply fluid to the components in the system. Pressure in the system develops
in reaction to the load. Hence, a pump rated for 5,000 psi is capable of maintaining flow against
a load of 5,000 psi.
Pumps have a power density about ten times greater than an electric motor (by volume). They
are powered by an electric motor or an engine, connected through gears, belts, or a flexible
elastomeric coupling to reduce vibration.

5.2.1.2 Common types of hydraulic pumps to hydraulic machinery

applications are;
5.2.1.2.1 Gear pump: cheap, durable (especially in g-rotor form), simple. Less efficient,
because they are constant (fixed) displacement, and mainly suitable for pressures below 20 MPa

5.2.1.2.2 Vane pump: cheap and simple, reliable. Good for higher-flow low-pressure output.

5.2.1.2.3 Axial piston pump: many designed with a variable displacement mechanism, to
vary output flow for automatic control of pressure. There are various axial piston pump designs,
including swashplate (sometimes referred to as a valveplate pump) and checkball (sometimes
referred to as a wobble plate pump). The most common is the swashplate pump. A variable-angle
swashplate causes the pistons to reciprocate a greater or lesser distance per rotation, allowing
output flow rate and pressure to be varied (greater displacement angle causes higher flow rate,
lower pressure, and vice versa).

5.2.1.2.4 Radial piston pump: normally used for very high pressure at small flows. Piston
pumps are more expensive than gear or vane pumps, but provide longer life operating at higher
pressure, with difficult fluids and longer continuous duty cycles. Piston pumps make up one half
of a hydrostatic transmission.

25
5.2.2 Control valves

5.2.2.1 Valve Body

The valve body is the control center of the automatic transmission. The valve body contains a
maze of channels and passages that direct hydraulic fluid to the numerous valves which then
activate the appropriate clutch pack or band servo to smoothly shift to the appropriate gear for
each driving situation. Each of the many valves in the valve body has a specific purpose and is
named for that function. For example the 2-3 shift valve activates the 2nd gear to 3rd gear up-
shift or the 3-2 shift timing valve which determines when a downshift should occur.
The most important valve and the one that you have direct control over is the manual valve. The
manual valve is directly connected to the gear shift handle and covers and uncovers various
passages depending on what position the gear shift is placed in. When you place the gear shift in
Drive, for instance, the manual valve directs fluid to the clutch pack(s) that activates 1st gear. it
also sets up to monitor vehicle speed and throttle position so that it can determine the optimal
time and the force for the 1 - 2 shift. On computer controlled transmissions, you will also have
electrical solenoids that are mounted in the valve body to direct fluid to the appropriate clutch
packs or bands under computer control to more precisely control shift points.

Fig 5.2.2.1 - control valves on a scissor lift

Directional control valves route the fluid to the desired actuator. They usually consist of a spool
inside a cast iron or steel housing. The spool slides to different positions in the housing, and
intersecting grooves and channels route the fluid based on the spool's position.

26
The spool has a central (neutral) position maintained with springs; in this position the supply
fluid is blocked, or returned to tank. Sliding the spool to one side routes the hydraulic fluid to an
actuator and provides a return path from the actuator to tank. When the spool is moved to the
opposite direction the supply and return paths are switched. When the spool is allowed to return
to neutral (center) position the actuator fluid paths are blocked, locking it in position.
Directional control valves are usually designed to be stackable, with one valve for each hydraulic
cylinder, and one fluid input supplying all the valves in the stack.
Tolerances are very tight in order to handle the high pressure and avoid leaking, spools typically
have a clearance with the housing of less than a thousandth of an inch (25 µm). The valve block
will be mounted to the machine's frame with a three point pattern to avoid distorting the valve
block and jamming the valve's sensitive components.
The spool position may be actuated by mechanical levers, hydraulic pilot pressure, or solenoids
which push the spool left or right. A seal allows part of the spool to protrude outside the housing,
where it is accessible to the actuator.
The main valve block is usually a stack of off the shelf directional control valves chosen by flow
capacity and performance. Some valves are designed to be proportional (flow rate proportional to
valve position), while others may be simply on-off. The control valve is one of the most
expensive and sensitive parts of a hydraulic circuit.
 Pressure relief valves are used in several places in hydraulic machinery; on the return
circuit to maintain a small amount of pressure for brakes, pilot lines, etc... On hydraulic
cylinders, to prevent overloading and hydraulic line/seal rupture. On the hydraulic
reservoir, to maintain a small positive pressure which excludes moisture and
contamination.
 Pressure regulators reduce the supply pressure of hydraulic fluids as needed for various
circuits.
 Sequence valves control the sequence of hydraulic circuits; to ensure that one hydraulic
cylinder is fully extended before another starts its stroke, for example.
 Shuttle valves provide a logical or function.

27
  Check valves are one-way valves, allowing an accumulator to charge and maintain its
pressure after the machine is turned off, for example.
 Pilot controlled Check valves are one-way valve that can be opened (for both directions)
by a foreign pressure signal. For instance if the load should not be held by the check
valve anymore. Often the foreign pressure comes from the other pipe that is connected to
the motor or cylinder.
 Counterbalance valves are in fact a special type of pilot controlled check valve. Whereas
the check valve is open or closed, the counterbalance valve acts a bit like a pilot
controlled flow control.
 Cartridge valves are in fact the inner part of a check valve; they are off the shelf
components with a standardized envelope, making them easy to populate a proprietary
valve block. They are available in many configurations; on/off, proportional, pressure
relief, etc. They generally screw into a valve block and are electrically controlled to
provide logic and automated functions.
 Hydraulic fuses are in-line safety devices designed to automatically seal off a hydraulic
line if pressure becomes too low, or safely vent fluid if pressure becomes too high.
 Auxiliary valves in complex hydraulic systems may have auxiliary valve blocks to handle
various duties unseen to the operator, such as accumulator charging, cooling fan
operation, air conditioning power, etc. They are usually custom valves designed for the
particular machine, and may consist of a metal block with ports and channels drilled.
Cartridge valves are threaded into the ports and may be electrically controlled by
switches or a microprocessor to route fluid power as needed.

5.2.2.2 Shift valves

To shift properly, the automatic transmission has to know how hard the engine is working. There
are two different ways that this is done. Some cars have a simple cable linkage connected to a

28
throttle valve in the transmission. The further the gas pedal is pressed, the more pressure is put

on the throttle valve. Other cars use a vacuum modulator to apply pressure to the throttle valve.
The modulator senses the manifold pressure, which increases when the engine is under a greater
load.

The manual valve is what the shift lever hooks up to. Depending on which gear is selected, the
manual valve feeds hydraulic circuits that inhibit certain gears. For instance, if the shift lever is
in third gear, it feeds a circuit that prevents overdrive from engaging.

Fig 5.2.2.2 - shift valve circuit

Shift valves supply hydraulic pressure to the clutches and bands to engage each gear. The valve
body of the transmission contains several shift valves. The shift valve determines when to shift
from one gear to the next. For instance, the 1 to 2 shift valve determines when to shift from first
to second gear. The shift valve is pressurized with fluid from the governor on one side, and the
throttle valve on the other. They are supplied with fluid by the pump, and they route that fluid to
one of two circuits to control which gear the car runs in.

29
The shift valve will delay a shift if the car is accelerating quickly. If the car accelerates gently,
the shift will occur at a lower speed. Let's discuss what happens when the car accelerates gently.

As car speed increases, the pressure from the governor builds. This forces the shift valve over
until the first gear circuit is closed, and the second gear circuit opens. Since the car is
accelerating at light throttle, the throttle valve does not apply much pressure against the shift
valve.

When the car accelerates quickly, the throttle valve applies more pressure against the shift valve.
This means that the pressure from the governor has to be higher (and therefore the vehicle speed
has to be faster) before the shift valve moves over far enough to engage second gear.

Each shift valve responds to a particular pressure range; so when the car is going faster, the 2-to-
3 shift valve will take over, because the pressure from the governor is high enough to trigger that
valve.

5.2.2.3 Bands
In this transmission there are two bands. The bands in a transmission are, literally, steel bands
that wrap around sections of the gear train and connect to the housing. They are actuated by
hydraulic cylinders inside the case of the transmission.

Fig 5.2.2.3 - One of the bands

30
  In the figure above, you can see one of the bands in the housing of the transmission. The
gear train is removed. The metal rod is connected to the piston, which actuates the band.

The pistons that actuate the bands are visible here.

Fig 5.2.2.3 - visible bands

Above you can see the two pistons that actuate the bands. Hydraulic pressure, routed into the
cylinder by a set of valves, causes the pistons to push on the bands, locking that part of the gear
train to the housing.

5.2.2.3 Actuators

 Hydraulic cylinder
 Swashplates are used in 'hydraulic motors' requiring highly accurate control and also in
'no stop' continuous (360°) precision positioning mechanisms. These are frequently
driven by several hydraulic pistons acting in sequence.
 Hydraulic motor (a pump plumbed in reverse)
 Hydrostatic transmission
 Brakes
 31
5.2.2.4 Reservoir
The hydraulic fluid reservoir holds excess hydraulic fluid to accommodate volume changes from:
cylinder extension and contraction, temperature driven expansion and contraction, and leaks. The
reservoir is also designed to aid in separation of air from the fluid and also work as a heat
accumulator to cover losses in the system when peak power is used. Design engineers are always
pressured to reduce the size of hydraulic reservoirs, while equipment operators always appreciate
larger reservoirs. Reservoirs can also help separate dirt and other particulate from the oil, as the
particulate will generally settle to the bottom of the tank. Some designs include dynamic flow
channels on the fluid's return path that allow for a smaller reservoir.

5.2.2.5 Accumulators
Accumulators are a common part of hydraulic machinery. Their function is to store energy by
using pressurized gas. One type is a tube with a floating piston. On one side of the piston is a
charge of pressurized gas, and on the other side is the fluid. Bladders are used in other designs.
Reservoirs store a system's fluid.
Examples of accumulator uses are backup power for steering or brakes, or to act as a shock
absorber for the hydraulic circuit.

5.2.3 Hydraulic fluid

Also known as tractor fluid, hydraulic fluid is the life of the hydraulic circuit. It is usually
petroleum oil with various additives. Some hydraulic machines require fire resistant fluids,
depending on their applications. In some factories where food is prepared, either an edible oil or
water is used as a working fluid for health and safety reasons.
In addition to transferring energy, hydraulic fluid needs to lubricate components, suspend
contaminants and metal filings for transport to the filter, and to function well to several hundred
degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius.
 32
5.2.4 Filters
Filters are an important part of hydraulic systems. Metal particles are continually produced by
mechanical components and need to be removed along with other contaminants.
Filters may be positioned in many locations. The filter may be located between the reservoir and
the pump intake. Blockage of the filter will cause cavitation and possibly failure of the pump.
Sometimes the filter is located between the pump and the control valves. This arrangement is
more expensive, since the filter housing is pressurized, but eliminates cavitation problems and
protects the control valve from pump failures. The third common filter location is just before the
return line enters the reservoir. This location is relatively insensitive to blockage and does not
require a pressurized housing, but contaminants that enter the reservoir from external sources are
not filtered until passing through the system at least once.

5.2.5 Tubes, pipes and hoses

Hydraulic tubes are seamless steel precision pipes, specially manufactured for hydraulics. The
tubes have standard sizes for different pressure ranges, with standard diameters up to 100 mm.
The tubes are supplied by manufacturers in lengths of 6 m, cleaned, oiled and plugged. The tubes
are interconnected by different types of flanges (especially for the larger sizes and pressures),
welding cones/nipples (with o-ring seal), several types of flare connection and by cut-rings. In
larger sizes, hydraulic pipes are used. Direct joining of tubes by welding is not acceptable since
the interior cannot be inspected.
Hydraulic pipe is used in case standard hydraulic tubes are not available. Generally these are
used for low pressure. They can be connected by threaded connections, but usually by welds.
Because of the larger diameters the pipe can usually be inspected internally after welding. Black
pipe is non-galvanized and suitable for welding.
Hydraulic hose is graded by pressure, temperature, and fluid compatibility. Hoses are used when
pipes or tubes can not be used, usually to provide flexibility for machine operation or
maintenance. The hose is built up with rubber and steel layers. A rubber interior is surrounded by
multiple layers of woven wire and rubber. The exterior is designed for abrasion resistance. The
 33
bend radius of hydraulic hose is carefully designed into the machine, since hose failures can be
deadly, and violating the hose's minimum bend radius will cause failure. Hydraulic hoses
generally have steel fittings swaged on the ends. The weakest part of the high pressure hose is
the connection of the hose to the fitting. Another disadvantage of hoses is the shorter life of
rubber which requires periodic replacement, usually at five to seven year intervals.
Tubes and pipes for hydraulic applications are internally oiled before the system is
commissioned. Usually steel piping is painted outside. Where flare and other couplings are used,
the paint is removed under the nut, and is a location where corrosion can begin. For this reason,
in marine applications most piping is stainless steel.

5.2.6 Seals, gasket, fittings and connection

An automatic transmission has many seals and gaskets to control the flow of hydraulic fluid and
to keep it from leaking out. There are two main external seals: the front seal and the rear seal.
The front seal seals the point where the torque converter mounts to the transmission case. This
seal allows fluid to freely move from the converter to the transmission but keeps the fluid from
leaking out. The rear seal keeps fluid from leaking past the output shaft.
A seal is usually made of neoprene (similar to the neoprene in a windshield wiper blade) and is
used to keep oil from leaking past a moving part such as a spinning shaft. In some cases, the
neoprene compound is assisted by a spring that holds the neoprene in close contact with the
spinning shaft.
A gasket is a type of seal used to seal two stationary parts that are fastened together. Some
common gasket materials are: paper, cork, rubber, silicone and soft metal.
Aside from the main seals, there are also a number of other seals and gaskets that vary from
transmission to transmission. A common example is the rubber O-ring that seals the shaft for the
shift control lever. This is the shaft that you move when you manipulate the gear shifter. Another
example that is common to most transmissions is the oil pan gasket. In fact, seals are required
anywhere that a device needs to pass through the transmission case with each one being a
potential source for leaks.

34
Components of a hydraulic system need connections that will contain and direct the hydraulic
fluid without leaking or losing the pressure that makes them work. In some cases, the
components can be made to bolt together with fluid paths built-in. In more cases, though, rigid
tubing or flexible hoses are used to direct the flow from one component to the next. Each
component has entry and exit points for the fluid involved (called ports) sized according to how
much fluid is expected to pass through it.
There are a number of standardized methods in use to attach the hose or tube to the component.
Some are intended for ease of use and service, others are better for higher system pressures or
control of leakage. The most common method, in general, is to provide in each component a
female-threaded port, on each hose or tube a female-threaded captive nut, and use a separate
adapter fitting with matching male threads to connect the two. This is functional, economical to
manufacture, and easy to service.

5.2.6.1 Fittings serve several purposes

 To join components with ports of different sizes.
 To bridge different standards; O-ring boss to JIC, or pipe threads to face seal, for
example.
 To allow proper orientation of components, a 90°, 45°, straight, or swivel fitting is
chosen as needed. They are designed to be positioned in the correct orientation and then
tightened.
 To incorporate bulkhead hardware to pass the fluid through an obstructing wall.
 A quick disconnect fitting may be added to a machine without modification of hoses or
valves
5.2.6.2 A typical piece of machinery or heavy equipment may have thousands
of sealed connection points and several different types

 Pipe fittings, the fitting is screwed in until tight, difficult to orient an angled fitting
correctly without over or under tightening.

35
 O-ring boss, the fitting is screwed into a boss and orientated as needed, an additional nut
tightens the fitting, washer and o-ring in place.

 Flare fittings, are metal to metal compression seals deformed with a cone nut and pressed
into a flare mating.

 Face seal, metal flanges with a groove and o-ring seal are fastened together.
 Beam seals are costly metal to metal seals used primarily in aircraft.

 Swaged seals, tubes are connected with fittings that are swaged permanently in place.
Primarily used in aircraft.

36
 Chapter 6
Torque converter
6.1 Introduction
In modern usage, a torque converter is generally a type of fluid coupling (but also being able to
multiply torque) that is used to transfer rotating power from a prime mover, such as an internal
combustion engine or electric motor, to a rotating driven load. The torque converter normally
takes the place of a mechanical clutch in a vehicle with an automatic transmission, allowing the
load to be separated from the power source. It is usually located between the engine's flexplate
and the transmission.

Fig 6.1 – Torque convertor

The key characteristic of a torque converter is its ability to multiply torque when there is a
substantial difference between input and output rotational speed, thus providing the equivalent of
a reduction gear. Some of these devices are also equipped with a temporary locking mechanism
which rigidly binds the engine to the transmission when their speeds are nearly equal, to avoid
slippage and a resulting loss of efficiency.
 37
6.2 Part of torque convertor
6.2.1 Impeller Pump – The impeller pump is the outside half of the converter on the
transmission side of the weld line. Inside the impeller pump is a series of longitudinal fins that
drive the fluid around the outside diameter into the turbine because this component is welded to
the cover, which is bolted to the flexplate. The size of the torque converter (and pump) and the
number and shape of the fins all affect the characteristics of the converter. If long torque
converter life is an objective, it is extremely important that the fins of the impeller pump are
adequately reinforced against fatigue and the outside housing does not distort under stress.

6.2.2 Stator – The stator can be described as the “brain” of the torque converter, although it is
not the sole determiner of converter function and characteristics. The stator, which changes fluid
flow between the turbine and pump, is what makes a torque converter a torque converter
(multiplier) and not strictly a fluid coupler. With the stator removed a converter will retain none
of its torque multiplying effect.

Fig 6.2.2 – Parts of convertor

 38

6.2.3 Turbine – The turbine rides within the cover and is attached to the drivetrain via a spline
fit to the input shaft of the transmission. When the turbine moves, the car moves.

6.2.4 Cover – The cover (also referred to as the front) is the outside half of the housing toward
the engine side from the weld line. The cover serves to attach the converter to the flexplate
(engine) and contains the fluid. While the cover is not actively involved in the characteristics of
performance, it is important that the cover remain rigid under stress (torsional and thrust stress as
well as the tremendous hydraulic pressure generated by the torque converter internally).
 39

Chapter 7

Governer

7.1 Introduction

A governor, or speed limiter, is a device used to measure and regulate the speed of a machine,
such as an engine. A classic example is the centrifugal governor, also known as the Watt or fly-
ball governor, which uses weights mounted on spring-loaded arms to determine how fast a shaft
is spinning, and then uses proportional control to regulate the shaft speed.

Fig 7.1 - Governor

 40
7.2 Working of governor
When load on the engine increases, its speed decreases, so it becomes necessary to increase the
supply of the working fluid (ex petrol or diesel) to the engine. On the other hand when the load
on the engine decreases, the governor’s speed increases, so it requires to decrease the supply of
the fuel.
When the speed of the governors increases, its sleeve moves in upward direction, which is
connected to a throttle valve through a bell crank lever. This upward motion of the sleeve
operates the valve to decrease the supply of the fuel. And when the speed of the governor
decreases due to the increase in the load, the sleeve move downward, this made the valve to open
to a larger extent and increases the fuel supply.
 41

Chapter 8
Propeller shaft or driven shaft
8.1 Introduction
A drive shaft, driveshaft, driving shaft, propeller shaft (prop shaft), or Cardan shaft is a
mechanical component for transmitting torque and rotation, usually used to connect other
components of a drive train that cannot be connected directly because of distance or the need to
allow for relative movement between them.
As torque carriers, drive shafts are subject to torsion and shear stress, equivalent to the difference
between the input torque and the load. They must therefore be strong enough to bear the stress,
whilst avoiding too much additional weight as that would in turn increase their inertia.
To allow for variations in the alignment and distance between the driving and driven
components, drive shafts frequently incorporate one or more universal joints, jaw couplings, or
rag joints, and sometimes a splined joint or prismatic joint.

Fig 8.1 – propeller shaft

 42
8.2 Automotive drive shaft
An automobile may use a longitudinal shaft to deliver power from an engine/transmission to the
other end of the vehicle before it goes to the wheels. A pair of short drive shafts is commonly
used to send power from a central differential, transmission, or transaxle to the wheels.

Fig 8.2 - A truck double propeller shaft

8.2.1 Front-engine, rear-wheel drive

In front-engined, rear-drive vehicles, a longer drive shaft is also required to send power the
length of the vehicle. Two forms dominate: The torque tube with a single universal joint and the
more common Hotchkiss drive with two or more joints. This system became known as Système
Panhard after the automobile company Panhard et Levassor patented it.
Most of these vehicles have a clutch and gearbox (or transmission) mounted directly on the
engine with a drive shaft leading to a final drive in the rear axle. When the vehicle is stationary,
the drive shaft does not rotate. A few, mostly sports, cars seeking improved weight balance
between front and rear, and most commonly Alfa Romeos or Porsche 924s, have instead used a
rear-mounted transaxle. This places the clutch and transmission at the rear of the car and the
drive shaft between them and the engine. In this case the drive shaft rotates continuously as long
as the engine does, even when the car is stationary and out of gear.
A drive shaft connecting a rear differential to a rear wheel may be called a half-shaft. The name
derives from the fact that two such shafts are required to form one rear axle.
 43
Early automobiles often used chain drive or belt drive mechanisms rather than a drive shaft.
Some used electrical generators and motors to transmit power to the wheels.

8.2.2 Front-wheel drive

In British English, the term "drive shaft" is restricted to a transverse shaft that transmits power to
the wheels, especially the front wheels. A drive shaft connecting the gearbox to a rear differential
is called a propeller shaft, or prop-shaft. A prop-shaft assembly consists of a propeller shaft, a
slip joint and one or more universal joints. Where the engine and axles are separated from each
other, as on four-wheel drive and rear-wheel drive vehicles, it is the propeller shaft that serves to
transmit the drive force generated by the engine to the axles.
Several different types of drive shaft are used in the automotive industry:
One-piece drive shaft
Two-piece drive shaft
Slip-in-tube drive shaft
The slip-in-tube drive shaft is a new type that improves crash safety. It can be compressed to
absorb energy in the event of a crash, so is also known as a collapsible drive shaft.

8.2.3 Four wheel and all-wheel drive

These evolved from the front-engine rear-wheel drive layout. A new form of transmission called
the transfer case was placed between transmission and final drives in both axles. This split the
drive to the two axles and may also have included reduction gears, a dog clutch or differential.
At least two drive shafts were used, one from the transfer case to each axle. In some larger
vehicles, the transfer box was centrally mounted and was itself driven by a short drive shaft. In
vehicles the size of a Land Rover, the drive shaft to the front axle is noticeably shorter and more
steeply articulated than the rear shaft, making it a more difficult engineering problem to build a
reliable drive shaft, and which may involve a more sophisticated form of universal joint.
Modern light cars with all-wheel drive (notably Audi or the Fiat Panda) may use a system that
more closely resembles a front-wheel drive layout. The transmission and final drive for the front
 44
axle are combined into one housing alongside the engine, and a single drive shaft runs the length
of the car to the rear axle. This is a favoured design where the torque is biased to the front wheels
to give car-like handling, or where the maker wishes to produce both four-wheel drive and front-
wheel drive cars with many shared components.

8.2.4 Drive shaft for Research and Development

The automotive industry also uses drive shafts at testing plants. At an engine test stand a drive
shaft is used to transfer a certain speed / torque from the Internal combustion engine to a
dynamometer. A "shaft guard" is used at a shaft connection to protect against contact with the
drive shaft and for detection of a shaft failure. At a transmission test stand a drive shaft connects
the prime mover with the transmission.

8.3 Advantages
 Drive system is less likely to become jammed, a common problem with chain-driven bicycles
 The rider cannot become dirtied from chain grease or injured by "Chain bite" when clothing
or a body part catches between an unguarded chain and a sprocket
 Lower maintenance than a chain system when the drive shaft is enclosed in a tube
 More consistent performance. Dynamic Bicycles claims that a drive shaft bicycle can deliver
94% efficiency, whereas a chain-driven bike can deliver anywhere from 75-97% efficiency
based on condition

8.4 Disadvantages
 A drive shaft system weighs more than a chain system, usually 1-2 pounds heavier
 Many of the advantages claimed by drive shaft's proponents can be achieved on a chain-
driven bicycle, such as covering the chain and gears
 Use of lightweight derailleur gears with a high number of ratios is impossible, although
hub gears can be used
 Wheel removal can be complicated in some designs
 45

Chapter 9
Universal joint
9.1 Introduction
Universal joints are capable of transmitting torque and rotational motion from one shaft to
another when their axes are inclined to each other by some angle, which may constantly vary
under working conditions.

Fig 9.1 - A universal joint

Universal joints are incorporated in the of vehicle’s transmission system to perform three basic
applications :

 Propeller shaft end joints between longitudinally front mounted gearbox and rear final
drive axle.
 Rear axle drive shaft end joints between the sprung final drive and the unsprung rear
wheel stub axle.
 Front axle drive shaft end joints between the sprung front mounted final drive and the
unsprung front wheel steered stub axle.
 46
9.2 Basic Types of Universal Joints Cross-type Joint

This type of joint is also called a Hooke-type coupling as it was developed from the joint
invented by Robert Hooke in the seventeenth century. This joint is commonly used today. The
joints represent the basic and developed forms respectively. They use two yokes set at 90 degrees
to each other and a cross-shaped trunnion block joins these yokes. In more developed joints like
Hardy Spicer type, contact between the two parts is made by needle roller bearings held in a
hardened steel cup retained in each arm of the yoke. For the alignment of the trunnion, the
bottom of the cup forms a contact with the end of the block.

Fig 9.2 - Types of universal joints.

 47

Hooke type joint

Rubber joint
Moulton joint
Layrub joint
Dough nut rubber joint

A special viscous oil, similar to that used in a final drive, is used for bearing lubrication, which is
contained in a reservoir formed by drilling out the centre of the trunnion arms. The oil is
introduced by a lubrication hippie or is prefilled once for entire life. An oil seal, retained on each
arm of the block, prevenjts the escape of the lubricant. The cups are held in the yoke either by
circlips or staking. The replacement of worm parts in the joint becomes more difficult due to
peening over the edge of the yokes to stake the cups. Therefore replacement of the complete
shaft assembly is recommended when the joint is worn. These joints offer several advantages
such as they (i) are compact, (ii) have high mechanical efficiency, (iii) have ability to drive
through a large occasional ‘bump’ angle (maximum about 25 degrees), and (iv) due to accurate
centring of shaft, are suitable for high speed operation. One major disadvantage of the cross-type
joint is its inadequate flexibility to absorb torsional shocks and drive-line vibrations, especially
when a comparatively rigid transmission system is used.
Lubrication failure, especially when a grease nipple in the trunnion block is missed, causes the
needle rollers to indent the bearing surfaces. This type of wear causes a slight angular movement
and produces a noise, commonly described as a clonk, during the change over from drive to
over-run and vice versa. If this fault is not rectified in time, the rate of wear accelerates leading
to misalignment and severe vibration.

9.2.1 Rubber Joints

A smoother and less harsh drive is obtained by incorporating one or more rubber joints in the
transmission driveline. Three types of rubber joints in use include moulton, layrub and doughnut.
 48

9.2.2 Moulton Joint

This rubber trunnion type joint is based on a hooke type coupling. It uses moulded rubber
bushings for the transmission of drive between the trunnion and yokes. These synthetic rubber
mouldings require no lubrication and due to high flexibility they damp the torsional shocks
produced when the drive is transmitted through an angle.
9.2.3 Layrub Joint

This type joint, originally made by the Laycock company, was constructed of a series of rubber
bushings. The name layrub is used to describe this joint. It uses a number of moulded rubber
blocks, with specially shaped cavities at the ends. These blocks are sandwiched between two
steel pressings. Each shaft is connected by means of a fork to alternate rubber blocks. This
arrangement permits the rubber blocks to deform making the drive possible for transmission
through a small angle. Also the blocks accommodate small axial and angular movements for
shaft length alteration and torsional damping. This coupling is relatively large in diameter.

The layrub type joint offers several advantages, such as

 it does not require lubrication,

 it is capable of driving through bump angles up to about 15 degrees,
 it allows for axial movement, requiring no splining of the shaft,and
 its resilience damps shocks and insulates vehicle from transmission noise.

9.2.4 Doughnut Joint

Although large in size, the great flexibility of this joint provides soft cushioning. This absorbs
the majority of torsional shocks generated by the action of other joints or by vibration from either
the engine or road wheel. The synthetic rubber coupling is near-circular in shape and is moulded
around cylindrical steel inserts, which are bolted alternatively to the three-arm forks fixed to the
shafts. The merits of this coupling are similar to that of layrub joint.
 49
9.3 Speed Variation of a Hooke-type Joint due to Drive and Driven Shaft
Inclination

When a hooke-type coupling transmits a drive through an angle, the output shaft does not rotate
through 360 degrees at a constant speed. Instead the speed varies every 90 degrees of rotation,
and the rate of movement for one revolution is fast, slow, fast, slow This cyclic speed variation,
and its associated vibration, is insignificant when the drive angle is less than about 5 degrees, but
becomes much more intense as the angle is increased.
A simplified sketch of a Hooke’s joint is shown if Fig. 26.10, in which the driving shaft A is
connected to the arm YY of the central cross-piece through the driving yoke, and the remaining
arm, XX of the cross-piece connects to the driven shaft B through driven yoke. The driving yoke
lies in the vertical plane with its axis YY vertical, and the driven yoke lies in a plane inclined at
an angle 0 to the horizontal with its axis XX horizontal.
 Fig 9.3.1 - Speed variation with Hooke-type joints

50

Let the driving shaft is turned through an angle a so that the point Y moves to Yi as shown in end
view in. The point X moves about axis OB, through an angle 4> subtended by an arc Xd and it
moves in a vertical plane to point Xi through an elliptical path.

Fig 9.3.2 - Simplified diagram of a Hooke’s joint

Due to the above variation of the speed of the driven shaft for various positions of the driving
shaft, a single Hooke’s joint becomes unsuitable for the power transmission in automobiles. But
a constant velocity ratio can be obtained by the correct use of a double joint.
The acceleration of the driven shaft, as may be obtained by differentiating the equation for
velocity ratio with respect to time.

51

To achieve a constant speed output from the propeller shaft two Hooke-type couplings can be
mounted either back-to-back or positioned in a certain way at each end of the propeller shaft. In
both the configurations the relative positions of each coupling must be such that the speed

Fig 9.3.3 - Phasing of Hooke-type couplings.

change of one coupling is counteracted by the other. The phasing of Hooke-type couplings, as
applied to two separate driveline layouts, is illustrated in.
From this diagram it can be seen that to obtain a constant speed,
(i) yokes at each end of the propeller shaft must be placed in the same plane, and
(ii) drive angle of each coupling must be equal.
A constant velocity (CV) joint imply that when two shafts are inclined to one another at some
angle and are coupled together by some sort of joint, then a uniform input speed transmitted to
the output shaft produces the same angular output speed throughout one revolution. There are no
angular acceleration and deceleration as the shafts rotate. Various CV joints in use have a
construction, which is based on either the twin hooke-type coupling arrangement or the angle
bisects principle.

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9.4 The CV joints in useinclude:
• Tracta
•Rzeppa
• Weiss
• Tripode

9.4.1 Tracta Constant Velocity Joint

The tracta constant velocity joints was invented by Fennille in France and was later
manufactured by Bendix Limited in England. In some respect these joints are similar in action to
a double Hooke’s type constant velocity joint. This type of joint incorporates two outer
yoke jaws members and two intermediate semispherical members. Each yoke jaw engages a
circular groove formed on the intermediate members. Both intermediate members are coupled
together in turn by a swivel tongue and grooved joint
 Fig 9.4.1 - Bendix tracta joint.

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A. Pictorial view

B. Exploded view.
C. Front wheel drive hub swivel pins and axle incorporating a tracta joint.
D. Plan view.

Relative motion between the outer jaw yokes and the intermediate spherical members is provided
by the yoke jaw, which is fitted into circular grooves formed in each intermediate member.
Relative movement between adjacent intermediate members takes place due to a double tongue
formed on one member slotting into a second circular groove, which is cut at right angles to the
jaw grooves. In normal position, both the outer yoke jaws are in alignment, but the central
tongue and groove part of the joint remains at right angles to them. When the input and output
shafts are inclined at some working angle to each other, the driving intermediate member
accelerates and decelerates during each revolution. Since the central tongue and groove joint are
a quarter of a revolution out of phase with the yoke jaws, the corresponding speed fluctuation of
the driven intermediate and output jaw members exactly counteract and neutralize the speed
variation of input half member. Thus the output speed change is identical to that of the input
drive, providing constant velocity rotation.
Since roiling motion takes place between members of this type of joint, friction losses are
slightly higher than for couplings. But, due to the large flat rubbing surfaces in contect the joint
has large torque transmitting capability. Although the size of these joints are fairly large
compared to other types of constant velocity joint arrangements, but these joints provide constant
velocity rotation at angles up to 50 degrees.

9.4.2 Rzeppa Joint

A Ford engineer, Alfred Hans Rzeppa (pronounced sheppa) invented one of the first practical
constant velocity joints in 1926. This joint was able to transmit torque over a wide range of
angles. An improved version of the joint was patented by Rzeppa in 1935. This version uses six
balls as intermediate members, which are kept at all times in a plane bisecting the angle between
the input and output shafts. A controlled guide ball cage is incorporated, which maintains the
balls in the bisecting plane (or the median plane) by means of a pivoting control strut, which
swivels the cage at the correct angle.
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This control strut is located in the centre of the enclosed end of the outer cup member. Both ball
ends of the strut are positioned in a recess and socket formed in the adjacent ends of the driving
and driven members of the joint respectively. A large spherical waist approximately midway
along the strut aligns with a hole made in the centre of the cage. Any angular inclination of the
two shafts at any instant deflects the strut, which in turn proportionally swivels the control ball
cage at half the relative angular movement of both shafts. This method of cage control has a
tendency to jam and, therefore, suffers from mechanical wear.

Fig 9.4.2 - Early Rzeppa constant velocity joint

9.4.2.1 Birfield Joint

The Birfield joint, manufactured by Hardy Spicer Limited, is based on the Rzeppa principle. In
this construction the joint’s performance has been improved further by incorporating converging
ball tracks, which do not rely on a controlled ball cage to maintain the intermediate ball members
on the median plane This Joint uses an inner (ball) input member driving an outer (cup) member.
Torque is transmitted from the input to the output member again by six intermediate ball

55

members, which fit into curved rack grooves formed in both the cup and spherical members.
Articulation of the joint takes place due to rolling of the balls in between the inner and outer
pairs of curved grooves. Constant velocity conditions are achieved by an intermediate
member, formed by a ring of six balls placed in the median plane of the shape of the curved ball
tracks generated in both the input and output joint members.

Fig 9.4.2.1(a) - Birfield. Rzeppa type constant velocity joint.

A. Side and end view.

B. With 30 degrees shaft angularity.
In order to obtain a controlled movement of the intermediate balls, the tracks (grooves) are
formed on semicircles in both halves, inner and outer members. The centres are on either side of
the joint’s geometric centre by an equal distance. Once the inner member aligns inside the outer
one, the six matching pairs of tracks from grooved tunnels in which the balls are sandwiched.
The inner and outer track arc offset centre from the geometric joint centre is so chosen to give an
angle of convergence marginally larger than 11.
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\

Fig 9.4.2.1(b) - Birfield Rzeppa type joint showing ball track convergence

9.4.3 Carl Weiss Constant Velocity Joint

A successful constant velocity joint was invented and patented by Carl W. Weiss of New York,
USA, in 1925. Subsequently, the Bendix Products Corporation developed the Weiss constant
velocity principle further and manufactured this design of joint.
 fig 9.4.3(a) - Pictorial view of bendix weiss constant velocity type joint

57

This type of time constant velocity joint incorporates double prong (arm) yokes, mounted on the
ends of the two driving shafts. Four (either curved or straight) ball track grooves are ground
inside each prong member. Each yoke arm of one member is assembled in between the prong of
the other member and four balls located in adjacent grooved tracks transmit the drive from one
yoke member to the other. The intersection of each matching pair of grooves maintains the balls
in a bisecting plane created between the two shafts, even when one shaft is inclined to the other.
Some joint models depending upon application use a fifth centralizing ball in between the two
yokes.

Fig 9.4.3(b) - Carl Wiess type joint (side and end view).
 Fig 9.4.3(c) - Principle of Bendix Wiess constant velocity type joint.

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9.4.3.1 Carl Weiss Constant Velocity Principle

The geometric construction of the upper half of the joint is considered. The ball track curvatures
on the left and right hand yokes are represented by circular arcs with radius r and centres of
curvature L and R on their respective shaft axes when both shafts are in line. The centre of the
joint is at point O and the intersection of both the ball track arc centres occur at point P. Triangle
LOP equals triangle ROP with sides LP and RP being equal to the radius of curvature. The offset
of the, centres of track curvature from the joint centre are LO and RO, therefore sides LP and RP
are also equal. Now, angles LOP and ROP are two right angles and their sum equals to the angle
LOR, i.e. 180 degrees. Hence point P lies on a perpendicular plane, which intersects the centre of
the joint. This plane is known as the median (homo-kinetic) plane.
 Fig 9.4.3.1 - Geometry of Carl Weiss type joint.

If the right hand shaft is now swivelled to produce a working angle 8, its new centre of track
curvature becomes R’ and the intersection point of both yoke ball track curvatures is now P’
Therefore triangle LOP’ and ROP’ are equal since both share the same bisecting plane of the left

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and right hand shafts. Thus sides LP’ and RP’ are also equal to the track radius of curvature r and
that the offset of the centres of OR’ and OR are equal to LO. Consequently, angle LOP equals
angle R’OP’ and the sum of the angles LOP’ and R’OP’ equals angle LOR’ which is (180 – 9).
Therefore angle LOP equals angle ROP, which is (180 – 9)/2. Since P’ bisects the angle made
between the left and right hand shaft axes it must lay on the median (homo-kinetic) plane.
The angle produced by the ball track curvature intersecting point line projected to the centre of
the joint is always half the working angle 0 made between the two shaft axes and fixes the
position of the driving balls. The geometry of the intersecting circular arcs therefore forces the
balls to be in the median (homo-kinetic) plane at any instant.

9.4.4 Tripode (Tripot) Type CV Joint

This joint is compact and as it can operate efficiently at high speed, it is more common in
vehicles. The joint provides good resistance to high-speed centrifugal effects. The design of this
joint, and manufacturing with the reduced working clearances provide a transmission drive line
with good noise-vibration harshness (NVH) performance. The construction illustrated in
incorporates three armed support (tripode) carrying the spherically shaped rollers, fixed to the
outer housing. On both sides of each driving fork, which also has three arms, grooves are cut to
form a bearing track for the rollers.
The force exerted by the side of the driving fork on the rollers produces the drive through the
joint. This force is transmitted to the tripode and joint housing. Changes in the drive angle causes
the roller to move backwards and forwards along the grooved track as the joint rotates through
one revolution. A small clearance is given between the roller and track to permit this movement.
The tripode joint provides constant velocity motion because of the path taken by the rollers with
respect to the contact point on the track. This type of fixed joint can work occasionally up to a
drive angle of about 45 degrees

60

Fig 9.4.4 - Tripot CV joint

9.5 Double Hooke’s Type CV Joint

One method of obtaining very near constant velocity characteristics is to position two Hooke’s
joints back to back so that their yoke arms remain in line with one another
 Fig 9.5 (a) - Double Hooke’s type constant velocity joint

After assembly, both pairs of outer yoke arms must be at right angles to the arms of the central
double yoke member. This double joint combination can be considered in two stages. The first
stage hinges the drive yoke and driven central double yoke together, and the second stage links
the central double yoke (now drive member) to the driven final output yoke. Consequently, the
second stage drive half of the central double yoke is placed a quarter of a revolution out of phase
with the first stage drive yoke
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Fig 9.5 (b) - Double Hooke’s type joint shown in two positions 90 degrees out of phase
Therefore, if the input and output shafts are inclined to each other and the first stage driven
central double yoke is speeding up, then the second stage driven output yoke slows down. On the
other hand when the first stage driven member reduces its speed the second stage driven member
increases its speed. The speed lost or gained by one half of the joint equals that gained or lost by
the second half of the joint respectively. As a result no cyclic speed fluctuation occurs between
input and output shafts during rotation.
This double joint incorporates a centring device normally of the ball and socket spring loaded
type. This device maintains equal angularity of both the input and output shafts relative to the
central double yoke member. Although this is a difficult task to execute due to the high end loads
experienced by the sliding splined joint of the drive shaft, but the accuracy of centralizing the
double yokes is not critical at the normal relatively low drive shaft speeds.
This double Hooke’s joint is specifically suitable for heavy duty vehicles with rigid front wheel
drive live axle requiring large lock to lock wheel swivel. This type of joint is relatively large in
size compared to its torque transmitting capacity. This forms a major limitation with this joint.

9.5.1 Velocity Ratio

Double hooke’s joint connects driving shaft A and driven shaft B which are parallel but lie in
different axis through an intermediate shaft C. The yokes of shaft A and B lie in the same plane

62
and the two yokes of shaft C also lie in another plane. The correct positioning of the yokes
specially those on the intermediate shaft is essential to keep the angles same for both joints and
thus to obtain constant velocity ratio.
Fig 9.5.1 - Simplified diagram of a double Hooke’s joint

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Chapter 10

Differential

10.1 Introduction
A differential is a particular type of simple planetary gear train that has the property that the
angular velocity of its carrier is the average of the angular velocities of its sun and annular gears.
This is accomplished by packaging the gear train so it has a fixed carrier train ratio R = -1, which
means the gears corresponding to the sun and annular gears are the same size. This can be done
by engaging the planet gears of two identical and coaxial epicyclic gear trains to form a spur
gear differential. Another approach is to use bevel gears for the sun and annular gears and a
bevel gear as the planet, which is known as a bevel gear differential.

Fig 10.1 - Differential

10.2 Why differential is used

In automobiles and other wheeled vehicles, the differential allows the outer drive wheel to rotate
faster than the inner drive wheel during a turn. This is necessary when the vehicle turns, making

64

the wheel that is traveling around the outside of the turning curve roll farther and faster than the
other. The average of the rotational speed of the two driving wheels equals the input rotational
speed of the drive shaft. An increase in the speed of one wheel is balanced by a decrease in the
speed of the other.

Wheels receive power from the engine via a drive shaft. The power receiving wheels which
make the vehicle move forward are called as the drive wheels. The main function of the
differential gear is to allow the drive wheels to turn at different rpm, while receiving power from
the engine.

Fig 10.2(a) - Power from the engine is flowed to the wheels via a drive shaft

Consider these wheels which are negotiating a turn. It is clear that the left wheel has to travel
more distance compared to the right wheel.

65
Fig(b) - While taking a right turn the left wheel has to travel more distance; this means more
speed to left wheel

This means the left wheel has to rotate at a higher speed compared to the right wheel. If these
wheels were connected using a solid shaft, the wheels would have to slip to accomplish the turn.
This is exactly where a differential comes. The ingenious mechanism in a differential allows left
and right wheels to turn at different rpm, while transferring power to both the wheels.

10.3 Parts of a Differential

We will learn how the differential achieves this in a step by step manner using its simplest
configuration. Power from the engine is transferred to the ring gear through a pinion gear. The
ring gear is connected to a spider gear.

Fig 10.3(a) - Motion from the pinion gear is transferred to the spider gear

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The spider gear lies at the heart of the differential and special mention should be made about its
rotation. Spider gear is free to make 2 kinds of rotations, one along with the ring gear ( rotation)
and second on its own axis(spin).
 Fig10.3(b) - Spider gear is free to make 2 kinds of rotations

The spider gear is meshed with 2 side gears. You can note that both the spider and side gears are
bevel gears. Power flow from the drive shaft to the drive wheels follows the following pattern.
From the drive shaft power is transferred to the pinion gear first, since the pinion and ring gear
are meshed, power flows to the ring gear. As the spider gear is connected with the ring gear,
power flows to it. Finally from the spider gear, power gets transferred to both the side gears.

Fig10.3(c) - The basic components of a standard differential

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10.4 Differential Operation

Now let’s see how the differential manages to rotate the side gears (drive wheels) at different
speeds as demanded by different driving scenarios.
10.4.1 The vehicle moves straight

In this case the spider gear rotates along with the ring gear but does not rotate on its own axis. So
the spider gear will push and make the side gears turn, and both will turn at the same speed. In
short, when the vehicle moves straight, spider- side gear assembly will move as a single solid
unit.

Fig 10.4.1 - While the vehicle moves straight, the spider gear does not spin; it
pushes and rotate the side gears

10.4.2 Vehicle takes a right turn

Now consider the case when the vehicle is taking a right turn. The spider gear plays a pivotal
role in this case. Along with the rotation of the ring gear it rotates on its own axis. So the spider
gear is having a combined rotation. The effect of combined rotation on the side gear is
interesting.

68
 Fig 10.4.2 - To get peripheral velocity at left and right side of spider gear we have to
consider both rotation and spin of it
When properly meshed, the side gear has to have the same peripheral velocity as that of the
spider gear. Technically speaking, both the gears should have the same pitch line velocity. When
the spider gear is spinning as well as rotating, peripheral velocity at the left side of spider gear is
the sum of the spinning and rotational velocity. But at the right side, it is the difference of the
two, since the spin velocity is in the opposite direction at this side. This fact is clearly depicted in
This means the left side gear will have higher speed compared to the right side gear. This is the
way the differential manages to turn left and right wheels at different speeds.

10.4.3 Vehicle takes a left turn

While taking a left turn the right wheel should rotate at a higher speed. By comparing with the
previous case it is clear that if the spider gear spins in the opposite direction, the right side gear
will have a higher speed.

Fig 10.4.3 - While taking left turn the spider gear spins in opposite direction
69
10.5 Other functions of the Differential
Apart from allowing the wheels to rotate at different rpm differential has 2 more functions. First
is speed reduction at the pinion-ring gear assembly. This is achieved by using a ring gear which
is having almost 4 to 5 times number of teeth as that of the pinion gear. Such huge gear ratio will
bring down the speed of the ring gear in the same ratio. Since the power flow at the pinion and
ring gear are the same, such a speed reduction will result in a high torque multiplication.
You can also note one specialty of the ring gear, they are hypoid gears. Hypoid gears have more
contact area compared to the other gear pairs and will make sure that the gear operation is
smooth. The other function of the differential is to turn the power flow direction by 90 degree.

10.6 Use of more Spider gears

In order to carry load one more spider gear is usually added. You can note that the spider gears
should spin in opposite directions to have the proper gear motion. Four spider gear arrangement
is also used for heavy load vehicles. In such cases, the spider gears are connected to ends of a
cross bar, and the spider gears are free to spin independently.

Fig 10.6 - Double spider gear arrangement is usually used to carry more loads

70
10.7 Drawback of a Standard Differential
The differential we have gone through so far is known as open or standard differential. It is
capable of turning the wheels at different rpm, but it has got one major drawback. Consider a
situation where one wheel of the vehicle is on a surface with good traction and the other wheel
on a slippery track.

Fig 10.7 - A standard differential vehicle on different traction surfaces will not be able to move

In this case a standard differential will send the majority of the power to the slippery wheel, so
the vehicle won’t be able to move. To overcome this problem, Limited Slip Differentials are
introduced. We will learn more about them in a separate article.

71
 Chapter 11
Automatic transmission modes
11.1 Introduction
Most automatic transmissions offer the driver a certain amount of manual control over the
transmission's shifts.
Conventionally, in order to select the transmission operating mode, the driver moves a selection
lever located either on the steering column or on the floor (as with a manual on the floor, except
that most automatic selectors on the floor do not move in the same type of pattern as a manual
lever; most automatic levers only move vertically). In order to select modes, or to manually
select specific gear ratios, the driver must push a button in (called the shift lock button) or pull
the handle (only on column mounted shifters) out. Some vehicles position selector buttons for
each mode on the cockpit instead, freeing up space on the central console.
Vehicles conforming to US Government standards must have the modes ordered P-R-N-D-L (left
to right, top to bottom, or clockwise). Previously, quadrant-selected automatic transmissions
often used a P-N-D-L-R layout, or similar. Such a pattern led to a number of deaths and injuries
owing to driver error causing unintentional gear selection, as well as the danger of having a
selector (when worn) jump into Reverse from Low gear during engine braking maneuvers.

Fig 11.1 - A floor selection lever in a 1992 Ford Escort showing the P-R-N-[D]-D-L modes as
well as the shift lock button on the top of the lever

72
11.2 Depending on the model and make of the transmission, these controls can take several
forms. However most include the following:

11.2.1 Park (P)

This selection mechanically locks the output shaft of transmission, restricting the vehicle from
moving in any direction. A parking pawl prevents the transmission from rotating, and therefore
the vehicle from moving. However, it should be noted that the vehicle's non-driven wheels are
still free to rotate, and the driven wheels may still rotate individually (because of the
differential). For this reason, it is recommended to use the hand brake (parking brake) because
this actually locks (in most cases) the wheels and prevents them from moving.
It is typical of front-wheel-drive vehicles for the parking brake to lock the rear (non-driving)
wheels, so use of both the parking brake and the transmission park lock provides the greatest
security against unintended movement on slopes. This also increases the life of the transmission
and the park pin mechanism, because parking on an incline with the transmission in park without
the parking brake engaged will cause undue stress on the parking pin, and may even prevent the
pin from releasing. A hand brake should also prevent the car from moving if a worn selector
accidentally drops into reverse gear while idling.
A car should be allowed to come to a complete stop before setting the transmission into park to
prevent damage. Usually, Park (P) is one of only two selections in which the car's engine can be
started, the other being Neutral (N). This is typically achieved via a normally open inhibitor
switch (sometimes called a "neutral safety switch") wired in series with the starter motor
engagement circuit, which is closed when P or N is selected, completing the circuit (when the
key is turned to the start position). In many modern cars and trucks, the driver must have the foot
brake applied before the transmission can be taken out of park. The Park position is omitted on
buses/coaches (and some road tractors) with automatic transmission (on which a parking pawl is
not practical), which must instead be placed in neutral with the air-operated parking brakes set.

73
11.2.2 Reverse (R)
This engages reverse gear within the transmission, permitting the vehicle to be driven backward,
and operates a switch to turn on the white backup lights for improved visibility (the switch may
also activate a beeper on delivery trucks or other large vehicles to audibly warn other drivers and
nearby pedestrians of the driver's reverse movement). To select reverse in most transmissions,
the driver must come to a complete stop, depress the shift lock button (or move the shift lever
toward the driver in a column shifter, or move the shifter sideways along a notched channel in a
console shifter) and select reverse. Not coming to a complete stop may cause severe damage to
the transmission. Some modern automatic transmissions have a safety mechanism in place, which
does, to some extent, prevent (but not completely avoid) inadvertently putting the car in reverse
when the vehicle is moving forward; such a mechanism may consist of a solenoid-controlled
physical barrier on either side of the Reverse position, electronically engaged by a switch on the
brake pedal. Therefore, the brake pedal needs to be depressed in order to allow the selection of
reverse. Some electronic transmissions prevent or delay engagement of reverse gear altogether
while the car is moving.
Some shifters with a shift button allow the driver to freely move the shifter from R to N or D
without actually depressing the button. However, the driver cannot shift back to R without
depressing the shift button, to prevent accidental shifting which could damage the transmission,
especially at high speeds.

11.2.3 Neutral / No gear (N)

This disengages all gear trains within the transmission, effectively disconnecting the
transmission from the driven wheels, allowing the vehicle to coast freely under its own weight
and gain momentum without the motive force from the engine. Coasting in idle down long
grades (where law permits) should be avoided, though, as the transmission's lubrication pump is
driven by non-idle engine RPMs. Similarly, emergency towing with an automatic transmission in
neutral should be a last resort. Manufacturers understand emergency situations and list
limitations of towing a vehicle in neutral (usually not to exceed 55 mph and 50 miles). This is the
only other selection in which the vehicle's engine may be started.

74
11.2.4 Drive (D)

This position allows the transmission to engage the full range of available forward gear ratios,
allowing the vehicle to move forward and accelerate through its range of gears. The number of
gear ratios within the transmission depends on the model, but they initially ranged from three
(predominant before the 1990s), to four and five speeds (losing popularity to six-speed autos).
Six-speed automatic transmissions are probably the most common offering in cars and trucks
from 2010 in carmakers as Toyota, GM and Ford. However, seven-speed automatics are
becoming available in some high-performance production luxury cars (found in Mercedes 7G
gearbox, Infiniti), as are eight-speed autos in models from 2006 introduced by Aisin Seiki Co. in
Lexus, ZF and Hyundai Motor Company. From 2013 are available nine speeds transmissions
produced by ZF and Mercedes 9G.

Overdrive ('D', 'OD', or a boxed [D] or the absence of an illuminated 'O/D OFF')

This mode is used in some transmissions to allow early computer-controlled transmissions to

engage the automatic overdrive. In these transmissions, Drive (D) locks the automatic overdrive
off, but is identical otherwise. OD (Overdrive) in these cars is engaged under steady speeds or
low acceleration at approximately 35–45 mph (56–72 km/h). Under hard acceleration or below
35–45 mph (56–72 km/h), the transmission will automatically downshift. Other vehicles with
this selector (example light trucks) will not only disable up-shift to the overdrive gear, but keep
the remaining available gears continuously engaged to the engine for use of compression
braking. Verify the behavior of this switch and consider the benefits of reduced friction brake use
when city driving where speeds typically do not necessitate the overdrive gear.

Most automatic transmissions include some means of forcing a downshift (Throttle kickdown)
into the lowest possible gear ratio if the throttle pedal is fully depressed. In many older designs,
kickdown is accomplished by mechanically actuating a valve inside the transmission. Most
modern designs use a solenoid-operated valve that is triggered by a switch on the throttle linkage
or by the engine control unit (ECU) in response to an abrupt increase in engine power.

75
Mode selection allows the driver to choose between preset shifting programs. For example,
Economy mode saves fuel by upshifting at lower engine speeds, while Sport mode (aka "Power"
or "Performance") delays upshifting for maximum acceleration. Some transmission units also
have Winter mode, where higher gear ratios are chosen to keep revs as low as possible while on
slippery surfaces. The modes also change how the computer responds to throttle input.

Conventionally, automatic transmissions have selector positions that allow the driver to limit the
maximum ratio that the transmission may engage. On older transmissions, this was accomplished
by a mechanical lockout in the transmission valve body preventing an upshift until the lockout
was disengaged; on computer-controlled transmissions, the same effect is accomplished by
firmware. The transmission can still upshift and downshift automatically between the remaining
ratios: for example, in the 3 range, a transmission could shift from first to second to third, but not
into fourth or higher ratios. Some transmissions will still upshift automatically into the higher
ratio if the engine reaches its maximum permissible speed in the selected range.

11.2.5 Third (3)

This mode limits the transmission to the first three gear ratios, or sometimes locks the
transmission in third gear. This can be used to climb or going down hill. Some vehicles will
automatically shift up out of third gear in this mode if a certain revolutions per minute (RPM)
range is reached in order to prevent engine damage. This gear is also recommended while towing
a trailer.

11.2.6 Second (2 or S)

This mode limits the transmission to the first two gear ratios, or locks the transmission in second
gear on Ford, Kia, and Honda models. This can be used to drive in adverse conditions such as
snow and ice, as well as climbing or going down hills in winter. It is usually recommended to use
second gear for starting on snow and ice, and use of this position enables this with an automatic
transmission. Some vehicles will automatically shift up out of second gear in this mode if a
certain RPM range is reached in order to prevent engine damage.

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Although traditionally considered second gear, there are other names used. Chrysler models with
a three-speed automatic since the late 1980s have called this gear 3 while using the traditional
names for Drive and Low. Oldsmobile has called second gear as the 'Super' range — which was
first used on their 4-speed Hydramatic transmissions, although the use of this term continued
until the early 1980s when GM's Turbo Hydramatic automatic transmissions were standardized
by all of their divisions years after the 4-speed Hydramatic was discontinued.

Some automatics, particularly those fitted to larger capacity or high torque engines, either when
"2" is manually selected, or by engaging a winter mode, will start off in second gear instead of
first, and then not shift into a higher gear until returned to "D." Also note that as with most
American automatic transmissions, selecting "2" using the selection lever will not tell the
transmission to be in only 2nd gear; rather, it will simply limit the transmission to 2nd gear after
prolonging the duration of 1st gear through higher speeds than normal operation. The 2000–2002
Lincoln LS V8 (the five-speed automatic without manumatic capabilities, as opposed to the
optional sport package w/ manu-matic 5-speed) started in 2nd gear during most starts both in
winter and other seasons by selecting the "D5" transmission selection notch in the shiftgate (for
fuel savings), whereas "D4" would always start in 1st gear. This is done to reduce torque
multiplication when proceeding forward from a standstill in conditions where traction was
limited — on snow- or ice-covered roads, for example.

11.2.7 First (1 or L [Low])

This mode locks the transmission in first gear only. In older vehicles, it will not change to any
other gear range. Some vehicles will automatically shift up out of first gear in this mode if a
certain RPM range is reached in order to prevent engine damage. This, like second, can be used
during the winter season, for towing, or for downhill driving to increase the engine braking
effect.

11.3 Manual controls

Some transmissions have a mode in which the driver has full control of ratio changes (either by
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moving the selector, or through the use of buttons or paddles), completely overriding the
automated function of the hydraulic controller. Such control is particularly useful in cornering, to
avoid unwanted upshifts or downshifts that could compromise the vehicle's balance or traction.
"Manumatic" shifters, first popularized by Porsche in the 1990s under the trade name Tiptronic,
have become a popular option on sports cars and other performance vehicles. With the near-
universal prevalence of electronically controlled transmissions, they are comparatively simple
and inexpensive, requiring only software changes, and the provision of the actual manual
controls for the driver. The amount of true manual control provided is highly variable: some
systems will override the driver's selections under certain conditions, generally in the interest of
preventing engine damage. Since these gearboxes also have a throttle kickdown switch, it is
impossible to fully exploit the engine power at low to medium engine speed

11.4 Manufacturer Specific

As well as the above modes there are also other modes, dependent on the manufacturer and
model. Some examples include:

11.4.1 D5
In Hondas and Acuras equipped with five-speed automatic transmissions, this mode is used
commonly for highway use (as stated in the manual), and uses all five forward gears.
11.4.2 D4
This mode is also found in Honda and Acura four or five-speed automatics, and only uses the
first four gear ratios. According to the manual, it is used for stop-and-go traffic, such as city
driving.

11.4.3 D3 or 3
This mode is found in Honda, Acura, Volkswagen and Pontiac four-speed automatics and only
uses the first three gear ratios. According to the manual, it is used for stop-and-go traffic, such as
city driving.

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11.4.4 D2 and D1
These modes are found on older Ford transmissions (C6, etc.). In D1, all three gears are used,
whereas in D2 the car starts in second gear and upshifts to third.

11.4.5 S or Sport
This is commonly described as Sport mode. It operates in an identical manner as "D" mode,
except that the upshifts change much higher up the engine's rev range. This has the effect on
maximising all the available engine output, and therefore enhances the performance of the
vehicle, particularly during acceleration. This mode will also downchange much higher up the
rev range compared to "D" mode, maximising the effects of engine braking. This mode will have
a detrimental effect on fuel economy. Hyundai has a Norm/Power switch next to the gearshift for
this purpose on the Tiburon.
Some early GMs equipped with HYDRA-MATIC transmissions used (S) to indicate Second
gear, being the same as the 2 position on a Chrysler, shifting between only first and second gears.
This would have been recommended for use on steep grades, or slippery roads like dirt, or ice,
and limited to speeds under 40 mph. (L) was used in some early GMs to indicate (L)ow gear,
being the same as the 2 position on a Chrysler, locking the transmission into first gear. This
would have been recommended for use on steep grades, or slippery roads like dirt, or ice, and
limited to speeds under 15 mph.

11.4.6 + −, and M
This is for the Manual mode selection of gears in certain automatics, such as Porsche's, Honda's
Tiptronic and BMW, Kia's Steptronic. The M feature can also be found in Chrysler and General
Motors products such as the Dodge Magnum, Journey, and Pontiac G6, Mazda products such as
the Mazda 3, Mazda6, and the CX-7, as well as Toyota's Camry, Corolla, Fortuner, Previa and
Innova,the Korean car Kia products is Kia K3 (Forte/Cerato), Kia K5 (Optima), Kia K7
(Cadenza) and Luxury Kia K9 (Quoris). Mitsubishi and some Audi models (Audi TT),

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meanwhile do not have the M, and instead have the + and -, which is separated from the rest of
the shift modes; the same is true for some Peugeot products like Peugeot 206. Meanwhile, the
driver can shift up and down at will by toggling the (console mounted) shift lever similar to a
semi-automatic transmission. This mode may be engaged either through a selector/position or by
actually changing the gears (e.g., tipping the gear-down paddles mounted near the driver's fingers
on the steering wheel).

11.4.7 Winter (W)

In some Volvo, Mercedes-Benz, BMW and General Motors Europe models, a winter mode can
be engaged so that second gear is selected instead of first when pulling away from stationary, to
reduce the likelihood of loss of traction due to wheel spin on snow or ice. On GM cars, this was
D2 in the 1950s, and is Second Gear Start after 1990. On Ford, Kia, and Honda automatics, this
feature can be accessed by moving the gear selector to 2 to start, then taking your foot off the
accelerator while selecting D once the car is moving.

11.4.8 Brake (B)

A mode selectable on some Toyota models. In non-hybrid cars, this mode lets the engine do
compression braking, also known as engine braking, typically when encountering a steep
downhill. Instead of engaging the brakes, the engine in a non-hybrid car switches to a lower gear
and slows down the spinning tires. The engine holds the car back, instead of the brakes slowing
it down. GM called this ("hill retarder") and ("grade retarder") in the 1950s. For hybrid cars, this
mode converts the electric motor into a generator for the battery. It is not the same as
downshifting in a non-hybrid car, but it has the same effect in slowing the car without using the
brakes.
Some automatic transmissions modified or designed specifically for drag racing may also
incorporate a transmission brake, or "trans-brake," as part of a manual valve body. Activated by
electrical solenoid control, a trans-brake simultaneously engages the first and reverse gears,
locking the transmission and preventing the input shaft from turning. This allows the driver of
the car to raise the engine RPM against the resistance of the torque converter, then launch the car
by simply releasing the trans-brake switch.

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Transmission system shooting

 Leaking transmission fluid

 Slipping of transmission
 Damage transmission fluid
 Surging of transmission
 Gear problems
 Slipping out of fluid
 Erratic gear shifting
 Overheating of transmission

Automatic transmission (AT)

Advantages

 The only option for comfortable automatic shifting

 Cost issue mitigated by high volume manufacturing

Disadvantages

 Cost for development and manufacturing

 Fuel economy due to torque convertor
 Lack of control by driver

Modern improvement

 Better control algorithms

 Torque convertor lock up

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