RUHR-UNIVERSITÄT BOCHUM

FAKULTÄT FÜR MASCHINENBAU

Institut: Product and Service Engineering

Schriftenreihe Heft 15.2

Peng Dong

Optimized Shift Control

in Automatic Transmissions with respect to
Spontaneity, Comfort, and Shift Loads

Lehrstuhl für
Industrie- und Fahrzeugantriebstechnik
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Peter Tenberge
RUHR-UNIVERSITÄT BOCHUM

FAKULTÄT FÜR MASCHINENBAU

Institut: Product and Service Engineering

Schriftenreihe Heft 15.2

Peng Dong

Optimized Shift Control

in Automatic Transmissions with respect to
Spontaneity, Comfort, and Shift Loads

Lehrstuhl für
Industrie- und Fahrzeugantriebstechnik
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Peter Tenberge
Optimized Shift Control in Automatic Transmissions
with respect to Spontaneity, Comfort, and Shift Loads

Dissertation

zur
Erlangung des Grades
Doktor-Ingenieur

der
Fakultät für Maschinenbau
der Ruhr-Universität Bochum

von

Peng Dong, M.Sc.

aus Yantai, China

Bochum 201η
Herausgeber:

Lehrstuhl für Industrie- und Fahrzeugantriebstechnik

Institut: Product and Service Engineering
Fakultät für Maschinenbau
Ruhr-Universität Bochum, 44780 Bochum

Dissertation:

Referent: Prof. Dr.-Ing. Peter Tenberge

Korreferent: Prof. Dr.-Ing. Xiangyang Xu

Tag der Einreichung: 06. Januar 2015

Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 06. März 2015

© 201η Institut: Product and Service Engineering

Ruhr-Universität Bochum
Alle Rechte vorbehalten

ISBN 3-89194-216-8
 Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements
This dissertation was written during my work as a Ph.D. student at the Chair of Industrial and
Automotive Drivetrains of Ruhr-University Bochum. I truly enjoy the time I spent here with
all the colleagues and friends. It is a big honor for me to work in such a great team in the past
three years.

I am deeply thankful to my Ph.D. father, Prof. Dr.-Ing. Peter Tenberge, who provides me with
this interesting research topic. His excellent supervision, consistent support and
encouragement, and many invaluable suggestions greatly help me throughout the research
work. I am also grateful to Prof. Dr.-Ing. Xiangyang Xu, who carefully took review of my
dissertation and contributed to it with a lot of good suggestions. I would like to thank Prof.
Dr.-Ing. Alexander Hartmaier for his interest in my research and for taking time to serve as the
chairman of my oral examination.

I would also like to thank all my colleagues from the Chair of Industrial and Automotive
Drivetrains and the colleagues from Chemnitz University of Technology. It’s my pleasure to
work with them in such a pleasant working atmosphere. The good communication and
discussion benefit me a lot in the creation of this dissertation.

I would like to express my gratitude to the industry partner Shengrui Transmission Co., Ltd.
President Xiangwu Liu and his team launched the 8AT successfully into the Chinese market in
2014. It is a remarkable achievement. I would like to thank all the engineers for good
communication and discussion. Especially, I will give my special thanks to Dr. Wei Guo for
his support of the test data.

I also thank the China Scholarship Council for providing me with the financial support during
my study in Germany.

Finally, I am deeply indebted to my parents and my girlfriend. Without their selfless support,
deep love, and great patience, I cannot finish this dissertation.

Bochum, March 2015 Peng Dong

Acknowledgements
 Kurzfassung

Kurzfassung
Automatikgetriebe sind komplexe und hochintegrierte Elemente des Fahrzeugantriebsstrangs.
Mit dem Ziel die Kraftstoffeffizienz heutiger Fahrzeuge zu steigern, nimmt die Zahl der Gänge
und die Gesamtspreizung der Automatikgetriebe in den letzten Jahren stark zu. Das hat eine
Häufung der Schaltvorgänge im Betrieb zur Folge. Gleichzeitig steigt die Anforderung der
Kunden sowohl an den Komfort als auch die Spontanität der Schaltungen. Darüber hinaus
muss die Schaltqualität auch im Serienprodukt und über dessen gesamte Lebensdauer
sichergestellt werden. Die Verbesserung der Schaltqualität trotz der vorhandenen
Fertigungstoleranzen, Verschleiß und Alterung ist also eine der Hauptaufgaben der
Steuerungssoftwareentwicklung für automatisch schaltende Getriebe.

Um das dynamische Verhalten eines Automatikgetriebes während des Schaltvorgangs

untersuchen zu können wird ein Simulationsmodell eines Fahrzeugantriebsstrangs entwickelt.
Um die damit durchgeführten Schaltungen bewerten zu können, werden fünf objektive
Kriterien eingeführt. Diese sind quantitative Größen, die einen Vergleich verschiedener
Simulationen ermöglichen. Zwei verschiedene Regelstrategien werden untersucht: Eine
Steuerung mit offener Wirkungskette und eine Regelung mit Rückkopplung. Mit diesen
Regelstrategien werden Schaltvorgänge eines 8-Gang Automatikgetriebes simuliert, und die
Kernursachen identifiziert, die zu einer schlechten Schaltung führen. Gegenüber der Steuerung
weißt die Regelung weniger einzustellende Parameter auf und ist robuster gegenüber
Störungen.

Eine gute Regelstrategie ist nicht ausreichend um eine hohe Schaltqualität sicherzustellen, da
die eingesetzten Schaltelemente empfindlich auf Fertigungstoleranzen, Alterung und
Verschleiß reagieren. Daher wird deren Einfluss genauer untersucht und eine adaptive
Regelung, die einige dieser Einflüsse kompensiert, entwickelt. Auf Basis der Drehzahlverläufe
über der Zeit während eines Schaltvorgangs wird ein Adaptionsalgorithmus für den
Befüllvorgang des Hydraulikzylinders des zu schließenden Schaltelementes entworfen. In
Fahrversuchen wird gezeigt, dass mithilfe des entwickelten Adaptionsalgorithmus ein starker
Drehzahlabfall, ein Hochdrehen des Motors oder ein Verspannen des Getriebes, welches durch
eine schlechte Parametrierung hervorgerufen wird, beseitigt werden kann. Solche Maßnahmen
können also dazu beitragen die Schaltqualität über der Lebensdauer auf einem hohen Niveau
zu bewahren.
 Abstract

Abstract
Automatic transmissions are complicated and highly integrated gearboxes in the vehicle
powertrain. In order to improve fuel economy of the vehicle, automatic transmissions tend to
have more speeds and a big total ratio range in recent years. The number of shift operations
increases in the normal daily driving. People want to have a smoother and faster shift feeling
than before. In addition, shift quality is required to be consistent in mass production and with
mileage accumulation. Therefore, how to improve shift quality and how to cover the influence
of build-to-build variations and life-cycle variations are the key issues in the development of
transmission control software.

In this dissertation, a simulation model of the vehicle powertrain is developed. The dynamic
behaviour of the automatic transmission in the shifting process can be simulated through this
model. In order to evaluate the shift quality through simulation, five objective criteria are
proposed. They are quantitative indicators that can be calculated and compared between
different simulations. Two different kinds of control strategies, namely the open-loop control
strategy and the closed-loop control strategy are developed in the simulation model. The
shifting process of an 8-speed automatic transmission is simulated under the control of the
developed strategies. According to the simulation results, the key points which result in a bad
shift quality in both control strategies are identified and described. Compared with the open-
loop control strategy, the closed-loop control strategy has fewer calibration parameters and
improves the control robustness.

Only a good control strategy is not enough for the control of the shifting process. Shift quality
is easily affected by build-to-build variations in mass production and life-cycle variations with
mileage accumulation. The main influencing factors in build-to-build variations and life-cycle
variations are investigated in this dissertation. It is necessary to have the adaptive control in
the software to compensate for the tolerances of different transmission builds, the system
variations throughout the transmission service life, and the disturbances from the transmission
inside and outside. Some adaptive control methods which make use of the speed information
and the time information thus are proposed in this thesis. Based on these adaptive control
methods, an adaptive control strategy for the filling of the on-coming clutch is developed for
the 8-speed automatic transmission. Vehicle tests verify that this adaptive control strategy can
effectively eliminate the sharp speed drop, the engine flare, and the clutch tie-up in the shifting
process of power on upshift. Shift quality thus can be improved by the adaptive control.
 Table of Contents I

Table of Contents
1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Background and Motivation ..................................................................................... 2
1.2 Objectives of the Research ....................................................................................... 4
1.3 Overview of the Dissertation.................................................................................... 5
2 Basics ................................................................................................................... 9
2.1 Vehicle Transmissions .............................................................................................. 9
2.1.1 Manual Transmissions (MT) .......................................................................... 9
2.1.2 Automated Manual Transmissions (AMT) .................................................. 10
2.1.3 Automatic Transmissions (AT) .................................................................... 11
2.1.4 Dual Clutch Transmissions (DCT) ............................................................... 14
2.1.η Continuously Variable Transmissions (CVT) .............................................. 15
2.1.θ Hybrid Transmissions .................................................................................. 16
2.2 Multi-gear Systems ................................................................................................ 19
2.2.1 Transfer Gear Sets ........................................................................................ 19
2.2.2 Planetary Gear Sets ...................................................................................... 20
2.2.3 Calculation of Kinematics............................................................................ 21
2.2.4 Calculation of Kinetics ................................................................................ 23
2.3 Shifting Elements ................................................................................................... 27
2.3.1 Dog Clutches................................................................................................ 27
2.3.2 One-way Clutches ........................................................................................ 28
2.3.3 Brake Bands ................................................................................................. 29
2.3.4 Multi-plate Clutches and Brakes .................................................................. 30
2.3.4.1 Clutch Pack ..................................................................................... 31
2.3.4.2 Plate Carrier .................................................................................... 32
2.3.4.3 Piston, Chamber, and Seals ............................................................. 32
2.3.4.4 Return Springs................................................................................. 33
2.4 Electro-hydraulic Control Systems ........................................................................ 35
2.4.1 Electronic Control System ........................................................................... 35
2.4.2 Hydraulic Actuation System ........................................................................ 37
3 State of the Art .................................................................................................. 41
3.1 Review of Powertrain Modeling and Simulation ................................................... 41
3.2 Review of Shift Control in AT................................................................................ 45
4 Modeling of the Vehicle Powertrain ............................................................... 51
4.1 Modeling of the Combustion Engine ..................................................................... 52
II Table of Contents

4.2 Modeling of the Hydrodynamic Torque Converter ................................................ 53

4.3 Modeling of the Shifting Elements ........................................................................ 57
4.4 Modeling of the Transmission Kinetics and Kinematics........................................ 60
4.η Modeling of the Proportional Solenoid Valve ........................................................ 66
4.θ Modeling of the Driving Resistance....................................................................... 67
5 Shifting Process of the Clutch to Clutch Shifting .......................................... 71
η.1 Power on Upshift.................................................................................................... 74
η.2 Power on Downshift ............................................................................................... 77
η.3 Power off Upshift ................................................................................................... 80
η.4 Power off Downshift .............................................................................................. 82
η.η Pressure Profile of Different Shifting Types .......................................................... 85
6 Evaluation of the Shift Quality ....................................................................... 95
θ.1 Transmission Output Torque and Longitudinal Vehicle Acceleration .................... 98
θ.2 Vehicle Jerk .......................................................................................................... 100
θ.3 Shifting Time ........................................................................................................ 102
θ.4 Power Loss ........................................................................................................... 103
θ.η Friction Energy..................................................................................................... 104
7 The Open-loop Control Strategy .................................................................. 107
7.1 The Open-loop Control Strategy for Power on Upshift ....................................... 109
7.1.1 Phase 1-2 .................................................................................................... 110
7.1.2 Phase 2-3 .................................................................................................... 114
7.1.3 Phase 3-4 .................................................................................................... 122
7.1.4 Phase 4-5 .................................................................................................... 127
7.1.η Phase 5-6 .................................................................................................... 132
7.2 The Open-loop Control Strategy for Power off Downshift .................................. 134
7.3 The Open-loop Control Strategy for Power on Downshift .................................. 142
7.3.1 Phase 1-2 .................................................................................................... 144
7.3.2 Phase 2-3 .................................................................................................... 150
7.3.3 Phase 3-4 .................................................................................................... 154
7.3.4 Phase 4-5 .................................................................................................... 160
7.4 The Open-loop Control Strategy for Power off Upshift....................................... 162
8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy ................................................................ 169
8.1 The Closed-loop Control Strategy for Power on Upshift ..................................... 172
8.1.1 Phase 2-3 .................................................................................................... 173
8.1.2 Phase 3-4 .................................................................................................... 178
8.2 The Closed-loop Control Strategy for Power off Downshift ............................... 184
 Table of Contents III

8.3 The Closed-loop Control Strategy for Power on Downshift ................................ 186
8.3.1 Phase 1-2 .................................................................................................... 187
8.3.2 Phase 2-3 .................................................................................................... 191
8.4 The Closed-loop Control Strategy for Power off Upshift .................................... 194
9 Influence of Build-to-Build and Life-Cycle Variations ............................... 201
λ.1 Friction Coefficient .............................................................................................. 204
λ.2 Kiss-point Pressure............................................................................................... 210
λ.3 Tolerance of Solenoid........................................................................................... 212
λ.4 Pressure Loss and Response Delay ...................................................................... 218
λ.η Sampling Time ..................................................................................................... 221
10 Adaptive Control of the Gear Shifting ......................................................... 223
10.1 Adaptive Control for the Torque Phase ................................................................ 226
10.2 Adaptive Control for the Inertia Phase ................................................................. 231
10.3 Test Verification of the Developed Adaptive Control Strategy ............................ 237
11 Conclusions and Outlooks ............................................................................. 245
11.1 Conclusions of the Dissertation............................................................................ 245
11.2 Outlooks of Future Research Activities ............................................................... 248
12 Notation ........................................................................................................... 251
13 List of Abbreviations ...................................................................................... 259
14 References ....................................................................................................... 261
IV Table of Contents
 1 Introduction 1

1 Introduction
Vehicle transmissions play an important role in the automotive industry. Each vehicle needs a
transmission to match the engine speed and the engine torque with the vehicle speed and the
vehicle load. Figure 1.1 shows a big different characteristic between the wheel torque demand
and the internal combustion engine. From this figure it is easy to know why a transmission is
necessary for a vehicle.
(1)
4000
vmax
kph
Friction limit

3000 (2)
Engine torque [Nm]

Engine power [kW]

[Nm]
torque [Nm]
torque

2000
Wheel
Wheel

1000
(3)
Max. speed (4)
0
0 70 140 210

(a) Vehicle
Vehiclespeed [km/h]
s peed [km/h] (b) Engine speed [rpm]

Figure 1.1: (a) Demand of the maximum wheel torque;

(b) Engine map with specific fuel consumption [N1]

As shown in figure 1.1, the maximum engine torque is much smaller than the wheel torque
demand. On the contrary, the maximum engine speed is much bigger than the wheel rolling
speed (maximum 1700rpm for a passenger car with maximum driving speed 200km/h and tire
radius 0.316m). The transmission just links these so many different characteristics and makes
them to match each other:
(1) The transmission converts the maximum engine torque to the wheel torque using big speed
ratios for the requirements of the vehicle acceleration and climbing ability.
(2) The transmission keeps the engine operating points along the line of the minimum fuel
consumption when the vehicle is cruising on the highway.
(3) The vehicle achieves its maximum driving speed at the operating point of maximum
engine power through transmission.
(4) The vehicle can launch smoothly and run slowly in crowded traffic through transmission.
2 1 Introduction

In addition, the right graphic in figure 1.1 shows that the same power requirement of the
vehicle can be satisfied at different engine operating points (point and point in the
engine map). The available acceleration torque decreases with the arrow from the point to
the point . However, the point has a higher specific fuel consumption than the point .
Accordingly, the driver can achieve a high driving dynamic or a high driving economic at
different engine operating points by using transmission.

1.1 Background and Motivation

A trend towards increasing the number of transmission speed becomes apparent in recent years.
The first reason is the issue of global energy crisis and environment protection. It requires
more reduction in vehicle fuel consumption and exhaust emissions. The second reason is the
increasing demands for driving pleasure. Figure 1.2(a) shows that the output torque of internal
combustion engine can’t meet the demand of wheel torque without the transmission. The
shaded area takes up most parts of the traction hyperbola area and can’t be used by the vehicle.
Figure 1.2(b) shows that the proportion of the shaded area, i.e. the proportion of the
impossible driving states, is significantly smaller when a 4-speed transmission is used. The
high efficiency region of the engine can be better applied. In addition, increasing the number
of speed as much as possible gives a correspondingly better approximation to the traction
hyperbola [N1]. The driver can make use of the full engine power at any vehicle speed as he
wishes.

In manual transmissions, more speeds mean more shift operations of the driver. However,
transmissions with the function of automatic shifting can solve this issue and relax the driver
in a heavy traffic. The most common transmission type having such a function in passenger
cars is the automatic transmission. Automatic transmission is known as power shift
transmission which has no power interruption during the gear shifting. The key issue for the
application of automatic transmission is its shift quality. Drivers and passengers often
complain about the shift quality of automatic transmission because its shifting impact is more
perceptible to customers than the shifting impact of manual transmission. The reason can be
interpreted from the human psychology. When people drive in a vehicle with a manual
transmission, the gear shifting is carried out by the driver. People know when shift starts from
the actions of the driver and then have mental and body preparations for the upcoming shifting
impact in their subconscious. However, the sensors of human body are replaced by electronic
units in automatic transmissions. Driver and passengers don’t know when gear shifting
happens. As a result they will feel the shifting impact without mental and body preparations
and subjectively think it is an uncomfortable shift with a bad shift quality. Therefore, the
 1 Introduction 3

control of the shifting process in automatic transmissions must be more precise to satisfy the
customers and reduce their complaints about the shift quality. And this topic is always
concerned by both manufactures and customers of automatic transmissions.
Wheel torque

Available traction torque of

internal combustion engine

(a) Vehicle speed

Available traction torque

in the 2nd gear
Wheel torque

Driving resistance line

Traction torque required for 0% gradient

(b) Vehicle speed

Figure 1.2: (a) Comparison between the traction torque supply and the wheel torque
demand without a transmission; (b) Comparison between the traction torque supply and
the wheel torque demand with a 4-speed transmission [N1]

With the development of electronic and hydraulic control system, shift quality in automatic
transmissions has been much improved today. In a good control of the shifting process, drivers
and passengers can hardly feel any shifting impact. Even they don’t know the vehicle is
shifting. Meanwhile the shifting time is shortened to give the driver a good response for the
4 1 Introduction

power requirement. The driver now can experience the same driving pleasure as in the vehicle
with a manual transmission.

However, different builds of the same type of automatic transmission have different tolerances
in mass production; the wear of components will increase throughout the transmission life; the
vehicle will run in various environment conditions. These aspects greatly affect the control of
the shifting process and cause a big deviation of shift quality in different builds. As a
consequence, together with the increasing requirements for the shift quality, how to cover the
tolerances and how to keep the shift quality consistent throughout the transmission service life
are currently the key issues for the manufacturers of automatic transmissions.

1.2 Objectives of the Research

One objective of this dissertation is to develop a simulation model of the vehicle powertrain
for the dynamic simulation of the shifting process in automatic transmissions. This model
includes an internal combustion engine which outputs the torque to the transmission
depending on the rotational speed and the throttle opening degree. The detailed transmission
structure is defined in an Excel file which can be read into the simulation model. A
hydrodynamic torque converter with torsion damper system is considered in the simulation
model. At the output side of the transmission, a driving resistance model including the rolling
resistance, air resistance, climbing resistance and acceleration resistance is built up to simulate
the vehicle load during the gear shifting. For the control of the shifting process the pressure to
current characteristic of a proportional solenoid valve is used in the model. In order to
investigate the influence of different friction characteristics on the shift quality, the dynamic
friction coefficient as a function of the slipping speed of shifting element is introduced in the
powertrain model.

The focus of this thesis is the optimized control of the shifting process in automatic
transmissions. Hence the other objective of this thesis is to develop detailed control strategies
for different shifting types. The powertrain model is detailed enough to serve this investigation
and it permits to integrate specific control strategies for the shifting process. The key points
which affect the shift quality thus can be easily found through the simulation.

Two different control strategies are developed in this thesis. One is an open-loop control with a
lot of control parameters. The other uses a closed-loop control method which reduces the
number of parameters meanwhile improves the robustness of the control strategy. By adjusting
relative control parameters in the control strategies, the shifting process can be optimized with
respect to different shift modes (sport, normal, comfort). This adjustment can be used to guide
 1 Introduction 5

the transmission calibration work. Such a simulation model with detailed control strategies is
very helpful and achieves a good effect for the improvement of the shift quality.

This thesis also aims to investigate the influences of the tolerances and the mileage
accumulation on the shift quality. The shifting elements are electro-hydraulic actuated.
Therefore, the characteristics of proportional solenoid valves must be considered. In order to
eliminate the gap to clamp the clutch pack, the clutch pressure needs to overcome the friction
force of seals and return springs. The pressure response of a hydraulic system is greatly
influenced by the temperature. The sensors have measurement errors and the TCU has a
sampling time limited by its power. Furthermore the torque to pressure characteristic of
shifting elements greatly depends on the friction coefficient. All above factors influence the
shifting process and vary greatly in different builds of mass production. Even in the same
build these factors are always changing because of mileage accumulation and different driving
environment. An investigation for the main influencing factors is carried out in this thesis.
Obviously, in order to get a good shift quality and keep it consistent, the transmission control
software must have the adaptive control. Therefore, some adaptive control methods are
proposed in this thesis to compensate for the influence of the factors mentioned above. Based
on these adaptive control methods, an adaptive control strategy for the filling of the on-coming
clutch is developed for an 8-speed automatic transmission. Vehicle tests verify that this
adaptive control strategy can effectively eliminate the sharp speed drop, the engine flare, and
the clutch tie-up in the shifting process of power on upshift.

1.3 Overview of the Dissertation

Chapter 1 gives a general introduction of the research objectives and the research contents in
this thesis.

In chapter 2, corresponding basics of this research are introduced. This chapter starts with a
classification of the vehicle transmissions. Then the planetary gear sets and the transfer gear
sets are introduced in this chapter, including the kinematic and kinetic relationships of each
element in both gear systems. They are basics for a mathematical modeling of automatic
transmissions. The dynamic description of the shifting process is also based on them.
Moreover, shifting elements used in automatic transmissions, especially multi-plate clutches
and brakes are detailed explained. Since multi-plate clutches and brakes are electro-hydraulic
actuated, the “brain” and the “blood vessel” of automatic transmissions, namely the electronic
control system and the hydraulic actuation system, are also described in this chapter. These
two systems control the actions of automatic transmissions and determine the shift quality.
6 1 Introduction

Many researchers have studied the clutch to clutch shifting and have proposed different
control methods to improve the shift quality. Modeling and simulation are an efficient way and
have contributed a lot in the development of shift control strategies. A review of literatures is
given in chapter 3. This review includes the dynamic modeling of vehicle powertrains. In
addition, a summary of findings about the control of the shifting process in automatic
transmissions is also introduced in this chapter.

The powertrain model is discussed in chapter 4. It is a mathematical model developed in the

software Mathcad. Since the software Mathcad can read data from the Excel file, the
transmission structure and some characteristics are predefined in the Excel file as inputs. This
provides a possibility for the shifting simulation of different kinds of transmissions with only
few modifications to the simulation model. In addition to the structure definition, the modeling
of the combustion engine, the hydrodynamic torque converter, the shifting elements, and so on
are also described in this chapter.

There are four main shifting types in automatic transmissions, namely power on upshift,
power on downshift, power off upshift, and power off downshift. The basic theory and the
differences of the four shifting types are demonstrated in chapter 5. The shifting process of a
clutch to clutch shifting without one-way clutch makes use of a micro-slip control method.
The speed, torque, and pressure profiles of this micro-slip control method are introduced in
this chapter. The clutch to clutch shifting can mimic the operation of one-way clutch to
achieve the same good shift quality by applying this method.

Chapter 6 mainly talks about the evaluation of the shift quality. In order to assess a specific
gear shifting is good or bad, there should be some subjective and objective criteria. These
criteria will be discussed in this chapter.

Chapter 7 discusses the developed open-loop control strategies for the four basic shifting types.
The issues in the shifting process and how the open-loop control strategies deal with them are
explained based on the dynamic simulation results. From the simulation results, the key points
affecting the shift quality can be easily found in the control of the shifting process.

In chapter 8, the developed closed-loop control strategies for the four basic shifting types are
introduced. The control effect is also verified by the dynamic simulation results. The closed-
loop control strategy makes use of the clutch slip as the feedback information. Compared with
the open-loop control strategy, the closed-loop control strategy reduces the amount of the
calibration work and improves the control robustness of the shifting process.
 1 Introduction 7

In mass production, build-to-build variations and life-cycle variations have a big influence on
shift quality. The main factors are introduced in chapter 9. Through some test and simulation
results it can be seen the uncertainty of physical characteristics is the main reason for the
difficulties of keeping a consistent good shift quality.

Adaptive control can compensate for the influence of build-to-build variations and life-cycle
variations on shift quality. Some shift adaptations are introduced in chapter 10. These methods
evaluate shift quality according to the speed information and the time information. Meanwhile,
an adaptive control strategy for the filling of the on-coming clutch is developed for an 8-speed
automatic transmission. Vehicle tests verify that this adaptive control strategy can effectively
eliminate the sharp speed drop, the engine flare, and the clutch tie-up in power on upshift.
With the help of end-of-line test, the adaptive control could provide the shift quality of
automatic transmissions with a good consistency.

Finally, the work of this thesis and the outlooks of future research activities are summarized in
chapter 11.
8 1 Introduction
 2 Basics 9

2 Basics

2.1 Vehicle Transmissions

Transmissions for passenger cars and commercial vehicles are mainly divided into the
following six types:
(1) Manual transmissions (MT)ν
(2) Automated manual transmissions (AMT)ν
(3) Automatic transmissions (AT)ν
(4) Dual clutch transmissions (DCT)ν
(η) Continuously variable transmissions (CVT)ν
(θ) Hybrid transmissions.

This section will give a general overview of the six types of transmissions. The main
characteristics are distinguished and compared. Due to the research focus of this thesis, special
attention is paid to the shifting process in the comparison.

2.1.1 Manual Transmissions (MT)

Manual transmissions are composed of transfer gear sets, shift folks, synchronizers, and a
friction clutch. Different transfer gear sets realize different speed ratios. The shift forks and
synchronizers are used to change the power flow path through different transfer gear sets. The
friction clutch is for the power interruption between engine and transmission when launching
and shifting.

A large proportion of vehicles are equipped with manual transmissions. In particular manual
transmissions occupy most of the transmission markets in Europe. Manual transmissions have
lower price and lower maintenance cost. However, the shifting process in manual
transmissions has power interruption. And all shift operations need to be executed by the
driver. The complex shift operations make the driving boring especially in heavy city traffic.
The speed number of manual transmissions is limited in passenger cars because nobody wants
to shift all the time during driving.

Today manual transmissions also tend to have more speeds and a big total ratio range because
it can facilitate slow moving of vehicles in a traffic jam, provide a good acceleration
performance, and reduce fuel consumption at high cruising speed. The manual transmissions
of passenger cars usually have either five or six forward speeds. Figure 2.1 shows a 6-speed
manual transmission from Mercedes-Benz. It is designed for front transverse application. ZF
10 2 Basics

develops the first 7-speed manual transmission for passenger cars in the world as shown in
figure 2.2.

Figure 2.1: Mercedes-Benz 6-speed manual transmission [W1]

Figure 2.2: ZF 7-speed manual transmission [P1]

2.1.2 Automated Manual Transmissions (AMT)

Automated manual transmissions are just manual transmissions which the gear shifting is
automated. Automated manual transmissions also contain transfer gear sets, synchronizers and
 2 Basics 11

a friction clutch. Instead of driver actions, the engagement and disengagement of the friction
clutch, the operations of gear shifting are executed by actuators automatically. The foot-
activated clutch pedal and the manual activation of a shift lever are replaced and now
controlled by the transmission control unit. This simplifies complex shift operations and thus
relieves driver stress. However like manual transmissions, automated manual transmissions
also have power interruption in the shifting process according to the principle of the design. As
a result driver and passengers will feel less comfortable during the gear shifting compared
with automatic transmissions.

Automated manual transmissions are currently most common in commercial vehicles such as
heavy duty trucks because they have lower requirements for the shift quality but more speeds
for different driving conditions. In addition, automated manual transmissions have low cost
and high efficiency in the application of commercial vehicles compared with other type of
transmissions. Figure 2.3 shows an automated manual transmission of maximum 16 speeds
developed by ZF for heavy duty trucks.

Figure 2.3: ZF AS Tronic transmission for heavy trucks [R1]

2.1.3 Automatic Transmissions (AT)

Automatic transmissions mainly consist of a hydrodynamic torque converter, multi-gear

systems (planetary gear sets or transfer gear sets), shifting elements (multi-plate clutches and
brakes, brake bands, one-way clutches, dog clutches), and electro-hydraulic control system.
12 2 Basics

The hydrodynamic torque converter provides comfortable and safety vehicle launching in all
driving conditions. Due to power splitting in planetary gear sets and transfer gear sets,
automatic transmissions have a high torque capacity and a compact design. Through the
engagement of different shifting elements, automatic transmissions achieve different speed
ratios. The electro-hydraulic control system is just responsible for the ratio change and some
other functions like diagnostics, lubrication, etc.

Conventional automatic transmissions only use several coupled planetary gear sets in their
multi-gear systems. It is especially suitable for standard inline application. Figure 2.4 shows
such a type of transmission from Mercedes-Benz. It is a 9-speed automatic transmission in
mass production from 2013. For front transverse application conventional automatic
transmissions need one transfer gear set for the power flow from the input shaft to the counter
shaft. The possibilities of applying more transfer gear sets in the multi-gear systems have been
investigated and an excellent structure with three transfer gear sets, three planetary gear sets,
and five shifting elements (1 brake and 4 clutches) has been found [T1]. There are 8 forward
speeds and 1 reverse speed in this transmission. In each speed three shifting elements are
locked. Only two opening shifting elements create some little dragging losses. This
transmission, as shown in figure 2.5, is developed for front transverse application by Shengrui
Transmission Corporate Limited and is in mass production from 2014.

Figure 2.4: Mercedes-Benz 9-speed automatic transmission [D1]

 2 Basics 13

Figure 2.5: Shengrui 8-speed automatic transmission [T1]

Most space in automatic transmissions is occupied by shifting elements. Modern automatic

transmissions can shift with one shifting element being engaged while another is being
disengaged simultaneously, which is called “clutch to clutch shifting”. In the shifting process
the power flow is not interrupted but transferred from one shifting element to another.
Therefore, automatic transmissions have no power interruption during the gear shifting. Some
automatic transmissions have one-way clutches to help to improve the shift quality. With the
development of electro-hydraulic control, now this one-way clutch can be cancelled for a
compact design. As shown in figure 2.6, ZF has developed a 9-speed automatic transmission
for front transverse application in which two shifting elements are dog clutches. The dog
clutch saves more space but also requires a more precise control for the shifting process.

Figure 2.6: ZF 9-speed automatic transmission [E1]

14 2 Basics

2.1.4 Dual Clutch Transmissions (DCT)

Dual clutch transmissions combine the advantages of manual transmissions (high efficiency)
with those of automatic transmissions (power shifts). The principle of dual clutch
transmissions is based on the idea of two independent sub-gearboxes each connected to the
engine via its own friction clutch. One sub-gearbox carries the odd gears (1, 3, 5…) and the
other the even gears (2, 4, 6…) [N1]. In each sub-gearbox there are also transfer gear sets,
synchronizers, and shift forks like in the manual transmissions.

The shifting process of dual clutch transmissions has no power interruption. Before the
shifting, the synchronizer of the target gear is pre-selected in the respective sub-gearbox which
is disconnected from the engine. Then the gear shifting can be accomplished as clutch to
clutch shifting by torque delivery from one sub-gearbox to another, thereby retaining full
traction at the wheels [G1]. In principle, the control of the shifting process in dual clutch
transmissions is similar to automatic transmissions. However, dual clutch transmissions can’t
skip shift without power interruption regarding the speeds in the same sub-gearbox (i.e. from
the 1st to the 3rd or from the 2nd to the 4th).

The first dual clutch transmission for passenger cars, as shown in figure 2.7, went into
production in 2003. It is a 6-speed transmission from Volkswagen with wet clutches from
BorgWarner. Dual clutch transmissions can be equipped with wet clutches or dry clutches
according to the design. Compared with wet clutches, dry clutches are relative higher in
efficiency but have a lower torque capacity.

Figure 2.7: VW 6-speed dual clutch transmission [S1]

 2 Basics 15

2.1.5 Continuously Variable Transmissions (CVT)

The speed ratio in continuously variable transmissions can be continuously varied without
interrupting the power flow. Therefore the shifting process in continuously variable
transmissions is very smooth and comfortable. In combination with a good integrated
powertrain control, the engine can always run at an ideal operating point for good fuel
economy or good driving performance.

There are two kinds of continuously variable transmissions for passenger cars. One uses pulley
drive, namely a chain (Figure 2.8) or a belt (Figure 2.9). The other uses friction gear such as
the toroidal variator. Friction gear transmissions have a higher torque capacity than pulley
transmissions. But its high cost is a barrier for friction gear transmissions to enter the market.

Figure 2.8: Audi continuously variable transmission with chain [N2]

Figure 2.9: Jatco continuously variable transmission with belt [Y1]

16 2 Basics

2.1.6 Hybrid Transmissions

Hybrid transmissions have two power sources that one is the internal combustion engine and
the other is the electric motor. The torque-speed characteristic of electric motor has a good
supplement to the internal combustion engine which can be seen from figure 2.10: The electric
motor can reach its maximum torque in the low engine speed region thus gives the vehicle a
good launching and acceleration performance. Besides, the electric motor can recover the
kinetic energy during vehicle braking and coasting, stop and start the engine automatically at a
traffic light, realize a pure electric driving, support the engine output under some extreme
driving conditions. All these advantages provided by the combination of internal combustion
engine and electric motor in hybrid transmissions lead to a better fuel economy and a better
driving performance.

Power [kW]
Torque [Nm]

Speed [rpm] Speed [rpm]

Figure 2.10: Characteristic curves of internal combustion engine and electric motor [N1]

According to the connection of the internal combustion engine and the electric motor, hybrid
transmissions can be classified into three types: serial hybrid; parallel hybrid; power-split
hybrid. In serial hybrid transmissions, the combustion engine functions only as an electricity
producer. There is no mechanical connection between the engine and the wheels. Two electric
machines are necessary in serial hybrid transmissions. One works as a generator and needs to
have the same maximum torque and maximum speed as the engine. The other is required to be
big enough to match the vehicle load. The efficiency of serial hybrid transmissions is low
because all engine power flows through the inverter and the electric machines.

In parallel hybrid transmissions, both the engine and the electric motor are mechanically
connected to the wheels. The wheel power may be supplied by the engine, the motor, or by
 2 Basics 17

both. The parallel hybrid transmissions are easy for the design modification based on existing
transmission concepts. For example, figure 2.11 shows a hybrid variant of ZF 8-speed
automatic transmission. It is a parallel hybrid transmission which just uses an electric motor to
replace the hydrodynamic torque converter. The shifting process in it also has no difference
with automatic transmissions. In power-split hybrid transmissions, as shown in figure 2.12, the
engine power is split into mechanical and electric paths. Two electric machines and some
planetary gear sets are necessary for the splitting and joining of the two paths. The speed ratio
can be continuously varied through the control of the two electric motors. Therefore, the
power-split hybrid transmission permits a continuous torque and speed conversion without
power interruption.

Figure 2.11: Hybrid variant of ZF 8-speed automatic transmission [G2]

Figure 2.12: Mercedes-Benz AHS-C-Two-Mode-Hybrid transmission [W2]

 18

Continuously
Manual Automated manual Automatic Dual clutch Hybrid
Transmission type variable
transmissions transmissions transmissions transmissions transmissions
characteristics.

transmissions

Speed ratio Fixed Fixed Fixed Fixed Variable Fixed or Variable

Shift actuation Manual Automatic Automatic Automatic Automatic Automatic

Power shift No No Yes Yes Yes Yes

Moving-off Torque converter or

Friction clutch Friction clutch Torque converter Friction clutch Electric motor
element friction clutch

Two friction Torque converter,

Friction clutch, Friction clutch, Torque converter,
Key mechanical clutches, transfer friction clutch, Electric motor,
transfer gear sets, transfer gear sets, planetary gear sets,
components gear sets, pulley drive or planetary gear sets
2 Basics

synchronizers synchronizers shifting elements

synchronizers friction gear
Traction Traction Traction Traction Traction Traction
torque torque torque torque torque torque

Qualitative
vehicle traction
Time Time Time Time Time Time
and velocity Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle
velocity velocity velocity velocity velocity velocity
Table 2.1: An overview of different transmission concepts

profile during
power on upshift

Time Time Time Time Time Time

In conclusion table 2.1 gives an overview of different transmission concepts and their shifting
 2 Basics 19

2.2 Multi-gear Systems

In order to generate different speed ratios, transmission must have multi-gear systems, namely
either transfer gear sets or planetary gear sets, or their combinations. Transfer gear sets are
more common in MT, AMT, and DCT. Planetary gear sets are more applied in AT and power
split hybrid transmissions.

Gumpoltsberger [G3] investigated hybrid forms of AT and DCT which applies transfer gear
sets and planetary gear sets together in one transmission structure. By configuring planetary
gear sets on different parallel shafts, advantages can be gained especially in terms of
installation length. By using different transfer gear sets as the coupling of two parallel shafts,
the transmission speed ratios can be better optimized than a conventional planetary
transmission. Such a type of automatic transmission [T1] integrated with transfer gear sets and
planetary gear sets has been in mass production in Chinese market since 2014.

2.2.1 Transfer Gear Sets

Transfer gear sets are the simplest and most common type of gear sets. As shown in figure
2.13, there are two parallel shafts rotating in a fixed position in transfer gear sets. Each shaft
connects one gear and the motion is transferred between the two shafts through the meshing of
gear teeth. In transmissions these two shafts are supported on the housing by bearings. The
stationary ratio of a transfer gear set is just the reciprocal of the tooth number ratio. The
direction of the two shafts are opposite in transfer gear sets.

Figure 2.13: Transfer gear set [N1]

20 2 Basics

2.2.2 Planetary Gear Sets

It can be seen from figure 2.14 that a minus planetary gear set is composed of a sun gear, a
carrier, a ring gear, and several planetary gears. There are three coaxial shafts among which
the carrier is the axle of planetary gears. The planetary gears rotate both around the main axle
and on its own axle. Torque is distributed between several planetary gears to ensure a low
stress on each of them. The stationary ratio of a planetary gear set is just the tooth number
ratio between the ring gear and the sun gear. The tooth number of the ring gear is assumed to
be negative because it is an internal gear.

Figure 2.14: Minus planetary gear set [N1]

Compared with the transfer gear set, advantages of the planetary gear set can be concluded as
following:
(1) Coaxial arrangement of three shafts and compact constructionν
(2) High torque capacity as a result of torque distribution between several planetary gearsν
(3) Low weight and small size in comparison with the transfer gear setν
(4) High efficiency in comparison with the transfer gear setν
(η) Multiple options of power splitting and power joiningν
(θ) Realization of different speed ratios in only one planetary gear set.

These advantages make planetary gear sets widely applied in automatic transmissions even
though they have high effort of manufacturing, high production costs, and more complex
construction in comparison with transfer gear sets.
 2 Basics 21

In addition to the minus planetary gear set, VDI-Guideline 2157 [V1] introduces a lot of other
kinds of planetary gear sets. The following calculations of kinematics and kinetics are also
based on the VDI-Guideline 2157.

2.2.3 Calculation of Kinematics

A planetary gear set has two degrees of freedom. It means for the three shafts of a planetary
gear set two rotational speeds must be firstly defined. Then the 3rd rotational speed can be
calculated. Equation (2.1) shows the kinematic relationship of the three shafts in a planetary
gear set, which is also known as Willis-equation (2.2).
nS  n C
i0  (2.1)
nR  nC
nS  i0  n R  (i0  1)  n C  0 (2.2)
The stationary ratio i0 is negative in a minus planetary gear set and positive in a plus planetary
gear set.

For the dynamic analysis of a planetary gear set, the angular accelerations of the three shafts
are required. The angular acceleration corresponds to the time derivative of the rotational
speed. Thus the Willis-equation of the rotational speeds also applies to the angular
accelerations in a planetary gear set (2.3).
S  i0  R  (i0  1)  C  0 (2.3)

A transfer gear set has only one degree of freedom. It can be assumed to be a planetary gear
set which the carrier is locked to reduce one degree of freedom. Therefore, equation (2.1) also
applies to transfer gear sets and the carrier can be considered as housing with zero rotational
speed (2.4).
n1  0 n1
i0   (2.4)
n2  0 n2

The angular accelerations of a transfer gear set are calculated similarly according to equation
(2.5).
1  0 1
i0   (2.5)
2  0 2

Since the kinematic equations of planetary gear sets and transfer gear sets are uniform, it
facilitates the computer programing for kinematic calculations of a complex transmission
structure. The kinematic relationship can be described by a system of linear equations
22 2 Basics

depending on different transmission structures. Such a system of linear equations can be

written into a matrix format and easily be solved by a matrix method in mathematical software.
Here an example of a simple transmission structure is introduced as follows.

Figure 2.15 shows a simple transmission structure which has only one minus planetary gear
set. The sun gear is the input shaft. The ring gear is connected to the housing to reduce one
degree of the transmission freedom. The carrier is the output shaft. Assuming that the input
speed is known as nin, then the system of linear equations to describe the kinematics of this
simple transmission structure is expressed by equation (2.6), (2.7), and (2.8).

Input: Output:
nin, αin, Tin nout, αout, Tout

Figure 2.15: Example of a simple transmission structure

nS  i0  n R  (i0  1)  n C  0 (2.6)
nS  n in (2.7)
nR  0 (2.8)

These three equations can be represented in a matrix format (2.9).

 1 i 0 i 0  1  n S   0 
     
1 0 0    n R    n in  (2.9)
0 1 0   n C   0 


The first line of the coefficient matrix is the Willis equation of this transmission structure. The
other two lines are the kinematic boundary conditions, such as speed specifications of the
input shaft and the housing. The unknown vector of this matrix contains the rotational speeds
of the three shafts. They can be calculated and solved according to equation (2.10).
1
 n S   1 i 0 i 0  1  0   n in 
       
 nR    1 0 0    n in    0 
(2.10)
 n  0 1 0   0   n in  (1  i 0 ) 1 
 C 
 2 Basics 23

This matrix expression can be efficiently computed by mathematical software even for a
complex transmission structure with a lot of unknown variables.

2.2.4 Calculation of Kinetics

As shown in figure 2.16, the relationship of shaft torques in a planetary gear set can be
obtained from the equilibrium of forces on the planetary gears.

Force diagram Torque diagram

FR TR 1 Sun gear

2 Ring gear
TC
FC 3 Carrier
FS
Space-fixed axle
2 TS
1 3
Non-fixed axle
rS rC rR

Figure 2.16: Force and torque diagram of a minus planetary gear set

The tangential force FR is equal to the force FS because of the torque balance on the planetary
gear (2.11). Both forces have the same direction. The tangential force from the carrier FC is in
the opposite direction. The sum of all forces has to be zero (2.12).
FS  FR (2.11)

F  F  F S R  FC  0 (2.12)

The stationary ratio is equal to the ratio of the pitch circle radius rR and rS (2.13). The torque
from each element to the planetary gear is equal to the tangential force multiplied by the radius
(2.14-2.16). The carrier radius is calculated based on the pitch circle radius in equation (2.17).
rR
i0   (2.13)
rS

TS  FS  rS (2.14)
TR  FR  rR (2.15)
TC  FC  rC (2.16)

rS  rR
rC  (2.17)
2

Based on the equations from (2.11) to (2.17) and without considering the torque losses, the
kinetics of a planetary gear set can be expressed by equation (2.18) and (2.19).
24 2 Basics

TR  TS  i0  0 (2.18)

T  T S  TR  TC  0 (2.19)

When considering the torque losses in a planetary gear set, the calculation of torques can be
modified from equation (2.18) to equation (2.20).
TR  TS  i0  0 w  0 (2.20)

0 is the efficiency factor of a planetary gear set with motionless carrier. The reasons of torque
losses are the friction during the meshing of gear teeth and the friction in the planetary gear
bearing. Hence 0 can be defined as the product of the gear efficiency V and the bearing
efficiency L (2.21).
0   V   L (2.21)

The exponent w defines the direction of the power flow. The mechanical power transferred by
a planetary gear set can be divided into two parts. One part is known as “coupling power”. It
has no power losses because there is no conversion of torque and speed. The coupling power
can be calculated according to equation (2.22), (2.23), and (2.24).
Coupling power: sun gear PCS  TS  C (2.22)
ring gear PCR  TR  C (2.23)
carrier PCC  TC  C (2.24)

The other part is called “rolling power” which is caused by the relative speeds between the
central gears (sun gear and ring gear) and the carrier. This power generates losses both in the
rolling teeth and in the planetary bearing. The calculation of rolling power is according to
equation (2.25), (2.26), and (2.27).
Rolling power: sun gear PRS  TS  (S  C ) (2.25)
ring gear PRR  TR  (R  C ) (2.26)
carrier PRC  TC  (C  C )  0 (2.27)

If the rolling power flows from the sun gear to the ring gear, the input torque comes from the
sun gear and the exponent w is equal to 1. If the rolling power flows from the ring gear to the
sun gear, the ring gear is the driving gear and the exponent w changes to -1 (2.28).
w  signum[TS  (S  C )] (2.28)
 2 Basics 25

The kinetics of a transfer gear set can be easily defined based on the force balance in figure
2.17 and in equation (2.29).

2 1 Gear 1

2 Gear 2
F1 F2
r2 Space-fixed axle
1
r1 Non-fixed axle

Figure 2.17: Force diagram of a transfer gear set

T2 F2  r2
  i12  12 (2.29)
T1 F1  r1

The same as the kinematic relationship, the calculation of kinetics can also be described by a
system of linear equations and expressed by a matrix format. For the transmission structure of
figure 2.15, the system of linear equations (2.30-2.32) and its matrix format (2.33) are listed as
follows.
TS  i0  0 w  TR  0 (2.30)
TS  TR  TC  0 (2.31)
TS  Tin (2.32)

 i 0  0 w 1 0   TS   0 
     
 1 1 1    TR    0  (2.33)
 1
 0 0   TC   Tin 

The coefficient matrix contains two basic equations (2.19) and (2.20) for the calculation of
kinetics in the first two lines. The third line is the kinetic boundary condition. In this example
it stands for the input torque from the sun gear. The unknown vector includes each torque node
of this transmission structure which can be solved according to equation (2.34).
1
 TS   i0  0 1 0  0   
w
Tin
       
 TR    1 1 1    0    i 0  0  Tin 
w
(2.34)
T   1 0 0   Tin   (i 0  0 w  1)  Tin 
 C 

The dynamic analysis is necessary for the investigation of the shifting process in automatic
transmissions. Therefore, the inertia torque of each shaft must be considered in the calculation.
26 2 Basics

The linear equations (2.30-2.32) are then extended with respect to angular accelerations of
each shaft according to the transmission structure in figure 2.15 (2.35-2.40).
TS  i0  0 w  TR  0 (2.35)
TS  TR  TC  0 (2.36)
TS  S  JS  Tin (2.37)
TC  C  J C  Tout (2.38)
S  i0  R  (i0  1)  C  0 (2.39)
R  0 (2.40)

It can be seen from equation (2.35) to equation (2.40) that several kinematic equations for
describing the angular accelerations are added. In order to solve the extended linear equations,
some boundary conditions are required. In this example, the known boundary conditions are
the driving torque of the sun gear and the output load of the carrier. The equations (2.35-2.40)
can be represented by a matrix format (2.41) in which the unknown vector is extended with
shaft angular accelerations.
 i 0  0 w 1 0 0 0 0   TS   0 
     
 1 1 1 0 0 0   TR   0 
 1 0 0 JS 0 0   TC   Tin 
      (2.41)
 0 0 1 0 0 J C   S   Tout 
 0 0 0 1 i 0 i 0  1   R   0 
     
 0
 0 0 0 1 0    C   0 

In addition to the calculation of the torques, all shaft angular accelerations can also be
obtained after solving the matrix equation (2.42).
 Tin  J C  Tout  J S  (i 0  1) 
 J C  J S  (i 0  1)  (i 0  0  1)w 
 
 (i 0  0 w )  [Tin  J C  Tout  J S  (i 0  1)] 
 TS   
   J C  J S  (i 0  1)  (i 0  0 w  1) 
 TR   (i   w  1)  [T  J  T  J  (i  1)] 
 TC   0 0 in C out S 0

    J  J  (i  1)  (i   w
 1)  (2.42)
 S  
C S 0 0 0

   (1  i 0 )  [Tout  Tin  (i 0  0 w  1)] 
 R   J C  J S  (i 0  1)  (i 0  0 w  1) 
 C   
 0 
 Tout  Tin  (i 0  0 w  1) 
 
 J C  J S  (i 0  1)  (i 0  0 w  1) 
 2 Basics 27

2.3 Shifting Elements

Vehicle transmissions need mechanisms which are known as shifting elements to change the
speed ratio. They can be regarded as switches which bridge the connection of different shafts
for different paths of power flow in transmissions. Obviously shifting elements play an
important role between the driver and the vehicle. The handling of shifting elements has a
major influence on the shift quality. There are various kinds of shifting elements in vehicle
transmissions. Table 2.2 gives an overview of different kinds of shifting elements used in
current vehicle transmissions.
Table 2.2: Overview of different types of shifting elements

Type of shifting Power Friction

Application Actuator
elements interruption connection

MT, AMT, Single/Multi-

Synchronizers Shift fork Yes
DCT cone

Shift fork or
Dog clutches MT, AMT, AT Hydraulic Yes Teeth
pressure

Rotation Roller/Sprag/
One-way clutches AT No
direction Pawl

Hydraulic
Brake bands AT No Band
pressure

Multi-plate
Hydraulic
clutches and AT, DCT No Multi-plates
pressure
brakes

These shifting elements are either actuated by driver or automatically controlled by TCU.
Since this thesis concentrates on the optimized control of the shifting process in automatic
transmissions, four types of shifting elements used in automatic transmissions, namely one-
way clutches, dog clutches, brake bands, especially multi-plate friction clutches and brakes,
are detailed introduced in this section.

2.3.1 Dog Clutches

Dog clutches are more commonly used in MT and AMT. Power is transmitted by the tooth of
one side on the tooth of the other. This type of clutch can’t slip hence it is either engaged or
disengaged. Compared with multi-plate shifting elements, dog clutches have the advantages of
smaller design space and lower drag torque losses. However because dog clutches can’t slip,
their engagement must be controlled more precisely. In MT and AMT, dog clutches are
integrated with synchro-mechanisms such as single cone or multi cones which can align the
28 2 Basics

dog teeth prior to engagement. Such a device is known as synchronizers. The synchronizers
work well in MT and AMT because the engine is disconnected from the transmission when a
shift occurs. The input side of the transmission is load free and can be synchronized for the
teeth engaging. For dog clutches, there is a “pause” in vehicle accelerations in the shifting
process which is called power interruption.

ZF firstly applies two dog clutches in its λ-speed automatic transmission (Figure 2.θ) in order
to save space and improve the transmission efficiency. Table 2.3 shows the shifting logic of
this λ-speed automatic transmission.
Table 2.3: Shifting logic of ZF 9-speed automatic transmission
Multi-plate Brakes Multi-plate Clutches Dog clutches
Gear
C D B E F A
R ● ● ●
N ● ●
1 ● ● ●
2 ● ● ●
3 ● ● ●
4 ● ● ●
5 ● ● ●
6 ● ● ●
7 ● ● ●
8 ● ● ●
9 ● ● ●

According to the position of the two dog clutches in the shifting logic, the shifts in terms of
dog clutches relate to upshifts 4-η, 7-8 and downshifts η-4, 8-7. These shifts have a more shift
feeling of “manual transmission” which the output torque decreases severely in the shifting
process. However since these shifts take place among the high speeds, the acceleration
performance of the vehicle will not be affected. Generally speaking, dog clutches can only
replace multi-plate shifting elements under certain conditions in automatic transmissions. The
most important requirement is that the gear shifting should be performed free of load [E1].
This can be achieved through a sophisticated integrated powertrain control with a torque
intervention of the engine in the shifting process.

2.3.2 One-way Clutches

One-way clutches, also known as freewheels, have been widely used in conventional
automatic transmissions. One-way clutches require no external actuators such as hydraulic
pressure to open or lock it. They are activated by the direction. One-way clutch allows only
one direction of rotation. In the other direction, it is blocked. Hence it has two basic modes of
 2 Basics 29

operationμ overrunning and engaged. When it is overrunning, the torque path is broken
allowing relative motion across the clutch. When it is engaged, the torque path is built up
permitting power to flow through it. There are three types of one-way clutches currently used
in automatic transmissionsμ roller one-way clutchesν sprag one-way clutchesν pawl one-way
clutches. They are classified in terms of the kinds of clamping mechanisms.

The essential purpose of applying one way clutches in automatic transmissions is to allow a
smooth gear shifting. One-way clutches are absolutely unbeatable with respect to the
temporally precise delivery of the torque. For this reason, clutch to clutch shifting is easier to
be controlled with the help of one-way clutches. However, the application of one-way clutches
always requires an additional multi-plate shifting element to prevent it from rotating freely
under the vehicle coasting. That means one-way clutches can’t replace multi-plate shifting
elements. Instead, they are only “add on” mechanisms and make the transmission design
complicated with an increased weight and dimension.

With the development of the control of the shifting process, modern automatic transmissions
can achieve the same good shift quality without using one-way clutches. On the other hand,
one-way clutches are not suitable for a compact design in a small limiting space. Hence one-
way clutches are rarely used in modern automatic transmissions. Some Japanese manufactures
still use a one-way clutch in their products to improve the shift quality between the 1st gear and
the 2nd gear because of the big ratio step.

2.3.3 Brake Bands

Conventional automatic transmissions use two different types of brakes as standard. They are
brake bands and multi-plate brakes. The brake band is located around the outer circumference
of the clutch drum. One end of the band is anchored to the transmission housing with a pin
while the other end connects the brake piston rod which is controlled by hydraulic pressure
and spring tension. Compared with multi-plate brakes, one advantage of brake bands is its
large frictional surface area around the drum. Meanwhile it consumes very little axial space in
the transmission. This large friction area allows a brake band to create strong holding force
and tolerate high friction energy during gear shifting. In addition, the brake band can be
completely separated from the drum with very low drag torque losses.

However, the control of the shifting process is complicated because of the geometry of the
band drum system [P2]. The braking action is very rapid due to the self-reinforcing physical
principle involved. An exponential relationship exists between the band applying force and the
pressure exerted by the band lining on the drum. Whereas in a multi-plate brake, the
30 2 Basics

relationship of the applying force to the surface pressure is linear. In view of the increasing
requirement for shift quality, the multi-plate brake has become more popular than the brake
band. Besides, other limitations for the brake band includeμ
(1) Non-harmonic, poorly reproducible torque built-upν
(2) Uneven load share with wear on the band endsν
(3) Radial forcesν
(4) High sensitivity to adjustment tolerances.

Due to these reasons, especially a difficult control of the shifting process, brake bands have
been gradually replaced by multi-plate brakes in modern automatic transmissions.
Nevertheless, it can still be found in the latest 8-speed automatic transmission for front
transverse application from Aisin in consideration of a compact transmission layout.

2.3.4 Multi-plate Clutches and Brakes

Multi-plate clutches and brakes are of great concern in the functioning of automatic
transmissions. The clutches connect two rotational shafts and the brakes hold one shaft to the
housing. They are now the most common shifting elements in automatic transmissions. From a
design point of view, multi-plate shifting elements take up most space of the automatic
transmission. From a control point of view, multi-plate shifting elements are the actuators to
be controlled in the shifting process and essentially affect the shift quality. All these
considerations make multi-plate shifting elements become the most important mechanisms in
automatic transmissions.

o-ring piston balance piston reaction plate

disc spring
plate carrier

rotary sealing

shaft

high pressure oil pressure chamber compensation chamber friction plate

Figure 2.18: Example of multi-plate shifting elements

 2 Basics 31

It can be seen from figure 2.18 multi-plate shifting elements consist of various components
depending on the design and the application. Each of these components will be introduced
according to figure 2.18.

2.3.4.1 Clutch Pack

The clutch pack includes several friction plates and reaction plates. Friction plates are steel
core plates which have friction material bonded to them. Two types of friction plates are
typically used in automatic transmissionsμ double-sided and single-sided. So far, the most
widely used is the double-sided design. The characteristics of friction materials play an
important role for a good shifting behaviour. Table 2.4 lists three types of friction materials
currently used in automatic transmissions [N1].
Table 2.4: Friction materials of multi-plate shifting elements

Type of friction
Paper Sintered bronze Carbon
materials

Fibers, filler material, Copper, tin, iron, Carbon fabric

Components phenolic resin, 0.4 to graphite and different impregnated with
1.2mm thickness additives resin, 100% carbon

Inelastic, low shift Full carbon, very

Elastic, good friction
comfort, sensitive to expensive, high
Properties and noise behaviour,
noise, high mechanical thermal resistance,
high thermal resistance
and thermal resistance no grooves required

Sintered on carrier Glued to carrier

Layout Glued to carrier plate
plate plate

Field of E.g. construction

E.g. passenger cars E.g. motorsports
application vehicles

Reaction plates are typically blanked from cold rolled steel. They provide a smooth surface for
the friction plates to engage with. Reaction plates play a critical role in the absorption of heat
during the engagement process. Besides, the surface quality of reaction plates influences the
friction coefficient profile greatly thus the shift and noise behaviour will change.

In order to function properly, the clutch pack must be built up by alternating friction plates
with reaction plates and work in a “wet” environment. The oil should dissipate the heat
generated in the shifting process through the clearances between plates and the grooves on
32 2 Basics

friction linings. When designing a clutch pack, in particular the friction linings on friction
plates, the following requirements should be satisfiedμ
(1) Good controllability and good shift feeling (good dynamic friction coefficient profile)ν
(2) High torque capacity (high static friction coefficient)ν
(3) High permissible lining surface pressureν
(4) High thermal load capacity (high power dissipation and high friction energy)ν
(η) Favorable noise behavior, i.e. no friction vibrations (stick-slip)ν
(θ) Long service life and constant friction characteristics throughout the service lifeν
(7) Insensitivity to metallic wear and particles in the oilν
(8) Low drag torque loss when clutch is disengaged.

In order to satisfy above requirements, some criteria like permissible slipping speed,
permissible lining pressure, maximum friction power, and maximum friction energy will be
given by suppliers to guide the design work. Besides, geometric and design parameters such as
the geometry of the plates, lining quality, grooving, corrugation, thickness of the reaction
plates, planarity of the plates, clearance between plates as well as the elasticity of the pistons
and the end plate also play an important role.

2.3.4.2 Plate Carrier

Friction plates and reaction plates are connected to the plate carrier by splines. The splines are
designed according to the limitation of maximum surface pressure. Normally there are two
types of tooth profiles in the splines. In passenger car automatic transmissions, splines are
usually designed as trapezoidal teeth. In case of higher requirements for the resistance against
flank wear, involute teeth are used because they adapt better to the opposite teeth. Damage to
the splines typically occurs due to vibrations when the clutch is disengaged. When the clutch
is engaged, an uneven load distribution can also make the teeth broken. Therefore, a good
support to the plate carrier is very helpful for the damage reduction of the splines.

Another function of the plate carrier is to let the cooling oil flow through the clutch pack. The
plate carrier must have several columns of holes to provide enough cooling oil to all the
friction surfaces.

2.3.4.3 Piston, Chamber, and Seals

The piston clamps the clutch pack under the pressure force. It divides the chamber into two
partsμ the pressure chamber and the compensation chamber. The pressure chamber is filled
with high pressure oil that can be controlled to clamp the clutch pack against the resistance of
seals and return springs. It is necessary to eliminate the affection of centrifugal force on the
 2 Basics 33

piston when pressure is released in the clutch. There are many ways to compensate the
centrifugal force. However a compensation chamber between the piston and the balance piston
is a preferred method although it requires a lot of installation space. The reason why it is
popular is that the pressure control will not be affected by the centrifugal force with this
method thus the clutch to clutch shifting will benefit from it.

Seals are mounted on the piston or the corresponding shaft and bore. There are many different
types of seals for pistons which include O-rings, D-rings, lip seals, rectangular seals, and
bonded seals. Bonded seals don’t need grooves because they are molded onto the piston. All
other designs require grooves. The basic requirements for seals are listed as follows [N1]μ
(1) Low friction force levels at all relevant temperatures, no significant break away force at
low temperaturesν
(2) Equal friction forces across the piston strokeν
(3) Minimal lining density influence, insensitivity to manufacturing tolerancesν
(4) Unproblematic assembly.

2.3.4.4 Return Springs

The function of return springs is to push the piston quickly back to its unloaded position when
the clutch pressure is released. It requires a high spring force to overcome the seal resistance
and the centrifugal force on the piston. This high spring force should also guarantee there is no
piston motion when the clutch is disengaged. Otherwise the plates can’t completely separate
thus a big drag torque loss will occur.

In modern automatic transmissions, two types of return springs can be found in designsμ multi-
coil spring packs and slotted disc springs. Compared with multi-coil spring packs, slotted disc
springs don’t need much axial space thus it can be saved both in the length of the clutch as
well as in the overall length of the transmission for a compact design. Another advantage of
slotted disc springs is that its spring load remains almost completely equal throughout the
piston stroke. While contrary to slotted disc springs, multi-coil spring packs always have a
linear load characteristic. The horizontal load characteristic of slotted disc springs leads to a
big advantage in terms of gear shifting, particularly in the control of clutch pressure. Since the
spring load is constant, regardless of the actual piston position in the engaging process, the oil
pressure for compensating the spring load will have a good consistency even wear increases
the piston stroke over the transmission life. Moreover, a further benefit offered by slotted disc
springs as opposed to multi-coil spring packs is the high shape retention and stiffness against
external forces [S2]. This is particularly noticeable at high clutch rotational speeds which lead
to high radial centrifugal forces. The coils of the spring pack have a tendency to bulge out
34 2 Basics

radially which has a negative impact on performance. However, slotted disc springs will not
have this issue at high rotational speeds.

A new type of piston return spring, namely the separating spring, has been developed by
Mubea [S2]. The separating spring uses waved type discs that are positioned among reaction
plates. By active separation of the plates the drag torque losses of open shifting elements can
be greatly reduced. Hence the application of separating springs exploits additional potential for
installation space savings and simultaneously improves the transmission efficiency due to a
reduction of drag torque losses. Another benefit is that the separating spring provides a
possibility to simplify the clutch layout because the piston and the balance piston do not need
to be designed to interact with any return spring. Snap rings or circlips can be canceled in the
clutch design as well. Figure 2.1λ shows the three different types of piston return springs. The
separating spring has a higher level of load and stress but a relative lower production costs
compared with other two types of springs.

Type of return springs Multi-coil spring pack Slotted disc spring Seperating spring

Drag torque reduction No No Yes

Graphic

Installation space

Figure 2.19: Different types of piston return springs [S2]

In conclusion, multi-plate clutches and brakes are key mechanisms of automatic transmissions.
Each detail can directly affect the shift quality and result in some issues such as judder, noise,
 2 Basics 35

vehicle-nod, and so on during gear shifting. A good design of multi-plate shifting elements
will benefit the control of the shifting process a lot.

2.4 Electro-hydraulic Control Systems

In the development of automatic transmissions, the application of electro-hydraulic control

systems contributes a lot. By means of the integration of electronics and hydraulics, automatic
transmissions now have more functions and possibilities. Gear shifting also benefits from this
development. The shift quality is continuously improved with quicker response and better shift
feeling. In spite of many different kinds of automatic transmission structures, even the same
structure with many different kinds of layouts, the electro-hydraulic control system will play a
more and more important role in automatic transmissions.

The electro-hydraulic control system consists of two parts: electronic control system and
hydraulic actuation system. Like the “brain” and the “blood vessel” of human bodies, they are
the core technologies of automatic transmissions. All functions of automatic transmissions are
determined by the electro-hydraulic control system. The control of the shifting process is only
a small but very important part of it.

2.4.1 Electronic Control System

The electronic control system of automatic transmissions includes the transmission control
unit, sensors, communication networks, and harnesses. The sensors record states and
conditions of automatic transmissions, preprocess signals and send them to the transmission
control unit. After receiving the signals, the transmission control unit converts them, evaluates
them, sends control commands to the hydraulic actuators and constantly exchanges
information with other vehicle systems. Apparently, the transmission control unit is the
computation center of automatic transmissions.

Figure 2.20 shows a block diagram of the transmission control unit. The transmission control
unit can be mounted somewhere in the engine compartment or integrated into the transmission.
A separate transmission control unit has a lower complexity but with increasing number of
actuators and sensors the wiring hardness of it will become very heavy and expensive. The
development of a transmission control unit takes a long time and should start in an early stage
of the project. It requires a high quality but costs very much both in hardware and software. A
good transmission control unit should have a low consuming of CPU load, less test time, low
calibration effort, and high reliability.
36 2 Basics

Battery

Main switch

Throttle opening
Power
supply
Brake pedal
Actuators:
Proportional
CPU

Outputs
Inputs

solenoid valves
Shift lever Transmission software Shifting elements
PRND
Torque converter
Program switches Interface software Line pressure

Processor
Sensors: memory
Speeds
Pressures Core software
Temperatures
Interface
Communications (CAN, K-Lite, etc.)

Figure 2.20: Block diagram of transmission control unit

More than 90% of the innovations and 70% of the development costs will be allotted to
electronics and control unit software in the future [E1]. The software functions have greatly
extended in modern automatic transmissions. The control of the shifting process is only one
but the most important part in these functions. In addition to the increasing demands for high
shift quality and good shift comfort, the reasons for more and more software functions are the
increasing legal requirements, expanded diagnosis, additional requirements on the functional
safety and, last but not least, the increasingly strong networks in the vehicle. For example,
some transmissions integrate the electric motor to achieve hybrid function for the reduction of
fuel consumption. Some transmissions extend the shift strategy to better match the driving
environments and driving habits of different drivers. The increasing software functions also
propose a higher requirement for the hardware of transmission control unit such as a bigger
memory space and a higher computing power.

An example of modular software architecture from ZF is shown in figure 2.21. It can be seen
the modular structure provides much flexibility to the software. Under each modular there are
also many sub functions to fulfill the task of the relative modular. For example the shift
control modular contains all functions of clutch controls, shift adaptations and transmission
protections in the shifting process.
 2 Basics 37

Figure 2.21: Architecture of passenger car driving software from ZF [S3]

2.4.2 Hydraulic Actuation System

The hydraulic system of automatic transmissions normally consists of three parts: the oil pump,
the hydraulic valve block, and the automatic transmission fluid (ATF). It not only works as an
actuator of the transmission control unit, but also performs the following functions:
(1) Regulating the line pressure of hydraulic system depending on different engine load to
reduce system leakage and torque losses of the oil pumpν
(2) Regulating the pressure of shifting elements to control the shifting process by using
proportional solenoid valvesν
(3) Regulating the pressure of the lock-up clutch in the hydrodynamic torque converter by
using proportional solenoid valvesν
(4) Providing the limp home function of the automatic transmission in the event of failure of
the electronic control systemν
(η) Providing the lubrication flow for gears, bearings and other mechanical components of the
automatic transmission.
(θ) Cooling the transmission by circulation oil through a heat exchanger.

Here the focus of this section is on the actuation function of the hydraulic system. The
hydraulic actuation for automatic transmissions can be divided into two groups: pilot control
38 2 Basics

systems and direct control systems. This classification is manly based on the application of
different types of proportional solenoid valves.

In a pilot control system, the proportional solenoid valve operates at a low pressure level. It
needs a slide valve to extend the range of the clutch pressure. Figure 2.22 shows an example
of the pilot control system. In this example, the solenoid valve is normally open. It is manly
composed of a coil, armature, return spring, and valve spool. The coil of the solenoid
generates electromagnetic force by means of an input current. This force overcomes the
resistance of the return spring, and the armature drives the valve spool to move in the axial
direction, thereby regulating the opening area to the drain of the solenoid and, subsequently,
the pilot pressure of the slide valve.

This pilot pressure then moves the spool of the slide valve against the spring force in a
position where the line pressure feeds into the notch to the shifting element and starts closing
the shifting element. The pressure of the shifting element operates on a different area of the
valve body and creates a force that acts opposite to the direction of the control pressure. Hence
the bigger the pressure in the shifting element shall be, the bigger the control pressure has to
be. By this feedback, the pressure of the shifting element can be controlled by a variable
current of the solenoid.
Pilot solenoid valve Low pressure Line pressure Shifting elements
Coil Armature Strainer

Spring Spool Slide valve

Figure 2.22: Pilot control system

Pilot control systems have greater degree of freedom for packaging. They are non-sensitive
against contamination. However due to the increasing number of shifting elements in modern
automatic transmissions, the hydraulic system will become more complicated with a two-stage
valve design. Another issue using pilot control systems is the big leakage which causes a big
power loss of the hydraulic system.

In a direct control system, as shown in figure 2.23, the slide valve is not needed. The solenoids
control the pressure of shifting elements and deliver the required flow directly. Therefore, the
hydraulic system is simplified with less complexity and less valves. Compared with the pilot
 2 Basics 39

control system, the direct control system is currently not able to achieve the same flow
performance and they have limitations in contamination robustness. But the direct control
system has more advantages in leakage and accuracy. Therefore, it has a higher efficiency and
improves the shift quality. Many new automatic transmissions with more speeds apply this
advanced technology in their hydraulic system such as Mercedes-Benz 9-speed automatic
transmission [D1] and Aisin 8-speed automatic transmission. In Aisin 8-speed automatic
transmission, this system greatly reduces the hardware requirements for the valve body. The
total number of valves has been reduced by 20% compared with conventional automatic
transmissions [K1].
Line pressure

Direct shift control valve Shifting elements

Figure 2.23: Direct control system

40 2 Basics
 3 State of the Art 41

3 State of the Art

The growing requirements for good shift quality lead to increasing complexity and diversity of
the shift control in automatic transmissions. Engineers and researchers are always having
interest to the improvement of the shift quality without increasing the calibration effort.
Modeling and simulation give engineers a good way to investigate the details of the shifting
process. Many shift control strategies have been developed with the help of modeling and
simulation more efficiently and economically. This chapter presents a review of literatures
relating to the dynamic modeling of vehicle powertrains and the control of the shifting process
in automatic transmissions.

3.1 Review of Powertrain Modeling and Simulation

The method of computer-aided modeling and simulation has long been an active research
subject in the vehicle development. It is widely used during the development process and in
the end leads to significant advantages in time, cost and quality. For the powertrain modeling
and simulation, it mainly belongs to the analysis of vehicle longitudinal dynamics. The driving
simulation is one important application in this area. It gives an indication of certain variables
such as energy consumption, emissions, driving performance, and load profiles at a very early
stage of vehicle development. Another important application is the simulation of the dynamic
behaviour in the shifting process. Modeling and simulation can reduce the cost and time of the
software development. Specifically, the model can be used as a simulator so that any designed
shift control strategies can be tested and tuned via simulation before the prototype of the
transmission control unit is built up and tested by Hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) or in a real
vehicle. This development approach is just called Model-in-the-loop (MIL) or Software-in-
the-loop (SIL).

The vehicle powertrain of automatic transmissions consist of engine, hydrodynamic torque

converter, transmission, final drive, and so on. Depending on the objective of the research,
each component can be detailed developed in the modeling and simulation. Since the control
of the shifting process is the primary interest of this thesis, the literatures relating to modeling
of the transmission are manly reviewed in this section.

There are several methods to build up the dynamic models of automatic transmissions.
Benford and Leising [B1] developed a lever analogy method which is a simple graphical
representation and can help to simplify the analysis of dynamic behaviour in powertrain
transmissions. Tugcu [T2] used this method to analyze the powertrain dynamics of vehicles
42 3 State of the Art

equipped with automatic transmissions. Another graphical tool for the description of complex,
mixed-mode systems is the “bond graph” developed by Karnopp [K2]. The dynamic equations
of a transmission can derive from this method. The bond graph technique basically depicts the
power flow through the transmission from which the dynamic equations can be easily deduced
[G1]. One application of such a method was found in the work of Cho [C1] where a
mathematical model of a conventional automatic transmission was built based on the bond
graph. Kwon [K3] also used this method to obtain the dynamic models of a 4-speed automatic
transmission including the hydraulic control system. Based on this dynamic model, the shift
quality of clutch to clutch shifting was investigated for this 4-speed automatic transmission.

The modeling and simulation of automatic transmissions can also derive from applying
Newton’s second law. Newton’s second law is applied to each component of the transmission
separately to generate the dynamic equations in the rotational direction. These equations can
be written into a matrix and solved by using the methods of linear algebra. VDI 2157 [V1]
explains this method in detail. Examples of applying this method to develop the model of
automatic transmissions can be found in the work of Kim [K4] and Haj-Fraj [H1]. Samanuhut
[S4] used Lagrange method to derive the dynamic equations of automatic transmissions.
Lagrange method is an energy-based approach. It provides a systematic procedure for
derivation of dynamic equations and these equations are valid for all speeds and shifts of a
specific transmission structure. The simulation results of this paper demonstrated that the
equations deriving from Lagrange method can be used for the investigation of shift quality
without switching from a set of equations to another during the gear shifting.

The multi-plate shifting element transfers the friction torque when it is slipping. A friction
model is needed to describe the stick-slip phenomenon. The classic Coulomb friction model,
as shown in figure 3.1(a), assumes that the dynamic friction coefficient has a constant value.
The static friction coefficient is either bigger or smaller than the dynamic friction coefficient
depending on different friction materials. Hence the friction torque is proportional to the
surface pressure on the friction plates. However this friction model has a major disadvantage
for the simulation. The abrupt transition between static and dynamic friction coefficient at zero
slipping speed causes numerical problems of simulation. The slipping speed oscillates around
the zero point and a very small time step is needed for the calculation which significantly
increases the simulation time. In order to solve this problem, Karnopp [K5] modified the
friction characteristic and eliminated the discontinuity in the vicinity of zero slipping speed.
Then it is able to describe the stick-slip behaviour of a friction system in the simulation model.
As illustrated in figure 3.1(b), Karnopp model introduces a region of small slipping speed
which is limited by DV. Outside this small region, the dynamic friction coefficient is a
 3 State of the Art 43

function of the slipping speed. Inside the small region surrounding the zero point, the slipping
speed is set to be zero and the torque or force is determined by other elements of the system. If
the torque or force exceeds the breakaway level DV, the friction will switch back to the
slipping mode.

Friction coefficient
Friction coefficient

Slipping speed Slipping speed

-DV +DV

(a) (b)

Figure 3.1: (a) Coulomb friction model (b) Karnopp friction model

Two friction models for stick-slip effect were presented by Haessig [H2]. One, called the
"bristle model," is an approximation designed to capture the physical phenomenon of stick. In
this model, the facing surfaces are viewed as bonds with flexible bristles. As surfaces move,
the strains in the bonds increase and the bristles act as springs which give rise to the friction
force. When the strain of any particular bristle exceeds a certain level the bond is broken and a
new bond having smaller strain is established. This model is relatively numerically inefficient.
The other model, called the "reset integrator model," does not capture the details of the stick
phenomenon, but is numerically efficient and exhibits behaviour similar to the model proposed
by Karnopp. The input to this model is the relative speed between two contacting surfaces. It
is integrated to generate a relative displacement between the two friction parts. If the relative
displacement goes beyond a certain value (boundaries must be defined), the model computes
the slipping speed otherwise the displacement is multiplied by a spring rate to simulate the
friction behaviour in the vicinity of zero point.

The friction between two surfaces is actually a dynamic phenomenon. In order to investigate it
more in detail, many dynamic friction models have been developed and increasingly applied in
practice. The most important advantage of the dynamic friction models is that they are able to
reflect the friction hysteresis, namely “presliding”, due to the lateral flexibility of the friction
contact [G4]. Dahl [D2] developed a dynamic friction model from stress-strain characteristics
44 3 State of the Art

in solid mechanics. This friction model assumes that the connection between two surfaces has
a stiffness-damper characteristic. An extension of the Dahl friction model was the Bilman-
Sorine model [B2] and Lugre model [C2]. The Lugre model is most widely used because it
allows modeling of dynamic friction characteristic with little computation effort.

However, due to a higher complexity of dynamic friction models, it is very difficult to apply
them in the modeling and simulation of automatic transmissions. If the requirements of the
model are not very high and the dynamic friction characteristic is not necessary to be included,
the models such as the Karnopp friction model are more preferred in the shift simulation.

Hydraulic control system is another important area in the modeling and simulation of
automatic transmissions. A detailed dynamic model of the hydraulic system can be used to
verify its functions in the design stage. Wang [W3] built a dynamic simulation model for the
hydraulic system of an 8-speed automatic transmission. The simulation results of pressure and
flow in the hydraulic system were analyzed and showed a good consistency compared with the
theoretical design results. Bai [B3] discussed some design issues of hydraulic clutch control
systems using dynamic simulation models. The simulation models are built based on dynamic
equations of the hydraulic system.

Because the shift quality is directly influenced by the hydraulic actuation system, especially by
the characteristics of proportional solenoid valves, a large amount of studies on the
performance of proportional solenoid valves have been done with various methods. A multi-
domain nonlinear dynamic model for a proportional solenoid valve was developed by Liu [L1].
The electro-magnetic, mechanical and fluid subsystems of the valve, including their
interactions, were investigated using this model. By comparing the simulation results with the
measured data, the simulation model successfully predicts the dynamic characteristics of the
valve, which can be used as a powerful computational and simulation tool for valve design and
control algorithm optimization. Dasgupta [D3] proposed a nonlinear dynamic model for a
proportional controlled piloted relief valve through Bond graph simulation technique, in which
higher order dynamics was predicted. The simulation study of this paper identified some
critical parameters which have significant effect on the transient response of the system. Wang
[W4] built a nonlinear, low frequency solenoid-clutch model based on the hardware design
parameters and the experimental measurements. A second order transfer function was used to
simulate the dynamics of a solenoid valve. One objective of this model is to effectively
perform analysis and design of the clutch pressure control system. Moreover, the model can be
easily calibrated and validated by capturing the essential dynamics. Goetz [G1], Kwon [K3]
and Zheng [Z1] also used the second order transfer function to describe the dynamic
 3 State of the Art 45

characteristics of a solenoid valve. Zheng [Z1] found that the dynamics of the solenoid valve
significantly contributes to the overall response behaviour of the clutch actuation system.
Therefore, Goetz [G1] pointed out that for the application of controller development it is
sufficient to only consider the solenoid valve dynamics without accounting for the dynamics
of the rest hydraulic system.

3.2 Review of Shift Control in AT

The most regular complaint of customers for automatic transmissions is the shift quality. The
driver and passengers evaluate the shift quality according to the shift feeling experienced
during gear shifting. Therefore, the control of the shifting process in automatic transmissions
is very important and manufactures always try to improve the shift quality both by hardware
and software development.

Conventional automatic transmissions use a lot of one-way clutches to improve the shift
quality. With respect to the timely delivery of the torque (synchronous speed), they are
absolutely unbeatable [N1]. Even some dual clutch transmissions try to use a one-way clutch
in their structures. Moser [M1] introduces a 6-speed dual clutch transmission in which one
unique aspect is that the 1st gear is mounted on a one-way clutch. It enables the elimination of
synchronizer and corresponding actuation components. According to this transmission concept,
Buchanan [B4] discusses the advantages of this architecture as well as the challenges to the
control strategies. Unique algorithms have been developed to control the gear shifting with the
one-way clutch. BorgWarner has developed some prototypes of this transmission concept and
the shifts from/to the 1st gear are virtually unnoticeable because all noise and driveline
disturbances are eliminated with the help of one-way clutch.

However one-way clutches have other disadvantages such as relatively large size and not
tolerant to overload. Thus they are rarely applied in modern automatic transmissions. Clutch to
clutch shifting without one-way clutch has more freedom of choice in control strategies,
efficiency improvement, and shift comfort. Manufacturers and researchers now pay more
attention to the control of clutch to clutch shifting for the improvement of shift quality.

The coordinated control of engine variables such as spark advance angel and throttle opening
degree, together with transmission variables such as clutch pressures, enables significant gains
to the shift quality and clutch durability [W5]. This method is widely applied in the control of
clutch to clutch shifting. Nearly all vehicles develop their own integrated powertrain control
strategies with respect to a good control of the shifting process. Examples of this control
method are described in the work of Lorenz [L2], Cho [C3], Yang [Y2], Sawamura [S5],
46 3 State of the Art

Goetz [G5], Bai [B3], and so on. ZF 8-speed automatic transmission has benefited a lot with
the help of engine torque intervention. The shifts are supported by positive (downshifts) or
partly strong negative engine interventions (upshifts) for a further reduction of the
synchronizing time compared with its 6-speed automatic transmission. Thus the spontaneity of
ZF 8-speed automatic transmission can be improved in many shifts [S6]. Toyota has also
developed a new upshift control technology which uses integrated control of engine and
automatic transmissions [T4]. The first step of this upshift control is to design the target drive
force during the gear shifting. Then the control sequence of engine torque and clutch torque
capacity is designed to achieve the desired driving performance from the beginning of the
torque phase to the end of the inertia phase based on the analysis of shift transition mechanism.
This control technology has been successfully applied in the new Lexus LS460 which enables
smooth power on upshifts and dramatically improves the shift feeling with minimum shift
shock.

In a conventional throttle based powertrain control system, the transmission output torque will
typically decrease to a lower level after a power on upshift since the engine torque is nearly
the same as before the gear shifting while the speed ratio becomes smaller. Bai [B5]
introduced a new integrated powertrain control system. This new control system uses the
desired engine power as the common load variable for both engine and transmission control
instead of throttle used in conventional powertrain controls. A clutch to clutch shift control
algorithm is developed. By increasing the engine torque in the torque phase, the output torque
reduction owing to clutch torque transferring can be compensated. Thus the output torque can
remain at the same level before, during, and after the gear shifting in a power on upshift. This
new clutch to clutch control methodology, which is enabled by the integrated powertrain
control strategy, greatly reduces the torque disturbance during gear shifting. Therefore, it leads
to an improvement of shift quality especially for aggressive fuel economy oriented shift
patterns compared with a conventional control system. However, the constant output torque
control strategy of power on upshift is only suitable for the small throttle gear shifting due to a
consideration of clutch thermal capacity.

Minowa [M2, M3, M4] and Ibamoto [I1, I2] tried to improve the shift quality by estimating
the shaft torque of transmission. By means of the estimated shaft torque, it is possible to detect
the torque fluctuation and the start time of the inertia phase accurately. Torque feedback, got
from the estimated torque, is applied to the control of the engine torque. The optimum
hydraulic pressure, also got from the estimated torque, is applied to the control of the shifting
elements in the shifting process. As a consequence of the feedback, the transient torque control
is carried out without any tuning trouble. And a better torque fluctuation with small shocks is
 3 State of the Art 47

obtained. The proposed control method is verified through simulations and experiments of the
test vehicle utilizing an electronically controlled throttle. It provides an efficient control for
both engine and transmission which leads to a smooth shift feeling without much calibration
work.

Butts developed an event-sequenced control method for power on upshift and power on
downshift respectively [B6, B7]. The entry into successive control stages is initiated in
response to the achievement of specified criteria based on the acceleration information of input
shaft and output shaft. Estimates of the shaft acceleration values are determined by simple
shaft speed measurements through the use of a Kalman filtering technique. This shaft
acceleration signal can also be applied to detect the end of clutch filling which accuracy is a
key point to a good shift quality. The initial achievement of the on-coming clutch torque
capacity causes the input shaft acceleration momentarily becomes negative. Then the
transmission control unit receives the signal that the filling of the on-coming clutch is finished
and initiates the torque phase.

In automatic transmissions with clutch to clutch shifting, the filling process of the on-coming
clutch is a major source of uncertainty that makes the pressure overlapping in the shifting
process a difficult task [S7]. Song [S8] presented a systematic approach to evaluate the clutch
filling dynamics and to synthesize the optimal pressure profile. A clutch filling dynamic model
is built to capture the key dynamics in the filling process. In order to obtain the optimal and
robust pressure profile subject to specified constraints, a customized dynamic programming
method was proposed. This method not only reduces the computational burden significantly,
but also improves the accuracy of the result by eliminating the interpolation errors. In order to
validate the proposed method, a transmission clutch control test rig has been built to facilitate
the experimental investigation of the optimal clutch filling control [S9]. Both simulation and
experimental results showed a good consistency and verified the effectiveness of the proposed
control method.

A new technology using a hydraulic washout technique to control the synchronization of the
on-coming and the off-going clutches has been developed by Bai [B8]. It takes the on-coming
clutch pressure as washout signal to push down the off-going clutch pressure. This simple
washout action makes the synchronization of both clutches unaffected by the on-coming
clutch filling time. The tests results showed that this new technology greatly improves the shift
quality, system robustness, and calibration work compared with traditional clutch to clutch
control methods. However, this new technology greatly depends on the correct design of the
gains in the off-going clutch control valve.
48 3 State of the Art

Haj-Fraj [H3, H4, H5] proposed an approach for the optimization of gear shift operations in
automatic transmissions. Based on a verified mechanical model of a vehicle powertrain, the
control parameters for the clutch pressure as well as those for the load-reduction of engine are
optimized to improve the performance of the automatic transmission with respect to shift
comfort and gear shift duration. The nonlinear optimization problem is solved with a
sequential quadratic programming algorithm according to two sets of optimization criteria.
The first one consists of three different cost functions for the description of the passenger
comfort, whereas the second one contains two cost functions for the evaluation of the
operating life of shifting elements. The target is to minimise the friction loss and maximise the
shift comfort. The results showed a significant improvement in terms of the optimization
criteria under different driving conditions.

In the development of control strategies, a lot of control parameters which determine the
shifting process of various types are adjusted manually by road tests under different operating
conditions. This process is called “calibration”. The growing requirements for a good shift
quality means a long calibration time is required which thus results in a high development cost.
In addition, the evaluation of the shift quality comes from calibration engineers and is
subjective and not reproducible. Therefore, some test rigs are built to carry out the calibration
work in a lab. Küçükay [K6] automates the shift quality adjustment by transferring the
calibration process from road test to roller dynamometer in the lab. Firstly the shift quality is
objectified by various characteristic variables with respect to shift comfort and shift
spontaneity. A shift comfort assistant is developed based on the objective rating models to
evaluate the tested shift quality objectively. According to different optimisation criteria, the
best possible test plans for different constraints are generated. After finishing the test, the best
possible combination of control parameters with respect to the optimisation objectives
specified by the user is identified in the form of datasets offline at the office. According to the
weighting of the optimisation criteria “comfort” and “spontaneity”, different datasets can be
generated which are for example comfort mode, sports mode, winter mode etc. And these
datasets can be integrated into the transmission control unit. This method is also used
successfully by AVL and ZF [B9]. They jointly developed a methodology for the automation
of a model-based calibration process on the test rig. First tests on the rig showed that good
results have already been achieved in sections of the driveable range.

Dual clutch transmissions also apply the clutch to clutch shifting to achieve its power shift.
The theoretical background is essential the same as in automatic transmissions. Ludanek [L3]
provided a slip control method for the clutch to clutch shifting of a dual clutch transmission. In
 3 State of the Art 49

the torque phase of the shifting process, the slipping of the off-going clutch is controlled at a
small reference value. When the pressure of the on-coming clutch increases, the slip controller
automatically releases the pressure of the off-going clutch to limit the speed difference around
this reference value. A control algorithm that makes use of this clutch slip control method was
developed in detail for both upshift and downshift by Goetz [G5]. The described controller
also makes extensive use of the engine as a means to assist the shifting process. For example
the engine speed is controlled along a specified trajectory in the inertia phase by manipulation
of the engine torque. Furthermore, a closed-loop control of the transmission output torque is
added to influence the longitudinal vehicle acceleration. The output torque control is applied
in the inertia phase of power on upshift and in the torque phase of power on downshift.
Simulation results have demonstrated the advantages of this torque control particularly for
power on downshift where the torque increase due to the change of speed ratio can be
effectively controlled by choosing the appropriate reference profile. Another advantage is that
this output torque control can improve the robustness of gear shifting. However, the torque
measurement is usually difficult. And owning to the cost consideration, dual clutch
transmissions usually have no torque sensor on the output shaft.

The above researches concern how to get a good control of the clutch to clutch shifting. But it
is not enough with only one basic shift control algorithm with respect to the consistency of
shift quality in mass production and over the transmission service life. An adaptive system is
necessary to compensate for shift-to-shift variations and build-to-build variations [H6]. An
advanced shift controller that supervises the shift transients with adaptive compensation is
presented by Kim [K7]. The control input pattern which generates clutch pressure commands
in hydraulic actuation system is updated through a learning process to adjust each subsequent
shift based on the continuous monitoring of shift performance and environment variations. The
proposed algorithm was implemented and evaluated on the test rig. Results from the
experimental studies for several operation modes proved that both performance and
adaptability to uncertain variations had been improved.

Many patents describe their own adaptive control methods for a consistent good shift quality.
Hebbale [H7] invented a multi-variable adaptive adjustment method for the control of the on-
coming clutch in power on upshift. The control parameters corresponding to the on-coming
clutch filling time and the return spring pressure are adaptively adjusted by monitoring the
transmission input and output speeds in a subsequent power on upshift of the same ratio
change. This invention attributes a detected torque phase deviation to the variability of the
filling time and the on-coming clutch initial pressure. It fine tunes the control parameters so
that in the next shift of the same type, the detected deviation will be reduced or eliminated.
50 3 State of the Art

Besides continuously tuning the on-coming clutch initial pressure and the filling time, Cicala
[C4] and Lentz [L4] also tuned the off-going clutch initial pressure. The deviations from
calibrated values for these control parameters can be measured and stored in each control loop
of the transmission control unit. Thereby a correct filling time, a correct on-coming clutch
initial pressure and off-going clutch initial pressure can be learned because control parameters
are continuously tuned throughout the life of transmission. Other adaptive control methods for
the clutch to clutch shifting can be found in the literatures [D4], [N3], [K8], and so on. These
adaptive control strategies enhance the robustness of the shift control in automatic
transmissions.
 4 Modeling of the Vehicle Powertrain 51

4 Modeling of the Vehicle Powertrain

For the investigation of the dynamic behaviour in the shifting process, it is necessary to
develop a mathematical model of the vehicle powertrain. This mathematical model can
provide an environment for the control of the shifting process. In this environment, a general
structure of the vehicle powertrain including each component is described. Through the
mathematical model, how a vehicle powertrain responds to the driver command, the driving
load, and the integrated control strategies for the shifting process can be analysed in detail.

Because this thesis focuses on the optimized control of the shifting process in automatic
transmissions, some models of sub-systems are not necessary to be built much in detail. Such
as the electronic proportional solenoid valve, only its pressure to current characteristic is
enough to serve the purpose of shift control investigation. This can help to save the simulation
time by avoiding much non-linear calculation. In recent years, a lot of passenger cars are
equipped with eight or more speeds automatic transmissions. However the modeling of
automatic transmissions found in literatures is mostly regarding small number of speeds. In
this chapter a method that can be applied to the analysis of various automatic transmission
structures is developed. The simulation model is easily to be modified based on different
transmission structures and is especially suitable for a complicated structure with more speeds.
Here a powertrain model including an 8-speed automatic transmission for front transverse
application is shown in figure 4.1. The simulation results in the following chapters are all
based on this powertrain model.
Transmission

Engine

Figure 4.1: Powertrain model of an 8-speed automatic transmission

52 4 Modeling of the Vehicle Powertrain

4.1 Modeling of the Combustion Engine

Engine characteristic map is necessary for the mathematical model of the engine. It defines the
desired mean engine torque depending on the engine speed as well as the accelerator pedal
position. For a gasoline engine the accelerator pedal position stands for the throttle opening
degree. For a diesel engine which does not have a throttle valve for preparing the mixture, it
stands for the injection quantity of the fuel. The torque-speed characteristic curves in
dependency of different accelerator pedal positions can be acquired from the engine test.
However, normally only two characteristic curves are known in the modeling of the engine.
One is the full load characteristic curve and the other is the engine drag torque curve. Other
engine load characteristic curves can be interpolated based on these two curves according to
equation (4.1).
nE
exDP
n P max 0.45
TE  TE_ min  (TE_ max  TE_ min )  xDP (4.1)

where: TE Engine torque versus accelerator pedal position and engine

speed
TE _ min Engine drag torque versus engine speed

TE _ max Engine maximum torque versus engine speed

nE Engine rotational speed

n P max Engine rotational speed at maximum power
xDP Accelerator pedal position
exDP Exponent to characterize the torque curves depending on the
accelerator pedal position

The output torque of the engine has to drive the accessory loads like air conditioning,
mechanical oil pump, electric motor etc. These torque losses in the accessory equipment are
not considered in the engine model since it is usually small and doesn’t influence the
investigation for the control of the shifting process. However the inertia of the accessory
equipment connected to the engine crankshaft should be taken into account in the investigation.
Equation (4.2) shows that the acceleration and deceleration of the engine are determined by
the engine torque, the pump torque, and the inertia of the engine. A big moment of inertia
leads to a long shifting time and thus giving the driver a slow response of gear shifting which
makes the shift spontaneity become poor. In the simulation model, the inertia of the engine,
including all accessory mechanisms and the pump of the hydrodynamic torque converter are
lumped together in a single mass inertia for the modeling of the engine rotational parts.
TE  TP  J E  E  0 (4.2)
 4 Modeling of the Vehicle Powertrain 53

where: TP Pump torque of the hydrodynamic torque converter

JE Inertia of engine
E Angular acceleration of engine

Figure 4.2 shows the characteristic map of the gasoline engine used in the simulation model. It
is a spark ignition engine of two liters displacement with turbocharging. The torque curves at
different throttle angles are obtained based on equation (4.1) with the coefficient exDP equal
to 0.8. When running a simulation the engine model produces the torque controlled by the
driver’s accelerator pedal position. However for the driving in the 1st gear and the reverse gear,
the engine torque needs to be limited blow 200Nm when taking into account the maximum
climbing ability of the vehicle and the maximum traction force provided by the road.

Torque limit in the 1st

xDP=1
and reverse gear
xDP=0.9
200 xDP=0.8
xDP=0.7
Engine torque [Nm]

xDP=0.6
xDP=0.5
xDP=0.4
100
xDP=0.3
xDP=0.2
xDP=0.1
xDP=0
0

 100
0 2000 4000 6000 8000

Engine speed [rpm]

Figure 4.2: Engine characteristic map with different torque curves depending on
different accelerator pedal positions

4.2 Modeling of the Hydrodynamic Torque Converter

Automatic transmission usually has a hydrodynamic torque converter as the standard moving-
off equipment. It converts both speed and torque to overcome the speed difference between the
engine and the stationary vehicle. The hydrodynamic torque converter consists of a pump, a
turbine, and a reactor. The pump is mechanically connected to the engine. The turbine is
mechanically connected to the transmission input shaft. The reactor has a one-way clutch that
54 4 Modeling of the Vehicle Powertrain

can release it from the housing to combine the advantages of the hydrodynamic clutch and the
torque converter. By damping torque fluctuations of the combustion engine, the torque
converter allows a comfortable and smooth gear shifting. However the functional principle of
the torque converter is combined with undesired efficiency losses. In order to improve the
efficiency, a lock-up clutch is integrated in the torque converter to connect the pump and the
turbine mechanically at high engine speed. Modern systems with slip-controlled torque
converter lock-up clutches (SCCC) are already engaged in the first gear and are operated in all
gears slip-controlled [N1]. The pressure in the lock-up clutch can be continuously adjusted to
keep the reference slip in the SCCC. This function simultaneously optimizes the shift quality
and the overall efficiency of the driveline. A torsion damper system is required in the torque
converter for the locked-up condition concerning the vibration decoupling between the engine
and the driveline.

The mathematical model of the torque converter includes two parts. One part concerns the
hydrodynamic behavior of the torque converter when the lock-up clutch is opened. The
dependency of the pump torque and the turbine torque on the speed difference is described in
equation (4.3) and (4.4). The efficiency is calculated according to equation (4.5).
TP  TC  ATF  P 2  DTC5 (4.3)
TT  TC  TP (4.4)
TC  TC  TC (4.5)
where:  TC Performance coefficient of torque converter
ATF Density of ATF
P Angular speed of pump
DTC Profile diameter of torque converter
TT Turbine torque of torque converter
TC Torque ratio coefficient of torque converter
TC Efficiency of torque converter
 TC Speed ratio between turbine and pump

In above three equations the performance coefficient and the torque ratio coefficient are the
nature characteristics of the torque converter. They depend on the speed ratio between the
turbine and the pump. Different hydrodynamic torque converters can be selected for
comparison according to the two coefficients. Figure 4.3 shows the characteristic curves of the
torque converter applied in the simulation model.
 4 Modeling of the Vehicle Powertrain 55

2 8

Performance coefficient multiplied by 1000

Efficiency and torque ratio coefficient

1.5 6

1 4

0.5 2

0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Speed ratio between turbine and pump

Efficiency
Torque ratio coefficient
Performance coefficient

Figure 4.3: Characteristic curves of the torque converter

The matching characteristic between the torque converter and the engine is shown in figure
4.4. Since the torque converter is characterized by a falling performance coefficient TC( TC)

curve, the pump torque and the engine torque have a common operating range from the left-
hand line of =0 to the right-hand line of ≈1. The torque converter should be selected to keep
the common operating range available for both the maximum engine torque and the maximum
engine power. In old control strategies, the lock-up clutch of the torque converter is always
opened firstly before the gear shifting takes place. The hydraulic damping of the torque
converter can improve the shift quality. However currently good shift quality can be acquired
by good shift control even the lock-up clutch is engaged in the shifting process. Therefore, it is
not necessary to open the lock-up clutch before the gear shifting in modern automatic
transmissions.
56 4 Modeling of the Vehicle Powertrain

300
nT/nP=0
nT/nP=0,7
nT/nP=0,8
nT/nP=0,9
nT/nP=0,96
Pump torque [Nm] 200 Max. torque

100

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000

Pump speed [rpm]

Figure 4.4: Matching characteristic between the torque converter and the engine

When the lock-up clutch is engaged, the pump and the turbine are mechanically connected.
The torque converter does not work under a hydrodynamic condition. At this time the torsion
damper system needs to be taken into account in the modeling of the torque converter.
Therefore, the other part of the torque converter model considers the stiffness and the damping
characteristics to simulate the elasticity of the torsional spring damper. Figure 4.5 shows the
stiffness characteristic of the torsional spring damper in the simulation model. The damping
characteristic is depicted in figure 4.6.

600 0

300
Torsion torque [Nm]

0 0

 300

 600
 30  20  10 0 10 20 30
Torsion angle [deg]

Figure 4.5: Stiffness characteristic of the torsional spring damper

 4 Modeling of the Vehicle Powertrain 57

30 0

20

Damping torque [Nm] 10

0 0

 10

 20

 30
 100  50 0 50 100
Speed difference [rpm]

Figure 4.6: Damping characteristic of the torsional spring damper

It can be seen from figure 4.5 that the stiffness of the torsional spring damper is not a constant
value. There are two states for the stiffness coefficient. In figure 4.6, the damping torque
depends on the speed difference. It is calculated by means of an inverse tangent function in the
torque converter model. The torque generated in the torsional spring damper is expressed by
equation (4.6).
2
TTD  k TD  TD   arctan(n TD )  TTD _D max (4.6)

where: TTD Torque of the torsional spring damper
k TD Stiffness of the torsional spring damper
TD Angular difference of the torsional spring damper
n TD Speed difference of the torsional spring damper

TTD_Dmax Maximum damping torque of the torsional spring damper

4.3 Modeling of the Shifting Elements

Owning to the research focus, the shifting elements applied in the simulation model are all
referring to the multi-plate shifting element. A multi-plate shifting element has a slipping
process before it is released or locked. This process makes it become an ideal mechanism for
the gear shifting in automatic transmissions. The torque calculation of a multi-plate shifting
element depends on whether it is slipping or locked. When both halves of the shifting element
58 4 Modeling of the Vehicle Powertrain

rotate with different speeds, the actual torque is transferred through the slipping between
friction plates and reaction plates based on equation (4.7).
TSE  d  (pSE  pkiss )  A  r  z  signum() (4.7)
where: TSE Actual torque of the shifting element
d Dynamic friction coefficient
pSE Pressure of the shifting element
p kiss Kiss-point pressure
A Piston area
r Equivalent friction radius
z The number of friction surfaces
 Angular speed difference

It is known from equation (4.7) that the geometric parameters A, r, and z can’t be changed
after assembling. The dynamic friction coefficient d and the kiss-point pressure pkiss, which is
the pressure to overcome the return spring force and the seal friction force, vary over the
transmission life. Their values can’t be known exactly. The actual torque in the slipping state
can only be controlled by adjusting the pressure. When both halves of the shifting element are
locked together rotating with the same speed, the actual torque is the reaction torque to other
torques exerted on the shaft. At that time the actual torque can’t be calculated according to
equation (4.7).

If the dynamic friction coefficient is replaced by the static friction coefficient in equation (4.7),
the torque capacity which is the maximum torque the shifting element can transfer, is obtained.
As shown in equation (4.8), it is determined by the pressure, the equivalent friction radius, the
number of friction surfaces, the kiss-point pressure, and the static friction coefficient. When
the slipping speed of the shifting element is zero, the torque capacity is bigger than the actual
torque transferred by the shifting element. When the actual torque exceeds the torque capacity,
the shifting element will begin slipping and the actual torque is equal to the friction torque.
Tcapacity  S  (pSE  pkiss )  A  r  z (4.8)

where: Tcapacity Torque capacity of the shifting element

S Static friction coefficient

Assuming that the static friction coefficient is equal to the dynamic friction coefficient, then
figure 4.7 clearly explained the relationship of the torque capacity and the actual torque.
 4 Modeling of the Vehicle Powertrain 59

Torque capacity
Actual torque

Torque [Nm]

|Slip|>0 |Slip|=0

Pressure [bar]

Figure 4.7: Relationship of the torque capacity and the actual clutch torque

As described in the previous section, a friction model is necessary for the dynamic modeling
of shifting elements. The friction coefficient is not a constant value. It has a profile versus
slipping speed which is called the -v characteristic. This characteristic is affected by many
factors such as the friction linings (material, design, quality, aging, wear), the automatic
transmission fluid (base oils, additives, quality, temperature, aging, wear), and so on. Smooth
shifts are typically associated with a positive slope -v characteristic which means that the
dynamic friction coefficient is bigger than the static friction coefficient and it increases (or
decreases) with the slipping speed increasing (or decreasing). Since the friction coefficient of
the paper-based material has a good positive slope -v characteristic, it is widely applied in the
passenger car automatic transmissions. In this thesis, the friction coefficient is modeled by
using an inverse tangent function according to equation (4.9).
n 2
d  max  arctan( ) (4.9)
n 

where:  max Maximum friction coefficient

n Rotational speed difference
n Speed scaling factor

The inverse tangent function simulates the positive slope -v characteristic of the paper-based
friction linings. At the same time, it eliminates the discontinuity at zero slipping speed which
can make the simulation model run slowly and oscillate in the vicinity of the discontinuity
point. Figure 4.8 shows the -v characteristic of the friction coefficient in the simulation
model.
60 4 Modeling of the Vehicle Powertrain

0.2
0
μmax

Dynamic friction coefficient

0.1

0 0

 0.1
-μmax

 0.2
 800  400 0 400 800

Rotational speed difference [rpm]

Big scaling factor
Small scaling factor

Figure 4.8: μ-v characteristic of the friction coefficient

The inverse tangent function is simple and easy to be used in the simulation model. However
there is an issue when applying it. As shown in figure 4.8, since the inverse tangent function
cross the original point of the Cartesian coordinates, the shifting element can’t transfer any
torque without slipping. That means the shifting element still has a small slipping speed when
it is locked in the simulation. Although this slipping speed can be reduced by using a small
scaling factor (dashed line in figure 4.8) instead of a big scaling factor (solid line in figure 4.8),
the mathematical model will generate numerical issues and the simulation time will becomes
longer. Therefore, a trade-off should be made between a small slipping speed of the locked
shifting element and a long simulation time.

4.4 Modeling of the Transmission Kinetics and Kinematics

The modeling of the transmission kinetics and kinematics is based on the matrix method
described in chapter 2.2. Before analysing the dynamic behaviour of the automatic
transmission in the shifting process, the transmission structure firstly needs to be defined. An
Excel file as the input of the simulation model is used to describe the transmission structure.
Different types of automatic transmissions can be easily defined using this Excel file. Figure
4.9 shows the structure and the shifting logic of the 8-speed automatic transmission applied in
the simulation model. Its definition in the Excel file is shown in figure 4.10.
 4 Modeling of the Vehicle Powertrain 61

0 TG610 TG47 PG1 TG58 Shifting logic

C3 C1
B1
C4
Gear B1 C1 C2 C3 C4
3 6 4 5
1
in
R ● ● ●
N ● ●
10
1 ● ● ●
PG3 7
2 ● ● ●
8
2 3 ● ● ●
final
drive 9 4 ● ● ●

11 5 ● ● ●

C2
6 ● ● ●
PG2
7 ● ● ●
out diff. out
8 ● ● ●

Figure 4.9: Structure and shifting logic of the 8-speed automatic transmission

Structure Definition of the Automatic Transmission

Transmission 8-speed Automatic Transmission for front transverse application
box in out
Shafts
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Inertia 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 [kgm²]
Gears Standard ratio
PG1 c s r iPG1 = -1.75
PG2 c s r iPG2 = -1.96
PG3 c s r iPG3 = -3.17
TG47 c s r iTG47 = -1.01
TG58 c s r iTG58 = -1.00
TG610 c s r iTG610 = -2.16
TG211 c s r iTG211 = -3.56
Shifting elements Note:
C1 x y c: carrier
r: ring gear
C2 x y
s: sun gear
C3 x y x: one side of
C4 x y the shifting
B1 x y elements
y: another side
Shifting logic
of the shifting
Gear R NR N1 N2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 elements
Closed SE B1 B1 B1 C1 C2 C2 C2 C2 C2
Closed SE C4 C4 C4 C4 C4 C4 C4 C4 C4 C3 B1 B1
Closed SE C2 C2 C1 C3 C1 C3 C3 C3 C1 C1 C1 C3

Figure 4.10: Definition of the 8-speed automatic transmission structure in the Excel file

As shown in figure 4.9, the 8-speed AT has four transfer gear sets “TG610, TG47, TG58,
TG211”, three planetary gear sets “PG1, PG2, PG3”, and five shifting elements “B1, C1, C2,
C3, C4”. For the dynamic analysis of the shifting process, the linear equations with unknown
variables need to be built. In the mathematical model, each shaft of the transmission is
62 4 Modeling of the Vehicle Powertrain

considered as a separate inertia. They have accelerations in the shifting process. According to
the connection relationship, each component (planetary gear sets, transfer gear sets, shifting
elements) has several torque nodes on the corresponding shafts. All the unknown variables
applied in the governing equations are summarized in figure 4.11.

"shafts" "inertia" "acceleration" "shaft element" "shaft element" "shaft element" "shaft element" "shaft element" "shaft element"
"box" Jbox box TTG47_box TTG58_box TTG610_box TTG211_box TB1_box Tbox

"1" J1 1 TPG1_1 TC1_1 Tin_1 0 0 0

 "2" J2 TPG2_2 TPG3_2 TTG211_2 0 0 0 
2
"3" J3 3 TPG1_3 TC4_3 TB1_3 0 0 0

"4" J4 4 TPG1_4 TTG47_4 TC3_4 0 0 0

 
"5" J5 5 TTG58_5 TC1_5 TC3_5 0 0 0

"6" J6 6 TTG610_6 TC4_6 0 0 0 0

"7" J7 7 TPG2_7 TTG47_7 0 0 0 0

 "8" J8 8 TPG3_8 TTG58_8 TC2_8 0 0 0 

"9" J9 9 TPG2_9 TC2_9 0 0 0 0

"10" J10 10 TPG3_10 TTG610_10 0 0 0 0

 "11" J11 11 TTG211_11 Tout_11 0 0 0 0 

Figure 4.11: Unknown variables of the 8-speed automatic transmission structure

In figure 4.11, Ji denotes the inertia of the i-th shaftν αi denotes the angular acceleration of the
i-th shaftν Tx_i denotes the torque node of the component x on the i-th shaft. There are total 4θ
unknown variables in this 8-speed automatic transmission, including the acceleration of each
shaft and all the torque nodes. Therefore, 4θ linear equations are necessary to solve them. The
Newton method is applied in the simulation model to describe all the linear equations. The
kinetic constraints for the transmission shafts and the housing are expressed from equation
(4.10) to equation (4.21).
TTG47 _ box  TTG58 _ box  TTG610 _ box  TTG211_ box  TB1_ box  Tbox
Housing: (4.10)
J box  box  0

Shaft 1: TPG1_1  TC1_1  Tin_1  J11  0 (4.11)

Shaft 2: TPG2 _ 2  TPG3_ 2  TTG211_ 2  J2 2  0 (4.12)

Shaft 3: TPG1_ 3  TC4 _ 3  TB1_ 3  J33  0 (4.13)

Shaft 4: TPG1_ 4  TTG47 _ 4  TC3_ 4  J 44  0 (4.14)

Shaft 5: TTG58_ 5  TC1_ 5  TC3_ 5  J55  0 (4.15)

Shaft 6: TTG610 _ 6  TC4 _ 6  J66  0 (4.16)

Shaft 7: TPG2 _ 7  TTG47 _ 7  J7 7  0 (4.17)

Shaft 8: TPG3_8  TTG58_8  TC2 _8  J88  0 (4.18)

 4 Modeling of the Vehicle Powertrain 63

Shaft 9: TPG2 _ 9  TC2 _ 9  J9 9  0 (4.19)

Shaft 10: TPG3_10  TTG610 _10  J10 10  0 (4.20)

Shaft 11: TTG211_11  Tout_11  J1111  0 (4.21)

Planetary gear sets and transfer gear sets have specific relationships for the angular
accelerations and the torques of their components. The kinetic constraints for all planetary
gear sets and transfer gear sets are expressed in the following equations. In order to facilitate
the computer programming, the transfer gear set is assumed to have a carrier like the planetary
gear set. This assumed carrier has no rotation thus is connected to the housing in the equation.
PG1: TPG1_ 4  iPG1  TPG1_ 3  0 (4.22)

TPG1_ 4  TPG1_ 3  TPG1_1  0 (4.23)

PG2: TPG2 _ 9  iPG2  TPG2 _ 7  0 (4.24)

TPG2 _ 9  TPG2 _ 7  TPG2 _ 2  0 (4.25)

PG3: TPG3_10  iPG3  TPG3_ 8  0 (4.26)

TPG3_10  TPG3_8  TPG3_ 2  0 (4.27)

TG47: TTG47 _ 7  iTG47  TTG47 _ 4  0 (4.28)

TTG47 _ 7  TTG47 _ 4  TTG47 _box  0 (4.29)

TG58: TTG58_ 8  iTG58  TTG58_ 5  0 (4.30)

TTG58_8  TTG58_ 5  TTG58_box  0 (4.31)

TG610: TTG610 _10  iTG610  TTG610 _ 6  0 (4.32)

TTG610 _10  TTG610 _ 6  TTG610 _box  0 (4.33)

TG211: TTG211_11  iTG211  TTG211_ 2  0 (4.34)

TTG211_11  TTG211_ 2  TTG211_box  0 (4.35)

In above equations, ix stands for the ratio of the corresponding gear set. The acceleration
equations for all the gear sets are shown from equation (4.3θ) to equation (4.42). They
describe the kinematic constraints of all the gear sets. For the housing, its angular acceleration
should be 0 (4.43).
PG1: 3  iPG14  (i PG1  1)1  0 (4.36)
PG2: 7  iPG29  (iPG2  1)2  0 (4.37)
PG3: 8  iPG310  (iPG3  1)2  0 (4.38)
64 4 Modeling of the Vehicle Powertrain

TG47: 4  iTG47 7  (iTG47  1)box  0 (4.39)

TG58: 5  iTG588  (iTG58  1)box  0 (4.40)
TG610: 6  iTG61010  (iTG610  1)box  0 (4.41)
TG211: 2  iTG21111  (iTG211  1)box  0 (4.42)
Housing: box  0 (4.43)

For each shifting element, no matter whether it is locked or opened, the torques on both halves
of the shifting element should be equal because of the kinetic constraints as shown from
equation (4.44) to equation (4.48).
Brake B1: TB1_ 3  TB1_box  0 (4.44)

Clutch C1: TC1_in  TC1_ 5  0 (4.45)

Clutch C2: TC2 _ 8  TC2 _ 9  0 (4.46)

Clutch C3: TC3_ 4  TC3_ 5  0 (4.47)

Clutch C4: TC4 _ 3  TC4 _ 6  0 (4.48)

In each simulation, the transmission input torque is known from the engine side. The
transmission output load is known from the calculation of the driving resistances.
Input driving: Tin _1  Tin (4.49)

Output load: Tout _11  Tout (4.50)

In equation (4.50), Tin and Tout stand for the input torque and the output load of the automatic
transmission. Above 41 equations are the same for different shift simulations. They reflect the
kinematic and kinetic constrains of the 8-speed automatic transmission. Additional five
equations are needed to calculate all the unknown variables. This is done by adding the “shift
equations” according to the shifting logic. It can be seen from figure 4.λ that in each clutch-to-
clutch shifting there are two holding shifting elements, one open shifting element, and two
actuated shifting elements. For example, when the 8AT shifts from the 2nd gear to the 3rd gear,
clutch C3 and C4 are the holding shifting elements. Both halves of these two shifting elements
have the same angular acceleration.
Clutch C3:  4  5 (4.51)
Clutch C4: 3   6 (4.52)

Clutch C2 is the open shifting element. It doesn’t transmit any torque.

 4 Modeling of the Vehicle Powertrain 65

Clutch C2: TC2 _ 8  0 (4.53)

Brake B1 and clutch C1 are the actuated shifting elements. In particular, brake B1 is the off-
going shifting element and clutch C1 is the on-coming shifting element. In the shifting
process, they transmit the friction torque which can be controlled by the clutch pressure.
Brake B1: TB1_ 3  d  (pB1  pkiss_B1 )  AB1  rB1  zB1  signum(B1 ) (4.54)

Clutch C1: TC1_1  d  (pC1  pkiss _C1 )  AC1  rC1  zC1  signum(C1 ) (4.55)

where: pB1 ,pkiss_B1 B1 pressure and kiss-point pressure

pC1 ,pkiss_C1 C1 pressure and kiss-point pressure

AB1 ,AC1 B1 and C1 piston area

rB1 , rC1 B1 and C1 equivalent friction radius
z B1 , zC1 The number of friction surfaces of B1 and C1
B1 , C1 Angular speed difference of B1 and C1

Equation (4.η1) to equation (4.ηη) is different for different shift simulations. The simulation
model will automatically supplement these five equations according to the selected gear
shifting. All these equations are solved by a matrix method in each time step. The coefficient
matrix is filled according to the left side of above 4θ governing equations. Such a model is
easy to be modified for different transmission structure. It is known from equations (4.54) and
(4.55) that the control of the shifting process can be optimized by tuning the pressure of the
engaging and disengaging shifting elements.
66 4 Modeling of the Vehicle Powertrain

4.5 Modeling of the Proportional Solenoid Valve

Pilot control pressure [bar] 4

Tolerance
3

2 Average value

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Current of proportinal solenoid valve [mA]

Figure 4.12: Pressure to current characteristic of the proportional solenoid valve

25

20
Clutch pressure [bar]

15 Tolerance
Dead band

Average value
10

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Current of proportinal solenoid valve [mA]

Figure 4.13: Clutch pressure to solenoid current characteristic

The pressure of the shifting element in equation (4.7) is controlled by the proportional
solenoid valve. A proportional solenoid valve is composed of the electro-magnetic, mechanical,
and fluid subsystems. A complex model for describing the flow dynamics of the proportional
solenoid valve has a lot of non-linear characteristics. It is not suitable for the investigation of
the shifting process because these non-linear characteristics increase the risk of simulation
instability. The simulation time will become too long. Instead, the pressure to current
characteristic of the proportional solenoid valve is applied directly in the simulation model.
 4 Modeling of the Vehicle Powertrain 67

Figure 4.12 depicts the characteristic of the proportional solenoid valve used in the 8-speed
automatic transmission. Since this type of solenoid valve is only used for pilot control with the
maximum 5bar pressure, an additional slide valve is necessary to extend the control range to
the maximum line pressure. The extended “clutch pressure” to “solenoid current”
characteristic is shown in figure 4.13 and applied in the simulation model.

4.6 Modeling of the Driving Resistance

The output load of the automatic transmission is calculated by modeling the driving resistance
of the vehicle. The total driving resistance of the vehicle can be divided into the rolling
resistance, the air resistance, the acceleration resistance, and the gradient resistance. Figure
4.14 demonstrates all these resistance forces of a moving vehicle on the hill of a certain
gradient.
Vertical projection

Horizontal projection

Figure 4.14: Driving resistances on a vehicle

The resistances acting on the rolling wheel are made up of the rolling resistance, the road
surface resistance and the slipping resistance. Since the rolling resistance is the dominant
wheel resistance and it is assumed that the vehicle runs on a dry surface, the wheel resistance
can be calculated equally to the rolling resistance in the simulation model. The following
formula is then applied.
FR _ roll  fR  mF  g  cos(St ) (4.56)

where: FR _ roll Rolling resistance

fR Rolling resistance coefficient

68 4 Modeling of the Vehicle Powertrain

mF Vehicle mass
St Gradient angle

The rolling resistance coefficient varies with the vehicle speed. In the simulation model, it is
expressed by a fourth order polynomial.
vF vF
f R  f R 0  f R1  ( )  fR 4  ( )4 (4.57)
100km / h 100km / h
where: vF Vehicle speed
fR 0 0. order coefficient
f R1 1. order coefficient
fR 4 4. order coefficient
The coefficients fR0, fR1, and fR4 are determined by the factors such as wheel load, tire pressure,
and tire type.

The air resistance is made up of the pressure drag including induced drag (turbulence induced
by differences in pressure), surface resistance and internal (through-flow) resistance [N1]. It is
a quadratic function of the air flow rate which is calculated by:
1
FR _air   L  c W  A F  vF2 (4.58)
2
where: FR _air Air resistance

L Air density
cW Drag coefficient
AF Vehicle cross-section

The road gradient is defined as the quotient of the vertical and horizontal projections of the
roadway according to equation (4.59).
Vertical projection
q  tan(St )  (4.59)
Horizontal projection

where: q Road gradient

The gradient resistance refers to the descending force of the vehicle weight on the gravity
center.
FR _ gradient  mF  g  sin(St )  mF  g  sin(arctan(q)) (4.60)

where: FR _ gradient Gradient resistance

 4 Modeling of the Vehicle Powertrain 69

When the vehicle is accelerating or braking, the inertia force of the vehicle including all
rotating parts must be considered.
FR _ acc  F  mF  a F (4.61)

where: FR _ acc Acceleration resistance

F Rotational inertia coefficient

aF Vehicle acceleration

In equation (4.61), the rotational inertia coefficient converts all the rotating elements of the
vehicle, such as engine, moving-off element, transmission shaft, wheel etc., to the driving axle
side. It is a function of the speed ratio.
Jin  iG 2  i FD 2  J out
F  1  (4.62)
rdyn 2  mF

where: J in Inertia of the transmission input side including engine

iG Transmission speed ratio
i FD Final drive ratio
J out Inertia of the transmission output side including vehicle mass
and all tires
rdyn Radius of the tire

In the simulation model, the acceleration resistance is taken into account by calculating the
inertia torque of each shaft. There is no need to consider the acceleration resistance of the
vehicle when calculating the transmission output load. Above driving resistances are converted
to the wheel load according to equation (4.63). This wheel load has to be balanced by the
output torque of the automatic transmission and the vehicle inertia torque.
TL  (FR _ roll  FR _ air  FR _ gradient )  rdyn (4.63)

where: TL Wheel load

The torsional stiffness and damping of the transmission output side should also be considered.
They come from the tire and the side shaft of the driving axle. It is very important to have
them in the simulation model. Otherwise vibration or judder will not appear in the simulation
results which however can be observed in reality if the control of the shifting process is not
good. In this thesis, a linear spring-damper element is selected to model the torsional
compliance of the transmission output side. Therefore, the output load of the transmission
output side can be calculated according to equation (4.64).
70 4 Modeling of the Vehicle Powertrain

2
Tout  k out  out   arctan(n out )  Tout_D max (4.64)

where: k out Stiffness of the transmission output side
out Angular difference of the transmission output side
n out Speed difference of the transmission output side

Tout_D max Maximum damping torque of the transmission output side

 η Shifting Process of the Clutch to Clutch Shifting 71

5 Shifting Process of the Clutch to Clutch Shifting

Clutch to clutch shifting has no power interruption because a torque overlap between the on-
coming clutch and the off-going clutch exists in the shifting process. The torque is transferred
from the off-going clutch to the on-coming clutch during the overlap. Meanwhile the engine
speed has to be synchronized from the current gear to the target gear in the shifting process.
No matter which control strategy is applied to control the shifting process, the theoretical
background of the clutch to clutch shifting is always the same for clutch torque transferring
and engine speed synchronization. However the two phases appear in a different order in
different shifting types. In this chapter, the basic theory of the clutch to clutch shifting will be
explained.

Generally speaking, there are four main shifting types for the clutch to clutch shifting. They
are power on upshift, power on downshift, power off upshift, and power off downshift. Figure
5.1 shows a shift map of an automatic transmission. It determines when the gear shifting
occurs based on two parameters: the throttle opening degree and the vehicle speed.
2-1 1-2 3-2 2-3 4-3 3-4
100
90
80
Throttle opening[%]

70
a b
60
50
40
30
20
10
d c
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Vehicle speed [km/h]

Figure 5.1: Shift map of an automatic transmission

The transmission control unit gets the measured data of the throttle opening degree and the
vehicle speed timely from sensors and then controls the gear shifting according to this map. It
not only provides the information when the gear shifting takes place but also tells the
72 η Shifting Process of the Clutch to Clutch Shifting

transmission control unit which shifting type it should be for a specific gear shifting.
According to the shift map shown in figure 5.1, the occasion when each shifting type takes
place is introduced as following.

(1) Power on upshift: This shifting type takes place when the driver slowly pushes down the
accelerator pedal to accelerate the vehicle or fast releases the accelerator pedal but not
completely after overtaking. For example, as shown in figure 5.1, when the vehicle is
accelerated from point “a” to point “b” across the solid upshift line, a power on upshift
from the 2nd gear to the 3rd gear occurs. At this time the throttle opening degree is about
50%. The engine outputs power to drive the vehicle. This gear shifting reduces the engine
speed in order to continue accelerating the vehicle. Besides, the engine speed runs in a
better fuel economy region through this upshift.

(2) Power on downshift: If the driver wants to overtake or the vehicle starts climbing, he or
she will kick down the accelerator pedal in a short time. In this case the transmission
control unit evaluates that the vehicle needs more torque to accelerate or to overcome the
resistance thus a power on downshift occurs. The power on downshift can increase the
engine speed to a region where there is more available engine power for acceleration.
And since the speed ratio becomes big, the wheel torque will increase to give more
driving force to the vehicle. The power on downshift corresponds to the arrow from point
“d” to point “a” in figure 5.1. When the accelerator pedal crosses the dashed downshift
line, a power on downshift from the 3rd gear to the 2nd gear appears.

(3) Power off upshift: Sometimes the driver releases the accelerator pedal to 0% quickly
without applying the braking pedal. It often happens after the vehicle overtakes on a
highway or starts a long descent. At this time the engine does not output any power but is
a drag torque to the vehicle. In consideration of the fuel economy, the engine speed will
be reduced by a power off upshift. In figure 5.1, the arrow from point “b” to point “c” is
just such a case. The throttle opening degree drops to 0% across the solid upshift line.
Thus a power off upshift from the 3rd gear to the 4th gear occurs.

(4) Power off downshift: This shifting type happens when the driver wants to stop the vehicle.
In this case the accelerator pedal is completely released so that the engine provides a
braking torque to decelerate the vehicle. Sometimes the brake pedal is pushed down,
sometimes not. But the vehicle is always slowing down. For example, when the vehicle
coasts down from point “c” to point “d” in figure 5.1, the speed crosses the dashed
downshift line. A power off downshift from the 4th gear to the 3rd gear then takes place.
 η Shifting Process of the Clutch to Clutch Shifting 73

This downshift can increase the engine speed in order not to stall the engine in the high
gear.

These four shifting types can be simply divided by their names. “Power on or off” means that
the transmission input torque is positive or negative. “Up or downshift” means that the target
gear is a high or low gear. Modern automatic transmissions require at least all 1-step shifts are
clutch to clutch shifting. In some automatic transmissions, not only all 1-step shifts but also all
2-step shifts, even many far-step shifts are clutch to clutch shifting. This advantage provides a
possibility for fast gear shifting thus good shift spontaneity can be acquired. However when
the shift is not clutch to clutch shifting, a support gear is necessary for the shift from the
current gear to the target gear. The transition to and from the support gear must be clutch to
clutch shifting. For example, the shift from the 6th gear to the 2nd gear in the shifting logic of
figure 4.9 is not clutch to clutch shifting. Thus the 3rd gear is selected as the support gear. The
shift will firstly transfer from the 6th gear to the 3rd gear, then from the 3rd gear to the 2nd gear.
Both shifts are clutch to clutch shifting.

All the four shifting types have torque transferring and speed synchronization in their shifting
process. Usually the torque transferring from the off-going clutch to the on-coming clutch is
called the torque phase. The speed synchronization from the current gear to the target gear is
known as the inertia phase or the speed phase. What is different for the four shifting types is
the order of the two phases. Besides, the profile of the engine torque, engine speed, clutch
torque, and output torque versus the shifting time are also different. These differences will be
clarified based on the simple equivalent model of a 2-speed transmission shown in figure 5.2.

Clutch C1: TC1

TE αin i1 αout TL

Engine Jin Jout Vehicle

i2

Clutch C2: TC2

Figure 5.2: Simple equivalent model of a 2-speed vehicle powertrain

74 η Shifting Process of the Clutch to Clutch Shifting

In the simplified 2-speed powertrain model, clutch C1 is assumed to be locked in the 1 st gear.
Clutch C2 is assumed to be locked in the 2nd gear. For power on upshift and power off upshift
described in the following, clutch C1 is disengaged and clutch C2 is engaged. On the country,
for power on downshift and power off downshift, clutch C1 is engaged and clutch C2 is
disengaged. For all the four shifting types, the vehicle speed is assumed to be constant in the
shifting process. It makes sense because the vehicle has a big inertia.

5.1 Power on Upshift

Figure 5.3 shows the change of engine speed, engine torque, clutch torque, and transmission
output torque in the shifting process of power on upshift. The theoretical background of power
on upshift can be demonstrated according to this figure.

Engine Engine
speed torque

(a) Time (b) Time

Actual Output
clutch torque
torque
TC1 TC2

(c) Time (d) Time

Figure 5.3: Shifting process of power on upshift without reducing the engine torque

Before the power on upshift starts, clutch C1 is locked in the 1st gear. The power from the
engine flows through it to drive the vehicle. Meanwhile clutch C2 is open and there is no
torque transmitted through it. At this time the torque balance of the vehicle powertrain can be
expressed by equation (5.1) and equation (5.2).
TE  TC1  Jin  in (5.1)
TC1  i1  J out  out  TL (5.2)
 η Shifting Process of the Clutch to Clutch Shifting 7η

where: TC1 Actual torque of clutch C1

i1 Ratio of the 1st gear
 in Angular acceleration of transmission input side
 out Angular acceleration of transmission input side

After the transmission control unit sends out the shifting command, the actual torque of the
off-going clutch C1 is reduced. It is known from equation (5.1) that this torque reduction will
result in an increase of the input angular acceleration. Thus the engine speed will increase and
deviate from the current gear speed (output speed multiplied by the current gear ratio). If the
speed deviation is too big, “engine flare” which is also known as “engine overshoot” happens.
Since the target gear speed (output speed multiplied by the target gear ratio) is smaller than the
current gear speed in power on upshift, the speed deviation from the target gear will also
increase in this case. Therefore, it is necessary to compensate for the torque reduction by
increasing the actual torque of the on-coming clutch C2. At this time the torque balance of the
vehicle powertrain is expressed by equation (5.3) and equation (5.4).
TE  TC1  TC2  Jin  in (5.3)
TC1  i1  TC2  i2  Jout  out  TL (5.4)
where: TC2 Actual torque of clutch C2
i2 Ratio of the 2nd gear

This phase corresponds to the region between the dotted line and the dotted line in
figure η.3. It can be seen the engine still runs along the current gear speed. No speed
synchronization happens in this phase. The clutch torque is transferred from the off-going
clutch C1 to the on-coming clutch C2. Therefore, torque phase comes firstly in power on
upshift. It is known from equation (η.3) that in order to keep the input angular acceleration
constant, the torque increase in clutch C2 must be equal to the torque decrease in clutch C1. In
addition, since the 2nd gear ratio is smaller than the 1st gear ratio, the transmission output
torque “TC1·i1+TC2·i2” is reduced in this phase as shown in figure η.3(d). If engine flare occurs
in the torque phase, the transmission output torque will be reduced even more.

When the off-going clutch C1 is completely released, its actual torque becomes 0. The torque
phase ends. All the engine torque is now completely transmitted by the on-coming clutch C2.
The torque balance of the vehicle powertrain can then be modified to equation (η.η) and
equation (η.θ).
TE  TC2  Jin  in (5.5)
7θ η Shifting Process of the Clutch to Clutch Shifting

TC2  i2  J out  out  TL (5.6)

The torque transferring is finished at the dotted line in figure η.3. However the engine
speed is still along the current gear at this time. Therefore, the inertia phase follows between
the dotted line and the dotted line with the aim of decelerating the engine speed from the
current gear to the target gear. According to equation (η.η) and figure η.3(a), the input angular
acceleration αin needs to be reduced from positive to negative. It can be realized by continuing
increasing the torque of the on-coming clutch C2 as shown in figure η.3(c). This leads to an
increase of the transmission output torque. Thereby in the vicinity of the dotted line in
figure η.3(d), the transmission output torque firstly decreases then increases in a short time.
Then vehicle jerk happens around the dotted line which makes the shift quality become
bad. After the engine speed is synchronized to the target gear, the on-coming clutch C2 stops
slipping and its actual torque changes from the friction torque to the reaction torque. The
transmission output torque then decreases again to the value of the engine torque multiplied by
the 2nd gear ratio. The power on upshift is finally completed.

According to equation (η.η), the decrease of the input angular acceleration can also be realized
by reducing the engine torque. Figure η.4 demonstrates the shifting process of power on
upshift with the help of engine torque intervention in the inertia phase. In this figure, graph (b)
shows that the engine torque is reduced between the dotted line and the dotted line to
assist to decelerate the engine speed. It is usually controlled by manipulating the throttle or the
spark advance angle. In this case the actual torque of the on-coming clutch C2 does not need
to increase in the inertia phase. As a consequence, according to equation (η.θ) the transmission
output torque will also not increase after decreasing firstly between the dotted line and the
dotted line . Therefore, figure η.4(d) shows that the transmission output torque only
decreases from the current gear to the target gear in the torque phase compared with figure
η.3(d). This helps to avoid generating big vehicle jerk in the shifting process so that the shift
quality can be improved.

Normally the actual torque of the on-coming clutch is also fine-tuned in the inertia phase to
cooperate with the engine torque reduction for smooth speed synchronization. However it will
not increase too much to cause big vehicle jerk like in power on upshift without engine torque
intervention. At the end of the torque phase, the engine torque will increase back to the level
before the gear shifting.
 η Shifting Process of the Clutch to Clutch Shifting 77

Engine Engine
speed torque

(a) Time (b) Time

Actual Output
clutch torque
torque
TC1 TC2

(c) Time (d) Time

Figure 5.4: Shifting process of power on upshift with reducing the engine torque

This control method is an integrated powertrain control which the gear shifting is completed
through the cooperation work of the engine and the automatic transmission. It is widely
applied in current vehicle. For power on upshift, not only the engine speed but also the output
torque can be smoothly transferred from the current gear to the target gear by applying this
control method.

5.2 Power on Downshift

In power on downshift, the engine torque is positive like in power on upshift. However, the
basic theory of power on downshift is quite different from power on upshift. Figure 5.5 shows
the change of engine speed, engine torque, clutch torque, and transmission output torque in the
shifting process of power on downshift. It is applied here to explain the theoretical background
of power on downshift based on the simple equivalent model of the 2-speed vehicle
powertrain shown in figure 5.2.

Assuming that the vehicle is running in the 2nd gear, clutch C2 is locked for power transmitting
from the engine to the vehicle. It is the off-going clutch that will be disengaged in the shifting
process. At the same time clutch C1 is open and prepared for engaging as the on-coming
78 η Shifting Process of the Clutch to Clutch Shifting

clutch. The torque balance of the vehicle powertrain in the 2nd gear is known from equation
(5.5) and equation (5.6).

Engine Engine
speed torque

(a) Time (b) Time

Actual Output
clutch torque
torque
TC2 TC1

(c) Time (d) Time

Figure 5.5: Shifting process of power on downshift without increasing the engine torque

The off-going clutch C2 is firstly released after the gear shifting begins. As known from
equation (5.5), the torque reduction of clutch C2 causes the increase of the input angular
acceleration. The engine speed increases faster than the current gear speed. However, what is
different for power on downshift is that the target gear speed is bigger than the current gear
speed. The engine speed gets close to the target gear speed because of the torque reduction of
the off-going clutch C2 so that the speed synchronization can be firstly completed. During this
phase, there is no need to compensate for the torque reduction of clutch C2 by increasing the
actual torque of the on-coming clutch C1. Therefore, in power on downshift the inertia phase
comes firstly with the torque balance of the vehicle powertrain still based on equation (5.5)
and equation (5.6).

As shown in figure 5.5, the inertia phase is between the dotted line and the dotted line in
power on downshift. The engine speed increases (graph (a)) because of the release of the off-
going clutch C2 (graph (c)). A partial disengagement of the off-going clutch however causes
the transmission output torque to drop severely (graph (d)) according to equation (5.6).
 η Shifting Process of the Clutch to Clutch Shifting 7λ

Therefore, in power on downshift the vehicle will inevitably have a traction loss in the inertia
phase before it gets more torque on driving wheels after the gear shifting.

The torque phase can’t begin until the engine speed is bigger than the target gear speed.
Otherwise, a negative torque will appear in the on-coming clutch to drag the vehicle. After the
engine speed reaches over the target gear speed, the torque of the off-going clutch C2
continues to decrease. Meanwhile the torque of the on-coming clutch C1 starts increasing
thereby transferring the torque from the off-going clutch to the on-coming clutch. In order to
avoid engine flare over the target gear speed, the torque increase in the on-coming clutch
should be bigger than the torque decrease in the off-going clutch. Equation (η.3) and equation
(η.4) describe the torque balance of the vehicle powertrain in this phase. In figure η.η, the
region between the dotted line and the dotted line corresponds to the torque phase.
Compared with the torque phase in power on upshift, graph (d) shows that the output torque
does not decrease but increase in the torque phase of power on downshift. When the torque of
the off-going clutch C2 decreases to 0, the input torque has been handed over to the on-coming
clutch C1 and the torque phase is finished. The torque balance of the vehicle powertrain
changes to equation (5.1) and equation (5.2). However a small positive slip may still exist
between the engine speed and the target gear speed. Therefore, the actual torque of the on-
coming clutch C1 continues to increase between the dotted line and the dotted line to
reduce it. When the on-coming clutch C1 stops slipping, its actual torque decreases from the
friction torque to the reaction torque of the low gear. The shifting process of power on
downshift is then accomplished.

The phase from the dotted line to the dotted line can be regarded as a short inertia phase.
If the actual torque of the on-coming clutch C1 increases very fast in the torque phase, the
positive slip perhaps has already been eliminated in the torque phase. The short inertia phase
thus will not appear after the torque phase. Otherwise there must be speed synchronization for
reducing the positive slip after the torque phase. Therefore unlike power on upshift, the torque
increase of the on-coming clutch should be bigger than the torque decrease of the off-going
clutch in the torque phase of power on downshift.

According to equation (5.5), the increase of the input angular acceleration can also be
accomplished with the help of increasing the engine torque. Figure 5.6 demonstrates the
shifting process of power on downshift with the engine torque increase in the inertia phase. In
this figure, graph (b) shows that the engine torque increases between the dotted line and the
dotted line to assist the engine speed synchronization. This is also controlled via the
80 η Shifting Process of the Clutch to Clutch Shifting

operation of throttle or spark advance angle. There is an advantage that by increasing the
engine torque the engine speed can be accelerated without a large torque decrease of the off-
going clutch. Loss of traction force on driving wheels thus can be avoided. Or the speed
synchronization can be finished in a shorter time, thus improving the shift spontaneity. In case
power on downshift takes place at the operating point of the maximum engine torque, there
will be no additional engine torque for speed synchronization. The inertia phase will be only
controlled by manipulation of the off-going clutch torque. In all other cases the integrated
control of engine and transmission will benefit power on downshift a lot. At the end of the
inertia phase, the engine torque should drop back to the level before the gear shifting. It is
important to note that when applying the integrated powertrain control in power on downshift,
a safety function is required so that the possibility of unwanted vehicle acceleration is
excluded in case of an error such as the engine torque does not drop back at the end of the
inertia phase.

Engine Engine
speed torque

(a) Time (b) Time

Actual Output
clutch torque
torque
TC2 TC1

(c) Time (d) Time

Figure 5.6: Shifting process of power on downshift with increasing the engine torque

5.3 Power off Upshift

The shifting process of power off upshift is similar to the shifting process of power on
downshift. The inertia phase comes firstly then followed by the torque phase. However there is
 η Shifting Process of the Clutch to Clutch Shifting 81

no power output from the engine to the vehicle in power off upshift. The engine torque is
negative during the gear shifting.

According to the powertrain model shown in figure 5.2, the off-going clutch C1 is locked
before the gear shifting in power off upshift. The torque balance of the vehicle powertrain is
based on equation (5.1) and equation (5.2) at this time. In equation (5.1) all the three items of
engine torque, clutch torque, and inertia torque are negative. The torque of the off-going clutch
C1 increases from a negative value to a level close to 0 after the gear shifting starts. This
makes the input angular acceleration even bigger in the negative direction. The engine speed
thus decreases to the target gear speed because the target gear speed is smaller than the current
gear speed in power off upshift. After the engine speed is smaller than the target gear speed,
the torque phase begins by continuing decreasing the actual torque of the off-going clutch C1
meanwhile starting increasing the actual torque of the on-coming clutch C2. The input torque
is then transferred from the off-going clutch C1 to the on-coming clutch C2 based on equation
(5.3) and equation (5.4). At last, the torque of the off-going clutch C1 decreases to 0. The on-
coming clutch C2 stops slipping and transmits all the input torque in the 2nd gear based on
equation (5.5) and equation (5.6).

Figure 5.7 shows the change of engine speed, engine torque, clutch torque, and output torque
in the shifting process of power off upshift. The transmission output torque decreases with the
clutch torque to a certain level in the negative direction between the dotted line and the
dotted line . The engine speed is decelerated from the current gear to the target gear (graph
(a)) and there is no torque transferring in this phase. After the inertia phase, the torque phase
follows up between the dotted line and the dotted line . The transmission output torque
increases in the negative direction in the torque phase (graph (d)) because the actual torque of
the on-coming clutch C2 increases faster than the torque decrease of the off-going clutch C1.
After the torque of the off-going clutch C1 reaches to 0, the torque of the on-coming clutch C2
continues to increase in the negative direction between the dotted line and the dotted line
(graph (c)) to reduce the small negative slip between the engine speed and the target gear
speed. At last the on-coming clutch C2 stops slipping and the friction torque of it changes to
the reaction torque of the target gear level.
82 η Shifting Process of the Clutch to Clutch Shifting

Time

Engine
speed

Engine
torque

(a) Time (b)

Time Time

TC1 TC2
Actual
clutch Output
torque torque

(c) (d)

Figure 5.7: Shifting process of power off upshift

Sometimes the speed synchronization of power off downshift takes a very long time because
of small engine drag torque and big transmission inertia. Increasing the engine drag torque in
the inertial phase can shorten the duration of inertia phase according to equation (5.1).
However since the engine drag torque can’t be controlled and increased, the integrated
powertrain control with engine torque intervention makes no sense for power off upshift.
Power off upshift with a long time of inertia phase should be disabled in the shift strategy. Or
the safety function of transmission control unit can let the gear shifting jump out a certain
phase of the shifting process if it takes a long time.

5.4 Power off Downshift

Like the shifting process of power on upshift, the inertia phase comes before the torque phase
in power off downshift. What is different is that in power on upshift the engine torque is
positive while in power off downshift it is a negative drag torque. In addition, one is upshift
and the other is downshift. The change of engine speed, engine torque, clutch torque, and
output torque in the shifting process of power off downshift is depicted in figure 5.8.
According to this figure and the powertrain model shown in figure 5.2, the basic theory of
power off downshift is explained as following.
 η Shifting Process of the Clutch to Clutch Shifting 83

Time

Engine
speed

Engine
torque

(a) Time (b)

Time Time

TC2 TC1
Actual
clutch Output
torque torque

(c) (d)

Figure 5.8: Shifting process of power off downshift without increasing the engine torque

Before power off downshift starts, the vehicle powertrain in figure 5.2 runs in the 2nd gear with
clutch C2 locked. The torque balance of the vehicle powertrain is based on equation (5.5) and
equation (5.6). However the three items of engine torque, clutch torque, and inertia torque in
equation (5.5) are all negative. The release of the off-going clutch will decrease the input
angular acceleration after the gear shifting begins. Since the target gear speed is bigger than
the current gear speed, this decrease will cause the engine speed deviate from its target
trajectory. Therefore, clutch C1 starts being engaged with the torque increase to compensate
for the torque decrease of clutch C2. The input torque is then transferred from the off-going
clutch C2 to the on-coming clutch C1 which is known as the torque phase. In this phase the
torque balance of the vehicle powertrain is based on equation (η.3) and equation (η.4). In order
to keep the engine speed run along the current gear speed in the torque phase, the torque
decrease of the off-going clutch C2 should be equal to the torque increase of the on-coming
clutch C1. In figure η.8 the torque phase corresponds to the region between the dotted line
and the dotted line . Graph (d) shows that the transmission output torque increases in the
negative direction in the torque phase. That is because the target gear ratio is bigger than the
current gear ratio in power off downshift.
84 η Shifting Process of the Clutch to Clutch Shifting

When the actual torque of the off-going clutch C2 reaches to 0, the inertia phase starts from
the dotted line to the dotted line in figure η.8. Equation (η.1) and equation (η.2) indicate
the torque balance of the vehicle powertrain at this time. Because the target gear speed is
bigger than the current gear speed, the actual torque of the on-coming clutch C1 continues
increasing in the negative direction to accelerate the engine speed from the current gear to the
target gear. As shown in graph (d), the transmission output torque will also increase in the
negative direction with the torque increase of the on-coming clutch C1. After the speed
synchronization is achieved, clutch C1 stops slipping and its actual torque changes from the
friction torque to the reaction torque. The transmission output torque then decreases to the
value of the engine torque multiplied by the 1st gear ratio. The power off downshift is finally
completed.

The same as power on upshift, the speed synchronization in power off downshift can also be
achieved with the help of the engine torque intervention. According to equation (η.1), if the
engine torque increases during the inertia phase, the input angular acceleration will increase as
well. The inertia phase thus can be accomplished in a short time or it is not necessary to
increase the torque of the on-coming clutch C1 to a high level. Figure η.λ demonstrates such a
shifting process of power off downshift with increasing the engine torque in the inertia phase.
It can be seen from graph (b) that the engine torque becomes positive in the inertia phase
between the dotted line and the dotted line . This positive engine torque accelerates the
engine speed from the current gear to the target gear. Because the torque of the on-coming
clutch C1 does not increase in the inertia phase, the transmission output torque will not
increase in the negative direction as well (graph (d)). It holds the transmission output torque at
the level of the 1st gear during the inertia phase. There is no big variation for the output torque
by applying the integrated powertrain control method thus the vehicle jerk can be minimized
and the shift quality can be improved.

However the engine torque increase in power off downshift needs to be carefully handled.
This shifting type usually takes place when the vehicle is coasting down. If the engine torque
increases too much and does not drops back immediately at the end of the inertia phase, the
vehicle will kick ahead. This case is very dangerous and makes the shift quality become even
worse. Therefore, a safety function is necessary to avoid an unwanted vehicle acceleration
happening in such a situation.
 η Shifting Process of the Clutch to Clutch Shifting 8η

Time

Engine
speed

Engine
torque

(a) Time (b)

Time Time

TC2 TC1
Actual
clutch Output
torque torque

(c) (d)

Figure 5.9: Shifting process of power off downshift with increasing the engine torque

In conclusion, power on upshift and power off downshift have similar shifting process because
the torque phase comes before the inertia phase. Power on downshift and power off upshift
have similar shifting process because the inertia phase comes before the torque phase.
However, the control strategy is somehow different for the shifting types having similar
shifting process especially involving the integrated powertrain control between the engine and
the automatic transmission. Such as in power on upshift the speed synchronization during the
gear shifting is supported by negative engine torque intervention. But in power off downshift it
is supported by positive engine torque intervention.

5.5 Pressure Profile of Different Shifting Types

In all above shifting types, the control of the clutch torque is achieved by tuning the clutch
pressure. However as mentioned in chapter 4.3, the clutch pressure corresponds to the torque
capacity rather than the actual clutch torque. The torque capacity is equal to the actual clutch
torque only when the clutch is in a slipping state. This makes it difficult to get a shift feeling as
good as conventional automatic transmissions with one-way clutches. Figure 5.10 shows a
simplified vehicle powertrain where clutch C1 has an additional parallel one-way clutch
8θ η Shifting Process of the Clutch to Clutch Shifting

compared with the model in figure 5.2. Here the one-way clutch is locked in the 1st gear. In
power on upshift the one-way clutch is disengaged and clutch C2 is engaged.

One-way clutch

TE αin i1 αout TL
Clutch C1: TC1
Engine Jin Jout Vehicle

i2

Clutch C2: TC2

Figure 5.10: Simplified vehicle powertrain model with one-way clutch

Figure 5.11(1) depicts the power on upshift of above powertrain model with one-way clutch.
As shown in graph (c), the torque of the one-way clutch decreases accordingly when the actual
torque of the on-coming clutch C2 increases. It is a reaction torque which is determined by
other torques on the shaft. One-way clutch has an ability of automatically disengaging if the
torque of it becomes negative in power on upshift. After the on-coming clutch C2 takes over
all the engine torque, the one-way clutch rotates freely which automatically cuts off the power
flow through it. In the torque phase no slip appears between the engine speed and the current
gear speed. The one-way clutch does not generate any negative torque. Therefore, one-way
clutch provides significant advantages for the control of the clutch to clutch shifting without
creating too big vehicle jerk.

The ideal power on upshift without the help of one-way clutch is shown in figure 5.11(2). It
has the same good shift quality compared with figure 5.11(1). The dashed line in figure 5.11 is
the torque capacity of the clutch which can be controlled by adjusting the clutch pressure. As
shown in graph (d), in order to avoid the slip between the engine speed and the current gear
speed, the torque capacity of the off-going clutch must be bigger than its actual clutch torque;
In order to avoid the negative torque of the off-going clutch at the end of the torque phase, the
torque capacity and the actual clutch torque must decrease to 0 simultaneously. It is difficult to
realize the two targets by only controlling the clutch pressure because if there is no clutch slip,
the actual clutch torque is a reaction torque to other torques and can’t be controlled. In this
case there is no direct relationship between the clutch pressure and the actual clutch torque.
 η Shifting Process of the Clutch to Clutch Shifting 87

We don’t know when the actual torque of the off-going clutch exceeds its torque capacity and
when it decreases to 0.

(1) (2)
Engine Engine
speed speed

(a) Time (b) Time

Clutch Clutch
torque torque
Towc TC2 TC1 TC2

(c) Time (d) Time

Torque capacity
Actual clutch torque

Figure 5.11: (1) Power on upshift with one-way clutch as the off-going clutch
(2) Power on upshift with two multi-plate shifting elements

The reason for the difficulties of controlling clutch to clutch shifting without one-way clutch
arises from the correct application timing of the two actuated clutches. The shifting process
shown in figure 5.11(2) is ideal and not reproducible in the daily driving. If the pressure of the
on-coming clutch increases too fast, the actual torque of the off-going clutch will also decrease
fast. Although there is no engine flare even no slip in the off-going clutch due to a slow
pressure release, the negative torque will easily appear at the end of the torque phase. This
case is known as “clutch tie-up” which causes a blocking of the transmission owning to a
strong pressure overlap. It gives the driver a momentary brake feeling. Such a situation is
shown in figure 5.12(1). However if the pressure overlap is too weak, the engine speed will
flare up over the current gear speed as shown in figure 5.12(2). In this case, the actual torque
of the off-going clutch is equal to the torque capacity because it is in a slipping state. The
88 η Shifting Process of the Clutch to Clutch Shifting

driver will have a momentary neutral feeling because the on-coming clutch doesn’t undertake
enough engine torque from the off-going clutch.

(1) (2)
Engine Engine
speed speed

(a) Time (b) Time

Clutch Clutch
torque torque
TC1 TC2 TC1 TC2

(c) Time (d) Time

Torque capacity
Actual clutch torque

Figure 5.12: (1) Power on upshift with “clutch tie-up”

(2) Power on upshift with “engine flare”

Both “clutch tie-up” and “engine flare” need to be eliminated in a good control of the shifting
process. Since the actual clutch torque is proportional to the clutch pressure when the clutch is
in a slipping state, the only way to build up the relationship between them is to bring the off-
going clutch to slip at the beginning of the shifting process. Then the actual clutch torque can
be controlled by adjusting the clutch pressure.

However, this slip should not be very big in the torque phase. It is controlled to keep at a small
amount. Anyway, what we need is a micro-slip not an engine flare. This micro-slip gives us a
reference with which to adapt the torque to pressure characteristic of the clutch throughout the
service life of the automatic transmission. In addition, it provides a quick response of the
clutch and helps to dampen out driveline oscillations. These advantages let the clutch to clutch
shifting without the help of one-way clutch make extensive use of the micro-slip control
 η Shifting Process of the Clutch to Clutch Shifting 8λ

method. Therefore regarding the pressure profile of different shifting types, there must be
some additional phases for the establishment of the relationship between torque and pressure.
Based on the micro-slip control method applied in the clutch to clutch shifting, more detailed
phases for the pressure profile of different shifting types are explained according to figure 5.13
and figure 5.14.

Since the shifting process of power on upshift and power off downshift is similar, the pressure
profile of them also looks like the same. Figure 5.13 shows the speed, torque and pressure
profiles of power on upshift and power off downshift. The power on upshift in figure 5.13(1)
has an engine torque intervention in the inertia phase. In figure 5.13(2) there is no engine
torque intervention for the power off downshift. When the vehicle runs in a specific gear, the
pressure of the locked clutches should be high enough to ensure the torque capacity is bigger
than the actual clutch torque. After the gear shifting begins, the first phase comes between the
dotted line and the dotted line for the preparation of the torque transferring. In this
phase, the on-coming clutch is firstly fast filled by following a high pressure command. This is
for overcoming the return spring force, the seal friction force, and the operating clearance of
the clutch pack in a short time. Then the clutch pressure drops to the kiss-point where the
piston comes in contact with the clutch pack and the clearance has already been eliminated.
But the clutch pack hasn’t been compressed yet and there is no torque transmitted through the
on-coming clutch.

Meanwhile the pressure of the off-going clutch starts to be released after the gear shifting
begins. When the torque capacity is reduced to be smaller than the actual torque of the off-
going clutch, the slip appears between the engine speed and the current gear speed. Thereby
the proportional relationship is built up between the pressure and the actual clutch torque.
Then the actual torque of the off-going clutch can be controlled by adjusting its pressure.
However the pressure release should not be very big. It’s better nearby the level where the
torque capacity is slightly below the actual clutch torque. Otherwise engine flare will easily
happen in the shifting process. In conclusion, the objective of this short phase is to build up
relationships between the clutch pressure and the actual clutch torque. Only in this way the
shifting process can be controlled by tuning the clutch pressure.
λ0 η Shifting Process of the Clutch to Clutch Shifting

(1) (2)
Engine Engine
speed speed
Micro-slip

Micro-slip

(a) Time (b) Time

Torque

Torque

(c) Time (d) Time

Clutch Clutch
pressure pressure

(e) Time (f) Time

In graph (c) and (d):

Torque capacity Actual clutch torque Engine torque

Figure 5.13: (1) Speed, torque, and pressure profiles of power on upshift
(2) Speed, torque, and pressure profiles of power off downshift

The pressure profile of the torque phase from the dotted line to the dotted line and the
inertia phase from the dotted line to the dotted line are similar to their torque profile.
The torque transferring is in principle achieved by decreasing the off-going clutch pressure
whilst increasing the on-coming clutch pressure. The control target of the torque phase is to
 η Shifting Process of the Clutch to Clutch Shifting λ1

keep the slip still at a small amount by adjusting the overlap of the two clutch pressures. The
speed synchronization of the inertia phase can be fulfilled either by engine torque reduction
(graph (c)) or by clutch pressure increase (graph (f)). Afterwards between the dotted line
and the dotted line , the pressure of the on-coming clutch increases to the hydraulic line
pressure to ensure that there is no clutch slip after the gear shifting.

The pressure profile of power on downshift is similar to the pressure profile of power off
upshift. Figure 5.14 shows the speed, torque and pressure profiles of power on downshift and
power off upshift. The power on downshift in figure 5.14(1) has an engine torque intervention
in the inertia phase. In figure 5.14(2) there is no engine torque intervention for the power off
upshift. For these two shifting types, the pressure of the off-going clutch is firstly reduced to a
certain level between the dotted line and the dotted line . This pressure level makes the
torque capacity drop below the actual clutch torque. It not only generates slip in the off-going
clutch but also synchronizes the engine speed to the target gear. By adjusting this pressure
level, the time of the inertia phase can be extended or shortened which provides a different
shift feeling for the driver.

At the same time, like power on upshift and power off downshift, the on-coming clutch is
firstly fast filled then reduced to the kiss-point pressure between the dotted line and the
dotted line . However after reaching to the kiss-point, the pressure of the on-coming clutch
will not immediately increase. It is maintained at the kiss-point level until the engine speed is
bigger (for power on downshift) or smaller (for power off upshift) than the target gear speed.
Thereafter the torque phase starts between the dotted line and the dotted line . In this
phase the pressure profile of the two actuated clutches is similar to their torque profile. There
is a pressure overlap between them. The control target of the torque phase is also to keep a
small slip between the engine speed and the target gear speed by increasing the on-coming
clutch pressure whilst decreasing the off-going clutch pressure.

After the pressure of the off-going clutch is completely released, the torque transferring
between the two clutches is accomplished. Then from the dotted line to the dotted line
the pressure of the on-coming clutch continues increasing to reduce the small positive slip (for
power on downshift) or negative slip (for power off upshift). After that, the on-coming clutch
stops slipping and its pressure increases to the hydraulic line pressure. The hydraulic line
pressure is adjusted according to the transmission input torque. It guarantees that the clutch
torque capacity is bigger than the actual transmitted clutch torque. No slip will appear in the
locked clutches.
λ2 η Shifting Process of the Clutch to Clutch Shifting

(1) (2)
Engine Engine
speed Micro-slip speed

Micro-slip

(a) Time (b) Time

Time

Torque

Torque

(c) Time (d)

Clutch Clutch
pressure pressure

(e) Time (f) Time

In graph (c) and (d):

Torque capacity Actual clutch torque Engine torque

Figure 5.14: (1) Speed, torque, and pressure profiles of power on downshift
(2) Speed, torque, and pressure profiles of power off upshift

This micro-slip control method cleverly mimics the operation of one-way clutch in the
conventional automatic transmission. Today the one-way clutch is rarely applied because the
shift quality is the same as or even better than before with this micro-slip control method. The
slipping state of both on-coming clutch and off-going clutch in the shifting process of different
 η Shifting Process of the Clutch to Clutch Shifting λ3

shifting types is shown in figure 5.15. It can be seen for power on upshift and power off
downshift the on-coming clutch has a big slip and generates the most power loss. The micro-
slip control method only creates small power loss in the off-going clutch. On the contrary, for
power on downshift and power off upshift the off-going clutch slips more severely. There is
small power loss in the on-coming clutch because its slip is controlled to be small in the
shifting process. Therefore, no more heat load will appear in the actuated shifting elements
when applying this micro-slip control method.

Power on upshift or power off downshift

Off-going clutch In gear Micro slip Neutral

On-coming clutch Neutral Fill Big slip Inertia phase In gear

Power on downshift or power off upshift

Off-going clutch In gear Inertia phase Big slip Neutral

On-coming clutch Neutral Fill Micro slip In gear

Figure 5.15: Slipping states of the two actuated clutches in different shifting types
λ4 η Shifting Process of the Clutch to Clutch Shifting
 θ Evaluation of the Shift Quality λη

6 Evaluation of the Shift Quality

Shift quality mainly refers to shift comfort and shift spontaneity which significantly affects the
driver’s feeling about the shifting process. Shift comfort is directly related to the profile of the
transmission output torque or the vehicle longitudinal acceleration during the gear shifting. It
is perceived by the driver as vehicle jerk or shifting impact. Shift spontaneity is related to the
shifting time of the transmission. It consists of two parts which are the response time and the
synchronization time. The response time refers to the time delay from the driver’s shifting
request to a noticeable engine speed reaction. The synchronization time refers to the time for
the engine speed changing from the current gear to the target gear [S6].

Shift comfort and shift spontaneity are two conflicting targets for the control of the shifting
process. A comfortable gear shifting has small shifting impact which is barely noticeable but
the shifting time is usually long. A sporty gear shifting responds to the driver very quick but is
often accompanied by relative big vehicle jerk. Therefore, a compromise is normally made
between the two control targets. Or different shifting modes (comfort, normal, sporty) are
provided to drivers to satisfy their different driving preference.

Today the shift quality is usually subjectively evaluated during the calibration of the test
vehicle. Calibration is defined as the adjustment of the transmission properties to the dynamics
and behaviour of the entire vehicle by inputting data into the transmission software [N1]. The
control parameters, which determine the shifting process of different shifting types in various
driving environments, are adjusted manually by means of an application laptop in accordance
with the engineers’ experience until an optimal parameter combination is found [Kθ]. The shift
quality can be documented by calibration engineers according to the ATZ grade (Table θ.1).

Table 6.1: Evaluation table for shift quality according to ATZ [N1]

Grade 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ex-
Attribute well slightly barely not
tremely heavy very percep-
evaluation jerk obvious percep- percep- notice- notice-
heavy jerk obvious tible
(gearshift) tible tible able able
jerk
slightly
Customer very outstandingly
very dissatisfied dis- pretty satisfied
satisfaction satisfied satisfied
satisfied
λθ θ Evaluation of the Shift Quality

Experts and engineers comment on the shift quality with respect to comfortable and sporty
shift feeling. Then they will give ratings according to the table 6.1. In modern automatic
transmissions, assessments lower than the 7 point is not acceptable for mass production.
However shift feeling is something that different people experience differently. The evaluation
is subjective. Some people prefer a feel of pushing back. Some people prefer a smooth gear
shifting that can’t be noticeable. The ratings from different people are not consistent. In
addition, such a subjective evaluation depends on the road test and is not reproducible. It can’t
be applied in the modeling and simulation. Therefore, it is necessary to have some objective
criteria for the evaluation of the shift quality according to the simulation results.

Many researchers have tried to find a metric or some criteria to quantify the shift quality
objectively. Hagerodt [H8] believed that the change in longitudinal acceleration applied to the
vehicle seat is the main factor which influences the subjectively perceived shift comfort. The
human perception of longitudinal vibrations on the vehicle seat was analysed in his work with
respect to the objectification of shift comfort. The frequencies can be perceived in the
particular range between 2Hz and 9Hz. This detection allows low-pass filtering of the
measurement signal to identify the objective parameters related to shift comfort from the time
and frequency range of the longitudinal vehicle acceleration. The vibration rates related to
perception are also taken into account. It was found that the most important objective
parameters determining the shift comfort include the acceleration gradients at the beginning
and the end of the shifting process as well as the absolute acceleration difference, which is
reflected by the peak-to-peak value. In this way the shift feeling can be described according to
the profile shape of the longitudinal vehicle acceleration.

Naruse [N4] clarified the effectiveness of a new shift quality evaluation method based on
human feeling about the vehicle vibration and the torque fluctuation at the output shaft of the
automatic transmission. It was found that people respond to shifting impact more sensitively in
low frequency ranges of longitudinal vibration and high frequency ranges of vertical vibration.
Comparison of the frequency analysis between the longitudinal vibration measurements and
the theoretical values indicates that approximately 90% of the vibration was a low frequency
(0Hz to 7Hz) part. Such a major part comes from the vehicle vibration in longitudinal
direction due to the torque fluctuation directly from the automatic transmission.

Schwab [S10] developed an automatic transmission shift quality metric which used the
longitudinal vehicle acceleration and correlated it with various drivers’ subjective ratings. Four
parts were extracted from a single longitudinal acceleration signal in his work. These parts
were: peak-to-peak amplitude of a filtered acceleration, peak-to-peak jerk, the maximum
 θ Evaluation of the Shift Quality λ7

average power (power level of the shift), and the 10-14Hz contribution (to capture body and
suspension resonance). Good correlation between the subjective ratings and the four objective
parts existed for low shift disturbance when using linear regression mapping. Excellent
correlation existed for all disturbances when using the nonlinear neutral network mapping.

Hibino [H9] thought that the first priorities in consideration of shift quality requirements are
the smoothness and quickness of transmission output torque change. From the typical
characteristics of transmission output torque, two torque change indexes A, B and two shifting
time indexes C, D are applied to evaluate the shift quality. The torque change index A is
induced by the inertia torque transmitted to an output shaft, which is caused by engine
revolution speed change from the end of the torque phase to the inertia phase. Index B is
induced by the disappearance of the inertia torque at the end of the inertia phase. The smaller
both indexes are, the better it is for achieving a good shift quality. Index C and index D are the
time of the torque phase and the inertia phase. In the same way, the smaller the index C and D
are, the better the shift quality is. That is because these two indexes are concerned with a feel
of long shifting time. Furthermore the heat load of the shifting element is also considered as a
requirement for a hard limitation of the shift quality. However the effect of the acceleration
gradients is not considered in the reference. From the viewpoint of shift comfort, it is not good
to decrease the index C and D very much because the acceleration gradients will increase
which can cause big vehicle jerk.

The proposed objective criteria can also be applied for the development of automated
transmission calibration. The increasing number of speed ratio and the growing complexity
and diversity of functions in the control software of automatic transmissions lead to a rising
calibration effort. An efficient way to cope with the challenge of rising calibration efforts is to
automate the calibration process. Küçükay [K6] developed methods and tools to reduce the
effort for TCU calibration based on the rating models of several objective criteria. Kahlbau
[K9] applied a multi-objective approach to automate the calibration process by defining new
shift quality criteria. Discomfort is one of these criteria. It is defined as the deviation from an
ideal acceleration transition which can be derived from a simple vibration analysis. In addition,
shifting time as well as friction energy is considered as further constraints on evaluation of the
shift quality. Based on the criteria of discomfort and shifting time a bi-criterion optimization
problem is defined and solved by a multi-objective genetic algorithm. The solution of the
problem is not unique but always a set of trade-offs between the two conflicting criteria. It has
been tested in his work that the results of the proposed automated process partly outperform
those of the classic manual calibration process.
λ8 θ Evaluation of the Shift Quality

In this thesis five objective criteria are used to evaluate the shift quality of the controlled
shifting process. They are transmission output torque, vehicle jerk, shifting time, power loss of
shifting elements, and friction energy of shifting elements. Among them the transmission
output torque is directly related to the longitudinal vehicle acceleration. Both of them have the
same profile shape in the shifting process. Thus the longitudinal vehicle acceleration can also
be used for analysing the shift quality. According to the five evaluation criteria, control
parameters of different shifting types can be fine-tuned to improve the shift quality. Or these
control parameters can be optimized for different shifting modes (comfort, normal, sporty) in
the simulation model.

6.1 Transmission Output Torque and Longitudinal Vehicle Acceleration

In the review of literatures about the evaluation of shift quality, one objective criterion is
mostly mentioned, namely the transmission output torque, or the longitudinal vehicle
acceleration which is directly related to it. The disturbance of the transmission output torque
creates vibrations during the gear shifting and excites the rest of the vehicle powertrain. If the
shifting process is not continuous and smooth, passengers will feel the shifting impact like a
man is nodding. Here the torque profile of power on upshift and power on downshift are
employed as examples to show how the transmission output torque affects shift comfort.

Figure 6.1 shows the typical torque or acceleration profile of the transmission output shaft in
power on upshift without engine torque intervention. It is noted that there are three torque
variations in this shifting process. The first decrease of the transmission output torque is
because the target gear ratio is smaller than the current gear ratio in an upshift. This torque
decrease corresponds to the torque phase of the shifting process. Then the output torque
increases due to the torque increase in the on-coming clutch for synchronizing the engine
speed from the current gear to the target gear. At the end of the inertia phase, the clutch stops
slipping thus some inertia torque disappear and the transmission output torque drops to the
target gear level. The passengers are conscious of the three variations of the transmission
output torque. Firstly, they will sense the decreasing acceleration in the torque phase. This
sensation is disagreeable because it is opposite to the acceleration direction and followed by an
abrupt increase of the vehicle acceleration. Meanwhile, when the speed synchronization is
accomplished at the end of the inertia phase, the reduction of the transmission output torque
will also be felt by the passengers as a decreasing acceleration. Therefore, the passengers will
be plunged forwards from their seats, rocked back to their seats, and again plunged forwards
in a very short time. Certainly this is not a good shift feeling for the passengers and will be
complained by them.
 θ Evaluation of the Shift Quality λλ

Output Torque phase Inertia phase

torque
T2
t 2
T1
t1
ΔT2 T3 ΔT3
ΔT1 t 4

Δt1 Δt2 Δt3 Δt4

Time

Figure 6.1: Profile of transmission output torque in power on upshift

As shown in figure 6.1, the amplitude of the three torque variations “ΔT1”, “ΔT2”, and “ΔT3”
can be applied here to assess the shift quality especially in terms of shift comfort. Some
approaches have been taken to reduce the three torque variations for a smooth gear shifting.
However it should be understood that the decrease of the transmission output torque “ΔT1” is
an inherent characteristic of power on upshift which is inescapable. A great deal of attention
should be paid to not increase it. What can still be improved is to keep the amplitude of “ΔT2”
and “ΔT3” as small as possible. Even sometimes they can be eliminated from the shifting
process of power on upshift.

Figure 6.2 shows the typical torque or acceleration profile of the transmission output shaft in
power on downshift without engine torque intervention. Compared with power on upshift
there are four torque variations in the shifting process of power on downshift. The first
variation is a torque decrease since the actual torque of the off-going clutch is reduced to
accelerate the engine speed from the current gear to the target gear. In this phase the
passengers will feel a traction loss of the vehicle which is opposite to their demand. Therefore,
the amplitude of torque variation “ΔT1” in the inertia phase needs to deserve special attention
in calibration. A big loss of traction force on driving wheels is disagreeable for the driver
although the big torque reduction can shorten the synchronization time of the engine speed.
100 θ Evaluation of the Shift Quality

Output Inertia phase Torque phase

torque
T2 ΔT3 ΔT4
t 3
T1
t1 ΔT2
ΔT1

Δt1 Δt2 Δt3

Time

Figure 6.2: Profile of transmission output torque in power on downshift

The second torque variation takes place in the torque phase. The transmission output torque
increases from a low value to the target gear level. The amplitude of torque variation “ΔT2” is
determined by both the target gear ratio and the level the output torque drops to in the inertia
phase. Since the gear ratio can’t be changed, a small torque decrease “ΔT1” can also reduce the
value of “ΔT2”. The torque disturbance “ΔT2” is less offensive to the passengers because they
have been ready for the acceleration increase subconsciously. Actually the passengers wish
and have anticipation to increase the traction force on driving wheels in power on downshift.

In order to reduce the small positive slip after the torque phase, the pressure of the on-coming
clutch will continue to increase. The third and the fourth torque variation thus appear. “ΔT3”
comes from the friction torque increase in the on-coming clutch. “ΔT4” comes from the torque
change from the friction type to the reaction type when some inertia torque disappears
suddenly at the end of the shifting process. In a good control of the shifting process, the
positive slip is small thus “ΔT3” and “ΔT4” are not very big. However the flare between the
engine speed and the target gear speed must be avoided. Otherwise “ΔT2+ΔT3” and “ΔT4” will
increase since the actual torque of the on-coming clutch has to increase for eliminating the
engine flare.

6.2 Vehicle Jerk

Perception of the gear shifting involves two of the five senses: touch and hearing. Any shift
that can be seen, smelled, or tasted will be a terrible shift. As with most things, the rate of
 θ Evaluation of the Shift Quality 101

change is more perceptible than the magnitude of the change [D5]. Vehicle jerk, also known as
shifting impact, is defined as the first time derivative of the vehicle acceleration. It is the
primary indicator of human shift feeling. As shown in figure 6.1 and figure 6.2, the torque
gradients (or acceleration gradients) are directly related to the vehicle jerk. Thus they can be
applied to evaluate the shift quality as well.

As important evaluation criteria in the torque profile, torque gradients not only consider the
amplitude of torque variation but also describe how fast it changes. Although sometimes the
torque disturbance is not very big, the passengers will still have a bad shift feeling because this
disturbance happens in a very short time thus giving the passengers an abrupt feel. Figure 6.3
shows the profile shape of the vehicle jerk by calculating the derivation of the transmission
output torque in figure 6.1. In order to satisfy the passengers’ demand for good shift comfort,
the amplitudes of the vehicle jerk need to be reduced. Among them the peak to peak value at
the transition from the torque phase to the inertia phase is the most dangerous. The vehicle jerk
can be reduced by increasing the shifting time. However the negative effect of this method is
that the shift spontaneity will get worse. Therefore, reducing the amplitude of the torque
variation is a better choice.

Vehicle Torque phase Inertia phase

jerk

ΔJerk2 ΔJerk3
0
ΔJerk1
ΔJerk4

Time

Figure 6.3: Profile of vehicle jerk in power on upshift corresponding to figure 6.1

By calculating the derivation of the transmission output torque in figure 6.2, the profile shape
of the vehicle jerk in power on downshift is shown in figure 6.4. The same as power on upshift,
the amplitudes should be reduced by reducing the torque disturbance or increasing the shifting
time. Special attention needs to be paid at the transition from the inertia phase to the torque
102 θ Evaluation of the Shift Quality

phase. If the on-coming clutch starts being engaged before the engine speed reaches over the
target gear speed, another negative vehicle jerk will appear before the transition point. If
engine flare happens in the torque phase, the actual torque of the on-coming clutch will
increase quickly to eliminate it in a short time. Accordingly the output torque will increase
much more in a short time. Then the amplitude of the vehicle jerk will become bigger.

Vehicle Inertia phase Torque phase

jerk

ΔJerk2 ΔJerk3
0
ΔJerk4
ΔJerk1

Time

Figure 6.4: Profile of vehicle jerk in power on downshift corresponding to figure 6.2

6.3 Shifting Time

Shifting time can be considered as an evaluation criterion for shift spontaneity. The longer the
shifting time is, the smaller the acceleration gradients are. Therefore, increasing the shifting
time will contribute to the shift comfort. However this method is at the expense of the vehicle
driveability. Some drivers accustomed to a sporty driving mode will suffer a lot from a long
shifting time.

In addition, a long speed synchronization time will lead to a long time of traction force loss in
power on downshift. It is in contradiction with the driver’s demand for transmission output
torque and will be complained. On the other hand, if the shifting time is too short, it will result
in big shifting impact. Therefore, this evaluation criterion should be carefully calibrated to get
a balance between shift comfort and shift spontaneity. Shifting time can also be applied as an
evaluation criterion in the adaptive control of the shifting process which will be discussed later
in this thesis.
 θ Evaluation of the Shift Quality 103

Clutch to clutch shifting is realized through the slip control of the actuated shifting elements. A
long shifting time means the clutch pack will generate more heat losses which at first have to
be transferred to the steel plates and later to the cooling oil. Under extreme conditions this can
result in damages to the friction plates. Therefore, in order to avoid thermal overload on the
friction plates, the shifting time should not be too long especially at a big throttle opening
degree. In modern automatic transmissions it is usually less than one second.

6.4 Power Loss

In the design of automatic transmissions, one important requirement for the shifting element is
the maximum acceptable power loss per unit area of the friction plates. This high friction
power, frequently accompanied by unfavourable pressure distribution, will lead to local
thermal overload. Then hot spots will appear on the plate surfaces. The friction power
generated in the shifting process is expressed by equation (6.1).
Ploss  TSE    d  (pSE  pkiss )  A  r  z  signum()   (6.1)
where: Ploss Power loss of the shifting element

It is known from equation (6.1) that the power loss depends on the clutch pressure and the
difference of the slipping speed. In the shifting process of power on upshift and power off
downshift, the off-going clutch is controlled in a micro-slip state. The on-coming clutch is
synchronized from a big speed difference to 0. Therefore, the on-coming clutch has the most
power loss in the two shifting types. On the other hand, in power on downshift and power off
upshift, the on-coming clutch is controlled in a micro-slip state. The off-going clutch is
disengaged and its slipping speed is increasing in the shifting process. Hence most power loss
appears in the off-going clutch in these two shifting types.

As an evaluation criterion, the power loss can’t be felt by the passengers during the gear
shifting. However it is an important criterion which affects the shift quality indirectly. A big
power loss increases the wear of the friction plates which will change some characteristics of
the shifting element over the transmission life. One example is that the wear of the friction
plates will lead to a change of the kiss-point pressure. The shift quality thus will become
unstable with the increasing number of shifts. An integrated powertrain control with engine
torque intervention in the shifting process can decrease the thermal load and benefit the
service life of the shifting element.
104 θ Evaluation of the Shift Quality

6.5 Friction Energy

Friction energy is another thermal load criterion in the design of shifting elements. The
difference is that it considers the influence of the shifting time as well. Sometimes the peak
power loss of the shifting element can satisfy the design requirement. However the generated
heat can’t be dissipated in a short time because of the poor lubrication condition. When the
shifting time is long and the shifting frequency is high, the friction energy of the shifting
element will accumulate in the clutch pack. The temperature thus rises to a high level and
causes damage to the clutch pack.

The calculation of the friction energy is according to equation (6.2), which is just an
integration of the power loss over the shifting time.

Eloss   Ploss (t)  dt (6.2)

where: E loss Friction energy of the shifting element

The same as power loss, the on-coming clutch has big friction energy in the shifting process of
power on upshift and power off downshift while the off-going clutch has big friction energy in
the shifting process of power on downshift and power off upshift. The integrated powertrain
control can reduce the friction energy by engine torque intervention as well.

In addition to above five objective criteria, there are still many other factors that can affect the
evaluation of the shift quality. Environment is one of them which can enlarge the human’s
feeling about the shift quality. The shift quality of a wide throttle open upshift under the
condition of high level engine and wind noise, combined with the driver’s attention to his
vehicle speed, would be much more acceptable than that of a light throttle open upshift, or
coast downshift under the relative peaceful condition. Expectation is another factor. It is
obvious that an expected shift is more acceptable than an unexpected shift. For example the
shift in the manual mode of automatic transmission is more acceptable than the shift
automatically controlled by the transmission control unit even if the two shifts are completely
the same. It is also the reason why the driver is more satisfied with the shift than the
passengers in the vehicle with a manual transmission. Driving preference also influences the
evaluation of the shift quality. Comments for the same shifting process may vary significantly
between different persons. It is unrealistic to ask a young man to drive like an old man. But the
shifting process can be optimized for different people.

The five objective criteria, especially the transmission output torque and the vehicle jerk
which are directly related to the shift feeling of the passengers, are very effective for
 θ Evaluation of the Shift Quality 10η

evaluation of the shift quality in the simulation model. Generally speaking, it is desirable to
minimize the acceleration discontinuity of the shifting process. But that is not always possible
as shown in the example of figure 6.5.

Output Torque phase Inertia phase

torque

Time

Vehicle Torque phase Inertia phase

jerk

Time
A relative bad shift quality
A relative good shift quality

Figure 6.5: Example of power on upshift with different shift quality

10θ θ Evaluation of the Shift Quality
 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy 107

7 The Open-loop Control Strategy

The model of the vehicle powertrain provides a simulation environment for the investigation
of the clutch to clutch shifting. Specific control strategies can be integrated into this
environment to verify its functionality and control performance. Two types of control
strategies for the clutch to clutch shifting of the 8-speed automatic transmission are developed
in the simulation model. One is the open-loop control strategy while the other is the closed-
loop control strategy. In each control strategy, there are various control parameters for
precisely adjusting the pressure of the on-coming clutch and the off-going clutch. Compared
with the open-loop control strategy, the closed-loop control strategy has fewer control
parameters but is more robust. For both control strategies, the corresponding control
parameters need to be properly calibrated depending on different engine load, different engine
speed, different gear shifting, and different shifting element.

The open-loop control strategy will be firstly discussed in this chapter. The characteristic of
the open-loop control is that it does not adjust the control input according to the feedback
information from the output side. The feedback is only used to decide whether a certain
control stage could be initiated. It means that the controller never knows if the actuator did
what it was supposed to. Consequently, the controller can’t correct any errors and compensate
for the disturbances in the open-loop control system.

The open-loop control system is appropriate in applications where the output of the actuator is
repeatable and reliable in the control process. However the control of the clutch to clutch
shifting is difficult to reproduce because the driving conditions are always changing. In order
to achieve good shift quality at each operating point, control parameters must be calibrated in
all cases when the open-loop control strategy is applied. Therefore, there are a lot of
calibration tables stored in the transmission control unit. These tables are classified for
different gear shifting and different shifting element. Different values of the control parameter
are written into the table according to the engine torque and the engine speed. These values
can be calibrated or calculated by adding the adaptive values.

Figure 7.1 shows a general block diagram for the open-loop control of clutch to clutch shifting.
The target of the gear shifting is to synchronize the engine speed from the current gear to the
target gear. In automatic transmissions the shifting process is controlled by the transmission
control unit. As a controller it sends out the pressure command to the hydraulic actuation
system. This pressure command is either calculated according to the transmission input torque
108 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy

or calibrated by the engineers. Transmission input acceleration is directly related to the clutch
pressure. The input speed thus can be controlled to achieve the gear shifting. However in this
block diagram it can be seen there is no feedback to the controller whether the actual input
speed follows the target speed trajectory. Even the pressure profiles and their application
timing have been optimized through extensive calibration work, it still can’t provide consistent
shift quality because of life-cycle variations and build-to-build variations. Therefore, in the
open-loop control strategy, some adaptive control parameters are necessary to compensate for
the calculated or calibrated clutch pressure profiles.

Set point

nT Target input speed

Controller
(TCU)

p Calibration or calculation of
clutch pressure
Actuator
(Solenoid)

n Acceleration of input speed

Integration

nA Actual input speed

Controlled
variable

Figure 7.1: Block diagram for the open-loop control of clutch to clutch shifting

In the following sections, the developed open-loop control strategies for the four basic shifting
types are discussed. The issues in the shifting process and how the open-loop control strategies
deal with them are explained based on the dynamic simulation results. Due to the similar
shifting process between power on upshift and power off downshift, power on downshift and
power off upshift, the main part of this chapter is devoted to the control strategies of power on
upshift and power on downshift. However, it is noted that there are some differences in the
control strategies of power off shifts because engine outputs a braking torque to decelerate the
vehicle. These differences will be introduced in this chapter. All the simulation results make
use of the simulation model of the 8-speed automatic transmission developed in chapter 4.
 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy 10λ

7.1 The Open-loop Control Strategy for Power on Upshift

Figure 7.2 shows the simulation results of power on upshift from the 2nd gear to the 3rd gear
under the control of the open-loop strategy developed in this thesis. In this gear shifting, the
throttle opening degree is 50%. Clutch C1 is the on-coming clutch. Brake B1 is the off-going
clutch. The open-loop control strategy divides the shifting process of power on upshift into
five shift phases. According to the simulation results of figure 7.2 the control parameters in
each phase and the trigger point to initiate each phase are detailed illustrated in the following
sections. They have a big influence on the shift quality and should be carefully calibrated.

(a) Pressure of the shifting elements

25
1 2 3 4 5 6
20
Pressure [bar]

15

10

0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s]
Brake B1
Clutch C1

(b) Speed of the transmission input shaft

3000

2500
Speed [rpm]

2000

1500

1000
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s]
Transmission input speed
Current gear speed
Target gear speed

Figure 7.2: Simulation results of power on upshift from the 2nd gear to the 3rd gear
110 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy

7.1.1 Phase 1-2

Phase 1-2 is the preparation phase in the whole shifting process. As shown in figure 7.3(b),
when the transmission input speed is bigger than the trigger point “n1-2”, the vehicle speed
crosses over the upshift line in the shift map. The transmission control unit then confirms it is
a power on upshift and initiates the gear shifting.

(a) Pressure of the shifting elements

25
1 2
20
dpB11-2/dt
Pressure [bar]

15

tC1FF pB11-2
10

5
pC1KP
0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s]
Brake B1
Clutch C1

(b) Speed of the transmission input shaft

3000

2500 n1-2
Speed [rpm]

2000

1500

1000
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s]
Transmission input speed
Current gear speed
Target gear speed

Figure 7.3: Control parameters and trigger point of phase 1-2 in power on upshift

In this phase, the pressure of the off-going clutch is released to the level where its torque
capacity is approximately equal to its actual transmitted torque. Then a micro-slip appears in
the off-going clutch thus the proportional relationship between the pressure and the torque is
 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy 111

built up in the off-going clutch. As shown in figure 7.3(a), “dpB11-2/dt” is the gradient of the
pressure release. In principle it can be as big as possible so long as the off-going clutch does
not start slipping. “pB11-2” is the level where the pressure decreases to. It is calculated and has
different values when the transmission input torque is different. The shaft acceleration, namely
the inertia torque should also be considered with respect to the accuracy of the calculation.
This shaft acceleration can be acquired through the derivation and filtering of the measured
speed signal.

The objective of the clutch filling control is to build up the proportional relationship between
the pressure and the torque in the on-coming clutch within a preset time. The on-coming
clutch is firstly fast filled to compensate for the return spring force and the seal friction force.
The gap between clutch plates should be eliminated in a short time. That’s the reason why
there is a high pressure command in the beginning. In figure 7.3(a), “pC1KP” is the kiss-point
pressure of the on-coming clutch which is crucial for the shift quality. An accurate calibrated
kiss-point pressure is a good foundation for the shift control in the following phases. Big
deviations from the actual kiss-point can cause under fill or over fill in the on-coming clutch.

Figure 7.4 shows how over fill and under fill affects the shift quality. All the control
parameters are the same in the simulation except for the command of the kiss-point pressure.
In the first column of the simulation results, the pressure command of the on-coming clutch is
equal to its kiss-point pressure at the end of clutch filling. In the second column over fill
happens where the pressure command is much bigger than its actual kiss-point pressure. That
means a certain amount of input torque has already been transmitted by the on-coming clutch
when it is still in the filling stage. It inevitably results in a sudden increase of the engine load.
The speed of the transmission input shaft drops abruptly thus big vehicle jerk takes place. In
addition, the clutch over fill considerably affects the subsequent torque transferring phase
because the pressure increase of the on-coming clutch starts from a higher level at the
beginning of the torque phase. Consequently, as shown in graph (c), the pressure increase of
the on-coming clutch becomes bigger in the torque phase. The input speed correspondingly
becomes smaller than the current gear speed before the end line “3” of the torque phase in
graph (d). That’s because a negative slip appears in the off-going clutch when the pressure of
the on-coming clutch increases much bigger than the pressure decrease of the off-going clutch.
This negative slip generates negative torque in the off-going clutch which causes the clutch
tie-up to drag the vehicle.
112 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy

Figure 7.4: Simulation results of different clutch filling in the on-coming clutch
 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy 113

The third column of figure 7.4 shows the response of transmission input speed when under fill
occurs. Compared with graph (a), the pressure command of the on-coming clutch is much
smaller than its actual kiss-point pressure when the clutch filling is completed in graph (e). At
the beginning of the torque phase, the pressure of the on-coming clutch thus starts increasing
based on a lower level. Finally the on-coming clutch pressure becomes smaller at the end line
“3” of the torque phase. The torque decrease of the off-going clutch can’t be totally
compensated by the on-coming clutch because of under fill. Consequently, the engine load is
reduced which easily results in the engine flare in graph (f). On the one hand, engine flare
generates a large amount of heat which aggravates the wear of the slipping clutches. On the
other hand, it causes torque loss on the driving wheels which is also felt by the driver as a
shifting impact. In conclusion, both over fill and under fill make the shift quality get worse.
They are not acceptable in the shifting process of power on upshift. Therefore, the actual kiss-
point pressure of each clutch should be accurately calibrated.

The pressure command of the on-coming clutch should be equal to its actual kiss-point
pressure after the fast filling stage. In an ideal case, the actual clutch pressure should follow
the pressure command to reach the kiss-point at the end of phase 1-2. However when the
clutch filling is completed, the actual clutch pressure can’t be ensured to reach the kiss-point
exactly because numerous factors affect the clutch filling control. Therefore, the control
parameter fast filling time “tC1FF” shown in figure 7.3 can be adjusted to make the actual
clutch pressure reach the kiss-point within the preset time. In mass production, the initial fast
filling time of different clutches and different assemblies can be optimized automatically by
applying the learning rules in the end-of-line (EOL) test.

Figure 7.5 demonstrates such a learning process in the EOL test. It can be seen from figure 7.5
that the line pressure of the hydraulic system drops abruptly in each fast filling stage. That’s
because a large amount of oil flow enters into the piston cylinder instantly after the fast filling
stage starts. In the first test, the fast filling time is 120ms. The actual clutch pressure can’t rise
to the kiss-point within the preset time. The under fill thus occurs. Then beginning from
120ms, the fast filling time increases at a step of 10ms. With the fast filling time increasing,
the actual clutch pressure gradually gets close to the required pressure level and finally
achieves the target at 170ms. It is then stored in the transmission control unit as the initial
value of the fast filling time. Moreover, the control parameter fast filling time “tC1FF” can also
be applied to compensate for the influences of life-cycle variations on the kiss-point pressure.
It is adjusted through the adaptive function of the control software.
114 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy

Clutch pressure [bar]

Line pressure [bar]

120ms 130ms 140ms 150ms 160ms 170ms

OK

Time [s]
Clutch pressure command
Actual clutch pressure
Line pressure of hydraulic system

Figure 7.5: Test results of clutch filling in the EOL test

7.1.2 Phase 2-3

Phase 2-3 is the torque phase where the input torque is transferred from the off-going clutch to
the on-coming clutch. After the preparation phase, the pressure of the on-coming clutch starts
increasing while the pressure of the off-going clutch continues to decrease. As shown in figure
7.6, “dpB12-3/dt” is the gradient of the pressure decrease and “dpC12-3/dt” is the gradient of the
pressure increase in phase 2-3. Like the effect of over fill or under fill in phase 1-2, bad
calibration of the two control parameters will lead to the clutch tie-up or the engine flare.
Therefore, they are very important control parameters for a good shift quality.

The objective of the torque phase is to keep a small positive slip in the off-going clutch which
just means the input speed should be slightly bigger than the current gear speed. Increasing the
pressure in the on-coming clutch will reduce this positive slip and even make it become
negative. On the contrary, releasing the pressure in the off-going clutch will increase this
positive slip which will cause the engine flare. Therefore, the requirement for the two pressure
gradients is that they must match with each other. If the gradient of the pressure increase is
calibrated much bigger than the gradient of the pressure decrease, the off-going clutch will still
be pressurized at the time that the on-coming clutch can carry the full input torque. Then a
negative torque appears in the off-going clutch and once released, the transmission output
torque will abruptly increase to cause a shifting impact. It is just like the vehicle is suddenly
braked then at once accelerated. The nodding effect of the vehicle will disturb the passengers
and make the driveability get worse.
 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy 11η

(a) Pressure of the shifting elements

25
2 3
20

Pressure [bar]
15 dpC12-3/dt dpB12-3/dt

10
tC1Fill

0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s]
Brake B1
Clutch C1

(b) Speed of the transmission input shaft

3000
n2-3
2500
Speed [rpm]

2000

1500

1000
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s]
Transmission input speed
Current gear speed
Target gear speed

Figure 7.6: Control parameters and trigger point of phase 2-3 in power on upshift

Figure 7.7 compares the simulation results of good matched pressure gradients with the
simulation results of which the pressure increase of the on-coming clutch is much faster than
the pressure decrease of the off-going clutch during phase 2-3. It can be seen from graph (e)
the pressure gradient of the on-coming clutch is bigger than it is in graph (a). As a result, in
graph (g) the transmission input speed has dropped below the current gear speed before the
end line 3 of the torque phase. Since the pressure is not completely released in the off-going
clutch when the negative slip appears, a negative torque is generated in the off-going clutch in
graph (f) compared with graph (b).
11θ 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy

1 Good matched pressure gradients 2 Fast pressure increase in the on-coming clutch
(a) (e)
25 25
2 3 2 3
20 20
Pressure [bar]

Pressure [bar]
15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Brake B1 Brake B1
Clutch C1 Clutch C1

(b) (f)
300 300

200 200
Torque [Nm]

Torque [Nm]

100 100

0 0

 100  100
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Brake B1 Brake B1
Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Engine torque Engine torque

(c) (g)
3000 3000

2500 2500
Speed [rpm]

Speed [rpm]

2000 2000

1500 1500

1000 1000
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Transmission input speed Transmission input speed
Current gear speed Current gear speed
Target gear speed Target gear speed

(d) (h)
4 10 4 10
Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

2 5 2 5
Vehicle jerk [g/s]

Vehicle jerk [g/s]

0 0 0 0

2 5 2 5

4  10 4  10
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Vehicle acceleration Vehicle acceleration
Vehicle jerk Vehicle jerk

Figure 7.7: Comparison between good and strong pressure overlap in the torque phase
 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy 117

Compared with graph (d), it is noted that the vehicle acceleration increases more sharply after
the end line 3 of the torque phase in graph (h). The reason is that the fast torque increase in the
on-coming clutch and the release of the negative torque in the off-going clutch make the
transmission output torque increase abruptly. The peak value of the vehicle acceleration thus
appears shortly after the torque phase and is much bigger in graph (h) than in graph (d).
Correspondingly, the vehicle jerk reaches to its peak value in the forward driving direction
after the dotted line 3. This value is also much bigger in graph (h) than in graph (d). In
addition, graph (g) and graph (h) show that there is a bigger vibration because of the negative
clutch torque. Obviously, driver and passengers will feel uncomfortable in such a situation.

The torque phase can be initiated after a presetting time window “tC1Fill” for the oil filling of
the on-coming clutch as shown in figure 7.6 (a). However, in order to avoid the clutch tie-up,
another trigger point “n2-3” can be set up in the open-loop control strategy. Parameter “n2-3”,
which is shown in figure 7.6 (b), is a preset positive slip between the transmission input speed
and the current gear speed. The torque phase can’t begin until the speed difference reaches to
the preset value of the positive slip. This small positive slip provides a buffer zone for the
pressure control in the torque phase. Even the pressure increase of the on-coming clutch is
calibrated much faster than the pressure decrease of the off-going clutch, the clutch tie-up will
not easily take place because this buffer zone can ensure that the slip of the off-going clutch
can’t change to negative before its pressure is totally released.

Figure 7.8 shows the simulation results after adding a trigger point “n2-3” in the open-loop
control strategy based on the wrongly calibrated pressure overlap in figure 7.7. The value of
“n2-3” is set to 50rpm in the simulation. The pressure gradient of the on-coming clutch during
phase 2-3 is the same in both cases of figure 7.8. However, due to the trigger point “n2-3”, the
pressure increase of the on-coming clutch is postponed for a short time in graph (e). It reduces
the strong pressure overlap in the torque phase. Compared with graph (c), the transmission
input speed doesn’t drop below the current gear speed before the end line 3 of the torque phase
in graph (g). No negative slip appears in the off-going clutch thus no negative torque is
generated in graph (f) during phase 2-3. The clutch tie-up then can be eliminated by a proper
value of the trigger point “n2-3”. In graph (h), it can be seen the vehicle acceleration doesn’t
increase sharply after the end line 3 of the torque phase like in graph (d) because there is no
negative torque generated in the off-going clutch. The peak value of the vehicle jerk and the
vehicle acceleration are very small in graph (h) compared with graph (d). Driver and
passengers will have a smooth shift feeling in the torque phase.
118 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy

1 Fast pressure increase in the on-coming clutch 2 Trigger point “n2-3” is added
(a) (e)
25 25

2 3 2 3
20 20

Pressure [bar]
Pressure [bar]

15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Brake B1 Brake B1
Clutch C1 Clutch C1

(b) (f)
300 300

200 200
Torque [Nm]
Torque [Nm]

100 100

0 0

 100  100
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Brake B1 Brake B1
Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Engine torque Engine torque

(c) (g)
3000 3000

2500 2500
Speed [rpm]
Speed [rpm]

2000 2000

1500 1500

1000 1000
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Transmission input speed Transmission input speed
Current gear speed Current gear speed
Target gear speed Target gear speed

(d) (h)
4 10 4 10
Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]
Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

2 5 2 5
Vehicle jerk [g/s]
Vehicle jerk [g/s]

0 0 0 0

2 5 2 5

4  10 4  10
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Vehicle acceleration Vehicle acceleration
Vehicle jerk Vehicle jerk

Figure 7.8: Comparison between without and with the trigger point “n2-3”
 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy 11λ

However, the trigger point “n2-3” needs to be carefully calibrated. If the value of it is too big,
the pressure overlap in the torque phase will become too weak. Although the negative slip will
not appear in the off-going clutch, there will be a big positive slip to cause the engine flare.
Therefore, the shift quality will not be improved but run towards the other extreme. A good
solution is that the trigger point “n2-3” can be considered as an adaptive parameter which is
automatically fine-tuned in the daily driving according to the evaluation of the shift quality.
Then the influence of life-cycle variations can be compensated to some extent.

On the other hand, if the gradient of the pressure increase is calibrated much smaller than the
gradient of the pressure decrease, engine flare will happen and the traction interruption on
driving wheels will be felt by driver and passengers. It is also considered as a shifting impact
but the direction is opposite to the situation of clutch tie-up. The feeling is just like the gear
shifting of manual transmissions. However, what is even worse is that the engine still outputs
power in the shifting process while it doesn’t output power in the shifting process of manual
transmissions. That will increase the wear in the shifting elements of automatic transmissions.

Figure 7.9 compares the simulation results of good matched pressure gradients with the
simulation results of which the pressure increase of the on-coming clutch is much slower than
the pressure decrease of the off-going clutch during phase 2-3. It can be seen from graph (e)
the pressure gradient of the on-coming clutch is smaller than it is in graph (a). The pressure
overlap is very weak between the on-coming clutch and the off-going clutch. As a result, in
graph (f) the friction torque of the on-coming clutch increases much slower than the torque
decrease of the off-going clutch. The speed difference between the transmission input speed
and the current gear speed becomes much bigger in graph (g) than in graph (c). The engine
flare thus happens in the shifting process.

As mentioned earlier, the decrease of the vehicle acceleration in the torque phase is inevitable.
However in graph (h), the vehicle acceleration decreases much more than it is in graph (d)
during phase 2-3. It even drops below the acceleration of the target gear level. The big
acceleration decrease can also disturb passengers. It will be felt as a shifting impact. In
addition, the big acceleration decrease also increases the vehicle jerk in the negative direction
before the dotted line 3 when comparing graph (h) with graph (d). After that, the vehicle jerk
is also bigger in graph (h) than in graph (d). And the vibration is more obvious in the second
simulation with engine flare. Therefore, the weak pressure overlap should also be avoided in
the calibration work from the point view of shift comfort.
120 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy

1 Good matched pressure gradients 2 Slow pressure increase in the on-coming clutch
(a) (e)
25 25

2 3 2 3
20 20

Pressure [bar]
Pressure [bar]

15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Brake B1 Brake B1
Clutch C1 Clutch C1

(b) (f)
300 300

200 200
Torque [Nm]
Torque [Nm]

100 100

0 0

 100  100
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Brake B1 Brake B1
Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Engine torque Engine torque

(c) (g)
3000 3000

2500 2500
Speed [rpm]
Speed [rpm]

2000 2000

1500 1500

1000 1000
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Transmission input speed Transmission input speed
Current gear speed Current gear speed
Target gear speed Target gear speed

(d) (h)
4 10 4 10
Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]
Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

2 5 2 5
Vehicle jerk [g/s]
Vehicle jerk [g/s]

0 0 0 0

2 5 2 5

4  10 4  10
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Vehicle acceleration Vehicle acceleration
Vehicle jerk Vehicle jerk

Figure 7.9: Comparison between good and weak pressure overlap in the torque phase
 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy 121

In graph (g), the engine flare takes place because the pressure increase of the on-coming clutch
is much slower than the pressure decrease of the off-going clutch. Accompanied with this
engine flare, the power loss and the friction energy of shifting elements will increase. Thus the
service life of friction plates will be shortened. In power on upshift, the engine flare especially
has a big influence on the on-coming clutch. Figure 7.10 shows the power loss and the friction
energy of the on-coming clutch and the off-going clutch based on the simulation of the two
cases in figure 7.9.
1 Good matched pressure gradients 2 Slow pressure increase in the on-coming clutch

(a) (c)
10 0 10 0

8  20 8  20

Friction energy [kJ]

Friction energy [kJ]

Power loss [kW]

Power loss [kW]
6  40 6  40

4  60 4  60

2  80 2  80

0  100 0  100
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Friction energy of C1 Friction energy of C1
Power loss of C1 Power loss of C1

(b) (d)
10 0 10 0

8  20 8  20
Friction energy [kJ]
Friction energy [kJ]

Power loss [kW]

Power loss [kW]

6  40 6  40

4  60 4  60

2  80 2  80

0  100 0  100
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Friction energy of B1 Friction energy of B1
Power loss of B1 Power loss of B1

Figure 7.10: Simulation results of the friction energy and the power loss

In figure 7.10, graph (c) shows that the peak value of the power loss in the on-coming clutch
increases when the engine flare takes place compared with graph (a). Moreover, the cover area
of the dashed line in graph (c) is bigger than in graph (a). That means the slipping time and the
average power loss increase when the engine flare happens. Therefore, the friction energy of
the on-coming clutch in graph (c) is much bigger than in graph (a). For the off-going clutch, it
is known from graph (b) and graph (d) that both the power loss and the friction energy are
122 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy

small in power on upshift even there is an engine flare. That’s because the pressure of the off-
going clutch is controlled to decrease although the engine flare increases the difference of the
slipping speed. There are two heat load criteria for the design of shifting elements in automatic
transmissions. One is the specific power loss per unit area and the other is the specific friction
energy per unit area. Normally the suppliers of friction plates will provide reference values of
the two criteria for load limits during the gear shifting. If the pressure gradients are not
calibrated properly in the torque phase, the engine flare will occur and aggravate the thermal
wear of friction materials even though the two criteria have high reference values. Therefore, a
good control of the shifting process is one important factor to enable a good design to be
successful.

In conclusion, in the torque phase of power on upshift, the gradient of the pressure decrease in
the off-going clutch and the gradient of the pressure increase in the on-coming clutch must
match with each other. They are very important control parameters for a good shift quality.
Both clutch tie-up and engine flare result in shifting impact and should be avoided through
extensive calibration of the two pressure gradients in the open-loop control strategy.

7.1.3 Phase 3-4

Phase 3-4 is one part of the inertia phase in the developed open-loop control strategy. The
objective of this phase is to change the engine angular acceleration from positive to negative.
Then the transmission input speed can be synchronized from the current gear to the target gear.
Therefore, it is a gradient setting phase for the transmission input speed.

Parameter “pB1KP” is the kiss-point pressure of the off-going clutch in figure 7.11. It is the
trigger point of phase 3-4. When the pressure of the off-going clutch is released below its kiss-
point, there will be no torque transmitted by the off-going clutch. The torque phase is finished
and the on-coming clutch is still slipping at this moment. In order to reduce the slip of the on-
coming clutch, the pressure of it will continue increasing. Parameter “dpC13-4/dt” in figure
7.11 is the gradient of the pressure increase during phase 3-4. Accompanied with the pressure
increase, the friction torque also increases in the on-coming clutch. On the one hand, at the
transmission input side, the increased friction torque of the on-coming clutch increases the
engine load. The transmission input speed thus begins to decelerate. On the other hand, at the
transmission output side, the increased friction torque of the on-coming clutch also increases
the transmission output torque. The vehicle acceleration thus begins to increase. The gradient
of the pressure increase “dpC13-4/dt” should not be very big. Otherwise a sharp rise of the
vehicle acceleration will result in a big shifting impact.
 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy 123

(a) Pressure of the shifting elements

25
3 4
20

Pressure [bar]
15
dpC13-4/dt pC13-4
10

5
pB1KP
0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s]
Brake B1
Clutch C1

(b) Speed of the transmission input shaft

3000

2500
Speed [rpm]

2000

1500

1000
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s]
Transmission input speed
Current gear speed
Target gear speed

Figure 7.11: Control parameters and trigger point of phase 3-4 in power on upshift

Parameter “pC13-4” is the level which the pressure of the on-coming clutch increases to during
phase 3-4. It is an important control parameter which mainly determines the time length of the
inertia phase. A big value of this control parameter can shorten the shifting time and improve
the shift spontaneity. Conversely, a small value of it will extend the shifting time. The heat
load of shifting elements thus will increase. The shift response will become worse but the shift
comfort will be improved. In the developed open-loop control strategy, parameter “pC13-4” is
either calibrated or calculated by presetting a time window for the inertia phase. The equation
is expressed as following.
124 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy

TE  TC  TPG1_ in  Jin  2  (i3  i 2 )  n out / t preset

pC13 4   pC1KP (7.1)
d  zC1  rC1  AC1

where: TPG1_ in Carrier torque of the 1st planetary gear set in 8AT

i3 Ratio of the 3rd gear

t preset Time window for the inertia phase

Reducing the engine torque in the inertia phase can also achieve the synchronization of the
transmission input speed from the current gear to the target gear. In the developed open-loop
control strategy, the requirement for the engine torque reduction can also be calculated by
presetting a desired time window for the inertia phase. The transmission control unit sends out
this requirement to the engine control unit. Since the engine torque is required to have a quick
response to the demand of the gear shifting, the engine control unit will reduce the engine
torque by manipulating the spark advance angle other than the throttle opening degree in the
shifting process.

There are two advantages by applying the engine torque reduction in the inertia phase of
power on upshift. Firstly, the integrated powertrain control between the engine and the
transmission can reduce the shifting impact. When the speed synchronization is achieved by
increasing the pressure of the on-coming clutch, the increased friction torque will be
transmitted to the driving wheels. It results in an increase of the vehicle acceleration thus the
vehicle jerk will become bigger. However if the speed synchronization is achieved by reducing
the engine torque, the pressure of the on-coming clutch can be kept constant or be slightly
adjusted. The friction torque of the on-coming clutch thus will not increase very much to cause
a sudden increase of the vehicle acceleration. This method can keep the vehicle jerk at a
minimum level in the inertia phase to the maximum extent.

Figure 7.12 shows two simulation results of power on upshift from the 2nd gear to the 3rd gear.
In both cases the throttle opening degree is 100%. The time window of the inertia phase is set
to 500ms before each simulation. All the control parameters are the same except that in one
simulation the engine torque is reduced during phase 3-4 and in the other simulation the
engine doesn’t assist the transmission to achieve the speed synchronization.
 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy 12η

1 With engine torque reduction 2 Without engine torque reduction

(a) (e)
25 25

3 4 3 4
20 20
Pressure [bar]

Pressure [bar]
15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Brake B1 Brake B1
Clutch C1 Clutch C1

(b) (f)
300 300

200 200
Torque [Nm]

Torque [Nm]

100 100

0 0

 100  100
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Brake B1 Brake B1
Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Engine torque Engine torque

(c) (g)
3000 3000

2500 2500
Speed [rpm]

Speed [rpm]

2000 2000

1500 1500

1000 1000
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Transmission input speed Transmission input speed
Current gear speed Current gear speed
Target gear speed Target gear speed

(d) (h)
4 10 4 10
Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

2 5 2 5
Vehicle jerk [g/s]

Vehicle jerk [g/s]

0 0 0 0

2 5 2 5

4  10 4  10
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Vehicle acceleration Vehicle acceleration
Vehicle jerk Vehicle jerk

Figure 7.12: Comparison between with and without engine torque reduction
12θ 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy

As shown in graph (a), the pressure of the on-coming clutch doesn’t continue to increase after
entering into phase 3-4 in the first simulation. Compared with graph (f), the engine torque is
reduced but the friction torque of the on-coming clutch doesn’t increase in graph (b) because
of the constant pressure. Both simulations have almost the same time length of the inertia
phase (graph (c) and graph (g)). In graph (d), the vehicle acceleration doesn’t increase again
after the first decrease in the torque phase. It smoothly decreases to the target gear level.
However, due to the increased friction torque of the on-coming clutch, the vehicle acceleration
increases back in graph (h) after the dotted line 3. Obviously the change of the vehicle
acceleration in graph (h) can’t provide the same comfort shift feeling as in graph (d).

The other advantage of the engine torque reduction is that it can reduce the heat load of the
shifting elements. Since the pressure of the on-coming clutch doesn’t have to increase very
much when there is an engine torque reduction, the peak power loss and the friction energy of
the on-coming clutch will decrease during the gear shifting. Figure 7.13 shows the power loss
and the friction energy of the on-coming clutch in above two simulations with and without
reducing the engine torque in the inertia phase. It can be seen from the two graphs that the
friction energy of the on-coming clutch increases from about 8.2kJ to about 10kJ when the
engine torque is not reduced during phase 3-4. It aggravates the wear of the friction plates
especially when shifting at a wide throttle opening degree. At the same time the peak power
loss of the on-coming clutch also increases in graph (b) compared with graph (a). Today, with
respect to the shift comfort and the service life of the shifting elements, the integrated
powertrain control between engine and automatic transmission has been widely applied in the
shifting process of power on upshift.
1 With engine torque reduction 2 Without engine torque reduction
(a) (b)
15 0 15 0

12  20 12  20
Friction energy [kJ]

Friction energy [kJ]

Power loss [kW]

Power loss [kW]

9  40 9  40

6  60 6  60

3  80 3  80

0  100 0  100
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Friction energy of C1 Friction energy of C1
Power loss of C1 Power loss of C1

Figure 7.13: Power loss and friction energy with and without engine torque reduction
 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy 127

7.1.4 Phase 4-5

Phase 4-5 also belongs to the inertia phase in the developed open-loop control strategy. The
objective of this phase is to reduce the difference between the gradient of the transmission
input speed and the gradient of the target gear speed. Therefore, it is a gradient breakdown
phase for the transmission input speed.

(a) Pressure of the shifting elements

25
4 5
20
Pressure [bar]

15

10
ΔpC14-5
5
dpC14-5/dt
0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s]
Brake B1
Clutch C1

(b) Speed of the transmission input shaft

3000

2500
Speed [rpm]

2000
n4-5

1500

1000
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s]
Transmission input speed
Current gear speed
Target gear speed

Figure 7.14: Control parameters and trigger point of phase 4-5 in power on upshift

The gradient breakdown of the transmission input speed is achieved by reducing the pressure
of the on-coming clutch. On the one hand, at the transmission input side, this pressure
decrease can make the transmission input speed engage into the target gear smoothly at the
128 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy

end of the inertia phase. On the other hand, at the transmission output side, this pressure
decrease can make the vehicle acceleration smoothly drop to the target gear level. Parameter
“dpC14-5/dt” in figure 7.14 is the gradient of the pressure decrease during phase 4-5. There
must be a trigger point to initiate phase 4-5. Parameter “n4-5” is a predefined value of the
difference between the transmission input speed and the target gear speed. It determines the
time when phase 4-5 starts. If the measured speed difference drops below this pre-
synchronization point, the pressure of the on-coming clutch will begin to decrease. Parameter
“ΔpC14-η” is the maximum pressure decrease in phase 4-5. The pressure of the on-coming
clutch can’t decrease unlimitedly. Otherwise, the transmission input speed will deviate from
the target gear speed and the slip of the on-coming clutch will increase again. The transmission
then fails to engage in the target gear.

Figure 7.15 shows the simulation results with and without pressure reduction before the end of
the inertia phase. In the first case the pressure of the on-coming clutch is released 3bar during
phase 4-5 (graph (a)). In the second case, the pressure of the on-coming clutch is kept constant
before the end of the inertia phase (graph (e)). Due to the pressure decrease, the transmission
input speed enters into the target gear very smoothly in graph (c). However in graph (g) it gets
into the target gear abruptly. And a big vibration occurs after the synchronization point.

When the on-coming clutch is slipping, it transmits the friction torque. When it is locked, it
transmits the reaction torque which is smaller than the friction torque. At the moment the
transmission input speed enters into the target gear, the on-coming clutch stops slipping. The
transition from the slip state to the stick state will cause a shifting impact. Pressure release
before the synchronization point reduces the friction torque. Thus the drop from the friction
torque to the reaction torque will become smaller. The shifting impact then can be reduced. As
shown in graph (b), the friction torque of the on-coming clutch drops to nearly the same as the
reaction torque before the dotted line 5. Then the change from the friction torque to the
reaction torque is very soft at the transition point. Correspondingly, the vehicle acceleration
drops to the target gear level very smooth in graph (d). The vehicle jerk thus is very small.
Since the pressure is not released before the synchronization point, the friction torque of the
on-coming clutch drops to the reaction torque from a high level at the transition point in graph
(f). The vehicle acceleration accordingly drops very steeply in graph (h). Then a big vehicle
jerk appears in the negative direction and vibration also occurs after it. It is obvious that the
gradient breakdown phase can improve shift comfort without losing much shift spontaneity.
 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy 12λ

1 With pressure reduction 2 Without pressure reduction

(a) (e)
25 25

4 5 4 5
20 20

Pressure [bar]
Pressure [bar]

15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Brake B1 Brake B1
Clutch C1 Clutch C1

(b) (f)
300 300

200 200
Torque [Nm]
Torque [Nm]

100 100

0 0

 100  100
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Brake B1 Brake B1
Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Engine torque Engine torque

(c) (g)
3000 3000

2500 2500
Speed [rpm]
Speed [rpm]

2000 2000

1500 1500

1000 1000
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Transmission input speed Transmission input speed
Current gear speed Current gear speed
Target gear speed Target gear speed

(d) (h)
4 10 4 10
Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]
Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

2 5 2 5
Vehicle jerk [g/s]
Vehicle jerk [g/s]

0 0 0 0

2 5 2 5

4  10 4  10
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Vehicle acceleration Vehicle acceleration
Vehicle jerk Vehicle jerk

Figure 7.15: Comparison between with and without pressure reduction during phase 4-5
130 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy

In view of shift comfort, the friction torque of the on-coming clutch should be reduced before
the synchronization point. That’s also the reason why paper-based friction material is more
applied than sintered bronze in passenger car automatic transmissions. Paper-based friction
material has a positive -v friction characteristic which means the dynamic friction coefficient
increases with the slipping speed. Conversely, sintered bronze has a negative -v friction
characteristic. Its dynamic friction coefficient becomes bigger when the slipping speed gets
smaller. According to equation (4.7), the friction torque of the on-coming clutch will
inevitably increase before it stops slipping when applying sintered bronze. Therefore, sintered
bronze has low shift comfort and is more found in automatic transmissions of commercial
vehicles than in automatic transmissions of passenger cars.

Figure 7.16 shows two types of -v friction characteristic applied in the simulation model.
One has a positive slope while the other has a negative slope. As mentioned in chapter 4.3,
both -v curves cross the zero point because of numerical issues of the simulation.

0.2
0
Dynamic friction coefficient

0.1

0 0

 0.1

 0.2
 500  250 0 250 500

Slipping speed [rpm]

A positive slope
A negative slope

Figure 7.16: Different μ-v friction characteristics in the simulation

Figure 7.17 compares the simulation results based on above two different -v friction
characteristics. All the control parameters are the same in both cases. It can be seen that graph
(f) has a bigger friction torque in the on-coming clutch than graph (b) at the dotted line 5 due
to the negative -v friction characteristic. Then the torque drops more sharply to the target
gear level and even vibration occurs after the synchronization point. Therefore, graph (h)
shows that the vehicle acceleration drops more deeply and has big vibration after the dotted
line 5 compared with graph (d). The vehicle jerk is also bigger in graph (h) than in graph (d).
 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy 131

1 Positive μ-v friction characteristic 2 Negative μ-v friction characteristic

(a) (e)
25 25
4 5 4 5
20 20
Pressure [bar]

Pressure [bar]
15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Brake B1 Brake B1
Clutch C1 Clutch C1
(b) (f)
300 300

200 200
Torque [Nm]

Torque [Nm]

100 100

0 0

 100  100
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Brake B1 Brake B1
Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Engine torque Engine torque

(c) (g)
3000 3000

2500 2500
Speed [rpm]

Speed [rpm]

2000 2000

1500 1500

1000 1000
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Transmission input speed Transmission input speed
Current gear speed Current gear speed
Target gear speed Target gear speed

(d) (h)
4 10 4 10
Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

2 5 2 5
Vehicle jerk [g/s]

Vehicle jerk [g/s]

0 0 0 0

2 5 2 5

4  10 4  10
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Vehicle acceleration Vehicle acceleration
Vehicle jerk Vehicle jerk

Figure 7.17: Comparison between positive and negative μ-v friction characteristic
132 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy

7.1.5 Phase 5-6

Phase 5-6 is the end phase of power on upshift in the developed open-loop control strategy.
After the transmission input speed is nearly the same as the target gear speed, where the speed
difference is smaller than the trigger point “n5-6” shown in figure 7.18, the pressure of the on-
coming clutch starts increasing to the hydraulic line pressure. Parameter “dpC15-6/dt” in figure
7.18 is the gradient of the pressure increase. In principle, after reaching to the synchronization
point and the on-coming clutch stops slipping, the pressure gradient of the on-coming clutch in
this phase can be as big as possible.

(a) Pressure of the shifting elements

25
5 6
20
dpC15-6/dt
Pressure [bar]

15

10

0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s]
Brake B1
Clutch C1

(b) Speed of the transmission input shaft

3000

2500
Speed [rpm]

n5-6
2000

1500

1000
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s]
Transmission input speed
Current gear speed
Target gear speed

Figure 7.18: Control parameters and trigger point of phase 5-6 in power on upshift
 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy 133

In conclusion, according to the simulation results of figure 7.2, the developed open-loop
control strategy for power on upshift can be demonstrated by the following flow chart.

False
Maintain in the current
Shifting begins.
gear.

True

Phase 1-2: Preparation phase.

On-coming clutch: Oil filling.
Off-going clutch: Pressure decreases (micro slip).

False

Oil filling ends and trigger

point “n2-3” has been reached.

True

Phase 2-3: Torque transferring phase.

On-coming clutch: Pressure increases (big slip).
Off-going clutch: Pressure decreases (micro slip).

False

Pressure of the off-going

clutch drops below kiss-point.

True

Phase 3-4: Gradient setting phase.

On-coming clutch: Pressure increases (big slip).
Off-going clutch: Pressure is completely released to 0.
Engine torque intervention: Negative torque intervention.

False

Trigger point “n4-5” has been

reached.

True

Phase 4-5: Gradient breakdown phase.

On-coming clutch: Pressure decreases (small slip).
Off-going clutch: Pressure is completely released to 0.
Engine torque intervention: Negative torque intervention.

False

Trigger point “n5-6” has been

reached.

True

Phase 5-6: End phase.

On-coming clutch: Pressure increases to the line pressure
(no slip).
Off-going clutch: Pressure is completely released to 0.

Figure 7.19: Flow chart for the developed open-loop control strategy of power on upshift
134 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy

7.2 The Open-loop Control Strategy for Power off Downshift

As described in the previous section, the shifting process of power off downshift is similar to
the shifting process of power on upshift. Therefore, the flow chart in figure 7.19 can also stand
for the control strategy of power off downshift except that the engine torque intervention is
positive in power off downshift. However, if the drag torque from the transmission input side
is very small, there are still some differences which will be explained according to the
simulation results in figure 7.20. It is a power off downshift from the 3rd gear to the 2nd gear. In
this gear shifting, Brake B1 is the on-coming clutch. Clutch C1 is the off-going clutch.

(a) Pressure of the shifting elements

25
1 23 4 5 6
20
Pressure [bar]

15

10

0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s]
Clutch C1
Brake B1

(b) Speed of the transmission input shaft

2000

1500
Speed [rpm]

1000

500

0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s]
Transmission input speed
Current gear speed
Target gear speed

Figure 7.20: Simulation results of power off downshift from the 3rd gear to the 2nd gear
 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy 13η

It can be seen from figure 7.20 that the shifting process of power off downshift can also be
divided into 5 phases. During phase 1-2, the pressure of the off-going clutch is released to the
level where its torque capacity is approximately equal to its actual transmitted torque.
However, since the engine torque is negative and very small, the actual transmitted torque of
the off-going clutch is also very small in power off downshift. A small pressure can ensure the
off-going clutch not to slip. Then in order to generate the micro-slip, the pressure of the off-
going clutch needs to decrease very much from the line pressure. Meanwhile, in the following
torque phase 2-3, the time of the pressure overlap is very short because the pressure of the off-
going clutch will be released from a low level to 0. It is difficult to control this pressure
overlap precisely in such a short time, especially considering the influence of build-to-build
variations and life-cycle variations. In such a case, clutch tie-up will easily take place because
a little pressure increase in the on-coming clutch can make it carry the full input torque. If the
off-going clutch is still pressurized at this moment, it will generate a positive torque to the
vehicle and once released, an unpleasant vehicle deceleration will occur.

However, engine undershoot, which means the transmission input speed drops much below the
current gear speed in power off downshift, will not easily happen. The shifting type of power
off downshift takes place when the vehicle is decelerating by braking or coasting down. The
engine torque is negative which drags the vehicle at the transmission input side. Compared
with the braking torque and the driving resistance at the output side, this torque is very small.
The small negative engine torque can’t let the transmission input speed deviate from the
current gear speed very much in such a short time even if the off-going clutch is completely
released whilst there is still no friction torque generated in the on-coming clutch. Therefore, in
the shifting process of power off downshift, the pressure of the on-coming clutch can increase
after the pressure of the off-going clutch drops below its kiss-point. This case has no pressure
overlap in the shifting process which in principle is similar to the power interrupt shift in
manual transmissions. However, the power of the engine is originally off when the vehicle is
being braked or coasting down. It is not necessary to consider whether the shifting process of
power off downshift is a power shift.

Figure 7.21 shows the simulation results with and without pressure overlap in the shifting
process of power off downshift. As shown in graph (a), there is a short time of pressure
overlap in the first simulation. In the second simulation, graph (e) shows that the pressure of
the off-going clutch is directly released to 0 when the on-coming clutch is still being filled.
After oil filling, the pressure of the on-coming clutch starts increasing from the kiss-point.
13θ 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy

1 With pressure overlap 2 Without pressure overlap

(a) (e)
25 25

20 20
Pressure [bar]

Pressure [bar]
15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Brake B1 Brake B1

(b) (f)
80 80

60 60

Torque [Nm]
Torque [Nm]

40 40

20 20

0 0

 20  20
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Brake B1 Brake B1
Engine torque Engine torque

(c) (g)
2000 2000

1500 1500
Speed [rpm]

Speed [rpm]

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Transmission input speed Transmission input speed
Current gear speed Current gear speed
Target gear speed Target gear speed

(d) (h)
4 10 4 10
Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

2 5 2 5
Vehicle jerk [g/s]

Vehicle jerk [g/s]

0 0 0 0

2 5 2 5

4  10 4  10
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Vehicle acceleration Vehicle acceleration
Vehicle jerk Vehicle jerk

Figure 7.21: Comparison between with and without pressure overlap

 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy 137

In graph (b), the off-going clutch still transmits small friction torque before the torque phase.
This small friction torque is transferred to the on-coming clutch in a short time through the
pressure overlap. In graph (f), there is a time window in which both the off-going clutch
torque and the on-coming clutch torque are 0. The power is interrupted between the
transmission input side and the transmission output side. Compared with graph (b), the torque
decrease of the off-going clutch in graph (f) is not compensated by the on-coming clutch but
converted into the inertia torque of the transmission input shaft. However, it can be seen from
graph (g) that the transmission input speed doesn’t deviate very much from the current gear
speed when the connection between the input side and the output side is interrupted. It is
nearly the same as in graph (c). That’s because the small negative engine torque (shown in
graph (f)) can’t increase the speed difference in such a short time. Engine undershoot can’t
happen in power off downshift if the input drag torque is very small. The profile of the vehicle
acceleration and the vehicle jerk in graph (d) and graph (h) are similar to each other. There
isn’t any big different shift feeling between the two different control methods. Therefore, it is
not necessary to have a pressure overlap in the shifting process of power off downshift.

Moreover, when there is a big braking torque, releasing the off-going clutch will automatically
let the transmission input speed increase to the target gear speed rather than let it decrease
more quickly than the current gear speed. The reason is that the big braking torque drags the
vehicle more heavily than the engine negative torque drags the transmission input shaft. The
deceleration of the current gear speed thus is bigger than the deceleration of the transmission
input shaft when the off-going clutch is open. It will make the speed difference between the
transmission input shaft and the current gear become positive at once after the off-going clutch
starts slipping. This is different from the coast down situation in which the speed difference is
firstly negative. Therefore, when driver brakes the vehicle, only releasing the off-going clutch
can also help the transmission input speed synchronize from the current gear to the target gear.
There is no need to have a pressure overlap as well in such a case.

All in all, the first difference between the control strategy of power on upshift and the control
strategy of power off downshift is that the latter can apply the control method of power
interrupt shift. The shifting process of power interrupt shift can be controlled more easily than
the adjustment of pressure overlap in power shift. Especially the shifting type of power off
downshift requires a precise pressure tuning because a little pressure increase in the on-coming
clutch may easily cause the clutch tie-up. However, sometimes the drag torque at the
transmission input side is also very big (e.g. air conditioning turns on). In this case power off
downshift is better to be controlled like power on upshift which has a pressure overlap before
the inertia phase of the shifting process. The braking capability of the vehicle thus can be
138 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy

maintained throughout the gear shifting. No abrupt disconnection between the engine and the
driving wheels can ensure a smooth change of the vehicle deceleration.

The second difference exists in the inertia phase. In the shifting process of power off
downshift, the transmission input speed can be synchronized with the help of a positive engine
torque intervention. Since in power off downshift the transmission input speed must climb to a
higher speed level, the engine can increase its torque to accelerate the transmission input shaft
when it receives the torque request from the transmission.

Figure 7.22 shows two simulation results of power off downshift from the 3rd gear to the 2nd
gear. In the first simulation, the speed synchronization is achieved through the pressure
increase of the on-coming clutch (graph (a)). In the second simulation, the positive engine
torque intervention (graph (f)) accelerates the transmission input speed from the current gear
to the target gear. It can be seen from graph (d) that there is an obvious unwanted big vehicle
deceleration during phase 3-4. The reason of this unwanted vehicle deceleration is that the
pressure increase of the on-coming clutch increases its friction torque. Since the transmission
input speed is smaller than the target gear speed in the inertia phase, the increasing friction
torque is negative. This negative friction torque drags the vehicle even further when it is
transmitted to the transmission output side. Therefore, if the speed synchronization is achieved
through the pressure increase of the on-coming clutch, an unpleasant vehicle deceleration will
be experienced by driver and passengers. However, as shown in graph (e), the pressure of the
on-coming clutch doesn’t increase but keeps constant during phase 3-4. Compared with graph
(d), graph (h) shows that the vehicle acceleration doesn’t have a big drop in the shifting
process. The peak value of the vehicle jerk also becomes smaller. The friction torque doesn’t
increase in the on-coming clutch to drag the vehicle (graph (f)). Driver and passengers will not
experience such an unpleasant vehicle deceleration as in graph (d) with the help of the positive
engine torque intervention.

Special attention must be deserved that this positive engine torque intervention requires a
safety function so that the possibility of unwanted vehicle acceleration can be excluded in case
of an error. It is particularly important for power off downshift because this shifting type
usually takes place when the driver wants to stop the vehicle. The unwanted vehicle
acceleration may not only result in a bad shift quality but also cause a danger to the driver.
 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy 13λ

1 Without engine torque increase 2 With engine torque increase

(a) (e)
25 25
3 4 3 4
20 20
Pressure [bar]

Pressure [bar]
15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Brake B1 Brake B1

(b) (f)
100 100

80 80

60
60 Torque [Nm]
Torque [Nm]

40 40

20 20

0 0

 20  20
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Brake B1 Brake B1
Engine torque Engine torque

(c) (g)
2000 2000

1500 1500
Speed [rpm]

Speed [rpm]

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Transmission input speed Transmission input speed
Current gear speed Current gear speed
Target gear speed Target gear speed

(d) (h)
4 10 4 10
Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

2 5 2 5
Vehicle jerk [g/s]

Vehicle jerk [g/s]

0 0 0 0

2 5 2 5

4  10 4  10
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Vehicle acceleration Vehicle acceleration
Vehicle jerk Vehicle jerk

Figure 7.22: Comparison between without and with engine torque increase
140 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy

Similarly, the positive engine torque intervention in power off downshift also benefits the
service life of shifting elements. In power off downshift, the main heat loss appears in the on-
coming clutch as well. Figure 7.23 shows the friction energy and the power loss of the on-
coming clutch based on the two simulations in figure 7.22.
1 Without engine torque increase 2 With engine torque increase
(a) (b)
10 0 10 0

8 2 8 2
Friction energy [kJ]

Friction energy [kJ]

Power loss [kW]

Power loss [kW]

6 4 6 4

4 6 4 6

2 8 2 8

0  10 0  10
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Friction energy of B1 Friction energy of B1
Power loss of B1 Power loss of B1

Figure 7.23: Power loss and friction energy without and with engine torque increase

As shown in figure 7.23, the friction energy and the power loss of the on-coming clutch are
significantly reduced with the help of the positive engine torque intervention. That’s because
the pressure of the on-coming clutch doesn’t need to increase very much for speed
synchronization. But compared with power on upshift, both friction energy and power loss in
power off downshift are very small no matter which control method is applied due to the small
engine drag torque. Therefore, power off downshift doesn’t have big influence on the wear of
shifting elements. In consideration of the danger and the increased complexity for the engine
torque control, the speed synchronization in power off downshift is more popularly achieved
by only adjusting the pressure of the on-coming clutch.

In conclusion, at low torques and low speeds, influences from the tolerances of the assembly
groups involved demand a more elaborate control process [N1]. The pressure overlap is
difficult to control at small engine load because a little pressure variation may result in a
complete different shift feeling. Power off downshift is such a case when the drag torque at the
transmission input side is small. But fortunately the shifting process of it can be controlled like
the power interrupt shift. Meanwhile, if required, the positive engine torque intervention can
be applied in the shifting process of power off downshift. According to the two differences
between power off downshift and power on upshift, the flow chart in figure 7.19 can be
 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy 141

slightly modified to change the developed open-loop control strategy for power off downshift
from the power shift to the power interrupt shift.

Figure 7.24 depicts the simulation results of power off downshift which applies the control
method of power interrupt shift. According to the detailed phase division and the trigger points
in figure 7.24, the modified flow chart for power off downshift is demonstrated in figure 7.25.
It can be seen that the torque phase is cancelled. In addition, the positive engine torque
intervention can start after the pressure of the off-going clutch drops below its kiss-point.

(a) Pressure of the shifting elements

25
1 2 3 4 5
20
Pressure [bar]

15

10

0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s]
Clutch C1
Brake B1

(b) Speed of the transmission input shaft

2000

n3-4 n4-5
1500
Speed [rpm]

1000

500

0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s]
Transmission input speed
Current gear speed
Target gear speed

Figure 7.24: Simulation results of power off downshift without pressure overlap
142 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy

False
Maintain in the current
Shifting begins.
gear.

True

Phase 1-2: Preparation phase.

On-coming clutch: Oil filling.
Off-going clutch: Pressure decreases to 0 (micro slip).
Engine torque intervention: Positive torque intervention starts
after the off-going clutch pressure drops below its kiss-point.

False

Oil filling ends and off-going

clutch is completely released.

True

Phase 2-3: Gradient setting phase.

On-coming clutch: Pressure increases (big slip).
Off-going clutch: Pressure is completely released to 0.
Engine torque intervention: Positive torque intervention.

False

Trigger point “n3-4” has been

reached.

True

Phase 3-4: Gradient breakdown phase.

On-coming clutch: Pressure decreases (small slip).
Off-going clutch: Pressure is completely released to 0.
Engine torque intervention: Positive torque intervention.

False

Trigger point “n4-5” has been

reached.

True

Phase 4-5: End phase.

On-coming clutch: Pressure increases to the line pressure (no
slip).
Off-going clutch: Pressure is completely released to 0.

Figure 7.25: Flow chart for the developed open-loop control strategy of power off
downshift with the control method of power interrupt shift

7.3 The Open-loop Control Strategy for Power on Downshift

The shifting process of power on downshift is quite different from the shifting process of
power on upshift and power off downshift. The inertia phase comes firstly and then the torque
phase follows after the speed synchronization is finished. In order to control the pressure of
 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy 143

the on-coming clutch and the off-going clutch more precisely, the shifting process has also
been divided into several phases. Figure 7.26 shows the simulation results of power on
downshift from the 3rd gear to the 2nd gear under the control of the developed open-loop
strategy. In this gear shifting, the throttle opening degree is 70%. Clutch C1 is the off-going
clutch. Brake B1 is the on-coming clutch. The open-loop control strategy divides the shifting
process of power on downshift into four shift phases. According to the simulation results of
figure 7.26, the control parameters in each phase and the trigger point to initiate each phase
will be detailed explained in the following sections. In order to get a good shift quality of
power on downshift, these control parameters and trigger points should be carefully calibrated.

(a) Pressure of the shifting elements

25
1 2 3 4 5
20
Pressure [bar]

15

10

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s]
Clutch C1
Brake B1

(b) Speed of the transmission input shaft

3000

2500
Speed [rpm]

2000

1500

1000
0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s]
Transmission input speed
Current gear speed
Target gear speed

Figure 7.26: Simulation results of power on downshift from the 3rd gear to the 2nd gear
144 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy

7.3.1 Phase 1-2

Phase 1-2 is the gradient setting phase for the transmission input speed. It belongs to the
inertia phase in the shifting process of power on downshift. The purpose of this phase is to let
the transmission input shaft flare from the current gear speed. The gradient of the transmission
input speed thus must be bigger than the gradient of the current gear speed.

(a) Pressure of the shifting elements

25
1 2
20
dpC11-2/dt
Pressure [bar]

15

10 pC11-2

tB1FF
5 pB1KP

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s]
Clutch C1
Brake B1

(b) Speed of the transmission input shaft

3000

2500
Speed [rpm]

n1-2
2000

1500

1000
0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s]
Transmission input speed
Current gear speed
Target gear speed

Figure 7.27: Control parameters and trigger point of phase 1-2 in power on downshift

In order to accelerate the transmission input speed from the current gear to the target gear, the
pressure of the off-going clutch must be released to generate slip between both halves of the
off-going clutch. However, the difference from power on upshift is that this slip should not be
 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy 14η

maintained at a small amount. It must increase for the speed synchronization. By releasing the
pressure, the friction torque of the off-going clutch is reduced. The engine load thus is also
reduced. This reduced engine load changes to the inertia torque of the transmission input shaft.
Then the transmission input shaft will have a bigger acceleration than the current gear speed
and can be synchronized to the higher speed level.

In figure 7.27, parameter “n1-2” is the trigger point of power on downshift in simulation. In
reality, the transmission control unit will decide the gear shifting as power on downshift
according to a fast pedal pushing from the driver. The throttle opening degree crosses the
downshift line quickly in the shift map and then the shifting type of power on downshift is
initiated. This little difference doesn’t affect the investigation for the shift control of power on
downshift. For the on-coming clutch, parameter “tB1FF” is its fast-filling time. Parameter
“pB1KP” is its kiss-point pressure. The function of the two control parameters is the same as in
power on upshift. However, the preparation time of the on-coming clutch for torque
transferring will be longer than it is in power on upshift. That’s because the inertia phase
comes before the torque phase. The pressure increase of the on-coming clutch must wait until
the inertia phase is finished. In order to avoid over fill and under fill, both control parameters
need a good calibration for different shifting elements.

For the off-going clutch, parameter “dpC11-2/dt” in figure 7.27 is the gradient of the pressure
release. Before the off-going clutch starts slipping, this control parameter can be as big as
possible. After the slip appears in the off-going clutch, the pressure should be slowly reduced
to smoothly increase the gradient of the transmission input shaft. Otherwise, the quick torque
decrease of the off-going clutch will cause an abrupt vehicle deceleration which can increase
the vehicle jerk in the negative direction. Then driver and passengers will have a feeling of
traction loss that against their will in power on downshift. Parameter “pC11-2” is the level
which the pressure of the off-going clutch drops to during phase 1-2. This control parameter
can be calculated according to a presetting time window for the inertia phase. Or it can be
calibrated by engineers. Generally speaking, a big value of the parameter “pC11-2” extends the
time of the inertia phase. Shift spontaneity is lost but the decrease of the transmission output
torque is small. The traction force on driving wheels thus can be held to a great extent and
shift comfort will be improved. On the contrary, if the parameter “pC11-2” is calibrated very
small, the time of the inertia phase will be shortened but the traction force on driving wheels
will drop severely. Shift spontaneity thus becomes better but shift comfort gets worse.
14θ 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy

1 Relative big “pC11-2” during phase 1-2 2 Relative small “pC11-2” during phase 1-2
(a) (e)
25 25
1 2 1 2
20 20
Pressure [bar]

Pressure [bar]
15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s] Time [s]

Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Brake B1 Brake B1

(b) (f)
300 300

200 200
Torque [Nm]

Torque [Nm]

100 100

0 0

 100  100
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s] Time [s]

Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Brake B1 Brake B1
Engine torque Engine torque

(c) (g)
3000 3000

2500 2500
Speed [rpm]

Speed [rpm]

2000 2000

1500 1500

1000 1000
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s] Time [s]

Transmission input speed Transmission input speed
Current gear speed Current gear speed
Target gear speed Target gear speed

(d) (h)
4 10 4 10
Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

2 5 2 5
Vehicle jerk [g/s]

Vehicle jerk [g/s]

0 0 0 0

2 5 2 5

4  10 4  10
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s] Time [s]

Vehicle acceleration Vehicle acceleration
Vehicle jerk Vehicle jerk

Figure 7.28: Comparison between big “pC11-2” and small “pC11-2” during phase 1-2
 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy 147

Figure 7.28 compares the simulation results of a big value “pC11-2” with the simulation results
of a small value “pC11-2”. Compared with graph (a), the pressure of the off-going clutch is
reduced to a relative lower level during phase 1-2 in graph (e). Correspondingly, the friction
torque of the off-going clutch is also smaller in graph (f) than in graph (b). The smaller the
friction torque is, the bigger the gradient of the transmission input speed is. Hence in graph (g)
the transmission input speed increases faster than in graph (c). The duration of the inertia
phase then can be shortened to get a quick response of the gear shifting. However, as shown in
graph (h), the vehicle acceleration has a bigger decrease than in graph (d) because of the
smaller pressure level “pC11-2”. Correspondingly, the peak value of the vehicle jerk also
increases in graph (h). And the vibration becomes bigger in the second simulation. It can be
found by comparing graph (g) with graph (c), the current gear speed and the target gear speed
which indicate the transmission output speed, have bigger vibration amplitude at about 0.5s in
graph (g) than in graph (c).

In power on downshift the most heat loss appears in the off-going clutch which is different
from power on upshift. This loss is mainly caused by the increasing slip in the inertia phase.
Figure 7.29 shows the power loss and the friction energy of the off-going clutch in above two
simulations. Due to the small pressure level and the short slipping time during phase 1-2, the
second simulation in figure 7.28 has smaller heat loss than the first simulation. Therefore, a
big pressure decrease of the off-going clutch in the inertia phase can not only improve shift
spontaneity but also protect shifting elements from the big heat loss. Because power on
downshift usually happens at a wide throttle opening degree, a relative small “pC11-2” is
particularly helpful to the service life of shifting elements.
1 Relative big “pC11-2” during phase 1-2 2 Relative small “pC11-2” during phase 1-2
(a) (b)
10 0 10 0

8  20 8  20
Friction energy [kJ]

Friction energy [kJ]

Power loss [kW]

Power loss [kW]

6  40 6  40

4  60 4  60

2  80 2  80

0  100 0  100
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s] Time [s]

Friction energy of C1 Friction energy of C1
Power loss of C1 Power loss of C1

Figure 7.29: Power loss and friction energy with big “pC11-2” and small “pC11-2”
148 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy

In conclusion, a relative high pressure level during phase 1-2 can improve shift comfort. A
relative low pressure level during phase 1-2 can improve shift spontaneity and reduce the heat
loss of the off-going clutch. A trade-off should be made between the two conflicting objectives
when calibrating this control parameter. Or it can be optimized according to different shift
modes (sport, normal, comfort).

However, there is another way to balance the two conflicting objectives. An integrated
powertrain control with the positive engine torque intervention during phase 1-2 is a good
measure that not only reduces the traction loss but also shortens the shifting time. By
increasing the engine torque, the transmission input shaft can be accelerated without a big
pressure decrease of the off-going clutch. The traction loss on driving wheels thus is avoided.
Meanwhile, since the shifting time is shortened, the friction energy can be reduced which
benefits the service life of shifting elements. This positive engine torque intervention is
requested by the transmission control unit and achieved by adjusting the spark advance angle
or the throttle opening degree of the engine. In case the power on downshift takes place at the
operating point of the full engine load, the speed synchronization will be achieved by
controlling the pressure of the off-going clutch alone. In order to guarantee the engine torque
can drop back to the level before the gear shifting, there must be a safety function in the
control logic of the positive engine torque intervention. Otherwise, unpleasant vehicle
acceleration may happen after the gear shifting and make the shifty quality even worse.

Figure 7.30 shows the simulation results with and without engine torque increase during phase
1-2. In both simulations, the pressure of the off-going clutch is reduced to the same level in the
inertia phase. As shown in graph (b), the first simulation doesn’t increase the engine torque for
the speed synchronization. While in the second simulation there is a positive engine torque
intervention as shown in graph (f). The increased engine torque can accelerate the
transmission input speed from the current gear to the target gear in a shorter time. It can be
seen from graph (c), without increasing the engine torque, the speed synchronization is
finished at about 1.4s. However, the end of the inertia phase is brought forward to the time 1s
in graph (g) with increasing the engine torque. Shift spontaneity thus is improved and it
doesn’t sacrifice the traction force on driving wheels. Graph (h) depicts that the vehicle
acceleration during phase 1-2 is nearly the same as it is in graph (d) because in both
simulations the pressure level “pC11-2” is the same. Driver and passengers will not feel a
traction loss in the shifting process. Therefore, both shift spontaneity and shift comfort can be
achieved with the help of the positive engine torque intervention.
 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy 14λ

1 Without engine torque increase 2 With engine torque increase

(a) (e)
25 25
1 2 1 2
20 20
Pressure [bar]

Pressure [bar]
15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s] Time [s]

Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Brake B1 Brake B1

(b) (f)
300 300

200 200
Torque [Nm]

Torque [Nm]

100 100

0 0

 100  100
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s] Time [s]

Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Brake B1 Brake B1
Engine torque Engine torque

(c) (g)
3000 3000

2500 2500
Speed [rpm]

Speed [rpm]

2000 2000

1500 1500

1000 1000
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s] Time [s]

Transmission input speed Transmission input speed
Current gear speed Current gear speed
Target gear speed Target gear speed

(d) (h)
4 10 4 10
Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

2 5 2 5
Vehicle jerk [g/s]

Vehicle jerk [g/s]

0 0 0 0

2 5 2 5

4  10 4  10
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s] Time [s]

Vehicle acceleration Vehicle acceleration
Vehicle jerk Vehicle jerk

Figure 7.30: Comparison between without and with engine torque increase
1η0 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy

Figure 7.31 shows the power loss and the friction energy of the off-going clutch based on
above two simulations. Comparing graph (b) with graph (a), the peak value of the power loss
doesn’t have much difference because the pressure level of the off-going clutch is the same in
the inertia phase in both simulations. However, owning to a short shifting time, the friction
energy in graph (b) is much smaller than it is in graph (a). Therefore, the positive engine
torque intervention can help to reduce the heat load of the off-going clutch in the shifting
process of power on downshift.
1 Without engine torque increase 2 With engine torque increase
(a) (b)
10 0 10 0

8  20 8  20
Friction energy [kJ]

Friction energy [kJ]

Power loss [kW]

Power loss [kW]

6  40 6  40

4  60 4  60

2  80 2  80

0  100 0  100
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s] Time [s]

Friction energy of C1 Friction energy of C1
Power loss of C1 Power loss of C1

Figure 7.31: Power loss and friction energy without and with engine torque increase

7.3.2 Phase 2-3

Phase 2-3 is the gradient breakdown phase for the transmission input speed. It is also one part
of the inertia phase. The objective of this phase is to reduce the difference between the
gradient of the transmission input speed and the gradient of the target gear speed. Then the
possibility of the engine flare over the target gear speed can be minimized. The transmission
input speed will be synchronized to the target gear more smoothly.

In order to catch up the target gear speed, the transmission input speed must have a bigger
gradient than the target gear speed in the inertia phase. The inertia phase will last until the
transmission input speed reaches over the target gear speed. At that time, the difference
between the transmission input speed and the target gear speed will change from negative to
positive. But the gradient of the transmission input speed is still bigger than the gradient of the
target gear speed. Hence the positive speed difference will firstly increase after the inertia
phase. In order to avoid the positive slip becoming very big and eventually causing the engine
flare, the gradient difference between the transmission input speed and the target gear speed
should be smaller in the inertia phase. However, it will lead to a long shifting time which
 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy 1η1

deteriorates shift spontaneity and increases the heat load of the off-going clutch. Conversely,
the bigger the gradient difference is, the more dangerously the engine flare occurs. If the
pressure of the off-going clutch increases a little before the transmission input speed reaches
over the target gear speed, the engine load will be increased again. Hence the gradient of the
transmission input speed can be reduced. This measure has an advantage that not only avoids
the risk of engine flare but also guarantees shift spontaneity. In addition, it also helps the
manipulation of the pressure overlap a lot in the following torque phase.

(a) Pressure of the shifting elements

25
2 3
20
Pressure [bar]

15
dpC12-3/dt
10

5 ΔpC12-3

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s]
Clutch C1
Brake B1

(b) Speed of the transmission input shaft

3000

n2-3
2500
Speed [rpm]

2000

1500

1000
0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s]
Transmission input speed
Current gear speed
Target gear speed

Figure 7.32: Control parameters and trigger point of phase 2-3 in power on downshift
1η2 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy

As shown in figure 7.32, parameter “n2-3” is the trigger point which is predefined to initiate
phase 2-3. When the difference between the target gear speed and the transmission input speed
is smaller than the predefined value, the pressure of the off-going clutch will begin to increase.
Parameter “dpC12-3/dt” is the gradient of the pressure increase. However, the pressure of the
off-going clutch can’t increase unlimitedly. If it increases back too much, the gradient of the
transmission input speed will become smaller than the gradient of the target gear speed before
the dotted line 3. The transmission input shaft then can’t catch up the target gear speed.
Therefore, there is a control parameter “ΔpC12-3” in phase 2-3 which determines the amount of
the maximum pressure increase. It can be seen from figure 7.32, after the pressure of the off-
going clutch increases back, the transmission input speed increases slowly than before. For the
on-coming clutch, its pressure will still be maintained at the kiss-point during phase 2-3.The
pressure increase of it must wait until the end of the inertia phase.

Figure 7.33 shows two simulations with and without pressure increase of the off-going clutch
during phase 2-3. The two simulations shift from the 2nd gear to the 3rd gear and have the same
throttle opening degree which is 70%. The first simulation has a pressure increase before the
transmission input speed reaches to the target gear speed. The second simulation keeps the
pressure constant in the inertia phase.

Because of the pressure increase during phase 2-3, the friction torque of the off-going clutch
increases back in graph (b). It increases the engine load and decreases the acceleration of the
transmission input shaft. Therefore, in graph (c), the transmission input speed slowly gets
close to the target gear speed during phase 2-3 and engages to the target gear very smoothly
after the dotted line 3. In the second simulation, the transmission input speed is accelerated
with the same gradient in the inertia phase because the pressure of the off-going clutch doesn’t
increase back during phase 2-3 (graph (e)). As a result, the transmission input speed reaches
over the target gear speed a little quicker in graph (g). However, it has a little flare over the
target gear speed. And the speed engagement is abrupt at the final synchronization point. Shift
comfort gets worse because big vibration occurs at the transmission output side.
Correspondingly, the vehicle acceleration also vibrates after the dotted line 3 in graph (h). Its
peak value is much bigger than the target gear level. Big vehicle jerk happens which will make
driver and passengers feel uncomfortable. Actually, the main reason for the big vibration in the
second simulation is the big gradient change of the transmission input speed after phase 2-3. It
makes the control of the pressure overlap difficult in the following torque phase. The best way
is reducing the gradient difference in phase 2-3 before the torque phase.
 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy 1η3

1 With pressure increase 2 Without pressure increase

(a) (e)
25 25
2 3 2 3
20 20

Pressure [bar]
Pressure [bar]

15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s] Time [s]

Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Brake B1 Brake B1

(b) (f)
300 300

200 200
Torque [Nm]
Torque [Nm]

100 100

0 0

 100  100
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s] Time [s]

Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Brake B1 Brake B1
Engine torque Engine torque

(c) (g)
3000 3000

2500 2500
Speed [rpm]
Speed [rpm]

2000 2000

1500 1500

1000 1000
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s] Time [s]

Transmission input speed Transmission input speed
Current gear speed Current gear speed
Target gear speed Target gear speed

(d) (h)
4 10 4 10
Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]
Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

2 5 2 5
Vehicle jerk [g/s]
Vehicle jerk [g/s]

0 0 0 0

2 5 2 5

4  10 4  10
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s] Time [s]

Vehicle acceleration Vehicle acceleration
Vehicle jerk Vehicle jerk

Figure 7.33: Comparison between with and without pressure increase during phase 2-3
1η4 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy

In graph (d), it can be seen the vehicle acceleration increases step by step to the target gear
level. The first step is just caused by the pressure increase of the off-going clutch during phase
2-3. The vehicle acceleration doesn’t have big vibration at the end of the gear shifting. The
vehicle jerk and the peak value of the vehicle acceleration are both reduced at the
synchronization point by increasing the pressure of the off-going clutch. Therefore, the
gradient breakdown phase has a very good effect to improve shift comfort of power on
downshift. At the same time shift spontaneity is not lost.

7.3.3 Phase 3-4

(a) Pressure of the shifting elements

25
3 4
20
Pressure [bar]

15
dpB13-4/dt
10

dpC13-4/dt
5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s]
Clutch C1
Brake B1

(b) Speed of the transmission input shaft

3000
n3-4

2500
Speed [rpm]

2000

1500

1000
0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s]
Transmission input speed
Current gear speed
Target gear speed

Figure 7.34: Control parameters and trigger point of phase 3-4 in power on downshift
 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy 1ηη

Phase 3-4 is the torque phase in the shifting process of power on downshift. In this phase the
pressure of the off-going clutch starts decreasing again. Meanwhile the pressure of the on-
coming clutch starts increasing. Then the transmission input torque is transferred from the off-
going clutch to the on-coming clutch. As shown in figure 7.34, parameter “dpC13-4/dt” is the
gradient of the pressure release in the off-going clutch. Parameter “dpB13-4/dt” is the gradient
of the pressure increase in the on-coming clutch. The trigger point of this phase is parameter
“n3-4” which can be seen from graph (b). When the difference between the transmission input
speed and the target gear speed crosses over this trigger point, the torque phase of power on
downshift will be initiated.

The trigger point “n3-4” must be a small positive slip. That means the torque phase can’t begin
until the transmission input speed reaches over the target gear speed. At that time, the slip of
the off-going clutch has already changed direction. The active side starts rotating faster than
the passive side. There will be a positive friction torque generated in the on-coming clutch
when increasing its pressure. This positive friction torque is used to compensate for the torque
loss of the off-going clutch. However, if the pressure of the on-coming clutch starts increasing
at the moment that the transmission input speed is smaller than the target gear speed, a
negative friction torque will appear in the on-coming clutch to drag the vehicle. Once this
negative friction torque is released, a sharp increase of the transmission output torque will take
place and result in a big shifting impact.

Figure 7.35 shows two simulation results that in the first simulation the trigger point “n3-4” is
defined as 10rpm. In the second simulation, the trigger point “n3-4” is defined as -100rpm. It
can be seen from graph (f) that the friction torque of the on-coming clutch firstly increases in
the negative direction when the pressure of the on-coming clutch starts increasing. That’s
because the transmission input speed is still smaller than the target gear speed at the time of
the dotted line 3. This negative friction torque drags the vehicle thus in graph (h) the vehicle
acceleration decreases firstly during phase 3-4. When the friction torque changes from
negative to positive, the vehicle acceleration abruptly increases. This transition results in big
vehicle jerk which has two peak values in both directions. And big vibration happens after
phase 3-4. However, because no negative torque occurs in the on-coming clutch, the vehicle
acceleration directly increases from the beginning of the torque phase in graph (d). There is
not any abrupt transition in the vehicle acceleration. Therefore, in order to get a good shift
quality of power on downshift, the pressure of the on-coming clutch must increase after the
transmission input speed is bigger than the target gear speed.
1ηθ 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy

1 Positive trigger point “n3-4” 2 Negative trigger point “n3-4”

(a) (e)
25 25
3 4 3 4
20 20
Pressure [bar]

Pressure [bar]
15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s] Time [s]

Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Brake B1 Brake B1
(b) (f)
300 300

200 200
Torque [Nm]

Torque [Nm]

100 100

0 0

 100  100
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s] Time [s]

Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Brake B1 Brake B1
Engine torque Engine torque

(c) (g)
3000 3000

2500 2500
Speed [rpm]

Speed [rpm]

2000 2000

1500 1500

1000 1000
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s] Time [s]

Transmission input speed Transmission input speed
Current gear speed Current gear speed
Target gear speed Target gear speed

(d) (h)
4 10 4 10
Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

2 5 2 5
Vehicle jerk [g/s]

Vehicle jerk [g/s]

0 0 0 0

2 5 2 5

4  10 4  10
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s] Time [s]

Vehicle acceleration Vehicle acceleration
Vehicle jerk Vehicle jerk

Figure 7.35: Comparison between positive and negative trigger point “n3-4”
 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy 1η7

During the torque transferring phase, the slip of the on-coming clutch should be maintained at
a small positive value which just means the input speed should be slightly bigger than the
target gear speed. Therefore, the trigger point “n3-4” can’t be very big as well. At the beginning
of phase 3-4, the gradient of the transmission input speed is bigger than the gradient of the
target gear speed. The positive slip tends to increase. In order to reduce this trend, the pressure
increase of the on-coming clutch should be faster than the pressure decrease of the off-going
clutch. Otherwise, if parameter “dpB13-4/dt” is calibrated much smaller than “dpC13-4/dt”, the
difference between the gradient of the transmission input speed and the gradient of the target
gear speed will become bigger. The transmission input shaft will increase even faster to cause
the engine flare. Although the gradient breakdown phase can help to minimize the risk of
engine flare, it is still necessary to have a good calibration of the two pressure gradients.

The same as power on upshift, engine flare in power on downshift deteriorates shift comfort as
well. After the torque phase, the pressure of the on-coming clutch continues increasing to the
hydraulic line pressure. If engine flare happens, the transmission input speed will be
synchronized from a high speed level to the target gear level due to this pressure increase.
Then the engine flare will be eliminated at the end of the shifting process. This case is similar
to the inertia phase of power on upshift. At the synchronization point, the big friction torque of
the on-coming clutch drops to the reaction torque abruptly. A big shifting impact will easily
happen at that time. The engine flare in power on downshift can be considered as another
inertia phase for the speed synchronization.

Figure 7.36 compares the simulation results of good matched pressure gradients with the
simulation results of weak pressure overlap in the torque phase. It can be seen from graph (e)
that the pressure of the on-coming clutch increases slowly during phase 3-4. Correspondingly,
the transmission input speed flares over the target gear speed much more in graph (g) than in
graph (c). After the dotted line 4, the pressure of the on-coming clutch continues increasing.
The engine load becomes bigger with the increasing friction torque of the on-coming clutch
(graph (f)). It changes the gradient of the transmission input speed from positive to negative.
Hence the transmission input speed starts decreasing at about 1.5s in graph (g). In graph (h),
the vehicle acceleration also increases more than graph (d) after the dotted line 4 because of
the increasing friction torque of the on-coming clutch. At the synchronization point, big
vibration happens when the friction torque of the on-coming clutch changes to the reaction
torque. The vehicle jerk also becomes much bigger in both directions in graph (h). Obviously,
the shift quality of power on downshift gets worse when engine flare happens.
1η8 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy

1 Good matched pressure gradients 2 Slow pressure increase in the on-coming clutch
(a) (e)
25 25
3 4 3 4
20 20
Pressure [bar]

Pressure [bar]
15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s] Time [s]

Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Brake B1 Brake B1
(b) (f)
300 300

200 200
Torque [Nm]

Torque [Nm]

100 100

0 0

 100  100
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s] Time [s]

Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Brake B1 Brake B1
Engine torque Engine torque

(c) (g)
3000 3000

2500 2500
Speed [rpm]

Speed [rpm]

2000 2000

1500 1500

1000 1000
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s] Time [s]

Transmission input speed Transmission input speed
Current gear speed Current gear speed
Target gear speed Target gear speed

(d) (h)
4 10 4 10
Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

2 5 2 5
Vehicle jerk [g/s]

Vehicle jerk [g/s]

0 0 0 0

2 5 2 5

4  10 4  10
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s] Time [s]

Vehicle acceleration Vehicle acceleration
Vehicle jerk Vehicle jerk

Figure 7.36: Comparison between good and weak pressure overlap in the torque phase
 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy 1ηλ

In power on downshift, engine flare not only results in bad shift comfort but also causes extra
heat loss in the on-coming clutch. Figure 7.37 shows the power loss and the friction energy of
the on-coming clutch and the off-going clutch based on the simulation in figure 7.36. It can be
seen from graph (a) and graph (b) that the power loss and the friction energy manly occur in
the off-going clutch in power on downshift without engine flare. There is nearly no heat loss in
the on-coming clutch because its slip is very small in the shifting process. However, graph (c)
shows that the power loss and the friction energy significantly increase in the on-coming
clutch when engine flare takes place. In short, engine flare should be avoided in power on
downshift when considering the protection of the on-coming clutch from additional heat load.
1 Good matched pressure gradients 2 Slow pressure increase in the on-coming clutch
(a) (c)
10 0 10 0

8 2 8 2
Friction energy [kJ]
Friction energy [kJ]

Power loss [kW]

Power loss [kW]

6 4 6 4

4 6 4 6

2 8 2 8

0  10 0  10
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s] Time [s]

Friction energy of B1 Friction energy of B1
Power loss of B1 Power loss of B1

(b) (d)
10 0 10 0

8  20 8  20
Friction energy [kJ]
Friction energy [kJ]

Power loss [kW]

Power loss [kW]

6  40 6  40

4  60 4  60

2  80 2  80

0  100 0  100
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s] Time [s]

Friction energy of C1 Friction energy of C1
Power loss of C1 Power loss of C1

Figure 7.37: Simulation results of the friction energy and the power loss

What is different from power on upshift is that clutch tie-up in power on downshift doesn’t
generate any negative slip in the off-going clutch because it has a big positive speed difference
during phase 3-4. For the on-coming clutch, if the torque phase starts after the transmission
1θ0 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy

input speed reaches over the target gear speed, the negative slip will not appear in it as well.
Therefore, engine flare is more dangerous in power on downshift than clutch tie-up.

7.3.4 Phase 4-5

Phase 4-5 is the end phase of power on downshift in the developed open-loop control strategy.
After the pressure of the off-going clutch is released below its kiss-point, the pressure of the
on-coming clutch will continue increasing to the hydraulic line pressure. In figure 7.38,
parameter “pC1KP” is the kiss-point pressure of the off-going clutch. Parameter “dpB14-5/dt” is
the pressure gradient of the on-coming clutch during phase 4-5.

(a) Pressure of the shifting elements

25
4 5
20
dpB14-5/dt
Pressure [bar]

15

10
pC1KP
5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s]
Clutch C1
Brake B1

(b) Speed of the transmission input shaft

3000

2500
Speed [rpm]

2000

1500

1000
0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s]
Transmission input speed
Current gear speed
Target gear speed

Figure 7.38: Control parameters and trigger point of phase 4-5 in power on downshift
 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy 1θ1

In conclusion, according to the simulation results of figure 7.26, the developed open-loop
control strategy for power on downshift can be demonstrated by the following flow chart.

False
Maintain in the current
Shifting begins.
gear.

True

Phase 1-2: Gradient setting phase.

On-coming clutch: Oil filling.
Off-going clutch: Pressure decreases (small slip).
Engine torque intervention: Positive torque intervention.

False

Trigger point “n2-3” has

been reached.

True

Phase 2-3: Gradient breakdown phase.

On-coming clutch: Kiss-point pressure.
Off-going clutch: Pressure increases (big slip).
Engine torque intervention: Positive torque intervention.

False

Trigger point “n3-4” has

been reached.

True

Phase 3-4: Torque transferring phase.

On-coming clutch: Pressure increases (micro slip).
Off-going clutch: Pressure decreases (big slip).

False

Pressure of the off-going clutch

drops below kiss-point.

True

Phase 4-5: End phase.

On-coming clutch: Pressure increases to the line
pressure (no slip).
Off-going clutch: Pressure is completely released to 0.

Figure 7.39: Flow chart for the developed open-loop control strategy of power on
downshift
1θ2 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy

7.4 The Open-loop Control Strategy for Power off Upshift

Figure 7.40 depicts the shifting process of power off upshift from the 7th gear to the 8th gear
under the control of the open-loop strategy developed in this thesis. In this gear shifting, the
engine throttle opening degree is 0%. Clutch C3 is the on-coming clutch. Clutch C1 is the off-
going clutch. In principle, the shifting process of power off upshift is similar to the shifting
process of power on downshift. However, according to figure 7.40, it is only divided into two
phases. There is no any torque transferring between the on-coming clutch and the off-going
clutch. Actually, here it is the power interrupt shift.

(a) Pressure of the shifting elements

25
1 2 3
20
Pressure [bar]

15

10

0
0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2

Time [s]
Clutch C1
Clutch C3

(b) Speed of the transmission input shaft

5200

4700
n2-3
Speed [rpm]

4200

3700

3200
0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2

Time [s]
Transmission input speed
Current gear speed
Target gear speed

Figure 7.40: Simulation results of power off upshift from the 7th gear to the 8th gear
 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy 1θ3

Power off upshift can in principle be controlled like power on downshift. It is initiated by a
fast and complete release of the accelerator pedal meanwhile without applying the braking
pedal. In order to synchronize the transmission input speed from the current gear to the target
gear, the pressure of the off-going clutch must be released to make the deceleration of the
transmission input speed bigger than the deceleration of the current gear speed. However,
because the negative engine drag torque is very small, the transmission input speed can’t
decrease to the target gear in a short time even the pressure of the off-going clutch has already
been released to 0. It can be seen from figure 7.40 it takes about 1.5s for the speed
synchronization although the pressure of the off-going clutch has been totally released.
Therefore, at the beginning of power off upshift, the off-going clutch doesn’t need to reduce
its pressure to a calibrated or calculated level like power on downshift. Directly reducing the
pressure to 0 can improve shift spontaneity although it is still not very good.

In power off upshift, the pressure of the on-coming clutch can’t increase until the transmission
input speed drops below the target gear speed. As shown in figure 7.40, after the speed
difference is smaller than the trigger point “n2-3”, which is a predefined value of the difference
between the transmission input speed and the target gear speed, phase 2-3 starts with
increasing the pressure of the on-coming clutch. At that time the pressure of the off-going
clutch has already been 0. Hence there is no pressure overlap between the on-coming clutch
and the off-going clutch. The torque phase is cancelled in the developed open-loop control
strategy for power off upshift. The shifting process of power off upshift thus is essentially
controlled like power interrupt shift by applying this control strategy. It simplifies the control
of the shifting process that no special attention is paid to the correct pressure overlap of the
two actuated clutches. The pressure increase of the on-coming clutch during phase 2-3 reduces
its slip and eventually finishes the gear shifting. This pressure increase should not start too late
or be too slow. Otherwise, the engine undershoot below the target gear speed will take place.
Like the engine flare in power on downshift, the engine undershoot in power off upshift can
also result in big shifting impact of the vehicle and big heat load of the on-coming clutch.

Figure 7.41 shows the simulation results of power off upshift with and without engine
undershoot. In the second simulation, the pressure of the on-coming clutch increases too late.
The engine undershoot happens in graph (g) which causes a big torque vibration in the on-
coming clutch during phase 2-3 (graph (f)). Correspondingly, the vehicle acceleration and the
vehicle jerk also vibrate at the end of this gear shifting (graph (h)). But in the first simulation,
the proper application timing of the on-coming clutch pressure avoids the engine undershoot.
1θ4 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy

1 Without engine undershoot 2 With engine undershoot

(a) (e)
25 25
2 3 2 3
20 20

Pressure [bar]
Pressure [bar]

15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2 0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2

Time [s] Time [s]

Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Clutch C3 Clutch C3

(b) (f)
100 100

80 80

60
Torque [Nm]
60
Torque [Nm]

40 40

20 20

0 0

 20  20
0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2 0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2

Time [s] Time [s]

Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Clutch C3 Clutch C3
Engine torque Engine torque

(c) (g)
5200 5200

4700 4700
Speed [rpm]
Speed [rpm]

4200 4200

3700 3700

3200 3200
0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2 0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2

Time [s] Time [s]

Transmission input speed Transmission input speed
Current gear speed Current gear speed
Target gear speed Target gear speed

(d) (h)
4 10 4 10
Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]
Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

2 5 2 5
Vehicle jerk [g/s]
Vehicle jerk [g/s]

0 0 0 0

2 5 2 5

4  10 4  10
0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2 0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2

Time [s] Time [s]

Vehicle acceleration Vehicle acceleration
Vehicle jerk Vehicle jerk

Figure 7.41: Comparison between without and with engine undershoot

 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy 1θη

Figure 7.42 shows the power loss and the friction energy of the on-coming clutch in the two
simulations of figure 7.41. Comparing graph (b) with graph (a), the power loss and the friction
energy significantly increase when the engine undershoot takes place.
1 Without engine undershoot 2 With engine undershoot
(a) (b)
5 0 5 0

4 2 4 2
Friction energy [kJ]

Friction energy [kJ]

Power loss [kW]

Power loss [kW]

3 4 3 4

2 6 2 6

1 8 1 8

0  10 0  10
0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2 0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2
Time [s] Time [s]
Friction energy of C3 Friction energy of C3
Power loss of C3 Power loss of C3

Figure 7.42: Power loss and friction energy without and with engine undershoot

It should be noted that the shifting process of power off downshift normally lasts for a long
time. Its shift spontaneity can’t be improved through the negative engine torque intervention
because the engine torque has already been its minimum value. The drag torque can’t be
controlled to decrease when the engine is off. Although the shifting time is very long, the
friction energy and the power loss of the off-going clutch are very small because most of the
time there is no friction torque generated in the off-going clutch. For the on-coming clutch, if
the engine undershoot doesn’t take place in the shifting process, it will also have little friction
energy and little power loss as shown in figure 7.42 (a). Therefore, the main issue of power off
upshift is its poor shift spontaneity. But this poor shift spontaneity will not increase the heat
load of the actuated shifting elements.

Thanks to the poor shift spontaneity, power off upshift is usually limited in the shift map. The
vehicle can shift into a high gear when it is accelerating and the input torque is positive. In this
case it is power on upshift. If the input torque is negative and too small, power off upshift will
be prohibited. A measure of improving the shift spontaneity of power off upshift is that
increasing the pressure of the on-coming clutch before the transmission input speed drops
below the target gear speed. In this way, the torque of the on-coming clutch drags the
transmission input speed to the target gear more quickly. However, it sacrifices shift comfort
and causes big shifting impact.
1θθ 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy

1 Negative trigger point “n2-3” 2 Positive trigger point “n2-3”

(a) (e)
25 25
2 3 2 3
20 20

Pressure [bar]
Pressure [bar]

15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2 0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2

Time [s] Time [s]

Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Clutch C3 Clutch C3

(b) (f)
100 100

80 80

60
Torque [Nm]
60
Torque [Nm]

40 40

20 20

0 0

 20  20
0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2 0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2

Time [s] Time [s]

Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Clutch C3 Clutch C3
Engine torque Engine torque

(c) (g)
5200 5200

4700 4700
Speed [rpm]
Speed [rpm]

4200 4200

3700 3700

3200 3200
0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2 0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2

Time [s] Time [s]

Transmission input speed Transmission input speed
Current gear speed Current gear speed
Target gear speed Target gear speed

(d) (h)
4 10 4 10
Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]
Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

2 5 2 5
Vehicle jerk [g/s]
Vehicle jerk [g/s]

0 0 0 0

2 5 2 5

4  10 4  10
0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2 0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2

Time [s] Time [s]

Vehicle acceleration Vehicle acceleration
Vehicle jerk Vehicle jerk

Figure 7.43: Comparison between negative and positive trigger point “n2-3”
 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy 1θ7

Figure 7.43 compares the simulation results of small negative trigger point “n2-3” with the
simulation results of positive trigger point “n2-3”. In the first simulation, the small negative
trigger point makes the gear shifting very comfortable. Both the vehicle acceleration and the
vehicle jerk change smoothly in the shifting process. But it can be seen from graph (c) that the
time of the speed synchronization from the current gear to the target gear takes about 1.5s in
this gear shifting. It will give the driver an unacceptable shift response delay. If the trigger
point “n2-3” is positive, the transmission input speed obviously decreases more quickly to the
target gear as shown in graph (g). The earlier the pressure of the on-coming clutch starts
increasing, the shorter the time of the speed synchronization is. The shift spontaneity of power
off upshift thus can be greatly improved. However the torque of the on-coming clutch in graph
(f), the vehicle acceleration and the vehicle jerk in graph (h) have a big vibration in the second
simulation. The shift comfort becomes very bad.

Sometimes the drag torque at the transmission input side is also very big. For example, the
torque loss from the air conditioning, the oil pump, the cooling system, the electric motor, the
electronic system, and other additional equipment all increase the negative drag torque at the
transmission input side. Even though the engine outputs a small positive torque, the big torque
loss can still make the transmission input torque become negative. Therefore, the shifting type
should be determined after the correction of the engine torque by considering these torque
losses. In addition, the engine drag torque and these torque losses will become bigger with the
increase of the engine speed. The increased drag torque at the transmission input side is very
helpful for the improvement of the shift spontaneity in power off upshift. The transmission
input speed can decrease to the target gear more quickly. However, compared with power on
downshift, the shifting time of power off upshift is still relative longer. And these losses are
unfavourable for the fuel consumption. They always tend to be reduced with the development
of technology. Therefore, shift spontaneity of power off upshift needs to be paid special
attention compared with other shifting types. Power interrupt shift is more suitable for the
shifting process of power off upshift in consideration of shift spontaneity when the drag torque
at the transmission input side is very small.

In conclusion, the developed open-loop control strategy for power off upshift is quite different
from the developed open-loop control strategy for power on downshift although their shifting
process is similar. According to the simulation results of figure 7.40, it can be demonstrated by
the following flow chart.
1θ8 7 The Open-loop Control Strategy

False
Shifting begins. Maintain in the current
gear.

True

Phase 1-2: Inertia phase.

On-coming clutch: Oil filling.
Off-going clutch: Pressure decreases.

False

Trigger point “n2-3” has

been reached.

True

Phase 2-3: End phase.

On-coming clutch: Pressure increases to the line
pressure.
Off-going clutch: Pressure is completely released to 0.

Figure 7.44: Flow chart for the developed open-loop control strategy of power off upshift
with the control method of power interrupt shift
 8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy 1θλ

8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy

The developed closed-loop control strategy will be introduced in this chapter. The closed-loop
control system, also known as the feedback control system, is a control system in which the
input excitation is determined in part by the system response. The closed-loop control is
designed to automatically achieve and maintain the desired output response by comparing it
with the actual output response. This is carried out by generating an error signal which
represents the difference between “where you are” and “where you want to be”. In other words,
the control action of the closed-loop control depends on the output in some way. This output is
constantly monitored by the sensor. It passes the measurement signal to the controller. Then
the controller knows what the system is actually doing and makes necessary adjustments to
minimize the output error according to the feedback information.

The closed-loop control has many advantages compared with the open-loop control. The
primary advantage is its ability of reducing the system sensitivity to the external disturbances.
This self-correcting feature makes the closed-loop control preferable than the open-loop
control in many applications despite of additional hardware requirements. In short, the main
characteristics of the closed-loop control compared with the open-loop control can be
concluded as following:
(1) Reducing errors by automatically adjusting the system input;
(2) Improving stability of an unstable system;
(3) Reducing the system sensitivity;
(4) Enhancing robustness against the external disturbances to the system;
(5) Producing a reliable, repeatable performance.

Although the closed-loop control has many advantages in contrast with the open-loop control,
there are still some disadvantages that need to be noted. One is that in order to provide the
feedback information to the controller, the closed-loop control system is more complex than
the open-loop control system. Not only the hardware but also the software increases the cost of
the closed-loop control system. In addition, if the gain of the controller is too sensitive to the
variations of the input commands or signals, the closed-loop control system may become
unstable and start to oscillate when the controller tries to over-correct itself. Eventually the
control effect will be very bad. Therefore, for the closed-loop control system, parameters of
the controller also need to be properly predefined or calibrated.
170 8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy

Figure 8.1 shows a general block diagram for the closed-loop control of the clutch to clutch
shifting. Compared with figure 7.1, there is an additional feedback path from the output side to
the input side in the closed-loop control. The transmission input speed is still the control target.
Its actual value is measured by the speed sensor and compared with the desired target value in
the transmission control unit. The speed deviation is the basis for the pressure adjustment. As
the controller, the transmission control unit sends out the pressure command to the hydraulic
actuation system according to the speed deviation. Then the transmission input speed can be
controlled to follow the specific reference speed trajectory in the shifting process. Compared
with the open loop control, the closed-loop control enhances the robustness of the shift quality
to life-cycle variations and build-to-build variations. It also reduces a lot of tedious calibration
work thus the calibration time can be shortened. Today with the development of faster and
more capable electronic control units, the closed-loop control has gradually replaced the open-
loop control to provide repeatable and reliable shift control for automatic transmissions.
However, it should be noted that the parameters of the closed-loop control still need to be
properly calibrated depending on different engine load, different engine speed, different gear
shifting, and different shifting element.

Set point

+ nT Target input speed

_

nT -nA Error

Controller
Forward path

(TCU)
Feedback path

p Calculation or calibration of clutch

pressure + pressure adjustment
Actuator
(Solenoid)

n Acceleration of input speed

Sensor Integration

nA Actual input speed

Controlled
variable

Figure 8.1: Block diagram for the closed-loop control of clutch to clutch shifting

Proportional-Integration-Derivative (PID) control is one type of the closed-loop control. It is

the most widely used controller in industrial control systems. The PID control algorithm
involves three separate terms, and is accordingly sometimes called three-term control. The
 8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy 171

foundation of the PID control is the proportional control. It depends on the error between the
desired set point and the measured actual value. Adding the integral control provides a means
to eliminate the steady-state error but may increase overshoot. It is the accumulation of the
past errors. The derivative control is good for making sluggish systems move faster and
reducing the tendency of overshoot. It is the prediction of the future errors based on the
changing rate of system output. The output of the PID control algorithm can be described by
equation (8.1), which simply adds together the three terms:

 1
t
de(t) 
u(t)  K P   e(t)   e(t)  dt  TD  (8.1)
 TI 0 dt 

where: KP Proportional control gain

e(t) Error (Deviation from the set point)
TI Integral time
TD Derivative time

In equation (8.1), the parameter 1/TI can be replaced by the integral control gain KI. The
parameter TD can be replaced by the derivative control gain KD. The proportional term
produces the output value that is proportional to the current error value. It can be adjusted by
the proportional control gain KP. If KP is too big, the control output will change a lot for a
given change of the error. The system may become unstable. In contrast, if KP is too small, the
operation of the actuator will be less responsive to the system disturbances.

The steady-state error exists in the proportional control. However, it can be eliminated by
adding the integral term. The integral term accelerates the movement of the output towards the
target and eliminates the residual steady-state error. When KI increases, the tendency of
oscillation also increases. When KI decreases, the settling time to compensate for the steady-
state error is extended. Another issue of the integral term is the integral windup. Following a
large change in set point the integral term can accumulate an error larger than the maximal
value of the regulation variable. The system thus overshoots and continues to increase until
this accumulated error is unwound. This issue can be solved by disabling the integral term
when the actual output jumps out the predefined controllable region. The derivative term
predicts the system behaviour and thus improves the response of the actuator. KD determines
the contribution of the derivative term to the overall control system. A big value of it may
easily result in the system oscillation. In addition, the derivative term is easily affected by high
frequency noise. It is helpful to implant an additional low-pass filtering in the PID control to
remove the high frequency noise. PID tuning is a difficult problem even though there are only
three parameters and in principle is simple to describe. It must satisfy different objectives such
172 8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy

as high stability or short response. These multiple objectives often conflict with each other.
There are various methods for tuning the three control gains such as manual tuning through
trial and error or Ziegler-Nichols method. A trade-off may exist between these conflicting
objectives.

In the following sections, the developed closed-loop control strategies for the four basic
shifting types are introduced. The PID control algorithm is applied in the closed-loop control
strategy. According to the dynamic simulation results, the differences from the open-loop
control strategy and the advantages of the closed-loop control strategy are discussed. Since
power off downshift can in principle be controlled like power on upshift and power off upshift
can in principle be controlled like power on downshift, this chapter will detailed describe the
closed-loop control strategies for power on upshift and power on downshift. Some differences
between the closed-loop control for power off shifts and the closed-loop control for power on
shifts will also be explained in this chapter. All the simulation results make use of the
simulation model of the 8-speed automatic transmission developed in chapter 4.

8.1 The Closed-loop Control Strategy for Power on Upshift

Figure 8.2 shows the simulation results of power on upshift from the 2nd gear to the 3rd gear
under the control of the closed-loop strategy developed in this thesis. In this gear shifting, the
throttle opening degree is 50%. Clutch C1 is the on-coming clutch. Brake B1 is the off-going
clutch. The closed-loop control strategy divides the shifting process of power on upshift into
four shift phases.

Compared with the simulation results under the control of the open-loop strategy in figure 7.2,
the gradient setting phase and the gradient breakdown phase are merged into one phase in the
closed-loop control strategy. The function of phase 1-2 in figure 8.2 is the same as in the open-
loop control strategy. It is also the preparation phase for both the on-coming clutch and the off-
going clutch. Actually there is no feedback control in this phase. The pressure release of the
off-going clutch and the oil filling of the on-coming clutch are both controlled in an open-loop
way. Phase 4-5 is the end phase of power on upshift in the closed-loop control strategy. It
plays the same role as phase 5-6 in figure 7.2. In this phase, the pressure of the on-coming
clutch increases to the line pressure. It doesn’t need the closed-loop control. Therefore, phase
1-2 and phase 4-5 will not be illustrated here. The detailed explanation can refer to chapter
7.1.1 and chapter 7.1.5.

The PID control algorithm is applied in phase 2-3 and phase 3-4. It is also the main difference
between the closed-loop control strategy and the open-loop control strategy. The two phases
 8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy 173

both apply the speed signal as the feedback information. The dotted line in graph (b) is the
reference speed trajectory tracked by the transmission input shaft.

(a) Pressure of the shifting elements

25
1 2 3 4 5
20
Pressure [bar]

15

10

0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s]
Brake B1
Clutch C1

(b) Speed of the transmission input shaft

3000

2500
n2-3
Speed [rpm]

n4-5
2000

1500

1000
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s]
Transmission input speed
Current gear speed
Target gear speed
Reference speed trajectory

Figure 8.2: Simulation results of power on upshift from the 2nd gear to the 3rd gear

8.1.1 Phase 2-3

Phase 2-3 is the torque transferring phase in power on upshift. As shown in figure 8.3, in the
closed-loop control strategy, it is also initiated after a presetting time window “tC1Fill” for oil
filling or after the speed difference between the transmission input speed and the current gear
speed crosses over the trigger point “n2-3”. The pressure of the off-going clutch continues
174 8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy

decreasing at a specific gradient “dpB12-3/dt” in this phase. The difference from the open-loop
control strategy is that the pressure of the on-coming clutch doesn’t increase at a specific
gradient but is adjusted through a PID control algorithm.

(a) Pressure of the shifting elements

25
2 3
20
Pressure [bar]

15
dpB12-3/dt
10
tC1Fill

5
PID control

0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s]
Brake B1
Clutch C1

(b) Speed of the transmission input shaft

3000
2300

2500 2200
n2-3
Speed [rpm]

2000 2100

2000
1500 0.5 0.6 0.7

1000
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s]
Transmission input speed
Current gear speed
Target gear speed
Reference speed trajectory

Figure 8.3: Closed-loop control of phase 2-3 in power on upshift

The objective of phase 2-3 is to keep a small amount of slip in the off-going clutch which is
equivalent to a small speed difference between the transmission input speed and the current
gear speed. Therefore, a small positive speed difference can be predefined as the target of the
PID control. As shown in figure 8.3(b), the dotted line is the reference speed trajectory. The
transmission input shaft should follow it during phase 2-3. This reference speed trajectory has
 8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy 17η

a constant interval relative to the current gear speed. Figure 8.4 amplifies the region of phase
2-3 in figure 8.3. It is clearly observed that the actual transmission input speed tracks around
the reference speed trajectory through the PID control.

(a) Pressure of the shifting elements

5
2 3
4
Pressure [bar]

0
0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7

Time [s]
Brake B1
Clutch C1

(b) Speed of the transmission input shaft

2200

2180
Speed [rpm]

2160

2140

2120
0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7

Time [s]
Transmission input speed
Current gear speed
Target gear speed
Reference speed trajectory

Figure 8.4: Zoom of phase 2-3 in figure 8.3

In figure 8.4, the pressure of the off-going clutch decreases at a specific gradient. The pressure
of the on-coming clutch is adjusted through the PID control to keep the transmission input
speed at the reference value. It can be seen when the actual transmission input speed is bigger
than the reference value at the beginning of phase 2-3, the pressure of the on-coming clutch
17θ 8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy

increases relative faster to reduce the positive speed deviation. Engine flare thus can be
avoided in the torque phase. On the contrary, when the transmission input speed is smaller
than the reference value, the pressure of the on-coming clutch increases relative slower to
reduce the negative speed deviation. Accordingly the risk of clutch tie-up can be minimized
through the closed-loop control. Therefore, by constantly measuring the actual transmission
input speed and comparing it with the reference speed value, the PID controller can adjust the
pressure of the on-coming clutch to achieve a good micro-slip control in the off-going clutch.
It is noted that the speed deviation may not be completely eliminated at the end of the torque
phase. But it can be tolerated in the shift control.

It can be seen from figure 8.η the open-loop control strategy only has the part where the solid
arrows exist. Based on that, the part of the dashed arrows is added to form the closed-loop
control strategy. The PID control algorithm is the core part of the closed-loop control strategy.
The transmission control unit identifies the deviation “ΔΔn” of the measured speed difference
“Δn” from the reference speed difference “Δnref”. This error is just the input of the PID
controller. The “P-term” in the PID controller here refers to the deviation of the angular speed
difference. The “I-term” here refers to the deviation of the rotation angle difference which is
the integration of the “P-term”. The “D-term” here refers to the deviation of the angular
acceleration difference which is directly related to the adjustment of the clutch pressure.
According to the deviation, the PID controller outputs the pressure adjustment command
“PPID” to the on-coming clutch. This pressure is added to the calibrated or calculated pressure
“Pcal” to correct the speed deviation from the reference value.

The closed-loop control strategy can improve the control robustness of the torque phase in
power on upshift. The consistency of shift quality thus can be improved to a certain extent.
However it is necessary to have a good calibration for the three control gains. If they are not
well calibrated, the control effect will not perform as desired. Clutch tie-up or engine flare
may still happen in the torque phase of power on upshift. In addition, the closed-loop control
strategy can’t cope with all the disturbances to the shifting process. Especially the derivative
term is easily affected by noises. Therefore, adaptive control is necessary here to adjust the
three terms of the PID controller.
 Tin

Pressure calculation
or calibration
pcal

PID Controller
Δnref
P-item: Deviation of the
angular speed difference
“ΔΔω”
nout·icurrent_gear _ Δn _ + ΔΔn pPID + pOC αin nin
+ On-coming
I-item: Deviation of the Integration
clutch
+ rotation angle difference
“ΔΔθ”
8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy

D-item: Deviation of the

angular acceleration
difference “ΔΔα”

nin
Measure and

Figure 8.5: PID control logic for the torque phase of power on upshift
filter
177
178 8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy

8.1.2 Phase 3-4

Phase 3-4 is the inertia phase in the closed-loop control strategy which is equivalent to the
gradient setting phase and the gradient breakdown phase in the open-loop control strategy. As
shown in figure 8.6, the trigger point to initiate this phase is that the pressure of the off-going
clutch has dropped below its kiss-point “pB1KP”. Then the pressure of the on-coming clutch is
controlled to make the transmission input speed track the reference speed trajectory. It is also
achieved through the PID control. The negative engine torque intervention can also be applied
here to assist the speed synchronization.

(a) Pressure of the shifting elements

25
3 4
20
Pressure [bar]

PID control
15

10

5
pB1KP
0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s]
Brake B1
Clutch C1

(b) Speed of the transmission input shaft

3000

2500
Speed [rpm]

2000

1500

1000
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s]
Transmission input speed
Current gear speed
Target gear speed
Reference speed trajectory

Figure 8.6: Closed-loop control of phase 3-4 in power on upshift

 8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy 17λ

The objective of phase 3-4 is to synchronize the transmission input speed from the current
gear to the target gear. During this phase the speed transition should be as smooth as possible.
That means the gradient of the transmission input speed, which is directly adjusted by the
clutch pressure, should not have any sharp change. If the pressure of the on-coming clutch or
the engine torque changes sharply, not only the gradient of the transmission input speed but
also the transmission output torque will change abruptly. Vehicle jerk thus increases and shift
comfort becomes bad. Therefore, shift quality can be evaluated from the transition of the
transmission input speed.

At the beginning of the inertia phase, there is a certain speed difference between the
transmission input speed and the target gear speed. As shown in figure 8.7, if the reference
speed trajectory is predefined as a straight line, the speed difference will be reduced linearly.
In this case the speed gradient is constant in the deceleration process. But in the beginning and
in the end, the speed transition is abrupt. At the two points big shifting impact may easily
happen. One way of reducing the sharp gradient change is to increase the duration of the linear
reference speed trajectory. Then a gentle speed gradient change in the beginning and in the end
will help to avoid this problem, however, at the cost of shift spontaneity.

2000

1500
Speed [rpm]

1000

500

 500
0 200 400 600

Time [s]
Linear function
Cosine function

Figure 8.7: Slip reduction along the linear function and the cosine function

If the reference speed trajectory is predefined by the cosine function like the dashed line in
figure 8.7, the speed transition both in the beginning and in the end will be very smooth.
Although the gradient of the transmission input speed is always changing in the deceleration
process, but it is very gentle along the cosine function. The big gradient change at the two ends
of the linear function is averagely distributed to the whole inertia phase through the cosine
180 8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy

function. In this case, shift comfort can be improved meanwhile shift spontaneity will not
become bad.

Figure 8.8 compares the simulation results of the linear reference speed trajectory with the
simulation results of the cosine reference speed trajectory. In the first simulation, the pressure
of the on-coming clutch is controlled to make the transmission input speed follow the
predefined linear speed trajectory. As shown in graph (c), before the inertia phase, the vehicle
is still accelerating. The gradient of the transmission input speed thus is positive before the
dotted line 3. At the time that the inertia phase starts, the gradient of the speed trajectory
changes to negative. In order to follow this speed trajectory, the pressure of the on-coming
clutch sharply increases at the dotted line 3 in graph (a). Correspondingly, the friction torque
of the on-coming clutch (graph (b)) and the vehicle acceleration (graph (d)) both increase
abruptly compared with the second simulation. The vehicle jerk thus has a peak positive value
at the dotted line 3 in graph (d). However in the second simulation, the transmission input
speed has a very smooth transition by following the cosine reference speed trajectory. The
pressure of the on-coming clutch (graph (e)) increases gently in the beginning and
automatically decreases at the end of phase 3-4. Through the cosine function, the shifting
process of the closed-loop control strategy could have a gradient setting phase and a gradient
breakdown phase like in the open-loop control strategy. In graph (h), it can be seen that the
vehicle acceleration changes very gently. The vehicle jerk doesn’t increase very much at the
dotted line 3 due to the smooth gradient transition of the cosine function.

In the inertia phase of power on upshift the transmission can request the negative torque
intervention from the engine to assist the speed synchronization. In the closed-loop control
strategy this engine torque reduction is calculated or calibrated. The pressure of the on-coming
clutch is adjusted through the PID control to correct the speed deviation. This is better than
only controlling the clutch pressure to achieve the tracking of the reference speed trajectory.
Heat load of the on-coming clutch will be reduced through the cooperation between the engine
and the transmission. Figure 8.9 depicts the PID control logic for the inertia phase of power on
upshift. It can be seen the engine torque directly influences the gradient of the transmission
input speed. In addition, compared with the PID control logic for the torque phase the
parameter “Δn” is the speed difference between the transmission input speed and the target
gear speed. The part of the dashed arrows is added to form the closed-loop control for the
inertia phase. The three PID control gains of this phase also require a good calibration.
 8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy 181

1 Linear reference speed trajectory 2 Cosine reference speed trajectory

(a) (e)
25 25
3 4 3 4
20 20

Pressure [bar]
Pressure [bar]

15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Brake B1 Brake B1
Clutch C1 Clutch C1

(b) (f)
300 300

200 200

Torque [Nm]
Torque [Nm]

100 100

0 0

 100  100
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Brake B1 Brake B1
Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Engine torque Engine torque

(c) (g)
3000 3000

2500 2500
Speed [rpm]
Speed [rpm]

2000 2000

1500 1500

1000 1000
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Transmission input speed Transmission input speed
Current gear speed Current gear speed
Target gear speed Target gear speed
Reference speed trajectory Reference speed trajectory

(d) (h)
4 10 4 10
Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]
Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

2 5 2 5
Vehicle jerk [g/s]
Vehicle jerk [g/s]

0 0 0 0

2 5 2 5

4  10 4  10
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Vehicle acceleration Vehicle acceleration
Vehicle jerk Vehicle jerk

Figure 8.8: Comparison between linear and cosine reference speed trajectory
 182

Tin

Pressure calculation Calculation or calibration of the

or calibration negative engine torque intervention
pcal

PID Controller
Δnref
P-item: Deviation of the
angular speed difference
“ΔΔω”
nout·itarget_gear _ Δn _ + ΔΔn pPID + pOC αin nin
+ On-coming
I-item: Deviation of the Integration
clutch
+ rotation angle difference
“ΔΔθ”
8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy

D-item: Deviation of the

angular acceleration
difference “ΔΔα”

nin

Figure 8.9: PID control logic for the inertia phase of power on upshift
Measure and
filter
 8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy 183

In conclusion, according to the simulation results of figure 8.2, the developed closed-loop
control strategy for power on upshift can be demonstrated by the following flow chart. The
main difference from the open-loop control strategy is that the closed-loop control strategy
applies the PID control algorithm in the torque phase and the inertia phase.

False
Maintain in the current
Shifting begins.
gear.

True

Phase 1-2: Preparation phase.

On-coming clutch: Oil filling.
Off-going clutch: Pressure decreases (micro slip).

False

Oil filling ends and trigger

point “n2-3” has been reached.

True

Phase 2-3: Torque transferring phase.

On-coming clutch: PID control of clutch pressure (big slip).
Off-going clutch: Open-loop control of pressure decreasing
(micro slip).

False

Pressure of the off-going clutch

drops below kiss-point.

True

Phase 3-4: Inertia phase.

On-coming clutch: PID control of clutch pressure (Slip is
decreasing).
Off-going clutch: Pressure is completely released to 0.
Engine torque intervention: Negative torque intervention.

False

Trigger point “n4-5” has

been reached.

True

Phase 4-5: End phase.

On-coming clutch: Pressure increases to the line pressure
(no slip).
Off-going clutch: Pressure is completely released to 0.

Figure 8.10: Flow chart for the developed closed-loop control strategy of power on
upshift
184 8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy

8.2 The Closed-loop Control Strategy for Power off Downshift

When the drag torque at the transmission input side is big, the control of power off downshift
is similar to power on upshift. When the drag torque is small, the shifting process of power off
downshift can be controlled like power interrupt shift. In this case, the PID control algorithm
is only applied in the inertia phase. Figure 8.11 shows the simulation results of power off
downshift from the 3rd gear to the 2nd gear which applies the control method of power interrupt
shift in the developed closed-loop control strategy.

(a) Pressure of the shifting elements

25
1 2 3 4
20
Pressure [bar]

15

10

0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s]
Clutch C1
Brake B1

(b) Speed of the transmission input shaft

1800
n3-4

1400
Speed [rpm]

1000

600

200
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s]
Transmission input speed
Current gear speed
Target gear speed
Reference speed trajectory

Figure 8.11: Simulation results of power off downshift from the 3rd gear to the 2nd gear
 8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy 18η

The shifting process is only divided into three phases in the closed-loop control strategy.
Among the three phases, phase 1-2 and phase 3-4 have the same functions as phase 1-2 and
phase 4-5 in figure 7.24. Compared with the closed-loop control strategy for power on upshift,
the pressure of the off-going clutch decreases to zero directly. No pressure overlap exists
before the inertia phase. In phase 2-3, the transmission input speed also tracks the cosine
reference speed trajectory to the target gear speed through the PID control. The positive engine
torque intervention can be applied here to assist the acceleration of the transmission input
speed. In this case, the pressure of the on-coming clutch will be adjusted based on the speed
deviation from the reference speed trajectory instead of being kept constant. The PID control
logic is the same as in figure 8.9. According to the simulation results of figure 8.11, figure 8.12
depicts the flow chart for the developed closed-loop control strategy of power off downshift
with the control method of power interrupt shift. It can be seen there is no torque transferring
phase and only phase 2-3 applies the PID control algorithm.

False
Maintain in the current
Shifting begins.
gear.

True

Phase 1-2: Preparation phase.

On-coming clutch: Oil filling.
Off-going clutch: Pressure decreases (micro slip).

False

Oil filling ends and off-going

clutch is completely released.

True

Phase 2-3: Inertia phase.

On-coming clutch: PID control of clutch pressure (Slip is
decreasing).
Off-going clutch: Pressure is completely released to 0.
Engine torque intervention: Positive torque intervention.

False

Trigger point “n3-4” has

been reached.

True

Phase 3-4: End phase.

On-coming clutch: Pressure increases to the line pressure
(no slip).
Off-going clutch: Pressure is completely released to 0.

Figure 8.12: Flow chart for the developed closed-loop control strategy of power off
downshift with the control method of power interrupt shift
18θ 8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy

8.3 The Closed-loop Control Strategy for Power on Downshift

Figure 8.13 shows the simulation results of power on downshift from the 3rd gear to the 2nd
gear under the control of the closed-loop strategy developed in this thesis. In this gear shifting,
the throttle opening degree is 70%. Brake B1 is the on-coming clutch. Clutch C1 is the off-
going clutch. Compared with the open-loop control strategy in figure 7.26, the closed-loop
control strategy divides the shifting process of power on downshift into three phases. The
gradient setting phase and the gradient breakdown phase are merged into one inertia phase.

(a) Pressure of the shifting elements

25
1 2 3 4
20
Pressure [bar]

15

10

0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s]
Clutch C1
Brake B1

(b) Speed of the transmission input shaft

3000

n2-3
2600
Speed [rpm]

2200

1800

1400
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s]
Transmission input speed
Current gear speed
Target gear speed
Reference speed trajector

Figure 8.13: Simulation results of power on downshift from the 3rd gear to the 2nd gear
 8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy 187

8.3.1 Phase 1-2

As described in the previous section, the inertia phase comes firstly in the shifting process of
power on downshift. In the closed-loop control strategy, this phase will not be subdivided into
the gradient setting phase and the gradient breakdown phase. As shown in figure 8.14, the on-
coming clutch is controlled the same as in the open-loop control strategy. It is firstly fast filled
and then maintained at the kiss-point pressure. The pressure of the on-coming clutch can’t start
increasing before the inertia phase is finished.

(a) Pressure of the shifting elements

25
1 2
20
Pressure [bar]

PID control
15

10
tB1FF pB1KP
5

0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s]
Clutch C1
Brake B1

(b) Speed of the transmission input shaft

3000

2600
Speed [rpm]

2200

1800

1400
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s]
Transmission input speed
Current gear speed
Target gear speed
Reference speed trajector

Figure 8.14: Closed-loop control of phase 1-2 in power on downshift

188 8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy

By applying the PID control algorithm, the pressure of the off-going clutch is automatically
adjusted during phase 1-2 to let the transmission input speed track the reference speed
trajectory. If the reference speed trajectory is predefined by the cosine function, the speed
gradient will increase in the first half and decrease in the second half of the inertia phase. The
effect is the same as the gradient setting phase and the gradient breakdown phase in the open-
loop control strategy. The speed transition is very smooth.

The positive engine torque intervention can also be applied during phase 1-2 in the closed-
loop control strategy. It is especially helpful to improve the shift spontaneity of power on
downshift. For example figure 8.15 shows two simulation results of power on downshift. Both
simulations apply the closed-loop control in the inertia phase. The target synchronization time
of the reference speed trajectory is predefined as 0.5s which is also the same in both
simulations. However, it can be seen from graph (c) that the transmission input speed can’t
follow the reference speed trajectory very well. The synchronization time is extended so that
shift spontaneity deteriorates. This case can’t be improved by tuning the PID control gains.
That’s because the torque of the off-going clutch has decreased to 0 (graph (b)) when its
pressure drops below the kiss-point (graph (a)). The engine load can’t be reduced anymore to
increase the gradient of the transmission input speed. Hence in the first simulation, the time of
the inertia phase can’t be further shortened. It is unable to satisfy the 0.5s requirement for the
speed synchronization.

In the second simulation, the deviation from the reference speed trajectory in graph (g) is
much smaller than it is in graph (c). The speed synchronization time can satisfy the predefined
0.5s requirement. That’s because the positive engine torque intervention (graph (f)) increases
the gradient of the transmission input speed. It now has the ability to reach the target gear level
in a shorter time. The shift spontaneity of power on downshift thus can be improved with the
positive engine torque intervention when the engine is not working at full load.

The PID control logic for the inertia phase of power on downshift can be demonstrated by
figure 8.16. Compared with the control logic for the inertia phase of power on upshift (figure
8.9), there are two differences. Firstly the PID controller adjusts the pressure of the off-going
clutch in power on downshift instead of the on-coming clutch in power on upshift. Secondly
the engine torque intervention is positive in power on downshift instead of negative in power
on upshift. Others are the same and the three control gains of the PID controller also need a
good calibration here.
 8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy 18λ

1 Without engine torque increase 2 With engine torque increase

(a) (e)
25 25
1 2 1 2
20 20
Pressure [bar]

Pressure [bar]
15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Brake B1 Brake B1

(b) (f)
300 300

200 200
Torque [Nm]

Torque [Nm]
100 100

0 0

 100  100
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Brake B1 Brake B1
Engine torque Engine torque

(c) (g)
3000 3000

2500 2500
Speed [rpm]

Speed [rpm]

2000 2000

1500 1500

1000 1000
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Transmission input speed Transmission input speed
Current gear speed Current gear speed
Target gear speed Target gear speed
Reference speed trajector Reference speed trajector
(d) (h)
4 10 4 10
Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

2 5 2 5
Vehicle jerk [g/s]

Vehicle jerk [g/s]

0 0 0 0

2 5 2 5

4  10 4  10
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Vehicle acceleration Vehicle acceleration
Vehicle jerk Vehicle jerk

Figure 8.15: Comparison between without and with engine torque increase
 1λ0

Tin

Pressure calculation Calculation or calibration of the

or calibration positive engine torque intervention
pcal

PID Controller
Δnref
P-item: Deviation of the
angular speed difference
“ΔΔω”
nout·itarget_gear _ Δn _ + ΔΔn pPID + pOG αin nin
+ Off-going
I-item: Deviation of the Integration
clutch
+ rotation angle difference
“ΔΔθ”
8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy

D-item: Deviation of the

angular acceleration
difference “ΔΔα”

nin
Measure and

Figure 8.16: PID control logic for the inertia phase of power on downshift
filter
 8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy 1λ1

8.3.2 Phase 2-3

Phase 2-3 is the torque phase in the closed-loop control strategy for power on downshift. The
condition of initiating this phase is the same as in the open-loop control strategy. Trigger point
“n2-3” in figure 8.17 must be a positive speed difference between the transmission input speed
and the target gear speed. After entering into phase 2-3, the pressure of the off-going clutch
will decrease at a specific gradient “dpC12-3/dt”. The pressure of the on-coming clutch will be
adjusted through the PID control algorithm to keep a small slip in the on-coming clutch.

(a) Pressure of the shifting elements

25
2 3
20
Pressure [bar]

PID control
15

10
dpC12-3/dt
5

0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s]
Clutch C1
Brake B1

(b) Speed of the transmission input shaft

3000
n2-3

2600
Speed [rpm]

2700

2200 2600

2500
1800
2400
0.6 0.8 1

1400
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s]
Transmission input speed
Current gear speed
Target gear speed
Reference speed trajector

Figure 8.17: Closed-loop control of phase 2-3 in power on downshift

1λ2 8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy

Figure 8.18 amplifies the region of phase 2-3 in figure 8.17. It can be seen the pressure of the
on-coming clutch at first increases fast then increases slowly. Through the precise tuning of
the clutch pressure, the transmission input speed always increases along the reference speed
trajectory. The engine flare over the target gear speed thus can be avoided. The PID control
logic of this phase is shown in figure 8.19. It is similar to the control logic for the torque phase
of power on upshift (figure 8.5) except that the reference speed difference is relative to the
target gear instead of the current gear. A good calibration for the three control gains is also
necessary here to get a good control effect of the torque phase.

(a) Pressure of the shifting elements

8
2 3

6
Pressure [bar]

0
0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Time [s]
Clutch C1
Brake B1

(b) Speed of the transmission input shaft

2650

2600
Speed [rpm]

2550

2500

2450
0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Time [s]
Transmission input speed
Current gear speed
Target gear speed
Reference speed trajectory

Figure 8.18: Zoom of phase 2-3 in figure 8.17

 Tin

Pressure calculation
or calibration
pcal

PID Controller
Δnref
P-item: Deviation of the
angular speed difference
“ΔΔω”
nout·itarget_gear _ Δn _ + ΔΔn pPID + pOC αin nin
+ On-coming
I-item: Deviation of the Integration
clutch
+ rotation angle difference
“ΔΔθ”
8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy

D-item: Deviation of the

angular acceleration
difference “ΔΔα”

nin
Measure and
filter

Figure 8.19: PID control logic for the torque phase of power on downshift
1λ3
1λ4 8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy

Phase 3-4 is the end phase in the closed-loop control strategy for power on downshift which
has the same function as phase 4-5 in the open-loop control strategy. This phase will not be
detailed described here. In conclusion, according to the simulation results of figure 8.13, the
developed closed-loop control strategy for power on downshift can be demonstrated by the
following flow chart.

False
Maintain in the current
Shifting begins.
gear.

True

Phase 1-2: Inertia phase.

On-coming clutch: Oil filling.
Off-going clutch: PID control of clutch pressure (Slip is
increasing).
Engine torque intervention: Positive torque intervention

False

Trigger point “n2-3” has

been reached.

True

Phase 2-3: Torque phase.

On-coming clutch: PID control of clutch pressure (Small
slip).
Off-going clutch: Pressure decreases at a certain
gradient.

False

Pressure of the off-going clutch

drops below kiss-point.

True

Phase 3-4: End phase.

On-coming clutch: Pressure increases to the line
pressure (no slip).
Off-going clutch: Pressure is completely released to 0.

Figure 8.20: Flow chart for the developed closed-loop control strategy of power on
downshift

8.4 The Closed-loop Control Strategy for Power off Upshift

Figure 8.21 shows the simulation results of power off upshift from the 7th gear to the 8th gear
under the control of the closed-loop strategy developed in this thesis. In this gear shifting,
clutch C1 is the off-going clutch. Clutch C3 is the on-coming clutch. The same as power on
 8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy 1λη

downshift, the inertia phase 1-2 applies the PID control for adjusting the pressure of the off-
going clutch according to the speed deviation from the reference speed trajectory. What is
different is that it is not necessary to have the PID control in phase 2-3 for keeping a small
speed difference between the transmission input speed and the target gear speed. That’s
because only small torque needs to be transferred between the two clutches. The time of the
pressure overlap is too short. As long as the pressure of the on-coming clutch increases in time,
no engine undershoot will happen. Hence in the developed closed-loop control strategy for
power off upshift, both clutch pressures are controlled in an open-loop way in phase 2-3.

(a) Pressure of the shifting elements

25
1 2 3
20
Pressure [bar]

15

10

0
0 1 2 3 4

Time [s]
Clutch C1
Clutch C3

(b) Speed of the transmission input shaft

5200

4700
Speed [rpm]

4200 n2-3

3700

3200
0 1 2 3 4

Time [s]
Transmission input speed
Current gear speed
Target gear speed
Reference speed trajectory

Figure 8.21: Simulation results of power off upshift from the 7th gear to the 8th gear
1λθ 8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy

However, as described in chapter 7.4, the shift spontaneity of power off upshift is usually bad.
The small engine negative torque can’t decelerate the transmission input speed to the target
gear in a short time. Therefore, the PID control can’t let the transmission input speed track the
reference speed trajectory very well if the time of the inertia phase is predefined a little short
in the closed-loop control strategy for power off upshift.

(a) Pressure of the shifting elements

25

20
Pressure [bar]

15

10

0
0 1 2 3 4

Time [s]
Clutch C1
Clutch C3

(b) Speed of the transmission input shaft

5200

4700
Speed [rpm]

4200

3700

3200
0 1 2 3 4

Time [s]
Transmission input speed
Current gear speed
Target gear speed
Reference speed trajectory

Figure 8.22: Big deviation of the input speed from the reference speed trajectory

Figure 8.22 shows such a case that a big deviation appears between the actual input speed
trajectory and the reference speed trajectory. It can be seen even the PID controller has
decreases the pressure of the off-going clutch to the kiss-point, the transmission input speed
 8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy 1λ7

still can’t follow the reference speed trajectory. At this time it is in fact equivalent to the power
interrupt shift. In conclusion, according to the simulation results of figure 8.21, figure 8.23
depicts the flow chart for the developed closed-loop control strategy of power off upshift. It
can be seen there is no torque phase and only phase 1-2 applies the PID control algorithm. The
PID control logic here is the same as it is for the inertia phase of power on downshift (figure
8.16) except that power off upshift can’t apply the engine torque intervention to assist the
speed synchronization from the current gear to the target gear.

False
Maintain in the current
Shifting begins.
gear.

True
Phase 1-2: Inertia phase.
On-coming clutch: Oil filling.
Off-going clutch: PID control of clutch pressure
(Slip is increasing).

False

Trigger point “n2-3” has

been reached.

True

Phase 2-3: End phase.

On-coming clutch: Pressure increases to the line
pressure (no slip).
Off-going clutch: Pressure is completely released
to 0.

Figure 8.23: Flow chart for the developed closed-loop control strategy of power off
upshift

Compared with the open-loop control strategy, the closed-loop control strategy improves the
control robustness of the shifting process to a certain extent. Some deviations can be corrected
through the PID control. However, no matter which type of control strategy is applied, the
corresponding control parameters have to be carefully calibrated. In addition, the structure of
the control algorithm should provide a possibility for tuning the control parameters according
to different shifting type, different gear shifting, different shifting elements, and different
engine load. That means the software should be flexible enough to guarantee that the
adjustment of one specific shift will not affect other shifts.
 1λ8

On-coming clutch:
B1 T2P
P2C
Kiss-point
C1 Pressure gradient
Shift type
…
- Power on upshift
Shift
- Power on downshift C2
command - Power off upshift Off-going clutch:
- Power off downshift C3 T2P
P2C
Kiss-point
C4 Pressure gradient
…
(a)
On-coming clutch:
B1 T2P
P2C
A specific gear shifting Kiss-point
C1 Pressure gradient
Shift type On-Up 1-2,2-3…7-8 …
8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy

- Power on upshift
Shift
- Power on downshift On-Down 2-1,3-2…8-7 C2
command - Power off upshift
Off-Up 1-2,2-3…7-8 Off-going clutch:
- Power off downshift C3 T2P
Off-Down 2-1,3-2…8-7 P2C
Kiss-point
C4 Pressure gradient
…
(b)

Figure 8.24: (a) Clutch based software structure (b) Shift based software structure
 8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy 1λλ

Figure 8.24 shows two different software structures for the shift control. In the first one the
control algorithm is clutch based. Different clutches have different design parameters and each
of them has its corresponding control solenoid. Therefore, the control parameters should be
calibrated according to different clutches. However, it doesn’t consider the performance
variation of one clutch in different gear shifting. The software development and calibration
time of this structure is shorter. It is also easy to develop other variants for different automatic
transmissions. But shift quality will be difficult to optimize in such a structure if there is an
issue for a specific gear shifting. Sometimes the shift quality of one specific shift is improved
but other shifts become bad because the same value of control parameters are not suitable for
all shifts. For example, the step ratio between low speeds is bigger than between high speeds.
The same speed synchronization time will make the driver feel bigger vehicle jerk in the low
gear shifting. The second software structure is shift based. Although the software development
and the calibration work consume more time and resources, but this software structure is easy
to optimize shift quality.
200 8 The Closed-loop Control Strategy
 λ Influence of Build-to-Build and Life-Cycle Variations 201

9 Influence of Build-to-Build and Life-Cycle Variations

Only good control strategy is not enough to provide automatic transmissions with good shift
quality. In mass production, build-to-build variations inevitably exist among different builds.
The build-to-build variations include design tolerances, assembly and manufacturing changes,
and material substitutions [H6]. Shift quality is affected very much by build-to-build variations.
A set of control parameters can achieve a good shift feeling in one automatic transmission. But
probably in the other one the same parameter values may result in a bad shift feeling. End-of-
line test is one way to reduce the build-to-build variations by automatically testing the physical
characteristics of each shifting element such as torque to pressure characteristic, pressure to
current characteristic, kiss-point pressure data, and so on. However, some control parameters
can’t be adjusted through end-of-line test. And engineers can’t calibrate the control parameters
for each vehicle manually in mass production. Therefore, the control software should have an
ability to cover build-to-build variations of different automatic transmissions and different
vehicles.

Even assuming the influence of build-to-build variations have been compensated, shift quality
of automatic transmissions still can’t be guaranteed throughout the transmission service life.
That’s because life-cycle variations have a big influence on shift quality as well. Life-cycle
variations include effects of transmission oil deterioration and aging, clutch friction
characteristic changing, mechanical elements wear, and so on [H6]. These variations, which
are impossible to distinguish and predict, exist in each sub-system of automatic transmissions.
The physical characteristics of each shifting element will deviate from their initial values
because of life-cycle variations. Hence shift quality is not consistent and becomes bad with
mileage accumulation. In order to compensate for the influence of life-cycle variations, the
control software should be able to fine tune its control parameters or physical characteristics.
Meanwhile, it also requires such a function to keep shift quality consistent after the
maintenance of automatic transmissions such as replacing new automatic transmission fluid or
a new proportional solenoid valve.

Therefore, in order to compensate for the influence of build-to-build variations and life-cycle
variations, the control software must have the adaptive control in addition to the basic shift
control strategy. This chapter will detailed introduce the main influencing factors in build-to-
build variations and life-cycle variations. Some adaptive control methods will be described in
next chapter.
 202

Known torque to Known pressure to

pressure characteristic current characteristic
Command clutch
Target clutch torque
pressure

Command solenoid
current

Actual clutch
Actual clutch torque
pressure

TSE= d·(pSE-pkiss) ·A·r·z·signum(Δω) pSE=f(I)

Friction coefficient Kiss-point pressure Pressure loss and response delay Tolerance of solenoid
λ Influence of Build-to-Build and Life-Cycle Variations

Sampling time

Figure 9.1: Main influencing factors in build-to-build variations and life-cycle variations
 λ Influence of Build-to-Build and Life-Cycle Variations 203

Figure 9.1 shows the main influencing factors that can easily result in calculation,
measurement, and calibration inaccuracies in the control of the shifting process. Torque
transferring and speed synchronization are in principle achieved by controlling the friction
torque of the actuated shifting elements. However, the friction torque can’t be manipulated
directly. According to the torque to pressure characteristic and the pressure to current
characteristic of each shifting element, the target clutch torque is converted to the current
command of each solenoid. Then the transmission control unit sends out this command to the
proportional solenoid valve and through it controls the actual clutch pressure. Based on
equation (4.7), the actual clutch torque can be adjusted by the actual clutch pressure. In this
control cycle, deviations can’t be avoided between the actual clutch torque and the target
clutch torque because the torque to pressure and pressure to current characteristic from the
end-of-line test are not accurate in the actual driving condition.

The first deviation comes from the torque to pressure characteristic. This characteristic is
acquired through manual calibration in the prototype phase. But in mass production it is
acquired through end-of-line test. End-of-line test stores the torque to pressure characteristic of
each shifting element into the transmission control unit in a table format. The command clutch
pressure will be read from the table according to the target clutch torque in the control of the
shifting process. In this way, the influence of hardware tolerances can be reduced. However,
the torque to pressure characteristic is tested in a static condition in the end-of-line test. The
slip of each shifting element is maintained constant in the test. However, the vehicle driving
condition is dynamic and the clutch slip is always changing in the shifting process. Therefore,
the acquired torque to pressure characteristic from the end-of-line test still has deviation from
the real situation. And with the mileage accumulation of the vehicle, this characteristic
deviation will become bigger and bigger. The main influencing factors which result in the
deviation of the torque to pressure characteristic are mainly reflected in the friction coefficient
and the kiss-point pressure.

The second deviation comes from the pressure to current characteristic of each shifting
element. This characteristic is also acquired through end-of-line test and stored in the
transmission control unit in a table format. Then the pressure command is further converted to
the current command of the proportional solenoid valve. However, the proportional solenoid
valve has tolerances and hysteresis. Its pressure to current characteristic is easily affected by
temperature. In addition, the pressure response delay exists in the hydraulic actuation system.
The clutch pressure can’t immediately follow the current command to reach the desired
control value. Especially in the pilot control system, the pressure response delay becomes even
worse because there is another slide valve for amplifying the low pilot pressure to the high
204 λ Influence of Build-to-Build and Life-Cycle Variations

clutch pressure. Therefore, the acquired pressure to current characteristic from the end-of-line
test also has deviation from the real situation. The main influencing factors which result in the
deviation of the pressure to current characteristic are mainly reflected in the pressure response
delay and the tolerance of solenoid. Temperature has a big influence on both of them.

Sampling time of the transmission control unit affects the control accuracy of the shifting
process. It is also an important factor needs to be carefully considered. Besides, there are also
some measurement errors in the measured speed signal and torque signal applied in the control
of the shifting process. However, these errors can’t be eliminated because of hardware
tolerances. Suppliers usually have an accuracy range for their components in order to satisfy
the requirement of the transmission. Generally speaking, the measurement errors in the
tolerance range will not affect shift quality very much. Control software can tolerate them.
Hence the following section will only concentrate on the factors shown in figure 9.1.

9.1 Friction Coefficient

Friction coefficient is the main factor for the deviation of the torque to pressure characteristic.
It changes continuously throughout the transmission service life. The value of friction
coefficient mainly depends on the following factors.
(1) Friction linings (material, design, quality, aging and wear);
(2) ATF (base oils, additives, quality, aging and wear);
(3) Temperature of ATF and friction plates;
(4) Slipping speed, especially at micro slip;
(5) Surface pressure on the friction plate.

Some test results of friction characteristics are shown from figure 9.2 to figure 9.4. Figure 9.2
shows two test results of the same ATF with two different friction materials. The test is carried
out by the low velocity friction apparatus at different temperature. It can be seen the dynamic
friction coefficient varies with the slipping speed. The variation is especially big in the low
speed region. Meanwhile, it is noted that the temperature has a big influence on the friction
characteristic. At the normal operating temperature (80°C), the dynamic friction coefficient is
smaller than the other test temperatures (40°C and 120°C). Comparing two test results,
different friction materials are also found to have a big influence on the dynamic friction
coefficient.
 λ Influence of Build-to-Build and Life-Cycle Variations 20η

° °
° °

° °

Figure 9.2: Test results of the same ATF with two different friction materials

Figure 9.3 shows the results of SAE#2 friction durability test for two different ATF with the
same friction material. The left graph shows the results of the dynamic friction coefficient
versus the load cycle at a specific slipping speed. The right graph shows the results of the
static friction coefficient versus the load cycle. It can be seen both the dynamic friction
coefficient and the static friction coefficient vary irregularly with the cycle increasing. The
change is big and can’t be neglected. It’s one reason for the variation of the torque to pressure
characteristic throughout the transmission service life. At the same time, in each graph
different ATF shows different value of friction coefficient although the friction material is the
same. The red one has a better friction performance than the black one because its dynamic
friction coefficient is bigger than its static friction coefficient at each test point.

Sinopec ATF SSVIII on NW461E Sinopec ATF SSVIII on NW461E

Dexron VI on NW461E Dexron VI on NW461E

Figure 9.3: Test results of two different ATF with the same friction material

Figure 9.4 shows the test results of friction coefficient versus plate surface pressure at different
temperature. The first row is the results of the dynamic friction coefficient at a specific
slipping speed. The second row is the results of the static friction coefficient. It is observed
20θ λ Influence of Build-to-Build and Life-Cycle Variations

that both the dynamic friction coefficient and the static friction coefficient change in the clutch
pressure control range (0-2MPa). The dynamic friction coefficient drops obviously with the
pressure increasing. In contrast, the pressure has little effect on the static friction coefficient.
But the temperature affects the static friction coefficient more than the dynamic friction
coefficient. The static friction coefficient increases significantly with the temperature
decreasing. From the test results in figure 9.4 it is known that the friction coefficient varies
greatly even the clutch pressure changes in a small range. Therefore, the torque to pressure
characteristic of each shifting element is necessary to be measured in the end-of-line test in
mass production. It can compensate for the friction coefficient deviation caused by pressure
change compared with the calculation of the clutch pressure according to equation (4.7).

Dynamic friction coefficient at different temperature

120℃ 80℃ 40℃

Static friction coefficient at different temperature

120℃ 80℃ 40℃

Figure 9.4: Test results of dynamic and static friction coefficient versus plate surface
pressure at different temperature

As described above, so many factors affect the friction coefficient. End-of-line test can
compensate for some of them (such as the pressure change). But the torque to pressure
characteristic acquired from the end-of-line test is only a static result in a specific condition
 λ Influence of Build-to-Build and Life-Cycle Variations 207

(such as constant slipping speed, constant temperature). It is not repeatable if the test condition
changes. Therefore, the initial torque to pressure characteristic from the end-of-line test is
inaccurate with respect to complicated driving conditions.

According to equation (4.7), in order to transmit torque, the friction coefficient, the clutch
pressure, and the design parameters of the shifting element must have a defined relationship
with each other. However, the uncertainty of friction coefficient breaks this relationship. If the
friction coefficient is bigger than expected, the clutch torque will be bigger with the same
control pressure. For power on upshift, the shifting time is shortened but the shift quality
becomes uncomfortable. For power on downshift, the shifting time is extended thus the clutch
may be easily damaged because of a long friction slipping. In contrast, if the friction
coefficient is smaller than expected, the clutch torque also becomes smaller with the same
control pressure. In this case, power on upshift will have a long shifting time and the clutch
heat load will increase. Power on downshift will have a short shifting time with small clutch
heat load. Figure 9.5 shows a small dynamic friction characteristic and a big dynamic friction
characteristic. Based on the two different friction characteristics, figure 9.6 and figure 9.7
compare the simulation results of power on upshift and power on downshift with different
friction characteristics. All control parameters have the same values in the simulations of
figure 9.6 and figure 9.7. Only the friction characteristic is different.

0.2
0
Dynamic friction coefficient

0.1

0 0

 0.1

 0.2
 500  250 0 250 500

Slipping speed [rpm]

Small friction characteristic
Big friction characteristic

Figure 9.5: Small and big dynamic friction characteristic

208 λ Influence of Build-to-Build and Life-Cycle Variations

1 Small dynamic friction characteristic 2 Big dynamic friction characteristic

(a) (e)
25 25

20 20

Pressure [bar]
Pressure [bar]

15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Brake B1 Brake B1
Clutch C1 Clutch C1

(b) (f)
300 300

200 200
Torque [Nm]
Torque [Nm]

100 100

0 0

 100  100
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Brake B1 Brake B1
Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Engine torque Engine torque

(c) (g)
3000 3000

2500 2500
Speed [rpm]
Speed [rpm]

2000 2000

1500 1500

1000 1000
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Transmission input speed Transmission input speed
Current gear speed Current gear speed
Target gear speed Target gear speed

(d) (h)
4 10 4 10
Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]
Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

2 5 2 5
Vehicle jerk [g/s]
Vehicle jerk [g/s]

0 0 0 0

2 5 2 5

4  10 4  10
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Vehicle acceleration Vehicle acceleration
Vehicle jerk Vehicle jerk

Figure 9.6: Power on upshift with small and big dynamic friction characteristic
 λ Influence of Build-to-Build and Life-Cycle Variations 20λ

1 Small dynamic friction characteristic 2 Big dynamic friction characteristic

(a) (e)
25 25

20 20
Pressure [bar]

Pressure [bar]
15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s] Time [s]

Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Brake B1 Brake B1
(b) (f)
300 300

200 200
Torque [Nm]

Torque [Nm]

100 100

0 0

 100  100
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s] Time [s]

Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Brake B1 Brake B1
Engine torque Engine torque

(c) (g)
3000 3000

2500 2500
Speed [rpm]

Speed [rpm]

2000 2000

1500 1500

1000 1000
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s] Time [s]

Transmission input speed Transmission input speed
Current gear speed Current gear speed
Target gear speed Target gear speed

(d) (h)
4 10 4 10
Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

2 5 2 5
Vehicle jerk [g/s]

Vehicle jerk [g/s]

0 0 0 0

2 5 2 5

4  10 4  10
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s] Time [s]

Vehicle acceleration Vehicle acceleration
Vehicle jerk Vehicle jerk

Figure 9.7: Power on downshift with small and big dynamic friction characteristic
210 λ Influence of Build-to-Build and Life-Cycle Variations

In figure 9.6, graph (a) shows that the pressure of the on-coming clutch increases to the same
level as in graph (e) in the inertia phase. However, since the second simulation has a bigger
dynamic friction coefficient, the friction torque of the on-coming clutch in the second
simulation is also bigger than the first simulation. It can be seen in graph (f) the friction torque
of the on-coming clutch increases nearly to 300Nm. But in graph (b) it is only about 200Nm.
The transmission input speed thus decreases to the target gear level more quickly in graph (g)
than in graph (c). Meanwhile a big vehicle jerk can be found in graph (h) at the end of power
on upshift due to the big friction characteristic.

Unlike power on upshift, the small dynamic friction characteristic will shorten the speed
synchronization time of power on downshift. In figure 9.7, the pressure of the off-going clutch
decreases to the same level in graph (a) and graph (e) after the gear shifting begins. But
because of the small dynamic friction characteristic, the torque of the off-going clutch is
smaller in graph (b) than in graph (f) during the inertia phase. The engine load is reduced thus
the transmission input speed can increase to the target gear level more quickly. It can be seen
the time of the inertia phase in graph (c) is shorter than it is in graph (g). However, the engine
flare over the target gear speed in power on downshift will easily happen with a small dynamic
friction characteristic.

In order to get a comfortable shift feeling at each operating point and throughout the
transmission service life, the control of the shifting process must be able to compensate for the
change of the friction characteristic. Otherwise even though all control parameters are well
calibrated, the consistency of shift quality still can’t satisfy customers. According to equation
(4.7), the compensation for the change of friction coefficient can only be executed by
adjusting the clutch pressure. It is impossible to get the exact torque to pressure characteristic
because of the change of friction coefficient.

9.2 Kiss-point Pressure

Kiss-point pressure is a physical characteristic which is easy to change with mileage

accumulation. As described in the previous section, it is the pressure to offset the force of the
return spring and the clutch seal. An accurate kiss-point pressure is a good foundation for the
control of the shifting process. However, due to the tolerances of the return spring and the
assembly, kiss-point pressure is usually different in different shifting elements and different
builds. The initial value of the kiss-point pressure for each shifting element can also be
obtained from the end-of-line test. This measure can help to eliminate the tolerance of
different shifting element. But it can’t reduce the influence of life-cycle variations on the kiss-
point pressure.
 λ Influence of Build-to-Build and Life-Cycle Variations 211

Figure 9.8 shows the load characteristic of a specific disc spring applied in the 8-speed
automatic transmission. It can be seen this disc spring has a linear load characteristic. And
there is a tolerance from about 100N to about 200N at different spring height. According to the
design parameters of the corresponding shifting element, this tolerance can change the kiss-
point pressure from about 0.2bar to about 0.3bar. In addition, the wear of friction plates
increases the spring stroke with mileage accumulation. This can result in an increase of the
kiss-point pressure which can’t be compensated by the end-of-line test. The disc spring with
horizontal characteristic can have a smaller load difference after wear. But the manufacturing
tolerance of this kind of disc spring is somewhat higher [S11].

0.3bar
Spring force [N]

0.2bar

Spring height [mm]

Figure 9.8: Load characteristic of a disc spring in the 8-speed automatic transmission

Clutch seal also affects the oil filling and the kiss-point pressure. The friction force of it is
difficult to calculate. Besides, in some clutch designs without a balance chamber, the oil
centrifugal force should also be considered in the calibration of the kiss-point pressure. All
above factors make the kiss-point pressure become an uncertain physical characteristic which
its initial value from the end-of-line test is inaccurate throughout the transmission service life.
According to equation (4.7), the kiss-point pressure must be subtracted to build the
proportional relationship between the clutch pressure and the friction torque. Therefore, it is
essentially a factor which influences the torque to pressure characteristic of the shifting
element.
212 λ Influence of Build-to-Build and Life-Cycle Variations

Inaccurate calibration of the kiss-point pressure results in an over fill or an under fill of the on-
coming clutch. Over fill makes the clutch piston come in contact with the clutch pack abruptly.
The friction torque suddenly occurs in the on-coming clutch. It decelerates the transmission
input speed sharply and causes the shifting impact. In addition, the simulation results of figure
7.4 have proved that over fill can easily cause the clutch tie-up in the shifting process of power
on upshift. Under fill can easily cause the engine flare in the shifting process of power on
upshift. Both cases make the shift quality deteriorate. Because the kiss-point pressure is so
important for a good control of the shifting process, the control software should be able to
adjust it in the daily driving. Or the control software can eliminate the consequences of the
inaccurate kiss-point pressure by taking other measures.

9.3 Tolerance of Solenoid

Figure 9.9 shows the characteristic of a specific proportional solenoid valve. It is a normally
open variable force solenoid with the control pressure range from 0bar to 5bar. It can be seen
the output pressure of the solenoid varies in a minimum 0.4bar tolerance range. And because
of the hysteresis characteristic, the pressure rise and the pressure drop with the control current
don’t follow the same characteristic line.

min. Tolerance Range

20 kPa
500kPa
Pressure
drop

Pressure
rise

max. Hysteresis
18 kPa 15 kPa

0 mA Current 1000 mA
Solenoid pressure
Oil flow

Figure 9.9: Characteristic of a specific proportional solenoid valve

As shown in figure 9.1, the tolerance of solenoid mainly affects the accuracy of the pressure to
current characteristic. In the pilot control system, there is an additional slide valve for each
solenoid to amplify the low pilot pressure to the high clutch pressure. Therefore, the tolerance
 λ Influence of Build-to-Build and Life-Cycle Variations 213

of slide valve also influences the pressure to current characteristic. In order to eliminate the
affection of hardware differences, the pressure to current characteristic for each shifting
element is obtained from the end-of-line test as well before the automatic transmission rolls
off the assembly line.

Current of solenoid [mA]

Clutch pressure [bar]

Time [s]
Clutch pressure
Current of solenoid

Figure 9.10: Ramp test of a shifting element in the 8-speed automatic transmission

Hysteresis pressure [bar]

Clutch pressure [bar]

Pressure
drop

Pressure
rise

Control current [mA]

Clutch pressure
Hysteresis pressure

Figure 9.11: Pressure to current characteristic from the ramp test in figure 9.10
Figure 9.10 shows the “ramp” test of a shifting element in the 8-speed automatic transmission.
The solenoid current (red line) is controlled to ramp up and ramp down at a certain gradient.
Then the clutch pressure is measured and recorded by the pressure sensor. In the process of
ramping up, the pressure gradually slows down its increase and then rises sharply at about 45s.
214 λ Influence of Build-to-Build and Life-Cycle Variations

That’s because the pressure overcomes the preload of the return spring and moves the piston to
increase the space of the oil filling chamber. Correspondingly, in figure 9.11, the pressure to
current characteristic has a “hollow” when the control current increases from 350mA to
400mA. In the process of ramping down, when the return spring pushes back the piston at
about 100s, the pressure gradually slows down its decrease and then quickly drops to 0 after
the oil is fully drained. Correspondingly, in figure 9.11, the pressure to current characteristic
has a “hump” when the control current decreases from 350mA to 310mA. From above two
figures, it is known that there is a pressure difference between ramping up and ramping down.
This difference is reduced when the clutch pressure is big. Therefore, in the end-of-line test,
the pressure to current characteristic is necessary to be tested in both directions. Applying the
rising pressure to current characteristic when the clutch is the on-coming clutch and the
descending pressure to current characteristic when the clutch is the off-going clutch is the best
way to eliminate the influence of hysteresis. However, in order to save the memory space of
the transmission control unit, sometimes only the average value is stored. The pressure
deviation caused by the hysteresis thus can’t be totally eliminated through the end-of-line test.
It must be compensated by the control software.

1200
Kinematical viscosity [cSt]

1000

800

600

400

200

0
 20 15 50 85 120

Temperature [°C]
Figure 9.12: Kinematic viscosity of a specific automatic transmission fluid

The temperature operating range of automatic transmission fluid varies from -20°C to +120°C.
As shown in figure 9.12, the kinematic viscosity of automatic transmission fluid changes very
much in this temperature range. It has a big influence on the pressure to current characteristic.
The ramp test of the shifting element can verify this influence. Figure 9.13 shows the test
results of a shifting element at 20°C and 90°C. At high temperature the pressure to current
characteristic is big and the hysteresis is small. Meanwhile a big deviation which the
maximum pressure difference is nearly 2bar exists between the two characteristic curves. This
 λ Influence of Build-to-Build and Life-Cycle Variations 21η

deviation greatly affects the control accuracy of the shifting process. Since the pressure to
current characteristic from the end-of-line test is acquired at a constant temperature, the
control software must consider the temperature influence on the pressure to current
characteristic. Otherwise shift quality will become bad if the operating temperature changes.
In addition to the adaptive control, it’s better to have a temperature compensation module in
the control software to store some physical characteristics at different temperature. That’s
because the adaptive control has a learning process. The big deviation of the pressure to
current characteristic caused by temperature increases the bandwidth of the adaptive learning.
It needs a relative long time to obtain a satisfied shift quality when temperature greatly
changes. However, the temperature compensation module can quickly adjust the pressure to
current characteristic if the environment temperature has a big change.

20
90°C
20°C

15
Clutch pressure [bar]

10

0
0 300 600 900 1200

Control current [mA]

Figure 9.13: Pressure to current characteristic from the ramp test at 20°C and 90°C

Through the simulation, the affection of inaccurate pressure to current characteristic can be
clearly seen. Figure 9.15 shows two simulations which both of them consider its pressure to
current characteristic as the red curve in figure 9.14. But in the second simulation, its actual
pressure to current characteristic is the blue curve in figure 9.14. The two curves represent the
pressure to current characteristic at high temperature and low temperature like in figure 9.13.
All other control parameters are the same in the two simulations.
21θ λ Influence of Build-to-Build and Life-Cycle Variations

20

Clutch pressure [bar]

15

10

0
0 300 600 900 1200

Control current [mA]

At high temperature
At low temperature

Figure 9.14: Pressure to current characteristic applied in the simulations of figure 9.15

As shown in figure 9.15, the first simulation has a good shift quality because its pressure to
current characteristic is accurate and the control parameters are well calibrated. In the second
simulation, the actual pressure to current characteristic of the shifting element is the blue curve
in figure 9.14. However, the transmission control unit wrongly considers it as the red curve
and converts the command pressure to the command current according to it. When the
command current is sent out, the actual clutch pressure will follow the blue curve which is
smaller than the command pressure of the red curve. Accordingly, the second simulation has a
bad shift quality because the cluch pressure is not controlled as desired.

Firstly, the pressure of the on-coming clutch at the kiss-point is smaller than its actual kiss-
point pressure (graph (e)). An under fill takes place thus the engine flare happens in the
shifting process (graph (g)). Correspondingly, the vehicle acceleration has a bigger decrease in
graph (h) than in graph (d) at about 0.5s. Driver and passengers will have a feeling of traction
loss in this case. Secondly, the pressure of the on-coming clutch is also smaller than the target
level in the inertia phase (graph (e)). In graph (f), the friction torque of the on-coming clutch
increases lately and small. The time of the inertia phase is much longer in the second
simulation. Therefore, both shift comfort and shift spontaneity will become bad if the pressure
to current characteristic is not accurate. The tolerance of solenoid and the influence of
temperature are two main factors that need to be compensated by the end-of-line test and the
control software.
 λ Influence of Build-to-Build and Life-Cycle Variations 217

1 Accurate pressure to current characteristic 2 Inaccurate pressure to current characteristic

(a) (e)
25 25

20 20

Pressure [bar]
Pressure [bar]

15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s] Time [s]

Brake B1 Brake B1
Clutch C1 Clutch C1

(b) (f)
300 300

200 200
Torque [Nm]
Torque [Nm]

100 100

0 0

 100  100
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s] Time [s]

Brake B1 Brake B1
Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Engine torque Engine torque

(c) (g)
3000 3000

2500 2500
Speed [rpm]
Speed [rpm]

2000 2000

1500 1500

1000 1000
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s] Time [s]

Transmission input speed Transmission input speed
Current gear speed Current gear speed
Target gear speed Target gear speed

(d) (h)
4 10 4 10
Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]
Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

2 5 2 5
Vehicle jerk [g/s]
Vehicle jerk [g/s]

0 0 0 0

2 5 2 5

4  10 4  10
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time [s] Time [s]

Vehicle acceleration Vehicle acceleration
Vehicle jerk Vehicle jerk

Figure 9.15: Simulation with accurate and inaccurate pressure to current characteristic
218 λ Influence of Build-to-Build and Life-Cycle Variations

9.4 Pressure Loss and Response Delay

Even though the pressure to current characteristic of the shifting element is accurately
calibrated, pressure loss and response delay still affect the control accuracy of the shifting
process. All the oil channels, chambers, as well as the gaps between friction plates need to be
filled with oil. A long oil filling channel with many bends can lead to a big pressure loss and
response delay. Temperature drop increases the oil viscosity. It aggravates the pressure loss
and the response delay. Temperature rise increases the oil leakage. It reduces the maximum
pressure of the shifting element that can be reached. Due to above factors, when the
transmission control unit sends out the pressure command to the shifting element, the actual
clutch pressure can’t follow it closely without any delay and deviation. A good design of
hydraulic system can reduce the pressure loss and the response delay. However, they can’t be
completely eliminated and are easily affected by temperature.
ATF temperature: -20℃ ATF temperature: 0℃

5 5.4

Time [s] Time [s]

ATF temperature: 60℃ ATF temperature: 120℃

5.7 6.5

Time [s] Time [s]

Clutch pressure Control current

Figure 9.16: Step test of a shifting element in the 8AT at different temperature

Figure 9.16 shows the step test of a shifting element for its pressure to current characteristic at
four different temperatures. The test current changes from 300mA to 800mA. Its step is 50mA.
It can be seen the response time of the clutch pressure corresponding to each current step is
 λ Influence of Build-to-Build and Life-Cycle Variations 21λ

relative longer at -20°C. And the pressure stability is also bad compared with other three
temperatures. With temperature increasing, the pressure response and stability are improved
obviously. The oil viscosity not only affects the motion of the valve spool and the clutch piston
but also affects the leakage of the hydraulic system. The higher the temperature is, the bigger
the leakage is. The line pressure of the hydraulic system decreases because of this big leakage.
It is observed in figure 9.16 that the clutch pressure doesn’t increase after the current is bigger
than 600mA at 120°C. That’s because the line pressure can’t increase any more due to a big
leakage. Meanwhile, when comparing the pressure level corresponding to the 500mA current
in above four graphs, it is known that the clutch pressure increases as temperature rising. The
reason is that the decreased oil viscosity reduces the pressure loss of the hydraulic system. It is
noted that the pressure difference between -20°C and 120°C is up to 1.5bar at 500mA current.
Such a big pressure loss can’t be ignored in the control of the shifting process.

The influence of pressure loss can be reduced by the measurement of the pressure to current
characteristic at different temperature. The response delay is difficult to measure and
compensate through the end-of-line test. It can only be reduced by a good design of the
hydraulic system. But the influence of it can be minimized by the closed-loop control and the
adaptive control.

10 2000

8
1500
Pressure [bar]

Speed [rpm]
6
1000
4

500
2

0 0
397 398 399 400 401 402
Time [s]
Pressure command of brake B1
Actual pressure of brake B1
Pressure command of clutch C1
Actual pressure of clutch C1
Transmission input speed

Figure 9.17: Test results of a shift from the 2nd gear to the 3rd gear
220 λ Influence of Build-to-Build and Life-Cycle Variations

Figure 9.17 shows the test results of a shift from the driving vehicle. The shift is from the 2nd
gear to the 3rd gear with clutch C1 as the on-coming clutch and brake B1 as the off-going
clutch. It can be seen the actual pressure of the on-coming clutch can follow the pressure
command closely after the oil filling. However in the off-going clutch, the actual clutch
pressure is always bigger than the pressure command in the shifting process. There is a
pressure delay in the off-going clutch. If this delay is too big, the strong pressure overlap may
cause clutch tie-up in the shifting process. On the contrary, if the on-coming clutch has a big
pressure delay while the pressure response of the off-going clutch is quick, engine flare will
happen because of the weak pressure overlap. Since in mass production there is no pressure
sensor in the shifting element, the pressure delay can’t be known but its influence can be
reduced by tuning the pressure command through the adaptive control.

-20℃ Pressure command

-10℃
30℃
60℃
80℃
120℃

Time [s]

Figure 9.18: Test results of the actual clutch pressure at different temperature

The delay of the pressure response is influenced by the oil temperature greatly. Figure 9.18
shows the test results of the actual clutch pressure following the same pressure command at
different oil temperature. It can be seen the pressure response of the oil filling has a big delay
at low temperature (especially at -20°C and -10°C). And in the ramping up process after the oil
filling, the actual clutch pressure has a big deviation from the pressure command if the
temperature is low. The pressure stability at low temperature is also not good. A big oscillation
can be found at -20°C. However, at temperature above 30°C, the actual clutch pressure
responds to the pressure command more quickly. Clutch piston comes in contact with the
clutch pack in a shorter time. Therefore, under fill at the kiss-point is reduced. Meanwhile,
after the oil filling, the actual clutch pressure follows the pressure command very well at high
temperature. Generally speaking, in addition to the pressure to current characteristic, the
 λ Influence of Build-to-Build and Life-Cycle Variations 221

control software should also be able to compensate for the influence of pressure loss and
response delay especially at low temperature.

9.5 Sampling Time

Sampling time of the transmission control unit affects the control accuracy of the shifting
process. In each time step, the transmission control unit reads the input data from sensors,
communicates information with other systems through can bus, realizes the signal conversion
between digital signals and analogue signals, and calculates the target clutch torque based on
the input data. Finally, it outputs the current signal to the hydraulic actuation system according
to the torque to pressure and pressure to current characteristic stored in the look up table. For
the hydraulic actuation system, it requires a short sampling time to improve the control
accuracy. However, this will increase the CPU load of the transmission control unit. Today, the
sampling time of the transmission control unit is usually between 5ms and 20ms. In this time
range, it is accurate enough to have a good control of the shifting process.

Figure 9.19 shows the simulation results of a short sampling time and a long sampling time. It
can be seen the pressure change in graph (c) is more stepwise than in graph (a). A long
sampling time must have a big measurement error than a short sampling time. But in the
acceptable range of the transmission control unit, there is no obvious influence on the shift
quality. The “5ms” sampling time is accurate enough to satisfy the precise control of the clutch
pressure. Today the hardware can meet this requirement without any issue. And with the
development of electronics, sampling time will be shortened again to improve the control
accuracy. In order to guarantee the control accuracy meanwhile reduce the CPU load, the
control of the shifting process can adopt a short sampling time. Other functions like the line
pressure control, the shift strategy adaptation, the transmission self-protection, and so on can
adopt a long sampling time.

In addition to above factors, there are also many other influences from the internal
transmission and the outside environment. End-of-line test is a good measure to compensate
for the build-to-build variations but it is not enough. Adaptive control of the gear shifting is
necessary in the control software. In order to cover the build-to-build variations and the life-
cycle variations, the combination of these two measures should be applied. Without end-of-
line test, the bandwidth of the adaptive learning will increase. Without adaptive control, the
shift quality will not be consistent throughout the transmission service life.
222 λ Influence of Build-to-Build and Life-Cycle Variations

1 Sampling time 5ms 2 Sampling time 20ms

(a) (e)
25 25

20 20
Pressure [bar]

Pressure [bar]
15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Brake B1 Brake B1
Clutch C1 Clutch C1
(b) (f)
300 300

200 200
Torque [Nm]

Torque [Nm]

100 100

0 0

 100  100
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Brake B1 Brake B1
Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Engine torque Engine torque

(c) (g)
3000 3000

2500 2500
Speed [rpm]

Speed [rpm]

2000 2000

1500 1500

1000 1000
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Transmission input speed Transmission input speed
Current gear speed Current gear speed
Target gear speed Target gear speed

(d) (h)
4 10 4 10
Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

Vehicle acceleration [m/s^2]

2 5 2 5
Vehicle jerk [g/s]

Vehicle jerk [g/s]

0 0 0 0

2 5 2 5

4  10 4  10
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

Time [s] Time [s]

Vehicle acceleration Vehicle acceleration
Vehicle jerk Vehicle jerk

Figure 9.19: Comparison between short and long sampling time

 10 Adaptive Control of the Gear Shifting 223

10 Adaptive Control of the Gear Shifting

An adaptive system is one which is provided with a means of continuously monitoring its own
performance in relation to a given optimal condition and a means of modifying its own
parameters by a closed-loop action so as to approach the optimum performance [H6]. It has
two closed loops compared with the conventional feedback control. One loop is the normal
feedback loop with the process and the controller. The other loop is the parameter adjustment
loop with adjustable parameters and a mechanism for adjusting the parameters. Figure 10.1
shows a block diagram of an adaptive system. The parameter adjustment loop is usually
slower than the normal feedback loop [A2].

Adaptive
Mechanism

Adjustable
Parameters
Set point Output
Adjustable
Plant
Controller
Control Signal

Figure 10.1: Block diagram of an adaptive system [A2]

Because of the rapid and revolutionary progress in electronics, adaptive control has been
extensively applied in the shift control of automatic transmissions. The objective of adaptive
control for the gear shifting is to compensate for the influence of build-to-build variations and
life-cycle variations described in chapter 9. In order to keep the shift quality consistent
throughout the transmission service life, the adaptive control must continuously evaluate the
shift quality and adjust the control parameters or physical characteristics. The updated
parameter values are stored in the read-only memory (ROM) and still exist after power off of
the transmission control unit.

Figure 10.2 shows the adaptive control logic for a specific gear shifting according to the speed
information and the time information. The shift adaptation compensates for the variations of
physical characteristics through tuning the control parameters. The learning process of shift
adaptation is in principle a closed-loop control. There are some issues when applying it for the
gear shifting. The first one is the evaluation of the shift quality. The adaptive control should
properly and timely know whether the shift quality of a specific gear shifting is good or not. It
is the prerequisite of the adaptive control. The transmission output torque is directly related to
224 10 Adaptive Control of the Gear Shifting

the shift quality. But it is rarely used as the feedback in shift adaptation due to the increased
cost for torque sensor. Instead, the adaptive control usually evaluates the shift quality through
the speed information (engine flare, engine undershoot, clutch tie-up, speed gradient) or the
time information (shifting time). They are easily measured and can reflect the shift quality
objectively. The shift quality must be good if the transmission input speed can be smoothly
synchronized to the target gear in a short time. Therefore, the speed information and the time
information are usually applied as the feedback in shift adaptation.

A specific gear shifting

Power on upshift 1-2,2-3…7-8
Power on downshift 2-1,3-2…8-7
Power off upshift 1-2,2-3…7-8
Power off downshift 2-1,3-2…8-7

Evaluation of the shift quality

Engine flare Engine undershoot Clutch tie-up
Speed gradient Shifting time

Tuning of control parameters

On-coming clutch pressure Off-going clutch pressure
Fast filling time Kiss-point pressure

Adaptive data update and storage

Figure 10.2: Adaptive control logic for a specific gear shifting

The second issue is the adjustment of the adaptive gains. Shift quality can be improved by
tuning different control parameters (clutch pressure, fast filling time, etc.). The adaptive gains
of these control parameters must be properly chosen to optimize the convergence rate of the
learning process. Big value of the gains results in an unstable shift adaptation which the output
may vibrate around the control target. Small value of the gains results in slow convergence of
the output to the control target. In order to solve this issue, several zones can be predefined for
the control target. Within the small inner zone around the reference value, shift quality is
acceptable thus the adaptive control makes no adjustment for the control parameters. Outside
the small inner zone, a small adaptive gain can be applied until the error comes into the inner
zone. When the error is bigger than the predefined outer zone, the adaptive gain can be
 10 Adaptive Control of the Gear Shifting 22η

increased to drive the error towards the inner zone more quickly. Moreover, the adaptive
control requires the parameter adjustment is independent of the shifts. For example, as shown
in figure 4.9, clutch C1 is the on-coming clutch in power on upshift from the 2nd gear to the 3rd
gear and from the 4th gear to the 5th gear. The parameter adjustment for clutch C1 from the 2nd
gear to the 3rd gear should not affect the control of clutch C1 from the 4th gear to the 5th gear.

Finally, all parameter adjustments must be limited in a predefined range to prevent the
adaptive control from responding to abnormal situations such as big errors of sensors,
excessive wear of shifting elements, contaminated or worn ATF, and so on. In addition to the
shift adaptation, some adaptive control methods are executed when the vehicle is in a specific
gear. These methods tune the control parameters in an open-loop way. They are not for the
optimization of a specific gear shifting but for the accurate calibration of some physical
characteristics. For example, the pulse adaptation in the reference [A1] tests the fast filling
time and the kiss-point pressure of each shifting element in a specific gear where the tested
shifting element is open. It is executed periodically to let the transmission control unit know
the exact value of the physical characteristic “kiss-point pressure”. Therefore, the adaptive
control in a specific gear can help to improve the control accuracy of the gear shifting.

In order to achieve the adaptive driving of the vehicle successfully, different operating and
driving conditions should be predefined for both the shift adaptation and the adaptation in a
specific gear. That means the adaptive control is executed only when its relevant conditions
have already been satisfied. An overview of the general conditions that must be considered in
the adaptive control is introduced as following [A1].
(1) The temperature of ATF must be within a defined range.
(2) A specific gear or a specific gear shifting.
(3) A specific shifting element.
(4) The engine load must be within a defined range; In general, a low engine load or a low
throttle position is required.
(5) No fault codes are stored in the memory of the transmission control unit.
(6) A specific driving state must be maintained (for example the vehicle is smoothly
accelerating, coasting, at a constant driving mode, and so on.).
(7) Good road conditions. No big road gradient. The road surface is as flat as possible.

The adaptive control is an afterwards correction not a beforehand prevention for the bad shift
quality. Some observant drivers and passengers may feel shifting impact and complain about it
in the adaptive driving. However, this complaint is difficult to be reproduced. Shift quality will
be improved through the adaptive control. Therefore, the base control of the shifting process
22θ 10 Adaptive Control of the Gear Shifting

must be supplemented by the adaptive control. In the following sections, some adaptive
control methods based on the speed information and the time information will be introduced.

10.1 Adaptive Control for the Torque Phase

No matter which shifting type it is, the shift quality in the torque phase can be evaluated by the
deviation of the transmission input speed. The shift quality will be good if the speed deviation
is small. On the contrary, a big speed deviation results in a bad shift quality such as engine
flare, engine undershoot, and clutch tie-up.

As described in the previous section, engine flare (or undershoot) and clutch tie-up should be
avoided in the torque phase of power on upshift and power off downshift. Although the
closed-loop control timely adjusts the clutch pressure according to the feedback of the speed
deviation, engine flare (or undershoot) and clutch tie-up may still happen because it can’t
compensate for all the parameter disturbances and system variations. Therefore, it is a good
way to make the speed deviation come into the desired small range through the adaptive
control. As shown in figure 10.3, there are two speed zones defined in the torque phase of
power on upshift and power off downshift. If the speed deviation is within the inner zone ,
the adaptive control will not adjust the control parameters. Between the inner zone and the
outer zone , the control parameters will be tuned with a small adaptive gain. Outside the
outer zone , the control parameters will be tuned with a big adaptive gain to drive the speed
deviation towards the inner zone .

For power on upshift and power off downshift, different control parameters can be chosen for
the adaptive tuning. The tuning direction must be right. Otherwise the shift quality will get
even worse. In figure 10.3, the direction of the speed deviation corresponds to the tuning of
the control parameters with the same colour. It can be seen for the reduction of engine flare or
engine undershoot (blue colour) the control parameters are adjusted to increase the pressure
overlap. It can be achieved by increasing the pressure level of the off-going clutch in the
preparation phase or by increasing the pressure gradient of the on-coming clutch in the torque
phase. Under fill is the main reason for engine flare and engine undershoot, thus the adaptive
control can also increase the fast filling time of the on-coming clutch.
 10 Adaptive Control of the Gear Shifting 227

1 Power on upshift 2 Power off downshift

Flare

Tie-up
Speed

Speed
Tie-up

Undershoot
Inner zone Inner zone
Outer zone Outer zone

Time Time
Pressure

Pressure

Time Time

Figure 10.3: Principle of the adaptive control for the torque phase of power on upshift
and power off downshift

If clutch tie-up happens, the adaptive control will adjust the control parameters in the other
direction. The pressure level of the off-going clutch in the preparation phase can be reduced.
Then the slip in the beginning will increase to give a bigger buffer zone to avoid clutch tie-up.
Meanwhile, the pressure increase of the on-coming clutch can become slower or it can be
postponed for a little time. The fast filling time of the on-coming clutch can be shortened as
well to avoid the over fill which may be the reason for clutch tie-up. All these measures can be
adopted by the adaptive control for the compensation of clutch tie-up caused by life-cycle
variations and build-to-build variations.
228 10 Adaptive Control of the Gear Shifting

The adaptive gain will correct the initial value of the adaptive control parameter. The new
updated value will be stored in the memory for the later same gear shifting. Figure 10.4 shows
the flow chart of the shift adaptation for the torque phase of power on upshift and power off
downshift. This shift adaptation applies the pressure increase of the on-coming clutch as the
adaptive control parameter. It can be seen that the pressure tuning in the adaptive control can
be added into the logic of the closed-loop control according to figure 8.5.

Current gear shifting

Adaptive False No adaptive

conditions are
control
satisfied.

True Later same gear shifting

…
Input speed is True Correction pcal
within the inner
pressure pAd=0 +
zone
… pPID + pOC On-coming …
clutch
+
False pAd

Input speed is True Correction

between the inner pressure
and outer zone pAd=Δpsmall_gain

False pAd
Memory

True Correction
Outside the outer
pressure
zone
pAd=Δpbig_gain

Figure 10.4: Flow chart of the shift adaptation for the torque phase of power on upshift
and power off downshift

Figure 10.5 shows the principle of the adaptive control for the torque phase of power on
downshift and power off upshift. Power on downshift usually takes place at a wide throttle
opening degree when the vehicle needs a big torque for climbing or overtaking. In this case,
engine flare over the target gear speed will easily happen. Due to the high engine torque, there
will be a big heat loss generated in the actuated shifting element if engine flare happens. The
adaptive control for the torque phase of power on downshift thus should pay particular
attention to the flare adaptation. For power off upshift, the adaptive control should be able to
reduce the engine undershoot if it occurs. The blue dashed line in figure 10.5 limits the
maximum engine flare in power on downshift and the maximum engine undershoot in power
off upshift.
 10 Adaptive Control of the Gear Shifting 22λ

1 Power on downshift 2 Power off upshift

Flare

Tie-up Tie-up

Speed
Speed

Undershoot

Inner zone Inner zone

Outer zone Outer zone

Time Time
Pressure

Pressure

Time Time

Figure 10.5: Principle of the adaptive control for the torque phase of power on downshift
and power off upshift

Power on downshift and power off upshift must initiate the torque phase after the transmission
input speed crosses over the target gear speed. In order to avoid increasing the pressure in the
on-coming clutch before the crossing point, the red dashed line in figure 10.5 limits the
minimum speed difference over the target gear in power on downshift and below the target
gear in power off upshift. The red dashed line also helps to avoid clutch tie-up which the
pressure of the on-coming clutch increases too fast to cause big vehicle jerk.

As shown in figure 10.5, the control parameter adjusted in the shift adaptation for the torque
phase of power on downshift and power off upshift can be the gradient of the on-coming
clutch pressure. It changes the pressure overlap between the two actuated clutches. Increasing
230 10 Adaptive Control of the Gear Shifting

the pressure gradient (blue dashed line) drives the speed difference towards the inner zone
from the flare region. Decreasing the pressure gradient (red dashed line) drives the speed
difference towards the inner zone from the tie-up region. In this way, the adaptive control can
reduce the speed deviation and keep it within the desired range in the following similar shift.

Another way of increasing or decreasing the pressure overlap is to advance or postpone the
starting time of the pressure increase in the on-coming clutch. It can be achieved by changing
the trigger point of the torque phase which is the difference between the transmission input
speed and the target gear speed. For flare adaptation, the trigger point can be reduced so that
the starting point in figure 10.5 moves along the blue arrow to the left. For tie-up adaptation,
the trigger point will increase to move the starting point along the red arrow to the right. The
pressure level of the off-going clutch before the torque phase can also be applied as the
adaptive control parameter. Increasing it will reduce the engine flare while decreasing it will
reduce the clutch tie-up.

Current gear shifting

Adaptive False No adaptive

conditions are
control
satisfied.

True

Input speed is True Correction

within the inner trigger point
zone nAd=0 Later same gear
shifting
False

Input speed is True Correction nnew-trigger-point

between the inner trigger point
and outer zone nAd=Δnsmall_gain

False nAd +
Memory
+
Correction
Outside the outer True
trigger point
zone nold-trigger-point
nAd=Δnbig_gain

Figure 10.6: Flow chart of the shift adaptation for the torque phase of power on
downshift and power off upshift

Figure 10.6 shows the flow chart of the shift adaptation for the torque phase of power on
downshift and power off upshift. This shift adaptation applies the trigger point of the torque
phase as the adaptive control parameter. The value of it will be updated according to the
 10 Adaptive Control of the Gear Shifting 231

measurement of the speed deviation. Then the shift quality will be improved in the following
same gear shifting. However, it is noted that the torque phase should not begin before the
transmission input speed crosses over the target gear speed when advancing the time of the
starting point.

10.2 Adaptive Control for the Inertia Phase

For the shifting process controlled by the open-loop strategy, the adaptive control can evaluate
the shift quality of the inertia phase according to the time length. If the duration of the inertia
phase is too long, there will be a big heat load in the actuated shifting elements. And the long
synchronization time will make the shift spontaneity become bad. On the contrary, if the
duration of the inertia phase is too short, the speed gradient will become very big. Hence in
power on upshift and power off downshift there will be a big shifting impact at the end of the
inertia phase. In power on downshift and power off upshift, engine flare or undershoot will
easily happen in the following torque phase because of the big speed gradient. Both cases
make driver and passengers feel uncomfortable in the shifting process.

Figure 10.7 shows the principle of the adaptive control for the inertia phase of power on
upshift and power off downshift controlled by the open-loop strategy. The maximum pressure
level of the on-coming clutch in the inertia phase is applied as the adaptive control parameter.
The time of the inertia phase has a tolerance range between the red dashed line (time t1) and
the blue dashed line (time t2). When the actual time length is within this range, the adaptive
control will have no adjustment for the on-coming clutch pressure. When the time is smaller
than t1, the on-coming clutch pressure will be reduced (red dashed line) at a certain step to
drive the time towards the range from the left side. Then shift comfort will be improved by the
adaptive control. When the time length is bigger than t2, the on-coming clutch pressure will
increase (blue dashed line) at a certain step to drive the time towards the range from the right
side. Then shift spontaneity will be improved by the adaptive control.

It is noted that the predefined time range for the inertia phase must be well calibrated. This
time range should make a good trade-off between shift comfort and shift spontaneity. In
addition, the adaptive direction must not be wrong. Otherwise, the adaptive control can’t
improve shift quality in the following same gear shifting but makes it become even worse.
232 10 Adaptive Control of the Gear Shifting

1 Power on upshift 2 Power off downshift

t2

t1
Speed

Speed
t1
t

t2

Time Time
Pressure

Pressure

Time Time

Figure 10.7: Principle of the adaptive control for the inertia phase of power on upshift
and power off downshift controlled by the open-loop strategy

For the inertia phase of power on downshift and power off upshift, the principle of the
adaptive control is essentially the same. However as shown in figure 10.8, the adaptive control
parameter changes to the pressure of the off-going clutch. The time range is predefined to give
the adaptive control a certain tolerance. Outside this tolerance, the off-going clutch pressure
will increase (red dashed line) at a certain step to extend the time towards the desired range
from the left side when the time of the inertia phase is too short. It helps to avoid engine flare
in the following torque phase by reducing the speed gradient. When the time of the inertia
phase is too long, the off-going clutch pressure will decrease (blue dashed line) to shorten the
 10 Adaptive Control of the Gear Shifting 233

time towards the desired range from the right side. It helps to improve shift spontaneity in the
following same gear shifting.

1 Power on downshift 2 Power off upshift

t2
t
t1

Speed
Speed

t1
t
t2

Time Time
Pressure

Pressure

Time Time

Figure 10.8: Principle of the adaptive control for the inertia phase of power on downshift
and power off upshift controlled by the open-loop strategy

The flow chart of the shift adaptation for the inertia phase controlled by the open-loop strategy
is shown in figure 10.9. Adaptive conditions must be firstly satisfied in order to complete the
adaptive driving successfully. According to the measured time length from the previous gear
shifting, the correction pressure for the on-coming clutch in power on upshift and power off
downshift or the correction pressure for the off-going clutch in power on downshift and power
off upshift will be supplemented to improve the shift quality in the following same shift.
234 10 Adaptive Control of the Gear Shifting

Current gear shifting

Adaptive False No adaptive

conditions are
control
satisfied.

True Later same gear shifting

…
The time of the True Correction pcal
inertia phase
pressure pAd=0 + On-coming
t1<t<t2 pOC or pOG
clutch or …
off-going
+ clutch
False pAd

Correction
The time of the True pressure
inertia phase
pAd=+ΔpOC
t>t2
pAd=-ΔpOG

False pAd
Memory
Correction
The time of the True pressure
inertia phase
pAd=-ΔpOC
t<t1
pAd=+ΔpOG

Figure 10.9: Flow chart of the shift adaptation for the inertia phase controlled by the
open-loop strategy

When the closed-loop control strategy is applied, the adaptive control can make use of the sum
of the speed error as the evaluation criterion for the inertia phase. As shown in figure 10.10,
when the transmission input speed follows the reference speed trajectory in the inertia phase,
there must be a speed deviation between them. The blue area or the red area in figure 10.10
stands for the sum of the speed error. It can reflect the shift quality of the inertia phase
objectively. If the deviation area is very big, the shifting time will be either too long (blue area)
or too short (red area). In order to solve this issue, an upper limit for the sum of the speed error
can be predefined in the adaptive control. When the sum of the speed error exceeds the upper
limit, the adaptive control will adjust the clutch pressure automatically according to the
deviation direction. Then a too long or a too short shifting time can be avoided in the
following same gear shifting.

However for the closed-loop control strategy, clutch pressure in the inertia phase is not directly
tuned by the adaptive control. Proportional gain of the PID controller can be adjusted to
reduce the sum of the speed error. According to the principle of the PID control, increasing the
proportional gain can reduce the speed deviation from both directions significantly. But a big
 10 Adaptive Control of the Gear Shifting 23η

value of it may cause a big vibration of the transmission input speed around the reference
speed trajectory. In order to solve this issue, a lower limit for the sum of the speed error can be
predefined in the adaptive control. If the sum of the speed error drops below the lower limit,
the adaptive control will reduce the proportional gain to increase the speed deviation towards
the desired range. In this process, the clutch pressure will automatically increase or decrease
according to the deviation direction. Although there isn’t an exact trajectory tracking by
applying this measure, but it doesn’t affect the shift quality if the lower limit is well calibrated.
And the vibration caused by the increased proportional gain can be avoided effectively.

1 Power on upshift 2 Power off downshift

Speed

Speed

Sum of speed error Sum of speed error

Time Time
Pressure

Pressure

Time Time

Figure 10.10: Principle of the adaptive control for the inertia phase of power on upshift
and power off downshift controlled by the closed-loop strategy
23θ 10 Adaptive Control of the Gear Shifting

For the inertia phase of power on downshift and power off upshift controlled by the closed-
loop strategy, the principle of the adaptive control is essentially the same as in power on
upshift and power off downshift. It also applies the proportional gain of the PID controller as
the adaptive control parameter. But the PID control now adjusts the pressure of the off-going
clutch instead of the on-coming clutch as shown in figure 10.11.

1 Power on downshift 2 Power off upshift

Speed
Speed

Sum of speed error Sum of speed error

Time Time
Pressure

Pressure

Time Time

Figure 10.11: Principle of the adaptive control for the inertia phase of power on
downshift and power off upshift controlled by the closed-loop strategy

It is noted that the upper limit and the lower limit for the sum of the speed error should be
calibrated differently according to different step ratio and different input engine speed. When
the step ratio of the gear shifting and the input engine speed are big, the speed difference that
needs to be synchronized in the inertia phase is also big. In this case, the two limit values
should increase compared with the case of small speed difference. Therefore, the two limit
 10 Adaptive Control of the Gear Shifting 237

values should be divided into several classes according to the amount of the speed difference
between the current gear and target gear.

Figure 10.12 shows the flow chart of the shift adaptation for the inertia phase controlled by the
closed-loop strategy. It can be seen this shift adaptation applies the proportional gain of the
PID controller as the adaptive control parameter. In each gear shifting, the sum of the speed
error is measured and compared with the upper and the lower limit. Then the transmission
control unit will update the value of the proportional gain to fine tune the clutch pressure for
improving the shift quality in the following same gear shifting.

Current gear shifting

Adaptive False No adaptive

conditions are
control
satisfied.

True

Correction of
The sum of the speed True proportional
error is between the lower
gain
and the upper limit.
KP_Ad=0 Later same gear
shifting
False

Correction of
The sum of the speed True proportional KP_new
error is bigger than the gain
upper limit. KP_Ad=+ΔKP

False KP_Ad +
Memory
+
Correction of
The sum of the speed True proportional
error is smaller than the gain
lower limit. KP_Ad=-ΔKP KP_old

Figure 10.12: Flow chart of the shift adaptation for the inertia phase controlled by the
closed-loop strategy

10.3 Test Verification of the Developed Adaptive Control Strategy

Based on above adaptive control methods, an adaptive control strategy for the filling of the on-
coming clutch is developed for the 8-speed automatic transmission. This adaptive control
strategy is designed to eliminate the sharp speed drop, the engine flare, and the clutch tie-up in
power on upshift. Its logic will be explained according to figure 10.13.
238 10 Adaptive Control of the Gear Shifting

W1 W2 Engine flare

Speed
A B C Clutch tie-up

Speed drop
Target range

Time

Oil filling Torque phase

Fast filling
Pressure

pkiss

tFF

Time

Figure 10.13: Adaptive control of the oil filling in power on upshift

As shown in figure 10.13, three big speed deviations may happen if the control of the oil
filling is bad. Under fill will result in the engine flare in the following torque phase. Over fill
may cause a sharp drop of the transmission input speed in the oil filling stage when the on-
coming clutch starts transmitting torque while the off-going clutch is still pressurised without
any slip. Or it may result in the clutch tie-up in the following torque phase if the slip of the off-
going clutch changes from positive to negative. In order to implement the adaptive control, the
transmission control unit needs to know whether the three big speed deviations appear in the
shifting process. The engine flare and the clutch-tie up can be detected by measuring the slip
between the transmission input speed and the current gear speed. However, the sharp speed
drop in the oil filling stage can't be observed through the slip measurement because the off-
going clutch doesn’t have any slip at that time. The transmission input speed and the current
gear speed will drop simultaneously. Therefore, as shown in figure 10.13, two time windows
are predefined. The first time window W1 starts from the shift beginning and lasts for a short
 10 Adaptive Control of the Gear Shifting 23λ

time (from point A to point B). It is used to calculate the average gradient of the transmission
input speed. The second time window W2 starts from the end of the fast filling (point C) and
lasts for a short time. In this time window, the normal input speed without big drop is
estimated based on the speed gradient and the measured speed at point C. Then it is compared
with the measured actual input speed to evaluate whether there is a sharp speed drop.

The shift control of the 8AT applies a triangle pressure command for the fast filling of the on-
coming clutch. The adaptive control parameters are the fast filling time and the kiss-point
pressure. Both of them are limited in a predetermined range to prevent the adaptive control
from responding to abnormal situations. Their learning steps should be properly chosen to
optimize the convergence rate of the learning process. The fast filling time has a big influence
on the sharp speed drop in the oil filling stage. Meanwhile it also affects the actual pressure of
the on-coming clutch at the end of the oil filling. Therefore, the adaptive control strategy gives
priority to adjust the fast filling time when the sharp speed drop occurs. If the control target
can’t be achieved after the fast filling time reaches its boundary, the kiss-point pressure will
then be adjusted. For the engine flare and the clutch tie-up, the kiss-point pressure will be
firstly tuned before the fast filling time.

Depending on the throttle opening degree and the temperature, the adaptive control strategy is
divided into several classes. The learning steps of the adaptive control parameters and the
target speed range are different in different classes. At the same time, the adaptive control for a
specific shift will not affect other shifts. The adaptive control strategy has some prerequisites
to be executed during the vehicle driving, such as the ATF temperature must be between 60°C
and 100°C, the transmission input speed must be stable, and so on. The transmission control
unit will decide whether the shift just occurred to be used for the adaptive control based on
these prerequisites.

The developed adaptive control strategy is implemented in the vehicle with the 8-speed
automatic transmission. Test results from figure 10.14 to figure 10.16 verify that the developed
adaptive control strategy is effective in eliminating the sharp speed drop, the engine flare, and
the clutch tie-up in power on upshift. Figure 10.14 shows the test results of the adaptive
control for the sharp speed drop in the oil filling stage of power on upshift. Both shifts happen
at about 12% throttle opening degree. They are power on upshift from the 1st gear to the 2nd
gear with clutch C1 as the off-going clutch and clutch C3 as the on-coming clutch. In graph
(b), it can be seen a sharp drop of the transmission input speed occurs after the fast filling. The
adaptive control strategy identifies this sharp speed drop and shortens the fast filling time to
eliminate it. In this case, the learning step of the fast filling time is 10ms. As shown in figure
240 10 Adaptive Control of the Gear Shifting

(c), the fast filling time decreases to 300ms after some adaptive driving. The sharp speed drop
in figure (d) is reduced to the desired range when the similar gear shifting happens again. Shift
quality thus is improved by the control of the developed adaptive strategy.

1 Before adaptive driving 2 After adaptive driving

(a) (c)
15 15
Fast filling 330ms Fast filling 300ms

12 Filling 12 Filling

Pressure [bar]
Pressure [bar]

9 9

6 6
1.46bar 1.46bar
3 3

0 0
486.9 487.4 487.9 488.4 488.9 572.3 572.8 573.3 573.8 574.3

Time [s] Time [s]

Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Clutch C3 Clutch C3
(b) (d)
2000 2000

1800 1800
Speed [rpm]
Speed [rpm]

1600 1600

1400 1400

1200 1200

1000 1000
486.9 487.4 487.9 488.4 488.9 572.3 572.8 573.3 573.8 574.3

Time [s] Time [s]

Figure 10.14: Vehicle test results of the adaptive control for sharp speed drop

Figure 10.15 shows the test results of the adaptive control for the engine flare in the shifting
process of power on upshift. Both shifts are from the 1st gear to the 2nd gear as well. The
throttle opening degree at the time of the gear shifting is about 13.75%. In the first test results,
the big engine flare can be observed in graph (b). It deteriorates shift quality and increases the
heat load of shifting elements. The adaptive control strategy identifies the engine flare through
the big speed difference between the transmission input speed and the current gear speed. The
kiss-point pressure of the on-coming clutch is adjusted to reduce it. The learning step of the
kiss-point pressure here is 0.1bar. After some adaptive driving, graph (c) shows that the
command of the kiss-point pressure increases to 2bar. At the same time the fast filling time
increases to 120ms to help reduce the engine flare. Correspondingly, as shown in graph (d),
 10 Adaptive Control of the Gear Shifting 241

the engine flare is significantly reduced when the similar gear shifting happens again. Shift
quality thus is improved by the adaptive control.

1 Before adaptive driving 2 After adaptive driving

(a) (c)
15 15
Fast filling 110ms Fast filling 120ms

12 Filling 12 Filling
Pressure [bar]

Pressure [bar]
9 9

6 6
1.6bar 2bar

3 3

0 0
103.5 104 104.5 105 105.5 278.3 278.8 279.3 279.8 280.3

Time [s] Time [s]

Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Clutch C3 Clutch C3
(b) (d)
2000 2000

1800 1800
Speed [rpm]

Speed [rpm]

1600 1600

1400 1400

1200 1200

1000 1000
103.5 104 104.5 105 105.5 278.3 278.8 279.3 279.8 280.3

Time [s] Time [s]

Figure 10.15: Vehicle test results of the adaptive control for engine flare

Figure 10.16 shows the test results of the adaptive control for the clutch tie-up in the shifting
process of power on upshift. Both shifts are from the 1st gear to the 2nd gear and take place at
similar engine operating points with about 11% throttle opening degree. The test environment
is also similar for both shifts. In the first test results, graph (b) shows that the clutch tie-up
happens. The transmission input speed firstly has a drop then increases slowly after the oil
filling of the on-coming clutch. At that time, the slip of the off-going clutch is negative. In
order to eliminate the clutch tie-up, the developed adaptive control strategy adjusts the kiss-
point pressure with the learning step of 0.1bar. After the adaptive driving, graph (c) shows that
the command of the kiss-point pressure is reduced to 2.0bar. Meanwhile, the pressure increase
of the on-coming clutch after the oil-filling is postponed and becomes slow. Correspondingly,
the clutch tie-up is reduced in the following similar gear shifting (graph (d)). Shift quality thus
is improved through the learning of the adaptive control parameters.
242 10 Adaptive Control of the Gear Shifting

1 Before adaptive driving 2 After adaptive driving

(a) (c)
15 15
Fast filling 120ms Fast filling 120ms

12 Filling 12 Filling

Pressure [bar]
Pressure [bar]

9 9

6 6
2.1bar 2.0bar

3 3

0 0
318.3 318.8 319.3 319.8 320.3 267.7 268.2 268.7 269.2 269.7

Time [s] Time [s]

Clutch C1 Clutch C1
Clutch C3 Clutch C3
(b) (d)
1700 1700

1560 1560
Speed [rpm]
Speed [rpm]

1420 1420

1280 1280

1140 1140

1000 1000
318.3 318.8 319.3 319.8 320.3 267.7 268.2 268.7 269.2 269.7

Time [s] Time [s]

Figure 10.16: Vehicle test results of the adaptive control for clutch tie-up

In conclusion, the adaptive control makes the software more flexible to build-to-build
variations and life-cycle variations. Base control of the shifting process is not enough for a
consistent good shift quality. It only provides a good shift feeling in a specific condition.
Variations of physical characteristics caused by tolerances, environment, and wear have to be
compensated by adjustment of the control parameters. It is achieved by purposely allowing
bad gear shifting to occur. Then the shift quality of the same gear shifting can be improved
later on. Actually, the bad shift feeling can’t be completely eliminated because there are so
many factors inside and outside the transmission affecting the shift quality. It is neither
possible nor economical to predict the variations of physical characteristics so that the best
way is an afterwards correction which lets the control of the shifting process adapt to the
variations and disturbances. The shift adaptations described above just belong to such a
method. Through this method driver and passengers may feel shifting impact occasionally but
they can tolerate it because the shifting impact will be reduced step by step and in most cases
shift quality can satisfy the requirement. In addition, with the development of electronics,
 10 Adaptive Control of the Gear Shifting 243

some adaptive control methods can test the physical characteristics during the vehicle driving.
It further improves the control accuracy. However, the adaptive control still needs end-of-line
test to reduce the influence of tolerances. The bandwidth of the adaptive learning can be
reduced with the help of end-of-line test. Besides, end-of-line test is indispensable for the shift
quality of automatic transmissions which just roll off the assembly line without any adaptive
driving.
244 10 Adaptive Control of the Gear Shifting
 11 Conclusions and Outlooks 24η

11 Conclusions and Outlooks

Today automatic transmissions tend to have more speeds and a big total ratio range for better
vehicle fuel economy. It increases the shifting frequency and brings a higher requirement for
the shift quality. This thesis concentrates on the optimized shift control in automatic
transmissions with respect to spontaneity, comfort, and shift loads. The detailed research
contents and outlooks of future research activities are summarized as following.

11.1 Conclusions of the Dissertation

A mathematical model of the vehicle powertrain is developed in detail for the investigation of
clutch to clutch shifting. This mathematical model is especially suitable for describing
automatic transmissions with multiple speeds. The transmission structure can be simply
defined in the Excel file as the input data of the mathematical model. The transmission
kinetics and kinematics in the shifting process are described by a matrix expression. This
matrix method provides the shift simulation with flexibility and calculation efficiency even
though there is a complex transmission structure with increased number of speeds.

In addition, other powertrain systems like the combustion engine, the hydrodynamic torque
converter, the driving resistance and so on are built in the software Mathcad. Some important
characteristics that have a big influence on the control of the shifting process are considered in
the simulation model as well. For example the characteristics of the dynamic friction
coefficient and the proportional solenoid valve are modelled so that the simulation can clearly
show the results when there is a change in these characteristics. It has been verified that the
developed mathematical model has a sufficient accuracy for the simulation of the clutch to
clutch shifting.

The developed powertrain model provides a virtual environment for the investigation of the
shifting process. Based on it two different control strategies are developed in the simulation
model. In order to verify the control effect of the developed control strategies, five objective
evaluation criteria are proposed in this thesis. These criteria include the considerations of shift
spontaneity (shifting time), shift comfort (transmission output torque and vehicle jerk), and
shift loads (power loss and friction energy of shifting elements). They are quantitative
indicators that can be calculated and compared between different simulations. Shifting time,
transmission output torque, and vehicle jerk are directly related to the shift feeling of driver
and passengers among the five criteria. Different shift modes (sport, normal, comfort) can be
optimized according to them. Power loss and friction energy concern the wear of shifting
24θ 11 Conclusions and Outlooks

elements. They affect the service life of automatic transmissions thus should be limited as
much as possible.

An open-loop control strategy is developed for the control of the shifting process in this thesis.
This open-loop control strategy divides the shifting process of each shifting type into several
phases. Especially the inertia phase is further subdivided into the gradient setting phase and
the gradient breakdown phase. It improves shift comfort greatly without losing much shift
spontaneity. The shifting process of an 8-speed automatic transmission is simulated under the
control of the open-loop strategy. Through the simulation, the key points of affecting shift
quality can be easily identified for the four basic shifting types. Generally speaking, a good
shift quality should have a good control of the clutch filling in the preparation phase, a correct
application timing of the pressure overlap in the torque phase, a smooth transition of the
transmission input speed in the inertia phase. The developed open-loop control strategy makes
use of the integrated powertrain control between engine and transmission. Simulation results
have proved that the engine torque intervention benefits the control of the shifting process a
lot. Both shift comfort and shift spontaneity can be improved. It also reduces the heat load of
shifting elements. For power off upshift and power off downshift, if the negative drag torque
at the transmission input side is small, the pressure overlap will be difficult to control. In this
case, the open-loop control strategy proposes to apply the control method of power interrupt
shift. It simplifies the control of the shifting process. And the small drag torque will not cause
any big undershoot in power off shifts. On the contrary, if the negative drag torque at the
transmission input side is very big, the shifting process of power off shifts is better to be
controlled like power on shifts.

This thesis also develops a closed-loop control strategy for the control of the shifting process.
It makes use of the speed difference between the transmission input speed and the current gear
speed or the target gear speed as the feedback information of the PID controller. In the torque
phase, the control target is to keep a small slip in the on-coming clutch (power on downshift
and power off upshift) or the off-going clutch (power on upshift and power off downshift). In
the inertia phase, the control target is to let the transmission input speed track a predefined
speed trajectory to the target gear. In order to make the speed synchronization as smooth as
possible, the reference speed trajectory is defined by the cosine function. Thus a sharp change
of the speed gradient can be avoided. Compared with the open-loop control strategy, the
closed-loop control strategy improves the control robustness. However, the three control gains
of the PID controller need to be well calibrated to avoid a big deviation from the desired
control target and a big vibration around the desired control target.
 11 Conclusions and Outlooks 247

Only a good strategy for the control of the shifting process is not enough. Shift quality is
easily affected by build-to-build variations in mass production and life-cycle variations with
mileage accumulation. This thesis firstly analyses the main influencing factors in build-to-
build variations and life-cycle variations. Test results show that the torque to pressure and
pressure to current characteristics, which are known as the physical characteristics, are easily
affected by temperature, wear, and tolerance. Their uncertainty and unpredictability are the
main reasons for the inconsistency of shift quality. Torque to pressure characteristic includes
the kiss-point pressure and the friction characteristic of the shifting element. Shift simulations
in this thesis have verified that the big deviation of kiss-point pressure and friction coefficient
has a big influence on shift quality. Pressure to current characteristic includes the tolerances of
solenoid and slide valve. And it is very sensitive to temperature due to the big change of oil
viscosity. Simulation results also show that the big deviation of pressure to current
characteristic has a big influence on shift quality. In addition, pressure loss and response delay
of the hydraulic system let the actual clutch pressure always deviate from the pressure
command. It is also one reason which can’t be avoided. A short sampling time improves the
control accuracy but also increases the CPU load of the transmission control unit. Today the
electronic hardware can satisfy the requirement for sampling time and it doesn’t have a big
influence on shift quality.

In order to compensate for the influence of build-to-build variations and life-cycle variations
on shift quality, there should be an adaptive control in the software in addition to the base
control of the shifting process. The adaptive control can adjust control parameters to
compensate for the variations of physical characteristics. Thus shift quality will be improved
step by step through the learning process. Some adaptive control methods are proposed in this
thesis. They make use of the speed information and the time information to evaluate the shift
quality. In the torque phase, the adaptive control tries to keep the clutch slip in a small range to
avoid clutch tie-up, engine flare, and engine undershoot. In the inertia phase, the adaptive
control tries to keep the time of the speed synchronization (for the open-loop control strategy)
or the sum of the speed deviation (for the closed-loop control strategy) in a predefined range to
avoid a long shifting time or a big shifting impact. An adaptive control strategy for the filling
of the on-coming clutch has been developed for the 8-speed automatic transmission. Vehicle
tests have verified that this adaptive control strategy can effectively eliminate the sharp speed
drop, the engine flare, and the clutch tie-up in power on upshift. This thesis also points out that
the end-of-line test is indispensable to reduce the influence of tolerances and the bandwidth of
the adaptive learning. The adaptive control and the end-of-line test should work together to
reduce the influence on shift quality through the software control and the hardware test.
248 11 Conclusions and Outlooks

11.2 Outlooks of Future Research Activities

Based on the adaptive control methods discussed in chapter 10, more adaptive control
strategies can be developed for the 8-speed automatic transmission. This work will be
continued in the software development. The developed simulation model in this thesis is only
for the control of a specific shifting process. The engine load, trigger conditions of the gear
shifting, and some other assumptions must be firstly predefined in the simulation. In addition,
it can’t verify the proposed adaptive control methods because the simulation runs every time
for only one gear shifting. If this detailed shift model can be integrated into the forward
driving simulation, the trigger conditions will be automatically defined before each shift in the
driving simulation. And the proposed adaptive control methods can be verified by the
simulation of a specific driving cycle with many shifts. However, it increases the calculation
load of computer and needs a long time for each driving simulation. Therefore, it is necessary
to develop a simple but accurate model to verify the proposed adaptive control methods. By
means of some simplifications or assumptions, the adaptive control methods perhaps can be
verified quickly in the simulation. It is a possible interesting research direction.

This thesis develops the control strategies and simulates the shifting process only for the four
basic shifting types. Actually, there are also many other shifting types such as the garage shifts
between park, neutral, and drive gear. In these shifts, the vehicle is stationary. Normally there
is only one shifting element being controlled without pressure overlap (except D to R and R to
D). The generated or released torque will be transmitted to the vehicle through the mounting
of the powertrain. If the control is not good, it can cause a big shifting impact as well. In
addition, the driver may kick down or release the accelerator pedal greatly when the gear
shifting is still in progress. In this case the driver changes his driving mind. A big torque
variation happens at the transmission input side. Thus the control of the shifting process
should be adjusted to meet the driver’s intention. For example, canceling the current gear
shifting or transition to a different type of gear shifting may take place to achieve the new
target gear. If the gear shifting doesn’t have any change or the control parameters are not
adjusted immediately to respond to the change of the input torque, the shift quality will be
easily complained about by driver and passengers. Therefore, it is also necessary to investigate
the shifting process of garage shifts and change-mind shifts. Their control strategies and
adaptive control methods should be developed and verified.

Five objective criteria are proposed in this thesis for evaluating the shift quality of automatic
transmissions. Based on it, a virtual rating system can be developed in the simulation model.
Different weighting factors are distributed to the five criteria. It permits to find a suitable
 11 Conclusions and Outlooks 24λ

balance with respect to spontaneity, comfort, and shift loads. The shift quality of each
simulation then can be rated with a specific grade. According to the grade, the control of the
shifting process is possible to be optimized automatically. The objective rating system can also
be applied as a supplement to the subjective ratings which may change greatly among different
people.

The open-loop control and the closed-loop control belong to linear control methods. However,
the shift control has a big operating range of speed and torque. It is affected by a lot of
disturbances and uncertain variations because the vehicle works in an uncertain environment,
such as altitude, temperature, road gradient, and so on. Build-to-build variations and life-cycle
variations also bring about a lot of uncertainties. In addition, automatic transmissions include a
lot of nonlinear characteristics, such as the characteristic of the engine, the friction coefficient,
the hydraulic system, and so on. Linear controllers behave poorly in the nonlinear shift control
so that the adaptive control has been widely applied in mass production to compensate for the
lack of linear controllers. Nonlinear control methods can handle the nonlinear characteristics
of the shift control directly. They attract more and more attention in recent years. However,
most of them are still in the stage of academic research [C5]. With the development of more
powerful electronics, it’s possible to apply the nonlinear control methods for the optimized
shift control of automatic transmissions in future.
2η0 11 Conclusions and Outlooks
 12 Notation 2η1

12 Notation

Latin, small letters

aF [m/s2] Vehicle acceleration

cW [-] Drag coefficient

dpB11-2/dt [bar/s] Pressure gradient of brake B1 in phase 1-2

dpB12-3/dt [bar/s] Pressure gradient of brake B1 in phase 2-3

dpB13-4/dt [bar/s] Pressure gradient of brake B1 in phase 3-4

dpB14-5/dt [bar/s] Pressure gradient of brake B1 in phase 4-5

dpC11-2/dt [bar/s] Pressure gradient of clutch C1 in phase 1-2

dpC12-3/dt [bar/s] Pressure gradient of clutch C1 in phase 2-3

dpC13-4/dt [bar/s] Pressure gradient of clutch C1 in phase 3-4

dpC14-5/dt [bar/s] Pressure gradient of clutch C1 in phase 4-5

dpC15-6/dt [bar/s] Pressure gradient of clutch C1 in phase 5-6

e(t) [-] Input error of PID control

exDP [-] Exponent to characterize the torque curves depending on the

accelerator pedal position

fR [-] Rolling resistance coefficient

fR0 [-] 0. order coefficient of rolling resistance

fR1 [-] 1. order coefficient of rolling resistance

fR4 [-] 4. order coefficient of rolling resistance

i [-] Ratio

i0 [-] Stationary ratio of a planetary gear set

i1 [-] Ratio of the 1st gear

i12 [-] Ratio between gear 1 and gear 2 in the transfer gear set

i2 [-] Ratio of the 2nd gear

i3 [-] Ratio of the 3rd gear

icurrent_gear [-] Current gear ratio

2η2 12 Notation

iFD [-] Final drive ratio

iG [-] Transmission speed ratio

itarget_gear [-] Target gear ratio

kTD [Nm/deg] Stiffness of the torsional spring damper

kout [Nm/deg] Stiffness of the transmission output side

mF [kg] Vehicle mass

n1 [min-1] Rotational speed of gear 1

n1-2 [min-1] Trigger point of phase 1-2

n2 [min-1] Rotational speed of gear 2

n2-3 [min-1] Trigger point of phase 2-3

n3-4 [min-1] Trigger point of phase 3-4

n4-5 [min-1] Trigger point of phase 4-5

n5-6 [min-1] Trigger point of phase 5-6

nAd [min-1] Trigger point speed adjusted by the adaptive control

nC [min-1] Rotational speed of carrier

nE [min-1] Rotational speed of engine

nin [min-1] Rotational speed of input shaft

nnew-trigger-point [min-1] New trigger point of rotational speed

nold-trigger-point [min-1] Old trigger point of rotational speed

nout [min-1] Rotational speed of output shaft

nPmax [min-1] Rotational speed of engine at maximum power

nR [min-1] Rotational speed of ring gear

nS [min-1] Rotational speed of sun gear

nα [min-1] Speed scaling factor

pAd [bar] Correction pressure in the adaptive control

pB1 [bar] B1 pressure

pB11-2 [bar] Pressure level of brake B1 in phase 1-2

pB1KP [bar] Kiss-point pressure of brake B1

 12 Notation 2η3

pC1 [bar] C1 pressure

pC11-2 [bar] Pressure level of clutch C1 in phase 1-2

pC13-4 [bar] Pressure level of clutch C1 in phase 3-4

pC1KP [bar] Kiss-point pressure of clutch C1

pcal [bar] Calculated or calibrated pressure

pkiss [bar] Kiss-point pressure

pkiss_B1 [bar] B1 kiss-point pressure

pkiss_C1 [bar] C1 kiss-point pressure

pOC [bar] On-coming clutch pressure

pOG [bar] Off-going clutch pressure

pPID [bar] Pressure adjusted by the PID controller

pSE [bar] Pressure of the shifting element

q [-] Road gradient

r [mm] Equivalent friction radius

r1 [mm] Pitch circle radius of gear 1

r2 [mm] Pitch circle radius of gear 2

rB1 [mm] Equivalent friction radius of brake B1

rC [mm] Radius of carrier

rC1 [mm] Equivalent friction radius of clutch C1

rdyn [m] Radius of the tire

rR [mm] Pitch circle radius of ring gear

rS [mm] Pitch circle radius of sun gear

t [s] Time

t1 [s] Time t1

t2 [s] Time t2

tB1FF [s] Fast filling time of brake B1

tC1FF [s] Fast filling time of clutch C1

tC1Fill [s] Predefined filling time of clutch C1

2η4 12 Notation

tFF [s] Fast filling time

tpreset [s] Time window for the inertia phase

u(t) [-] Output of PID control

vF [km/h] Vehicle speed

w [-] Exponent for the direction of the power flow

xDP [-] Accelerator pedal position

z [-] The number of friction surfaces

z1 [-] Tooth number of gear 1

z2 [-] Tooth number of gear 2

zB1 [-] The number of friction surfaces of brake B1

zC1 [-] The number of friction surfaces of clutch C1

zR [-] Tooth number of ring gear

zS [-] Tooth number of sun gear

Latin, capital letters

A [cm2] Piston area

AB1 [cm2] Piston area of brake B1

AC1 [cm2] Piston area of clutch C1

AF [m2] Vehicle cross-section

DTC [mm] Profile diameter of torque converter

Eloss [kJ] Friction energy of the shifting element

F [N] Force

F1 [N] Tangential force of gear 1

F2 [N] Tangential force of gear 2

FC [N] Tangential force from the carrier to the planetary gear

FR [N] Tangential force from the ring gear to the planetary gear

FR_acc [N] Acceleration resistance

FR_air [N] Air resistance

 12 Notation 2ηη

FR_gradient [N] Gradient resistance

FR_roll [N] Rolling resistance

FS [N] Tangential force from the sun gear to the planetary gear

JC [kgm2] Inertia of carrier

JE [kgm2] Inertia of engine

Jin [kgm2] Inertia of the transmission input side including engine

Jout [kgm2] Inertia of the transmission output side including vehicle mass
and all tires

JS [kgm2] Inertia of sun gear

KD [-] Derivative control gain

KI [-] Integral control gain

KP [-] Proportional control gain

KP_Ad [-] Correction of proportional control gain in the adaptive control

KP_new [-] New proportional control gain in the adaptive control

KP_old [-] Old proportional control gain in the adaptive control

PCC [kW] Coupling power of carrier

PCR [kW] Coupling power of ring gear

PCS [kW] Coupling power of sun gear

Ploss [kW] Power loss of the shifting element

PRC [kW] Rolling power of carrier

PRR [kW] Rolling power of ring gear

PRS [kW] Rolling power of sun gear

TC [Nm] Torque from the carrier to the planetary gear

TC1 [Nm] Actual torque of clutch C1

TC2 [Nm] Actual torque of clutch C2

Tcapacity [Nm] Clutch torque capacity

TD [s] Derivative time in PID control

2ηθ 12 Notation

TE [Nm] Engine torque versus accelerator pedal position and engine

speed

TE_max [Nm] Engine maximum torque versus engine speed

TE_min [Nm] Engine drag torque versus engine speed

Tin [Nm] Input torque of the automatic transmission

TI [s] Integral time in PID control

TL [Nm] Wheel load

Tout [Nm] Output load of the automatic transmission

Tout_Dmax [Nm] Maximum damping torque of the transmission output side

TP [Nm] Pump torque of torque converter

TPG1_in [Nm] Carrier torque of the 1st planetary gear set in 8AT

TR [Nm] Torque from the ring gear to the planetary gear

TS [Nm] Torque from the sun gear to the planetary gear

TSE [Nm] Actual torque of the shifting element

TT [Nm] Turbine torque of torque converter

TTD [Nm] Torque of the torsional spring damper

TTD_Dmax [Nm] Maximum damping torque of the torsional spring damper

Greek letters

α1 [s-2] Angular acceleration of gear 1

α2 [s-2] Angular acceleration of gear 2

αC [s-2] Angular acceleration of carrier

αE [s-2] Angular acceleration of engine

αin [s-2] Angular acceleration of transmission input side

αout [s-2] Angular acceleration of transmission output side

αR [s-2] Angular acceleration of ring gear

αS [s-2] Angular acceleration of sun gear

αSt [deg] Gradient angle

 12 Notation 2η7

ΔKp [-] Correction step of proportional control gain

Δn [min-1] Rotational speed difference

Δnbig_gain [min-1] Big correction step of trigger point speed

Δnout [min-1] Speed difference of the transmission output side

Δnref [min-1] Reference speed difference

Δnsmall_gain [min-1] Small correction step of trigger point speed

ΔnTD [min-1] Speed difference of the torsional spring damper

Δpbig_gain [bar] Big correction step of pressure

ΔpC12-3 [bar] Maximum pressure increase of clutch C1 in phase 2-3

ΔpC14-5 [bar] Maximum pressure decrease of clutch C1 in phase 4-5

ΔpOC [bar] Correction pressure of on-coming clutch

ΔpOG [bar] Correction pressure of off-going clutch

Δpsmall_gain [bar] Small correction step of pressure

ΔΔn [min-1] Deviation of the rotational speed difference

ΔΔα [s-2] Deviation of the angular acceleration difference

ΔΔ [deg] Deviation of the rotation angle difference

ΔΔω [rad/s] Deviation of the angular speed difference

Δϕout [deg] Angular difference of the transmission output side

ΔϕTD [deg] Angular difference of the torsional spring damper

Δω [rad/s] Angular speed difference

ΔωB1 [rad/s] Angular speed difference of brake B1

ΔωC1 [rad/s] Angular speed difference of clutch C1

0 [-] Efficiency factor of a planetary gear set with motionless

carrier

12 [-] Mechanical efficiency from gear 1 to gear 2

L [-] The bearing efficiency

TC [-] Efficiency of torque converter

V [-] The gear efficiency

2η8 12 Notation

F [-] Rotational inertia coefficient

TC [-] Performance coefficient of torque converter

d [-] Dynamic friction coefficient

max [-] Maximum friction coefficient

s [-] Static friction coefficient

TC [-] Torque ratio coefficient of torque converter

TC [-] Speed ratio between turbine and pump

ρATF [kg/m3] Density of automatic transmission fluid

ρL [kg/m3] Air density

ωC [rad/s] Angular speed of carrier

ωP [rad/s] Angular speed of pump

ωR [rad/s] Angular speed of ring gear

ωS [rad/s] Angular speed of sun gear

 13 List of Abbreviations 2ηλ

13 List of Abbreviations
AT Automatic transmissions

AMT Automated manual transmissions

ATF Automatic transmission fluid

AVL Anstalt für Verbrennungskraftmaschinen List GmbH

CVT Continuously variable transmissions

DCT Dual clutch transmissions

EOL End-of-line test

HIL Hardware-in-the-loop

MIL Model-in-the-loop

MT Manual transmissions

PID Proportional-Integration-Derivative

ROM Read-only memory

SCCC Slip-controlled torque converter lock-up clutches

SIL Software-in-the-loop

TCU Transmission Control Unit

ZF Zahnradfabrik Friedrichshafen
2θ0 13 List of Abbreviations
 14 References 2θ1

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[W5] Watechagit, Sarawoot: Modeling and Estimation for Stepped Automatic Transmission
with Clutch-to-Clutch Shift Technology. Dissertation, University of Ohio State, 2004.

[Y1] Yamamoto, Takeshi; Konagaya, Fumihito; Osone, Tatsuya; Akasaka, Yuuzou:

Development of the Jatco CVT8 Hybrid. In 12th International CTI Symposium,
Automotive Transmissions & HEV and EV Drives, Berlin, December 2013.

[Y2] Yang, Kyung-Jinn; Hong, Keum-Shik; Chou, Dong-Il: A Robust Control for Engine
and Transmission Systems: Enhancement of Shift Quality. JSME International Journal,
Series C: Mechanical Systems, Machine Element and Manufacturing, 44(3), Pages
697-707, 2001

[Z1] Zheng, Quan; Srinivasan, Krishnaswamy; Rizzoni, Giorgio: Transmission shift

controller design based on a dynamic model of transmission response. Control
Engineering Practice, 7(8), Pages 1007-1014, August 1999.
 Lebenslauf

Lebenslauf

Peng Dong

geboren am 25. Juni 1985

in Yantai, China

Schulausbildung:

09/1992 – 06/1997 Grundschule, Yantai, China

09/1997 – 06/2004 Gymnasium, Yantai, China

Studium:

09/2004-06/2008 Maschinenbaustudium an der Shandong Universität, Jinan, China

Schwerpunktμ Industrial Engineering
Abschlussμ Bachelor

09/2008-03/2011 Maschinenbaustudium an der Beihang Universität, Beijing, China

Schwerpunktμ Vehicle Operation Engineering
Abschlussμ Master

04/2011-04/2012 Promotionsstudent
Professur Maschinenelemente
Technische Universität Chemnitz, Deutschland

04/2012-04/2015 Promotionsstudent
Lehrstuhl für Industrie- und Fahrzeugantriebstechnik
Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Deutschland

Bochum, March 2015

Lebenslauf
 Schriftenreihe des Instituts

Schriftenreihe des Instituts

Nr. 80.1 G. Kraftμ Das Phänomen des elastischen Schlupfes und dessen Einfluß auf das
Verhalten drehzahlgekoppelter Laufräder
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-000-λ)

Nr. 80.2 H. Strackeμ Methodische Grundlagen für die rechnerunterstützte Bearbeitung

von Anpassungskonstruktionen
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-001-7)

Nr. 80.3 U. Witzelμ Untersuchungen über die temperaturabhängige dynamische

Tragfähigkeit von Seilendverbindungen mit Aluminium-Preßklemmen
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-002-η)

Nr. 80.4 D. Harenbrockμ Die Kopplung von rechnerunterstützter Konstruktion und

Fertigung mit dem Programmbaustein PROREN1/NC
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-003-3)

Nr. 80.η H. Seifertμ Grundlagen des methodischen Vorgehens bei Neukonstruktionen

des Maschinen- und Gerätebaus
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-004-1)

Nr. 80.θ K. Okuliczμ Methodische Grundlagen der Lösung von Anpassungsproblemen

in der Konstruktion und ihre Anwendung auf ein ausgewähltes Problem der
Motorenentwicklung
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-00η-X)

Nr. 80.7 B. Kleinμ Ein Beitrag zur rechnerunterstützten Analyse und Synthese ebener
Gelenkgetriebe unter besonderer Berücksichtigung mathematischer
Optimierungsstrategien und der Finite-Element-Methode
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-00θ-8)

Nr. 80.8 W. Röbigμ Ein Beitrag zur Entwicklung von Finite-Element-Prozessoren für
das rechnerunterstützte Entwickeln und Konstruieren
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-007-θ)
 Schriftenreihe des Instituts

Nr. 80.λ W. Müllerμ Entwicklung eines Finite-Element-Programmsystems zur Lösung

von nicht selbstadjungierten Problemen am Beispiel der Navier-
Stokes-Gleichung
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-008-4)

Nr. 80.10 O. Röperμ Ein Geometrieprozessor für die rechnerunterstützte Auslegung von
Maschinenbauteilen mit Hilfe der Methode der Finiten Elemente
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-00λ-2)

Nr. 81.1 J. Wozniakμ Lastverteilung in Wälzdrehverbindungenν ein Beitrag zur

theoretischen und experimentellen Bestimmung von
Wälzkörper-Kraftvektoren
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-010-θ)

Nr. 81.2 H. Schulze Hobbelingμ Ein Beitrag zur rechnerunterstützten Analyse und
Synthese von Schalldämpfersystemen unter Anwendung der
Finite-Element-Methode und mathematischer Optimierungsverfahren
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-011-4)

Nr. 81.3 G.D. Goμ Beitrag zur rechnerunterstützten Auslegung und Dimensionierung
von Schraubendruckfedern mit beliebigen Kennlinien
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-012-2)

Nr. 81.4 A. Sadekμ Anwendung der eindimensionalen Stromfadentheorie zur

Auslegung und Synthese von Schalldämpfern in Auspuffleitungen von
Verbrennungsmotoren
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-013-0)

Nr. 81.η A. Shakerμ Stufenlose hydrostatische Koppelgetriebe für Kraftfahrzeuge.

Auslegung, Gestaltung, Regelung, Vergleiche mit hydrostatischen
Standgetrieben, Handschalt- und hydrodynamischen Lastschaltgetrieben
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-014-λ)

Nr. 81.θ M. Kochμ Ein Beitrag zur rechnerunterstützten Auslegung und Optimierung
von Strukturen in der Entwurfsphase
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-01η-7)
 Schriftenreihe des Instituts

Nr. 81.7 Ch. Balbachμ Das Programmsystem ISAN - Ein Beitrag zum
rechnerunterstützten Konstruieren durch Einsatz der Finite-Element-Methode
und adaptiver Netztechnik
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-01θ-η)

Nr. 81.8 V.D. Jayaramμ Experimenteller Nachweis der thermodynamischen

Schmiertheorie für Gleitlager
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-017-3)

Nr. 82.1 G.H. Riechelmannμ Quasianaloger Materialflußsimulator - Ein Instrument zur

Untersuchung von Betriebsabläufen in komplexen fördertechnischen
Systemen
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-018-1)

Nr. 82.2 H.-P. Prüferμ Parameteroptimierung - Ein Werkzeug des rechnerunterstützten

Konstruierens
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-01λ-X)

Nr. 82.3 B. Fritscheμ Verfahren zur dreidimensionalen Geometrieerfassung

und -darstellung bei der rechnerunterstützten Konstruktion von komplexen
Bauteilen
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-020-3)

Nr. 82.4 W. Predkiμ Hertzsche Drücke, Schmierspalthöhen und Wirkungsgrade von

Schneckentrieben
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-021-1)

Nr. 82.η R.W. Vonderschmidtμ Zahnkräfte in geradverzahnten Planetengetrieben.

Lastüberhöhungen infolge ungleichmäßiger Lastverteilung auf die
Planetenräder und innerer dynamischer Zusatzkräfte
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-022-X)

Nr. 82.θ H. Röperμ Tragfähigkeitserhöhung von Gleitlagern durch

verformungsangepaßte Gestaltung von Zapfen, Bolzen oder
Bohrung - erläutert am Anwendungsbeispiel "Planetenradlagerung"
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-023-8)
 Schriftenreihe des Instituts

Nr. 82.7 R.E. Römerμ Untersuchung der Wirkmechanismen und des Betriebsverhaltens
teilbeaufschlagter Industriescheibenbremsen
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-024-θ)

Nr. 82.8 K.A. Görgμ Berechnung instationärer Strömungsvorgänge in Rohrleitungen an

Verbrennungsmotoren unter besonderer Berücksichtigung von
Mehrfachverzweigungen
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-02η-4)

Nr. 82.λ R.T. Zulaufμ Rechnerunterstützte Synthese von Radialgleitlagern unter

besonderer Berücksichtigung der statischen und dynamischen Eigenschaften
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-02θ-2)

Nr. 82.10 E. Düserμ Tragfähigkeit von Blech- und Massivkäfigen in

Zylinderrollenlagern für Planetenräder
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-027-0)

Nr. 82.11 J.R. Jacubzigμ Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis von Durchfluß - Verlustbeiwerten
unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des Verzweigungsproblems bei
instationären Ladungswechselberechnungen
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-028-λ)

Nr. 83.1 O. Oldewurtelμ Kinetik des Pufferstoßes - Ein Beitrag zur Minimierung der
dynamischen Beanspruchung fördertechnischer Systeme
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-02λ-7)

Nr. 83.2 V. Jevticμ Theoretische und experimentelle Analyse des dynamischen

Verhaltens von fördertechnischen Antriebssystemen unter dem Einfluß von
Nichtlinearitäten
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-030-0)

Nr. 83.3 B. Lagemannμ Ein Beitrag zur Konzeption problemorientierter

Programmbausteine für die rechnerunterstützte Konstruktion unter besonderer
Berücksichtigung des Formwerkzeugbaus (CAD)
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-031-λ)
 Schriftenreihe des Instituts

Nr. 83.4 J.-F. Grätzμ Modellalgorithmen zur dreidimensionalen Geometriefestlegung

komplexer Bauteile mit beliebiger Flächenbegrenzung in der
rechnerunterstützten Konstruktion
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-032-7)

Nr. 83.η F. Bruneμ Herstellkostenminimierte Radsätze für geradverzahnte

Planetengetriebe
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-033-η)

Nr. 83.θ C. Weberμ Systematik der hydrostatischen und der

Riemen-Stellkoppelgetriebe nach Kriterien des methodischen Konstruierens
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-034-3)

Nr. 83.7 A. Kandilμ Methodische Betrachtung der Konstruktion von

Tiefziehwerkzeugen und Bereitstellung von Algorithmen für ihre
rechnerunterstützte Bearbeitung
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-03η-1)

Nr. 83.8 Th. Wegenerμ Ein Beitrag zur Integration rechnerunterstützter

Bauteildarstellung und Berechnung mit der Methode der Finiten Elemente
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-03θ-X)

Nr. 83.λ J. Effertzμ Die Entwicklung eines Finite-Element-Programmsystemes für die

Analyse von Gleitlagern unter Berücksichtigung thermischer und elastischer
Effekte
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-037-8)

Nr. 83.10 W. Hesseμ Verschleißverhalten des Laufrad-Schiene-Systems

fördertechnischer Anlagen
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-038-θ)

Nr. 83.11 R.T. Heyerμ Rückstellkräfte und -momente nachgiebiger Kupplungen bei
Wellenverlagerungen
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-03λ-4)
 Schriftenreihe des Instituts

Nr. 83.12 E. Kitschkeμ Wahrscheinlichkeitstheoretische Methoden zur Ermittlung der

Zuverlässigkeitskenngrößen mechanischer Systeme auf der Grundlage der
statistischen Beschreibung des Ausfallverhaltens von Komponenten
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-040-8)

Nr. 83.13 P.G. Hochμ Tragfähigkeit von Käfigen in Rollenlagern für Planetenräder
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-041-θ)

Nr. 84.1 H. Diedenhovenμ Anwendung von Algorithmen der rechnerunterstützten

Konstruktion bei der Ermittlung kollisionsfreier Werkzeugwege für
NC-Maschinen mit fünf Bewegungsachsen
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-042-4)

Nr. 84.2 M. Dümelandμ Weiterentwicklung störungsbehafteter technischer Produkte

nach konstruktionsmethodischen Kriterien
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-043-2)

Nr. 84.3 Th. Kochμ Rechnerunterstützter Vergleich der Mischbettverfahren mit

Simulation der Probennahme
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-044-0)

Nr. 84.4 M. Werdenbergμ Gestaltung von CAD-Systemen nach

konstruktionsmethodischen Gesichtspunkten
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-04η-λ)

Nr. 84.η H.Th. Wagnerμ Versuche zur Lastaufteilung und zum Breitentragen in
geradverzahnten Planetenradgetrieben
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-04θ-7)

Nr. 8η.1 P. Kaufmannμ Regelung des Bremsmomentes eines Scheibenbremssystems bei

kurzen Bremszeiten
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-047-η)

Nr. 8η.2 A. Westerholzμ Die Erfassung der Bauteilschädigung betriebsfester Systeme,

ein Mikrorechner geführtes On-Line Verfahren
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-048-3)
 Schriftenreihe des Instituts

Nr. 8η.3 J. Matkeμ Simulation der dynamischen Beanspruchungen und rechnerische

Betriebsfestigkeit von Bauteilen eines neuartigen Planetenhubwerkes
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-04λ-1)

Nr. 8η.4 U. Breuckerμ Experimentelle und theoretische Bestimmung der Lastverteilung

in Wälzdrehverbindungen bei Stützung durch ungleichförmig elastische
Anschlußkonstruktionen
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-0η0-η)

Nr. 8η.η W. Schulteμ Berührungslose radiale Gleitringdichtungen mit Öl als

Sperrmedium. Entwicklung eines Rechenprogrammes auf der Basis der
dreidimensionalen thermoelasto-hydrodynamischen Theorie
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-0η1-3)

Nr. 8η.θ A. Schooμ Verzahnungsverlustleistungen in Planetenradgetrieben

(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-0η2-1)

Nr. 8η.7 H.-J. Linnhoffμ Die Berechnung des Ladungswechsels und

Ansprechverhaltens von Verbrennungsmotoren mit Abgasturboaufladung
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-0η3-X)

Nr. 8θ.1 K. Brinkmannμ Materialfluß in der Flüssigphase der Stahlerzeugung - Eine

Untersuchung hinsichtlich der Automatisierbarkeit von Förder- und
Chargiervorgängen
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-0η4-8)

Nr. 8θ.2 H. Seifertμ Rechnerunterstütztes Konstruieren mit PROREN

(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-0ηη-θ)

Nr. 8θ.3 H. Potthoffμ Anwendungsgrenzen vollrolliger Planetenrad-Wälzlager

(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-0ηθ-4)

Nr. 8θ.4 H.J. Scheurlenμ Verformungen und Spannungen von Planetenradträgern

(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-0η7-2)
 Schriftenreihe des Instituts

Nr. 8θ.η B. Döringμ Anwendung der Konstruktionsmethodik bei der Bearbeitung von
Forschungsvorhaben - erläutert am Beispiel "Untersuchung von
Radialgleitlagern großer Turbomaschinen"
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-0η8-0)

Nr. 8θ.θ G. Bergerμ Automatisch stufenlos wirkendes hydrostatisches

Lastschaltgetriebe für Kraftfahrzeuge. Theorie, Konstruktion, Versuche.
Vergleiche mit serienmäßigen Kraftfahrzeuggetrieben
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-0ηλ-λ)

Nr. 8θ.7 J. Weilandμ Analytische und experimentelle Untersuchung des thermischen

Verhaltens von Industriebremsscheiben
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-0θ2-λ)

Nr. 8θ.8 J. Müllerμ Statistische und werkstoffkundliche Analyse des Ausfallverhaltens

dynamisch beanspruchter Bauteile zur Ermittlung der
Zuverlässigkeitskenngrößen mechanischer Systeme
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-0θ3-7)

Nr. 8θ.λ M.V. Kaciμ Einfluß von Wärmeströmen auf die Tragfähigkeit von
Planetenrad-Gleitlagern
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-0θ4-η)

Nr. 8θ.10 P.J. Tenbergeμ Wirkungsgrade von Zug- und Schubgliederketten in

einstellbaren Keilumschlingungsgetrieben
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-0θ0-2)

Nr. 87.1 M. Patzμ Nichtlineare Berechnung der Lastverteilung in

Wälzdrehverbindungen unter Beachtung von Tragwerksverformungen
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-0θη-3)

Nr. 87.2 G. Truszkiewitzμ Entwicklung eines integralen Transportsystems zur

Optimierung des Materialflusses in der Stahlerzeugung
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-0θθ-1)

Nr. 87.3 L. Winkelmannμ Lastverteilung in Planetenradgetrieben

(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-0θ7-X)
 Schriftenreihe des Instituts

Nr. 87.4 Th. Siepmannμ Reibmomente in Zylinderrollenlagern für Planetenräder

(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-0θ8-8)

Nr. 87.η W. Barthμ Verformungen und Zahnfußspannungen von ringförmigen Rädern in

Planetenradgetrieben
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-0θλ-θ)

Nr. 87.θ W. Stenmannsμ Kranhubwerk hoher Leistungsdichteν Steuerung des

Systemverhaltens zur Unterdrückung dynamischer Zusatzbeanspruchungen
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-070-X)

Nr. 88.1 F. Abelμ Lasergestützte Untersuchungen der Spurführungsdynamik von

Brückenkranen zur Bestimmung von praxisgerechten Schräglaufkollektiven
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-071-8)

Nr. 88.2 Z. Yangμ Theoretische und experimentelle Untersuchung des dynamischen

Verhaltens eines Kranfahrwerks mit Umrichterantrieb und
leistungsverzweigtem Getriebe
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-072-θ)

Nr. 88.3 S. Martiniμ Stufenlos wirkendes hydrostatisches Lastschaltgetriebe im

Vergleich zu bekannten Getrieben im Stadtbuseinsatz unter Berücksichtigung
von Bremsenergierückgewinnung
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-073-4)

Nr. 88.4 A. Moissiadisμ Experimentelle, analytische und werkstoffkundliche

Untersuchung des statischen und dynamischen Verhaltens des Systems
Laufrad-Schiene-Unterlage-Träger von fördertechnischen Anlagen
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-074-2)

Nr. 8λ.1 Q. Yangμ Zuverlässigkeit von Zahnradgetrieben

(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-07η-0)

Nr. 8λ.2 W. Weickμ Die Problematik des Datenaustausches zwischen

3D-CAD-Systemen über eine neutrale Datenschnittstelle
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-07θ-λ)
 Schriftenreihe des Instituts

Nr. 8λ.3 H. Beumlerμ Geräuschverhalten von einstufigen Planetenzahnradgetrieben mit

gehäusefestem Hohlrad
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-077-7)

Nr. 8λ.4 M. Theissenμ Untersuchung zum Restgaseinfluß auf den Teillastbetrieb des
Ottomotors
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-078-η)

Nr. 8λ.η G. Hopfμ Experimentelle Untersuchungen an großen Radialgleitlagern für

Turbomaschinen
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-07λ-3)

Nr. 8λ.θ U. Blumenthalμ Beurteilungskenngrößen für stufenlos wirkende hydro-

statisch-mechanische Lastschaltgetriebe in Personenkraftwagen
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-080-7)

Nr. 8λ.7 D. Villμ Schneckengetriebe zur Leistungsübertragung mit der Laufpaarung

Stahl und Grauguß
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-081-η)

Nr. 8λ.8 H. Dierichμ Weiterentwicklung der Theorie zur Ermittlung von Hertzschen
Drücken und Reibungszahlen in Verzahnungen von Schneckentrieben
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-082-3)

Nr. 8λ.λ M. Karademirμ Zahnsteifigkeiten in Planetenradgetrieben

(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-083-1)

Nr. 8λ.10 E. Raphaelμ Kritische Betriebszustände von Planetenrad-Nadellagern

(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-084-X)

Nr. 8λ.11 B. Baumannμ Regelung hydraulisch lüftender Scheibenbremsen zur

Minimierung der dynamischen Beanspruchung von Antriebssystemen
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-08η-8)

Nr. 8λ.12 J. Baumeisterμ Phänomenologische Untersuchungen zu kunstharzvergossenen

Seilendverbindungen
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-08θ-θ)
 Schriftenreihe des Instituts

Nr. λ0.1 W. Möllersμ Analytische und experimentelle Untersuchung des dynamischen

Rückstellkraftverhaltens nachgiebiger Wellenkupplungen
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-087-4)

Nr. λ0.2 X. Guoμ Experimentelle Untersuchung der Wärmeübertragung zwischen

rauhen Rohren und Fluiden mit hoher Prandtlzahl bei turbulenter Strömung
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-088-2)

Nr. λ0.3 A. Beckerμ Numerische Berechnung des Kontaktes beliebig gekrümmter

Körper unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Einflußgrößen des
Rad-Schiene-Systems
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-08λ-0)

Nr λ1.1 Th. Böhmerμ Entwicklung eines Standardtestes zur Erprobung von

Schmier- und Werkstoffen
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-0λ0-4)

Nr. λ1.2 J. Deiwiksμ Schalleistungspegel von Planetenradgetriebestufen mit

gehäusefestem Hohlrad
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-0λ1-2)

Nr. λ1.3 A. Lintnerμ Berechnung des Verformungsverhaltens von

Punktschweißverbindungen mittels der FE-Methode
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-0λ2-0)

Nr. λ1.4 G. Hansbergμ Freßtragfähigkeit vollrolliger Planetenrad-Wälzlager

(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-0λ3-λ)

Nr. λ1.η W. Radischμ Laufwerkskräfte und Kettenschlupf von Gleiskettenfahrzeugen

(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-0λ4-7)

Nr. λ1.θ B. Bouchéμ Reibungszahlen von Schneckengetriebeverzahnungen im

Mischreibungsgebiet
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-0λη-η)
 Schriftenreihe des Instituts

Nr. λ1.7 P. Haagμ Anlaufwirkungsgrade und Selbsthemmungsfähigkeit von ruhenden

Schneckengetrieben
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-0λθ-3)

Nr. λ1.8 U. Reidegeldμ Der Einfluß der konstruktiven Gestaltung der

Schmierstoffzuführung auf den Ölaustausch und die übrigen statischen
Eigenschaften schnell laufender hydrodynamischer Gleitlager
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-0λ7-1)

Nr. λ1.λ P. Schindlerμ Berechnungsmodelle für instationäre Strömungsvorgänge durch

Mehrfachverzweigungen im Rohrleitungssystem von Verbrennungsmotoren
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-0λ8-X)

Nr. λ1.10 B. Leichtμ Betriebssicherheit und Einsatzzuverlässigkeit von

Hubwerkskonzepten mit redundanten Komponenten
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-0λλ-8)

Nr. λ1.11 R. Jakobμ Experimentelle Ermittlung der Lebensdauer mehrachsig

schwingbeanspruchter Wellen und Welle-Nabe-Verbindungen
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-100-η)

Nr. λ2.1 R. Schenkμ Die Kopplung eines CAD- und CAP/NC-Systems zur Erzeugung
von Plandaten für Werkstücke mit Freiformflächen
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-101-3)

Nr. λ2.2 B. Naendorfμ Näherungsgleichungen für Tragfähigkeitsnachweise von

Industrieplanetengetrieben
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-102-1)

Nr. λ2.3 B. Liangμ Berechnungsgleichungen für Reibmomente in

Planetenradwälzlagern
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-103-X)

Nr. λ3.1 R. Zablowskiμ Beanspruchungserfassung zur lebensdauerorientierten

Überwachung von Antriebssystemen
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-104-8)
 Schriftenreihe des Instituts

Nr. λ3.2 U. Lüningμ Simuliertes und wirkliches Verhalten von hydrostatisch-

mechanischen Lastschaltgetrieben und konventionellen Getrieben in
Personenkraftwagen
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-10η-θ)

Nr. λ3.3 N. Emamdjomehμ Vergleich von stufenlos wirkenden hydrostatisch-

mechanischen und marktverfügbaren Lastschaltgetrieben für Traktoren
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-10θ-4)

Nr. λ3.4 S. Verstegeμ Umlaufende Verformungen an Gleitringdichtungen - eine

thermoelastische Instabilität
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-107-2)

Nr. λ3.η H. Seifertμ Festschrift zur akademischen Feier aus Anlaß des θη. Geburtstages
und der Emeritierung von Herrn Prof. Dr.-Ing. Hans Seifert
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-108-0)

Nr. λ3.θ M. Fisterμ Experimentelle Untersuchungen an hydrodynamischen Kupplungen

mit verstellbaren Kanälen
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-10λ-λ)

Nr. λ3.7 T. Bendaμ Theoretische und experimentelle Untersuchungen an

hochbelastbaren Zahnriemen unter instationärer Betriebsweise
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-110-2)

Nr. λ4.1 A. Böckerμ Zahnflankenkorrekturen bei größeren Ritzel - als Radbreiten

(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-111-0)

Nr. λη.1 F. Tintrupμ Ermittlung von Auslegungsdaten für Antriebssysteme

fördertechnischer Anlagen durch starrkörperkinetische Simulation
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-112-λ)

Nr. λη.2 P. Fladungμ Beitrag zur Reduzierung der Kennlinienstreuung bei

Einrohrgasdruckstoßdämpfern
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-113-7)
 Schriftenreihe des Instituts

Nr. λη.3 C. Lamparskiμ Einfache Berechnungsgleichungen für Lastüberhöhungen in

Leichtbauplanetengetrieben
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-114-η)

Nr. λη.4 S. Chehadeμ Wissensbasierte Rekonstruktion von 3D-CAD-Modellen aus 2D-

CAD-Modellen auf der Basis von PROLOG
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-11η-3)

Nr. λη.η D. Kulessaμ Relationales Entwurfsmodell als Ergebnis der recherunterstützten

Variantenkonstruktion
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-11θ-3)

Nr. λη.θ K. Kieneμ Zulässige Verlustleistungen von Planetenzahnrad-Wälzlagern an

Temperaturgrenzen
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-117-X)

Nr. λη.7 A. Wahleμ Alternatives Serienhubwerkskonzept mit speziellem

Umlaufgetriebe
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-118-8)

Nr. λη.8 S. Vöthμ Überwachung fördertechnischer Anlagen hinsichtlich des

Beanspruchungs- und Schädigungsverhaltens
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-11λ-θ)

Nr. λη.λ U. Nassμ Tragfähigkeitssteigerung von Schneckengetrieben durch

Optimierung der Schneckenradbronze
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-120-X)

Nr. λη.10 G. Loosμ Effiziente Produktgestaltung durch kontextsensitive

Gesteninterpretation
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-121-8)

Nr. λθ.1 B. Schwarzeμ Losradkreischen in Zahnradgetrieben

(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-122-θ)

Nr. λθ.2 R. Obretinowμ Elastische Biegung nach Theorie 3. und 4. Ordnung

(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-123-4)
 Schriftenreihe des Instituts

Nr. λθ.3 R. G. Wittorμ Näherungsgleichungen für den Schalleistungspegel von

Planetenzahnradgetrieben
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-124-2)

Nr. λθ.4 I. Steinbergμ Hydrodynamische Schaltkupplungen mit schwenkbaren

Schaufeln
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-12η-0)

Nr. λθ.η X. Zhouμ Zuverlässigkeitsanalyse menschlicher und mechanischer

Einflußfaktoren
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-12θ-λ)

Nr. λθ.θ U. Duhrμ Betriebsgerechte Auslegung hochbeanspruchter

Ringscheibenkupplungen
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-127-7)

Nr. λ7.1 B. Reckmannμ Ein Beitrag zur Migration vorhandener Systemkomponenten in

eine modulare Systemarchitektur
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-128-η)

Nr. λ7.2 T. Bartelsμ Instationäres Gleitwälzkontaktmodell zur Simulation der Reibung

und Kinematik von Rollenlagern
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-12λ-3)

Nr. λ7.3 R.M. Dinterμ Riefen und Risse auf Schneckenflanken von Zylinder-
Schneckengetrieben
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-130-7)

Nr. λ7.4 M. Jürgingμ Selbstbremsung von dynamisch belasteten Schneckengetrieben

(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-131-η)

Nr. λ7.η J. Hartlebμ Dynamische Radlasten an ungefederten Gleiskettenfahrzeugen

unter Berücksichtigung strukturspezifischer Eigenschaften
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-132-3)

Nr. λ7.θ G. Polifkeμ Dynamisches Verhalten von mehrstufigen Planetenradgetrieben

(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-133-1)
 Schriftenreihe des Instituts

Nr. λ7.7 A. Putzmannμ Strukturen und Strukturierungsmethoden in der

Produktentwicklung
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-134-X)

Nr. λ8.1 Kolloquium Intertractorμ Neuere Beiträge zur Entwicklung der

Laufwerkstechnik
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-13η-8)

Nr. λ8.2 K. Qianμ Simulation des dynamischen Verhaltens von Umlaufgetrieben mit
Stufenplaneten
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-13θ-θ)

Nr. λ8.3 C. Hübnerμ Geräuschemission von Schneckengetrieben

(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-137-4)

Nr. λ8.4 Kolloquium Intertractorμ siehe Nr. λ8.1 in englischer Version

(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-138-2)

Nr. λ8.η Y. Qianμ Untersuchungen zum Mündungsgeräusch des Verbrennungsmotors

(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-13λ-0)

Nr. λλ.1 M. Christμ Rechnersoftware für die integrierte Gestaltung und Berechnung
von Planetengetrieben
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-140-4)

Nr. λλ.2 P. Braunμ Objektorientierte Wissensarchivierung und –verarbeitung in

modellassoziierten Gestaltungs- und Berechnungssystemen
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-141-2)ν (Shaker-Verlagμ ISBNμ 3-82θη-77θ8-X)

Nr. 00.1 D. Rotherμ Das Verfahren der zweistufigen Verzögerung als Steuerstrategie für
fördertechnische Geräte zur Unterdrückung von Lastpendelungen im
Zielpunkt
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-142-0)

Nr. 00.2 B. Güldenbergμ Einfluss der nipinduzierten Effekte auf den Wickelprozess von
Papier
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-143-λ)ν (Shaker-Verlagμ ISBNμ 3-82θη-802θ-η)
 Schriftenreihe des Instituts

Nr. 00.3 P. Bartonμ Tragfähigkeit von Schraubrad- und Schneckengetrieben der

Werkstoffpaarung Stahl-Kunststoff
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-144-7)

Nr. 00.4 K. Endebrockμ Ein Kosteninformationsmodell für die frühzeitige

Kostenbeurteilung in der Produktentwicklung
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-14η-η)ν (Shaker-Verlagμ ISBNμ 3-82θη-7λθ0-7)

Nr. 00.η M. Meissnerμ Methoden zur qualitätsgerechten CAD-Modellerzeugung für die

virtuelle Produktentwicklung am Beispiel der Automobilindustrie
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-14θ-3)

Nr. 00.θ C. Leszinskiμ Ein Visualisierungs- und Navigationsassistent für

Produktstrukturen in der Produktentwicklung
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-147-1)

Nr. 00.7 D. Gerhardμ Erweiterung der PDM-Technologie zur Unterstützung verteilter

kooperativer Produktentwicklungsprozesse
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-148-X)

Nr. 00.8 L. Langenbergμ Firmenspezifische Wissensportale für Produktentwicklung

(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-14λ-8)

Nr. 00.λ C. Lippoldμ Eine domänenübergreifende Konzeptionsumgebung für die

Entwicklung mechatronischer Systeme
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-1η0-1)

Nr. 01.1 M. Liuμ Dynamisches Verhalten hydrostatischer Axialkolbengetriebe

(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-1η1-X)

Nr. 01.2 H. Butzμ Überwachung von Tragwerken fördertechnischer Geräte mit dem
Konzept der modalen Reduktion unter Berücksichtigung finiter Turmelemente
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-1η2-8)

Nr. 01.3 F.-D. Krullμ Steifigkeit, Dämpfung und Reibung an Kontaktstellen der Kolben
von hydrostatischen Axialkolbenmaschinen
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-1η3-θ)
 Schriftenreihe des Instituts

Nr. 01.4 J. Kettlerμ Ölsumpftemperatur von Planetengetrieben

(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-1η4-4)

Nr. 01.η J. Vriesenμ Berechnung der Verzahnungskorrekturen von Planetenradgetrieben

unter Berücksichtigung der Steg- und Hohlradverformung
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-1ηη-2)

Nr. 01.θ P. Kistersμ Theoretische und experimentelle Untersuchungen an

reibschlüssigen Verbindungen mit NiTi-Formgedächtniselementen
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-1ηθ-0)

Nr. 01.7 J. Scholtenμ Theoretische und experimentelle Untersuchungen zur

Beanspruchungsermittlung wartungsfreier Gelenklager
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-1η7-λ)

Nr. 01.8 A. Jacekμ Werkstoff- und Fertigungsoptimierung für Schneckenräder

(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-1η8-7)

Nr. 02.1 G. Schneiderμ Selbstarretierende und rückführend wirkende Gesperrebauform

basierend auf dem Verkantungseffekt
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-1ηλ-η)

Nr. 02.2 K. Lubenowμ Axialtragfähigkeit und Bordreibung von Zylinderrollenlagern

(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-1θ0-λ)

Nr. 02.3 M. Schwekutschμ Automatisierungselemente in Schaltgetrieben

(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-1θ1-7)

Nr. 03.1 T. Nosperμ Untersuchungen zur Schaltzeitoptimierung an automatisierten

Schaltgetrieben
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-1θ2-η)

Nr. 04.2 C. Schulteμ Entwicklung und Erprobung eines neuen großserientauglichen

Messverfahrens zur Qualitätsprüfung von Stirnrädern
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-1θη-X)
 Schriftenreihe des Instituts

Nr. 04.3 M. Klönneμ Drehschwingungsdämpfung mit NiTi-Formgedächtnislegierungen

– Grundlagen und Anwendung
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-1θθ-8)

Nr. 04.4 Tagungsband Kranfachtagung, Mai 2004

(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-1θ7-θ)

Nr. 04.η R. Rüschoffμ Analyse der Wechselwirkungen von Mehrfacheingriffen am

Beispiel Planetengetriebe
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-1θ8-4)

Nr. 0η.1 G. Elfertμ Langsamlaufverschleiß von vollrolligen Radialzylinderrollenlagern

(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-1θλ-2)

Nr. 0η.2 H. Haenselμ Systemanalytische Betrachtung sphärischer tribomechanischer

Systeme
(ISBN 3-8λ1λ4-170-θ)

Nr. 0η.3 J. Wassermannμ Einflussgrößen auf die Tragfähigkeit von Schraubradgetrieben

der Werkstoffpaarung Stahl/Kunststoff
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-171-4)

Nr. 0η.4 A. Blümmμ Simplex V – Erweiterung eines Programms zur dynamischen

Analyse von Planetengetrieben
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-172-2)

Nr. 0η.η E. Wolfμ Theoretische und experimentelle Grundlagenuntersuchungen zum

Scherschneiden von Papier
(Shaker-Verlag, ISBN 3-8322-η03θ-0)

Nr. 0η.θ D. Strasserμ Einfluss des Zahnflanken- und Zahnkopfspieles auf die
Leerlaufverlustleistung von Zahnradgetrieben
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-174-λ)
 Schriftenreihe des Instituts

Nr. 0θ.1 M. Zieglerμ Die Beanspruchung mechanischer Komponenten endloser

Kettentriebe in der Kohlegewinnung durch eigen- und fremderregte
Schwingungen
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-17η-7)

Nr. 0θ.2 D. Giannoulisμ Modellgestützte Montagekostenprognose für die Einzel- und

Kleinserienfertigung im Maschinenbau
(Shaker-Verlag, ISBN 3-8322-4412-3)

Nr. 0θ.3 C. Chasiotisμ Prozessbegleitende Wissensdokumentation und integrierte

Wissensvisualisierung in der Digitalen Produktentwicklung
(Shaker-Verlag, ISBN 3-8322-η37η-0)

Nr. 0θ.4 S. Schulteμ Integration von Kundenfeedback in die Produktentwicklung zur

Optimierung der Kundenzufriedenheit
(Shaker-Verlag, ISBN λ78-3-8322-θ02λ-3)

Nr. 0θ.η G. Lützigμ Großgetriebe-Graufleckigkeitμ Einfluss von Flankenmodifikation

und Oberflächenrauheit
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-17θ-η)

Nr. 0θ.θ U. Bräckelmannμ Reibung, Steifigkeit und Dämpfung in Schrägscheiben-

Axialkolbenpumpen und –motoren
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-177-3)

Nr. 07.1 J. Koryciakμ Einfluss der Ölmenge auf das Reibmoment von Wälzlagern mit
Linienberührung
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-178-1)

Nr. 07.2 LMF/BMT der RUBμ 1η. Internationale Kranfachtagung 2007μ „Der
Lebenszyklus von Kranen – Entwicklung – Betrieb – Instandhaltung“
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-17λ-X)

Nr. 07.3 S. Jansenμ Eine Methodik zur modellbasierten Partitionierung

mechatronischer Systeme
(Shaker-Verlag, ISBNμ λ78-3-8322-θ2η2-η)
 Schriftenreihe des Instituts

Nr. 07.4 J. Breidertμ Schnittstellengestaltung für die Baukastensynthese mit Beispielen

aus der Formgedächtnisaktorik
(Shaker-Verlag, ISBNμ λ78-3-8322-θ2λ8-3)

Nr. 07.η O. C. Siegμ Ein Beitrag zur integrativen Unterstützung des

Produktentwicklungscontrollings
(Shaker-Verlag, ISBNμ λ78-3-8322-θ44θ-8)

Nr. 07.θ J. Hermesμ Tragfähigkeit von Schneckengetrieben bei Anfahrvorgängen sowie

Last- und Drehzahlkollektiven
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-180-3)

Nr. 07.7 N. Lehnertμ Entwicklung einer tribomechanischen Bauteilsimulation am

Beispiel eines sphärischen Gelenklagers
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-181-1)

Nr. 08.1 O. Kochμ Dreidimensionale Simulation von kombiniert belasteten

Radialzylinderrollenlagern
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-182-X)

Nr. 08.2 A. M. Knopik μ NiTi in der Antriebstechnikμ Kerbwirkung, Simulation des

dynamischen Verhaltens und der Temperatur
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-183-8)

Nr. 08.3 O. Kempkesμ Technisch-wirtschaftliche Bewertung und Optimierung

fördertechnischer Produkte
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-184-θ)

Nr. 08.4 T. Wendtμ Tragfähigkeit von Schraubradgetrieben mit Schraubrädern aus

Sintermetall
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-18η-4)

Nr. 08.η A. Kleinertμ Analyse des Spaltdrosseleffektes für den Bahntransport mit
umschlungenen Walzen
(Veröffentlichung elektronisch)
 Schriftenreihe des Instituts

Nr. 0λ.1 T. Wiedemannμ Systemanalytische Betrachtung von Rotoren von Mehrphasen-

Schraubenspindelpumpen
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-18θ-2)

Nr. 0λ.2 F. Baranskiμ Vibroakustische Analyse von Kettenfahrwerken

(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-187-0)

Nr. 0λ.3 L. Hohausμ Entwicklung einer Verzweigungsvorrichtung für das System

CargoCap, simulationsgestützte Ermittlung von Betriebslasten
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-188-λ)

Nr. 0λ.4 P. Knüpferμ CargoCap – Optimale Fahrbewegungen autonomer Fahrzeuge

(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-18λ-7)

Nr. 0λ.η S. Söndgenμ Verlustleistung und Tragfähigkeit belasteter Borde von

Zylinderrollenlagern
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-1λ0-0)

Nr. 0λ.θ J. Camphausenμ Parametrischer Ermüdungsfestigkeitsnachweis auf Basis

lokaler Kerbspannungen am Beispiel von Förderschrauben von Mehrphasen-
Schraubenspindelpumpen
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-1λ1-λ)

Nr. 0λ.7 T. Sadekμ Ein modellorientierter Ansatz zur Konzeptentwicklung industrieller

Produkt-Service-Systeme
(Shaker-Verlag, ISBNμ λ78-3-8322-802η-3)

Nr. 0λ.8 S. Langbeinμ Lokale Konfiguration und partielle Aktivierung des

Formgedächtniseffektes zur Erzeugung smarter Bauteilstrukturen
(Veröffentlichung elektronisch)

Nr. 10.1 N. Sverdlovaμ Biomechanical analysis of the integration behaviour of

cementless stems in total joint replacement
(Shaker-Verlag, ISBNμ λ78-3-8322-λ174-7)
 Schriftenreihe des Instituts

Nr. 10.2 J. Withöftμ Planen und Konzipieren hybrider Leistungsbündel für den
Konsumgütermarkt
(Shaker-Verlag, ISBN λ78-3-8322-λ1λ0-7)

Nr. 10.3 K. Nazifiμ Einfluss der Geometrie und der Betriebsbedingungen auf die
Graufleckigkeit von Großgetrieben
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-1λ2-7)

Nr. 10.4 LMF/BMT der RUBμ 18. Internationale Kranfachtagung 2010μ Der Kran und
seine Komponentenμ Entwicklung – Betrieb – Instandhaltung
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-1λ3-η)

Nr. 10.η B. Bauerμ Formgedächtnislegierungen in der Antriebstechnikμ Aktoren in

Getrieben und Kupplungenν Kerbwirkungszahlen
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-1λ4-3)

Nr. 11.1 S. Vorholtμ Untersuchung und Simulation von Reibschwingungen an einer

Wandlerüberbrückungskupplung
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-1λη-1)

Nr. 11.2 K.-P. Herberμ Kopplung reduzierter Mehrkörpersysteme zur virtuellen

Produktverifikation und –optimierung
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-1λθ-X)

Nr. 11.3 M. Schmittμ CargoCap – Einfluss der Aerodynamik auf den Energiebedarf
eines unterirdischen Transportsystems
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-1λ7-8)

Nr. 11.4 A. Rhodeμ Riefenbildung an einsatzgehärteten Schnecken in Abhängigkeit von

Belastung, Drehzahl, Baugröße, Schmierstoff, Tragbildlage und
Schneckenradbronze
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-1λ8-θ)

Nr. 11.η A. Miltenovićμ Verschleißtragfähigkeitsberechnung von Schraubradgetrieben

mit Schraubrädern aus Sintermetall
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-1λλ-4)
 Schriftenreihe des Instituts

Nr. 11.θ M. Pechμ Tragfähigkeit und Zahnverformung von Schraubradgetrieben der

Werkstoffpaarung Stahl/Kunststoff
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-200-1)

Nr. 11.7 M. Z. Sfarμ Bestimmung von Verzahnungskorrekturen und Lagerkräften in

Planetengetrieben für Lastkollektive
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-201-X)

Nr. 12.1 H. Hölscherμ CargoCapμ Optimale Koordinierung der Fahrbewegungen

autonomer Fahrzeuge im lokalen Umfeld von Verzweigungen und
Zusammenführungen
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-202-8)

Nr. 12.2 B. Sieversμ Verschleiß- und Grübchentragfähigkeit von Bronze-

Schneckenrädern in Abhängigkeit von ihrer Gefügeausbildung
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-203-θ)

Nr. 12.3 M. H. Ejtehadiμ Experimental analysis and numerical simulation of the

running-in phase in spherical suspension joints
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-204-4)

Nr. 13.1 LMS/BMT der RUBμ 21. Internationale Kranfachtagung 2013μ Krane –
Nachhaltigkeit in Entwicklung und Betrieb
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-20η-2)

Nr. 13.2 P. Hepermannμ Untersuchungen zur Fresstragfähigkeit von Groß-, Schräg- und
Hochverzahnungen
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-20θ-0)

Nr. 13.3 M. Geußμ Tragfähigkeit von Schneckengetrieben beim Einsatz von

lebensmittelverträglichen Schmierstoffen mit Kontamination von Wasser
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-207-λ)

Nr. 13.4 J. Suckerμ Entwicklung eines Tragfähigkeitsberechnungsverfahrens für

Schraubradgetriebe mit einer Schnecke aus Stahl und einem Rad aus
Kunststoff
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-208-7)
 Schriftenreihe des Instituts

Nr. 13.η O. Habelμ Instationäre Mischreibungssimulation konformer Stahl-Polymer-

Kontakte unter Berücksichtigung von Mangelschmierungseffekten
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-20λ-η)

Nr. 13.θ M. Walkowiakμ Örtliche Belastungen und Verschleißsimulation in den

Zahneingriffen profilkorrigierter gerad- und schrägverzahnter Stirnradgetriebe
zwischen Einfederungsbeginn und Ausfederungsende
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-210-λ)

Nr. 13.7 D. Naroμ Formgedächtnislegierungen in der Antriebstechnikμ Spieleinstellung

in Umlaufgetrieben, Reibung und Verschleiß im ölgeschmierten Wälzkontakt
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-211-7)

Nr. 14.1 M. Bergerμ Verschleiß- und Grübchentragfähigkeit von Schneckengetrieben

bei Anfahrvorgängen sowie Last- und Drehzahlkollektiven
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-212-η)

Nr. 14.2 J. Papiesμ Methodik zur systematischen Analyse und Optimierung

dynamischer Kraft- und Weganregungen in Planetengetrieben
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-213-3)

Nr. 14.3 M. Huberμ Ansatz zur Nutzung vernetzter virtueller Produktmodelle für die
kundenintegrierte Produktentwicklung
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-214-1)

Nr. 1η.1 Münchener Kreis/Expertenkreis der Baumaschinentechnikμ Entwicklungen in

der Baumaschinen- und Fördertechnik
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-21η-X)

Nr. 1η.2 P. Dongμ Optimized Shift Control in Automatic Transmissions with respect to
Spontaneity, Comfort, and Shift Loads
(ISBNμ 3-8λ1λ4-21θ-8)