Chapter Three

Choice of appropriate building materials

3.1 What is material?
A material is defined as a substance (most often a solid, but other condensed phases can be
included) that is intended to be used for certain applications. There are a myriad of materials around
us—they can be found in anything from buildings to spacecraft.
 Materials can generally be further divided into two classes: crystalline and non-crystalline. The
traditional examples of materials are metals, semiconductors, ceramics and polymers. New and
advanced materials that are being developed include Nan materials, biomaterials, and energy
materials to name a few.
 The basis of materials science involves studying the structure of materials, and relating them to
their properties. Once a materials scientist knows about this structure-property correlation, they
can then go on to study the relative performance of a material in a given application.
 The major determinants of the structure of a material and thus of its properties are its constituent
chemical elements and the way in which it has been processed into its final form.
 These characteristics, taken together and related through the laws of thermodynamics and
kinetics, govern a material's microstructure, and thus its properties. In building construction
industry, it has been seen that materials, which were being used about a century back, are still very
popular.
 Variety of alternative building materials are available which provide better, efficient, durable and cost
effective construction and also ensure judicious utilization of available limited resources with least
possible degradation of environment.

 Building materials and technologies, and building practices have evolved through ages. Housing and
building conditions reflect the living standards of a society. Stones, mud, thatch/leaves and timber
represent the earliest building materials used for the construction of dwellings.

 Hardly any energy is spent in manufacturing and use of these natural materials for construction.
Durability of the materials, directly derived from natural materials like soil, thatch/leaves, timber, etc.
is questionable. Quest for durable building materials is an ongoing phenomenon ever since man started
construction activity.

 Brick burning represents one of the earliest examples of using energy (other than animate energy) to
manufacture durable building materials from the soil/earth. Firewood was the main source of energy for
burning bricks.

 Use of metal products represents the next energy consuming manufactured material for the construction,
after bricks. Then comes the manufacture of lime and lime-based products. Burnt bricks, metal products
and lime are the manufactured materials (using external energy sources) commonly used for
construction by our ancestors for a very long period of time.

 Discovery of natural inorganic binders like pozzolanic materials lead to the use of lime-pozzolana (LP)
cement for construction purposes. Experience of using LP cement paved the way for the invention of
Portland cement in 1824. Portland cement and steel brought revolutionary changes in the construction
 practices from early part of 20th century. Then plastics and plastic products entered the construction
industry.

 Thus, the new materials, which are available for use in construction, have many advantages over
conventional materials being used presently.

 The demand for building materials has been continuously rising with the increasing need for housing
both in rural and urban areas. Commercial exploitation of traditional building materials by various
industries has aggravated the situation. It has, therefore, become necessary to think over this problem
seriously and to provide some sustainable solution to make the alternative materials available to solve
the housing problem.
Bricks, cement, steel, aluminum, plastic products, paints, polished stone, ceramic products, etc. are the
commonly used materials of construction today. These materials are energy intensive and are transported
over large distances before being used for construction. The following points require attention, regarding
the use of modern building materials: Energy consumed in the manufacturing processes – energy
intensity; Problems of long distance transportation; Natural resources and raw materials consumed;
Recycling and safe disposal; Impact on environment, and Long-term sustainability.
Thus the issues related to energy expenditure, recycling, biodegradable, and environmental and
sustainability with respect to future demand need to be addressed during the manufacture and use of any
new building material.

3.1.1 What is materials engineering?

New materials have been among the greatest achievements of every age and they have been central
to the growth, prosperity, security, and quality of life of humans since the beginning of history. It
is always new materials that open the door to new technologies, whether they are in civil,
chemical, construction, nuclear, aeronautical, agricultural, mechanical, and biomedical or
electrical engineering.
Materials scientists and engineers continue to be at the forefront of all of these and many other areas
of science, too. Materials science and engineering influences our lives each time we buy or use a
new device, machine, or structure.
The definition of the academic field of materials science & engineering stems
from a realization concerning every application of materials: it is the properties of the material
that give it value. A material may be chosen for its strength, its electrical properties, resistance to
heat or corrosion, or a host of other reasons; but they all relate to properties.
Experience shows that all of the useful properties of a material are intimately related to its structure,
at all levels, including which atoms are present, how the atoms are joined, and how groups of
atoms are arranged throughout the material.
Most importantly, we learn how this structure, and the resulting properties, are controlled by the
processing of the material.
Finally materials must perform their tasks in an economical and societally responsible manner.
Understanding the relationships between properties, structure, processing and performance makes
the materials engineer the master of the engineering universe.
 3.1.2 Appropriate Building Materials

 Appropriate Building Materials has become the standard sourcebook in the field of building
materials for international development. This bestselling book is relied upon by architects and
engineers, educational and scientific institutions, producers and suppliers of building materials,
planners, government officials, DIYers, and by building practitioners in the field of low cost
construction in all parts of the world.

I. Background of Appropriate Building Materials and Housing

 High-quality building materials must always be used in housing, also in low-cost housing. High-
quality means among other things that the materials are long-lasting, have nice features, and
require only a little maintenance. This can be called ‘basic durability’.
 A home must provide protection against the effects of the regional climate condition, such as
coldness and heat, wind, rain, etc. In addition, the house must offer the residents safety and
privacy, and it should never collapse.
 Natural disasters, such as earthquakes, tropical storms, and floods, place unique technical
demands on the dwellings’ structures and materials. In areas that are seriously threatened, the
construction of houses must be prohibited, through adequate planning regulations, especially in
areas that can’t be protected by technical measures such as dikes in flood areas.
 Due to climate change, natural phenomena are becoming more violent, and thus the requirements
for the durability of a building’s structure and its materials need more attention.

II. About Durability and Sustainability

 Besides the durability aspects of housing, sustainable house building also stems from other
motivations, namely protecting the environment, the climate and the natural resources. Often, the
objective (of the governments, and sometimes the residents) is that housing does not contribute to
climate change or emissions of greenhouse gases- CO2 gas in particular.
 If the import of concrete building materials and the associated high transport costs can be avoided,
the (climate) benefits are immediate.
 If the use of fossil fuels can be avoided, both in the procurement of raw-materials and in the
production and the transport of materials, environmental benefits are gained. For example, in the
production of bricks and roof tiles, clay is often collected locally and fired with wood in kilns, but
then one can’t speak of sustainable building materials even though they may be long-lasting or
durable.
 In general, the use of concrete is not sustainable because a lot of energy is used in the production
of cement and the transport of cement, gravel and sand to the construction site. Therefore, one
should try to minimize the use of cement and concrete.
 The conditions in the region determine the construction techniques that are needed regarding
strength and resilience. In earthquake zones the houses must be earthquake resistant.
 This means that frameworks must be created to ensure that the house will remain standing during
an earthquake. For house building in flood plains, specially adapted technical requirements may
be applied.
 The safety of the buildings must always have priority. Moreover, fire safety should be taken into
consideration. In all cases, adequate building codes and building control must be available and
applied, which is not always the case.

3.2 Issues on Energy, Environment, Sustainable Construction and Buildings

Construction industry is one of the largest in terms of economic expenditure, volume of raw
materials/natural resources consumed, volume of materials and products manufactured, employment
generated, environmental impacts, etc.
Large variety of materials are manufactured and consumed in the construction industry. It has been estimated
that most of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is contributed by the construction sector in our world.
There is an ever-increasing demand for building materials.
For example demand for houses has doubled in Ethiopia about two decades from 2000 Eu.c Compounded
growth rates of 2.5%, 5% and 5% has been assumed for bricks, steel and cement respectively to compute
the projected demand.
In case of brick-making activity, at present topsoil equivalent of 300 mm from 100,000 hectares (1000 sq.
km) of fertile land, 22 × 106 tons of coal and 10 × 106 tons of biomass are consumed annually. We have
an arable land area of 1.62 × 106 sq. km comprising alluvial soils, black soil, red soil, laterite soil and
desert soil. Alluvial, laterite and red soils are suitable for brick making.
Brick-making activity to meet the present and future demand can result in consuming the 300 mm depth
fertile topsoil of arable land in about 90 years (assuming 2.5% compounded growth rate). Similarly the
pressure on raw materials like limestone to manufacture cement and energy requirements to produce these
materials has to be addressed.
Production of building materials has slowly and steadily moved from highly decentralized and labor-
intensive methods and processes to centralized, machine-dependent industry mode. Centralized mode of
production necessitates hauling of raw materials and distribution of finished materials over great
distances. These activities again require expenditure of fossil fuels for transportation. Transportation of
raw and finished building materials is another key issue that can contribute to cost of materials, increased
energy requirements and environmental issues. Sustainability of the present mode of production,
consumption and distribution of building materials and currently adopted construction practices is
questionable.

3.2.1 Need for Sustainable Alternatives

Steel, cement, glass, aluminum, plastics, bricks, etc. are energy-intensive materials, commonly used for
building construction. Generally these materials are transported over great distances. Extensive use of
these materials can drain the energy resources and adversely affect the environment. On the other hand,
it is difficult to meet the ever-growing demand for buildings by adopting only energy efficient traditional
materials (like mud, thatch, timber, etc.) and construction methods.
Hence, there is a need for optimum utilization of available energy resources and raw materials to produce
simple, energy efficient, environment friendly and sustainable building alternatives and techniques to
satisfy the increasing demand for buildings. Some of the guiding principles in developing the sustainable
alternative building technologies can be summarized as follows:
Energy conservation; Minimize the use of high energy materials; Concern for environment, environment-
friendly technologies;
Minimize transportation and maximize the use of local materials and resources; Decentralized
production and maximum use of local skills;
Utilization of industrial and mine wastes for the production of building materials;
 Recycling of building wastes, and
Use of renewable energy sources.
Building technologies manufactured by meeting these principles could become sustainable and facilitate
sharing the resources especially energy resources more efficiently, causing minimum damage to the
environment.

3.2.2 Alternate Building Materials

A large number of viable alternative building technologies have been developed and disseminated over a
period of 2.5 decades. Some of these building technologies are: Stabilized mud blocks, Steam cured blocks,
Fine concrete blocks, Rammed earth blocks, Mud concrete blocks, Lime–Pozzolana cements, Soil-lime
plaster, Composite mortars for masonry, Composite beam and panel roofs, Reinforced brickwork/tile-work
roof, Ferro cement and ferroconcrete roofing systems, Unreinforced masonry vaults and domes, Ribbed slab
construction, Filler slab roofs, Rammed earth foundations, Reinforced block-work lintels and precast
Cheju’s, Solar passive cooling techniques and Containment reinforcement for earthquake-resistant masonry.
Advantages
Besides being eco-friendly, the other advantages of using these materials for construction are:
 Better functional efficiency.
 Cost effectiveness.
 Better durability.
 Ease of construction.
 Better finish.
 Minimum waste.
 Less maintenance cost.
 Minimum defects.
 Less energy intensive.
One of the major component of Eco-housing practices using ‘Alternate Building Materials’ is Sustainable
Construction Practices.
Eco-friendly materials
Dictionary: Describes a product that has been designed to do the least possible damage to the environment.
Or
"Products or services that have a lesser or reduced effect on human health and the environment when
compared with competing products or services that serve the same purpose."
The use of Eco-friendly Materials became a necessity because of the following reasons;
• Phenomenal growth in the construction industry that depends upon depletable sources.
• Production of building materials leads to irreversible environmental impacts
Features of Eco-friendly materials
 Renewable Source.
 Reuse of Waste product.
 Low Embodied Energy.
 Local Availability.
  Reduction in air, land and water pollution.
 Durability & Life span.
 Aids Energy Efficiency in buildings.
 Durability & Life span.
 Biodegradable.

3.3 Choice of appropriate building materials

The "appropriateness" of a building material or construction technology can never be generalized.
The following questions show some of the main factors which determine appropriateness:
 Is the material produced locally, or is it partially or entirely imported?
 Is it cheap, abundantly available, and/or easily renewable?
 Has it been produced in a factory far away (transportation costs!); does it require special machines
and equipment, or can it be produced at lower cost on the building site? (Good quality and
durability are often more important than low procurement costs).
 Does its production and use require a high energy input, and cause wastage and pollution? Is
there an acceptable alternative material which eliminates these problems?
 Is the material and construction technique climatically acceptable?
 Does the material and construction technique provide sufficient safety against common natural
hazards (eg fire, biological agents, heavy rain, hurricanes, and earth quakes)?
 Can the material and technology be used and understood by the local workers, or are special skills
and experience required?
 Are repairs and replacements possible with local means?
 Is the material socially acceptable? Is it considered low standard, or does it offend religious
belief? Does it match with the materials and constructions of nearby buildings?

Appropriate building materials and technologies are generally considered to be simple enough to
be handled by people without special skills or training. The poor results - and even failures - have
led to a great deal of criticism and to the general belief that appropriate technologies are "inferior
technologies". It is, therefore, important to stress that a material that has failed or performed
poorly, was evidently not appropriate for that particular application, or it had been produced and
used incorrectly.
Building materials which are produced with appropriate technologies, therefore, have to be
prepared and used with the same skill and care as a high technology product.

3.4 Some common examples of appropriate building material

1. Stabilized Mud Blocks
These are dense solid blocks compacted using a machine with a mixture of soil, sand, stabilizer
(cement/lime) and water. After 28 days curing, the stabilized mud blocks (SMB) are used for wall
construction.
Two block sizes (305 × 143 × 100 mm and 230 × 190 × 100 mm) have been standardized. These blocks are
2.5 to 2.8 times bigger in volume when compared with locally available conventional burnt clay bricks.
Compressive strength of the block greatly depends upon the soil composition, density of the block and
percentage of stabilizer (cement/lime). Sandy soil with 7% cement can yield blocks having wet
compressive strength of 3–4 MPa. High strength for the block can be obtained by increasing the quantity
of stabilizer.
 Major advantages of SMB are:
 (a) energy efficient, do not require burning, 70% energy saving when compared to burnt bricks,
(b) economical, 20–40% savings in cost when compared to brick masonry,
(c) Coats of plastering can be eliminated, and
(d) Better block finish and aesthetically pleasing appearance.

2. BAGASSE – CEMENT BUILDING BOARDS

Numerous composites (Medium Density Reconstituted Boards) have already been developed using different
natural and synthetic and man-made fibers in polymer matrix. Most of the boards are being used for
replacing wood and other conventional reconstituted wood products. Some of these fibers have also been
used for making high density fiber-board using cement (inorganic) as binder.
The development is aimed to develop building boards and door shutter using Bagasse fiber. Building board
is suitable for partitioning, paneling etc.
 The developed product and process are prototype and laboratory level respectively. The physical-mechanical
behavior of the developed building board (prototype) passes most of the requirements of general purposes
high density board and is cost effective too.

3. ARHAR STALK – CEMENT BOARD

Composites have great potential in replacing wood in building industry, but their development is associated
with problems related to their processing, production and performance. The work carried out is intended to
explore the possibilities of using fibrous biomass such as Arhar Stalks, Groundnut Shells etc. for the
production of composite materials.
Composite panels developed using Arhar Stalks meet the requirements of ISO, BS, and BIS specifications.

The output of this article will help utilize fibrous biomass and preserve environment due to conservation of
wood in building and construction industry.

4. COIR – CNSL BOARD

The Coir-CNSL Board is a wood alternative which can be used for surfacing, door and window shutters,
partitioning, false ceiling, paneling, furniture, cabinets, packaging etc. It is a single layer flat pressed class
Medium Density Fiber (MDF) Board.
It has low water absorption, negligible change in dimensions due to water absorption, workable with normal
wood working tools, paintable, pre-laminable, nail able and screw able, passes IS-3087. The board is eco-
friendly and can replace wood or re-constituted wood by 100%.

Salient features of Coir-CNSL Board are as under;

i) Both the starting materials i.e. coconut fiber and cashew nut shell liquid are available
substantially in coastal areas and are renewable agro-wastes.
ii) Technology is developed at pilot level and ready for transfer.
iii) The technology and product both are patented.
iv) The Technology is techno-economically viable as per pre-estimates.
5. LIGHTWEIGHT SANDWICH PANELS
The cellulosic refuse of paper industries are rich in small fibers and can be used to make value added
product, which can be used for acoustics, thermal insulation and false ceiling purposes in buildings. The
laboratory scale developed technology yielded a light-weight sandwich panel which is very much suitable
for above mentioned purposes.
These developed panels have their end applications in partitioning, paneling, thermal insulation and false
ceiling with its unique aesthetics. The technology as well as product has been patented. The estimated
economic viable capacity is 2 tons per day and most suitable for paper industries as a downstream process.

6. FINE CONCRETE BLOCKS

The concept and process is similar to the one employed for SMB production except that instead of soil, some
fines are added to the mix. Fines like fly ash, polished stone waste, etc. are mixed with either sand or stone
quarry dust, along with cement and water. The mixture is then compacted into blocks using a machine
(manual or mechanized) and then cured for 28 days. Fines (like fly ash, polished stone waste, etc.) in
the range of 20–25% by weight of sand can result in a good grading for the mixture and with 6–7%
 cement good quality block with wet strength > 3 MPa can be achieved. In addition to fines, about 10%
red loamy soil addition can result in good natural mud color for the block. The major advantage of fine
concrete block is the utilization of waste products like fly ash, polished stone waste, mine wastes, etc.
which otherwise cause pollution and environmental degradation.
7. STEAM CURED BLOCKS
A mixture of lime, industrial waste products like fly ash or expansive soils like black cotton soil and sand
can be compacted into a high-density block. Lime reacts with fly ash/clay minerals forming water
insoluble bonds imparting strength to the block. These reactions are slow at ambient temperatures (~ 30°C)
and hence steam curing for about 10 h at 80°C can accelerate these reactions leading to high strength for
the block.
The process involves:
(a) Mixing of raw materials like lime, cement, fly ash or black cotton soil, sand and water in a mixer,
(b) Converting the mixture into a dense block using soil block press,
(c) Stacking the blocks in a steam chamber and steam curing for 10–12 h.
 Blocks of any convenient size can be manufactured. Compressive strength of the block depends upon the
composition of the mix, density of the block and percentage of stabilizer (cement/lime). A combination like
25% fly ash, 6% lime and 2% cement can yield blocks having wet compressive strength of > 6 MPa. This
kind of strength will be sufficient to construct 3–4 story load-bearing buildings with spans in the range of
3–4 m. Blocks of higher strength can be easily achieved by adjusting the mix proportions.
 It should be noted here that the block quality is much superior when compared to local burnt bricks and
SMB. Advantages of using these blocks are:

(i) Ideal process for a small-scale or cottage industry,

(ii) utilization of industrial waste products like fly ash and problematic soils like black cotton soil
and high clay soils,
(iii) energy efficient and environment friendly, and
(iv) Higher strength for the blocks.
Causes of Poor Acceptability of Alternative Building Materials
 Lack of knowledge about new materials.
 Non-inclusion in various National codes and specifications.
 In-appropriate environment for research and development.
 Non-availability of proper forum for promoting new materials.
 Ineffective and improper publicity.
 Unawareness among users.
 Poor competition among new material manufacturers.
 Higher price structure of new materials.
 Lower emphasis on research on eco-friendly materials.
 Negative attitude of engineers/ architects towards non-scheduled items.
 Lower confidence on quality.
 Negligible technological thrust for wider acceptance and adoption.
Alternative eco-friendly building materials and technologies at various levels will not only reduce the cost of
construction but will also ensure no depreciation of world’s natural wealth. Now there is a need to put in
organized efforts in the direction of using eco-friendly materials by replacing traditional materials. It is
desired a positive role to be played by various government agencies, leading engineers and technologists,
major users and entrepreneurs to bring sustainable development process in construction industry.