Chapter Six Compressors: Air Compressor

Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.
Chapter Six
COMPRESSORS
AIR COMPRESSOR
Air Compressor is a machine which is used to compress the air from low pressure to high
pressure thus it increases the pressure of air by reducing its volume. During compression of
air, it receives energy from the compressor. This energy is then transmitted through a pipe
or hose to the operating equipment, where a portion of the energy is converted into
mechanical work. However, during the operations of compressing, transmitting, and using
air always results in a loss of energy that will give an overall efficiency less than 100%,
sometimes considerably less.
Air is a gas, and it obeys the fundamental laws that apply to gases and therefore it is used in
the compressors, being freely available from the atmosphere.
COMPONENTS OF THE COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM
A compressed air system consists of the compressor, prim mover, suction line, and air filter,
intercooler, safety valves, after cooler, receiver and distribution system.
Intercoolers are installed between the stage of a compressor to reduce the temperature
of the air and to remove moisture from the air. The reduction in temperature prior to
additional compression can reduce the total power required by as much as 15%. Unless an
intercooler is installed, the power required by a two‐stage compressor will be the same as
for a single‐stage compressor.
An intercooler requires a continuous supply of circulating cool water to remove the heat
from the air. It requires 3.8 to 5.7 liters of water per minute for each 2.832 cum of air
compressed; however, the actual amount depends on the temperature of water.
After coolers are sometimes installed at the discharge side of a compressor to cool the air
to the desired temperature and to remove moisture from the compressed air. It is highly
desirable to remove excess moisture from the air, as it tends to freeze during expansion in
tools, and it washes the lubricating oil out of tools, thereby reducing the lubricating
efficiency.
Receiver An air receiver should be installed on the discharge side of a compressor to
equalize the compressor pulsations and to serve as a condensing chamber for the removal
of water and oil vapors. A receiver should have a drain cock at its bottom to permit the
removal of the condensate. Its volume should be one‐tenth to one‐sixth of the capacity of
the condenser. A blow off value to limit the maximum pressure is desirable.
A large vessel is required when regulation involves stopping and starting the drive motor
and compressor, otherwise when the demand varies slightly, too much starting and
stopping results, causing high wear and tear on the moving parts. The approximate size of
the vessel required can be determined from the following formula.
Continuous running (e.g. open valve or speed regulator) Q ≈ 0.1V
Stop‐start regulation Q ≈ 0.16V
Where Q is in m3 and v is in m3/min, and represents the free air capacity of the
compressor.
Intake pipe and Air filter are installed on the air intake side of a compressor and should
be located in a neat atmosphere. Most atmospheric conditions on construction projects are
dusty and suitable filtering devices for the air sucked into the compressor are necessary as
otherwise the dust particles and other abrasive contents in the air shall damage the moving
Department of Civil Engineering Page 1 of 8 April, 2009

parts of the compression system in short duration. There are various types of filters such as
dry and wet filter which can be used as per requirement.
The compressed air from the receiver to the tools or equipments on the
construction site is transported through a pipe or hose known as Air Discharge pipe. A well
designed compressed air distribution system is installed, the object of which is to provide a
sufficient volume of air to the work site at pressures adequate for efficient tool operation.
Any drop in pressure between compressor and the point of use is an irretrievable loss;
therefore, the distribution system is an important element in the total air supply scheme.
These are general rules for designing a compressed air distribution system;
Air distribution pipe size should be large enough so that the pressure drop between the
compressor and the point of use does not exceed 10 % of the initial pressure.
Each header or main line should be provided with outlets as close as possible to the point of
use. This permits shorter hose lengths and avoids large pressure drops through the hose
Condensate drains should be located at appropriate low points along the header or main
hose.
PRINCIPLES OF WORKING OF A COMPRESSOR
Compressor is the primary machine used for pressurizing air. As air is a gas, it obeys the
fundamental laws that apply to gases, when air is compressed; it receives energy from the
compressor, which is transmitted through a pipe or hose to the operating equipment, where
a portion of this energy is converted into mechanical work.
There are following two types of compressions which are observed by the gases:
1. Isothermal Compression –when a gas undergoes a change in volume without any
change in temperature, this is referred to as isothermal expansion or compression:
2. Adiabatic Compression‐ when a gas undergoes a change in volume without gaining or
loosing heat, this is referred to as adiabatic expansion or compression.
Accordingly, the Boyle’s law states that when a gas is subjected to a change in volume due
to a change in pressure, at a constant temperature, the pressure of a gas varies inversely
with its volume which can mathematically be expressed as follows‐
P1 V1 = P 2V2 =K ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ (1)
Where P1 =initial absolute Pressure
V2 = initial volume
P2 = Final absolute pressure
V2 = Final volume
K = a constant
Further, Charles’ law states that the volume of a given weight of gas at constant pressure
varies in direct proportion to its absolute temperature, and it may be expressed
mathematically by
V1 / T1 = V2 / T2 = C ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ (2)
Where V1 = initial volume
T1 = initial absolute temperature
V2 = Final volume
T2 = Final absolute temperature
C = a constant
When Boyle and Charles laws are combined, we get,
P1 V1 / T1 = P2 V2 / T2 =a constant ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ (3)
Equation (3) gives a relation between pressure, volume and temperature for any given gas
such as air. One should remember that
Absolute pressure = gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure (N/mm2) and,
Absolute temperature = 237.80 C+ temperature 0C.

Energy Required to Compress Air
Equation (1) can be expressed as PV=K, when K is a constant so long as the temperature
remains constant. However, in actual practice, the temperature usually does not remain
constant, and the equation may be modified for the effect of change in temperature as
P1 V1n = P2 V2n = K ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ (4)
For air, the value of n = 1 for isothermal compression and n= 1.4 for a diabetic
compression.
When the pressure of a given volume of air is increased by an air compressor, it is
necessary to furnish energy to the air. Consider a single compression cycle for an air
compressor, as indicated in the figure. Air is drawn into the cylinder at pressure P1 and is
discharged at pressure P2. P1 does not need to be atmospheric pressure. The initial volume
is V1.As the piston compresses the air; the pressure volume will follow the curve CD.
At D, when the pressure is P2, the discharge valve will open and the pressure will remain
constant, while the volume decreases to V2 as indicated by line DE. Point E represents the
end of the piston stroke. At point E, the discharge valve will close, and as the piston begins
its return stroke, the pressure will decrease along line EB to a value of P1, when the intake
valve will open and allow additional air to enter the cylinder. This will establish line BC.
The work done along the line CD may be obtained by integrating the equation dw = V dp
Equation 4 can be rearranged so that Vn = K / P, if both sides of the equation are raised to
1
⎛
1 /n power, the equation will become asV =⎜ ⎟
K ⎞ n

⎝P⎠ 1
Substituting this value of V, work done dW = ⎧ K ⎫ n dp
⎨ ⎬
⎩P⎭
dp
w= K ∫ 1
Integrating this equation gives pn ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ (5)

For isothermal compression, n= 1, and substituting this value in equation 5, gives
2
dp
K∫
W = 1
p or
W = ‐k loge P2/ P1 + C
When p2 = p1, no work is done, the constant of integration C = 0. The minus sign may be
disregarded. Thus, for isothermal compression of air, the equation may be written as
W = k loge P2 / P1 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ (6)
If P1= 1.01 bar ( 0.101 N / mm2 )i.e. atmospheric pressure at sea level, and V1 is in m3 per
minute, the power required to compress V1 volume of air from atmospheric pressure to P2
is
Power = 106 * 0.101(N /mm2)* (V1) (m3 / minute) loge P2 / 0.101 N.m per minute
Thus, Power= 103 * 0.101 * V1/ 60. Loge P2 / 0.101 kW ;( 1 kW= 1000 Nm per second)
Where V1 is in m3 per minute
Example – Determine theoretical power value to compress under isothermal conditions 2.8
m3 of free air per minute from atmospheric pressure (0.101 N/mm2) to (0.7 N/mm2)
indicated on the gauge (i.e. 8.01 bars absolute)

Solution
Theoretical power = 103 x 0.101 x 2.8 / 60. loge 0.801/ 0.101. = 9.76kW Ans.

Note‐ Air at atmospheric pressure is usually referred to as “free air “. In practice the
conditions will not be entirely isothermal and, for example, the power requirement would
theoretically increase to about 13 kW if adiabatic conditions were assumed, (n=1.4)

TYPES OF COMPRESSORS
Compressors which are used on construction projects are classified into following two
categories:
a. Stationary Compressors
b. Portable Compressors
Stationary Compressors
Stationary Compressors are generally used for installations where there will be a
requirement for compressed air over a long duration of time at fixed locations. The
compressors may be reciprocating or rotary types and single stage or multi‐stage, one or
more compressors may supply the total quantity of air. The installed cost of a single
compressor will usually be less than for several compressors having the same capacity.
However, several compressors provide better flexibility for varying load demands and in
the event of a shutdown for repairs the entire plant does not need to be stopped.
Steam, electrical motors or internal combustion engine can drive stationary compressors.
Portable Compressors
Portable compressors are more commonly used on construction sites where it is necessary
to meet frequently changing job demands, typically at a number of locations on the job site.
The compressors may be mounted on rubber tires, steel wheels or skids. They are usually
powered by gasoline or diesel engines and most of those used on construction work, are of
the rotary‐screw type.
On the basis of functioning, compressors may be classified as
(i) Reciprocating Compressors
(ii) Rotary –screw Compressors
Reciprocating Compressors
A reciprocating compressor depends on a piston that moves back and forth in a cylinder, for
the compressing action. The piston may compress air while moving in one or both
directions. For the former, it is defined as single acting; while for the latter it is defined as
double acting. A compressor may have one or more cylinders. These may be in single or
multi‐stage compressors. In single stage compressors pressures the air up to 1.03N/mm2
and capacity up to 5.7 cum /minute are commonly available, while pressure up to 34.50
N/mm2 has been attained in four‐stage compressors. In construction industry reciprocating
compressors of two‐stage type giving up to 3.45N/ mm 2 generally employed.
Rotaryscrew Compressors
These compressors offer several advantages compared with reciprocating compressors,
such as compactness, lightweight, uniform flow, variable output, maintenance free
operation and long life. The working parts of a screw compressor are two helical rotors. The
male rotor has four lobes and rotates 50% faster than the female rotor, which has six flutes
with which the male motor meshes. As the air enters and flows through the compressor, it is
compressed in the space between the lobs and the flutes, the inlet and outlet parts are
automatically covered and uncovered by the shaped ends of the rotors as they turn. There
are also mono‐screw compressors that operate in a similar manner.
Rotary –screw compressors are available in a relatively wide range of capacities, with
single‐stage or multistage compression and with rotors that operate under oil‐lubricated
conditions or with no oil, the latter to produce oil‐free air.
Rotary –screw compressors offer several advantages when compared with other types of
compressors, including but not limited to ‐

1. Quiet operation, with little or no loss in output, to satisfy a wide range of legal
requirements limiting permissible noise.
2. Few moving parts, with minimum mechanical wear and few maintenance requirements.
3. Automatic controls actuated by the output pressure that regulates the speed of the
driving unit and the compressor to limit the output to only the demand required.
4. Little or no pulsation in the flow of air, and hence reduced vibrations.

COMPRESSOR CAPACITY
Air compressors are rated by the piston displacement in cubic meters per minute. However,
the capacity of a compressor is less than the piston displacement because of valve and
piston leakage and the air left in the end –clearance spaces of the cylinders.
The capacity of a compressor may therefore be defined as the actual volume of free air
drawn in to a compressor in a minute under standard conditions (absolute pressures of
1.01 bar or 0.101N/mm2, 150C). It is expressed in cum pre minute. The volumetric
efficiency of a compressor generally varies from 80 to 90 percent.

Example – calculate the efficiency of an 8.92 cubic meter /minute capacity two‐stage
portable compressor with the following information
Number of low – pressure cylinders = 4
Number of high pressure cylinders = 2
Diameter of low – pressure cylinders = 178 mm
Diameter of high – pressure cylinders=146mm
Length of stroke =127 mm
Revolutions = 870rpm.
Solution Considering only the piston displacement of the low‐ pressure cylinders as they
determine the capacity of the unit.
π (0.178) 2
= 0.025m 2
Area of cylindered = 4
Displacement per cylinder per stroke = area x stroke
= 0.025 x 0.127
= 0.00318 m3
Displacement per minute, 4cylinders = No: of cylinders x rpm
X volume of one cylinder
= 4 x 870 x 0.00318
= 11.0664 m3 /minute
Volumetric efficiency = 8.92 / 11.0664 =80.60% ≈ 81% (say)
EFFECT OF ALTITUDE
When a compressor works on the sites situated on high altitudes, its working may be
affected in the following two ways:
(i) Capacity of compressor
(ii) Power of compressor
(i) Effect of Altitude on Compressor capacity
The capacity of an air compressor is rated on the basis of its performance at sea level, where
the normal absolute barometric pressure is about 0.101 N/mm2 (101 kpa ≈
100kpa). If a compressor is operated at a higher altitude, such as 1525 m above sea level,
the absolute barometric pressure will be about 0.084 N/mm2 (84kpa). Thus at the higher
altitude, air density is less and the weight of air in a cubic meter of free volume is less than
at sea level. If the air is discharged by the compressor at a given pressure, the compression

ratio will be increased, and the capacity of the compressor will be reduced. This can be
demonstrated by applying equation
P1 V1 = P2 V2 = K
Consider the 2.832 cum of free air at sea level is compressed to 0.687N/mm2 gauge
pressure with no change in temperature
Applying above equation,
V2 = P1 V1 / P2 Where
V1 = 2.832 m3
P1 = 0.101 N/mm2 (absolute pressure)
P2 = (0.687 + 0.101) = 0.787 N/mm2
Thus, V2 = 0.101 * 2.832 / 0.787
= 0.363 m3 that is the volume of compressed air at pressure P2 = 0.787N/mm2
Let. The altitude = 1525m, where,
V1 = 2.832m3 (same volume as above at sea level
P1 = 0.084 N/mm2 absolute pressure (equivalent to the pressure 0.101N/mm2 at sea
level)
P2 = 0.771 N/mm2 absolute (equivalent to the pressure = 0.787 N/mm2 at sea level)
Thus V2 = (0.084 N / mm2 (2.832 m3) / 0.771 mm2 = 0.3085 m3
Thus, the volume is reduced from o.363 m3 to 0.3085m3 of compressed air when the
altitude is changed from sea level to an altitude of 1525m
Following table shows the percentage of volumetric efficiency for various types of
compressors at different altitudes.
The table is developed based on the compressor delivering the air at 0.687 N/mm2 gauge
pressure (7 bars)

Table ‐ Efficiency of air compressor at altitudes based on a 0.687N/mm2 gauge
Altitude above sea Single‐ stage Two‐ stage Rotary compressor
level ( m ) reciprocating reciprocating
compressor compressor
(percent efficiency) ( percent efficiency) ( percent efficiency)
600 98.7 99.4 100.0
1500 92.5 98.5 100.0
2100 ‐‐ ‐‐ 100.0
2400 87.3 97.6 99.9
3000 84.0 97.0 ‐‐
3600 ‐‐ ‐‐ 98.6

(ii) Effect of Altitude on the power required to compress Air
When a compressor compresses a given volume of air, which is measured as free air prior to
its entering a compressor at sea level, it has to work at average pressure of 0.101N/mm2 .If
the same volume of free air is compressed at the same gauge pressure at a higher altitude,
the volume of the air after being compressed will be less than the volume compressed at sea
level. The reason for this difference is that the density of a cubic metric of free air at higher
altitudes is less than at sea level, Thus while a compressor compresses air to the same
discharge pressure at a higher altitude, the volume of air supplied in a given time interval
will be less at the higher altitude.
As a compressor of a specified capacity actually supplies a smaller volume of air at a given
discharge pressure at a higher altitude, it requires less power to operate a compressor at a
higher altitude. This is illustrated in the following table.


Table ‐ Theoretical power (kW) required to compress 2.8m3 of free air per minute at
different altitude
Altitude( m) Isothermal compression
Single and two‐ stage, gauge pressure
0.412 (N/mm2 ) 0.859 ( N/ mm2 )
0 7.76 10.73
300 7.60 10.51
600 7.46 10.29
900 7.31 10.07
1200 7.16 9.84
1500 7.00 9.54
1800 7.86 9.32
2100 6.71 9.10
2400 6.64 8.87
2700 5.97 8.65
3000 5.34 8.50

Compressor Rating
Compressors are rated in terms of the volume of free air per minute taken in for
compressing. They are available as portable, towed or permanent units with capacities
ranging from 1m3/min to more than 100m3/minute .It can be seen from the following
equation that an increase in the output pressure requires additional power to compress a
given quantity of free air.
Power = 103 x 0.101 x V1 / 60. loge P2 / 0.101 Kwh
Thus the free air rating is usually stated at a particular delivery pressure, e.g. 7 bar (gauge).
Two stage compression through are intercooler is commonly used to produce air at 7 bar
gauge pressure to minimize the adiabatic effects. Generally construction equipment works
at 7 bar gauge pressure. Following table gives the air consumption come of the construction
equipment at 7 bar gauge pressure.

Table – Typical Air consumption by construction Equipment
Free air consumed ( m3 / min ) delivered at
7 bar gauge pressure
Heavy concrete breaker 2.5 m3 / min
Medium concrete breaker 1.5 m3 / min
Light concrete breaker 1.0 m3 / min
Clay digger ( spade type ) 0.9‐ 1.25 m3 / min
Picks 1‐ 1.2 m3 / min
Hand held sinker drills 2‐ 4 m3 / min
Feeding drills 4‐6 m3 / min
Rig mounted rotary and rotary percussion 5‐10 m3 / min
drills , upto5 m3 / min
drill hole flushing
Vibrators 1‐2 m3 / min
Small tools 0.5‐1 m3 / min
Hoist and winches Up to 10 m3 / min
Pumps 2‐5 m3 / min
Pile hammers 1‐1.50 m3 / min

Note – higher working pressure may be necessary when operated in compressed air
chambers, e.g., tunneling
Compressed –Air Lines
Pressure losses are incurred in transferring the compressed air to the tools, and they
depend upon –
1. Length of pipe‐ increasing pipe length increases the friction losses
2. Air pressure at point of entry
3. Pipe diameter – the larger the diameter, the smaller the friction loss
4. Rate of flow of air‐ greater flow increases the friction loss
5. Bends, fittings, valves, etc.
If the sum of these frictional resistances were to exceed the initial pressure, then there
would be no air flow at all. Construction equipment is usually designed to operate at about 7
bars (0.707N/mm2) above atmospheric pressure. The efficiency of such equipment falls
much rapidly as the pressure decreases, and therefore the air delivery pipe is usually
designed to limit the pressure drop to within 10% of the supply pressure. One such formula
for estimating the drop in pressure for a particular length of pipe line is given by
fLV 1.85
dp = 5
d p
Where dp = the pressure drop in bar
f = Coefficient (82x103 for steel pipes)
L = pipe length (m)
d= inside pipe diameter (mm)
P = initial absolute pressure in bars
V= volume rate of flow (m3 /min) of free air

Other Losses which occur in the delivery pipe or hose pipe due to accessories fitted in the
line such as
a. Stop valve is equivalent to about 16m of pipe length,
b. One 900 bend is equivalent to about 5m of pipe length,
c. One 300 bend is equivalent to about 3m of pipe length, and so on…………
Such lengths should be added in the given pipe length while determining the losses in
pressure by the equation given above.

USES OF COMPRESSORS ON CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
Compressed air is a powerful medium of energy, which is utilized in various construction
activities on construction projects, some of them are listed below:
1. Compressors are used in drilling, cleaning and commissioning the wells. These are also
used in pumping the water.
2. Used in guiniting and shotcrete in tunnels and concrete dames.
3. Used in breaking equipment.
4. Used in hand tools,
5. Used in paving breakers, Jack hammers, wagon drills, and drifters.
6. Used in sand blasting, fitting, and running hoists,
7. Used in grout pumps, sump pumps, and pile diverse
8. Used in caulking and riveting hammers, air winches, grinders, spray painting equipment,
pneumatic control, cement guns.
9. Use in under ground excavations, and in mining

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Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.

Department of Civil Engineering Page 1 of 8 April, 2009

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