Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.

Chapter Four
EARTH EXCAVATING AND CONVEYING EQUIPMENT

Introduction
Earth moving equipment falls roughly into only two categories: fixed-position and moving machines. The
size of project, the topography, volume of earth to be removed and many other detailed factors influence
the choice of type. In general, the moving machine is used for ground leveling and bulk earthmoving
whilst the static-type machine is usually operated on specific tasks.
Stationary machines include face shovels, backhoes, draglines and grabs. The excavator loosens the
soil and loads without changing position, resulting is some loss of mobility when compared with scrapers
and bucket loaders, but in compensation considerably more force can be applied at the excavation face.
Moving machines include bulldozers, loaders, scrapers, graders and trenching machines. The excavated
material is removed and transported and deposited in a cycle, which is particularly useful feature when
large volumes of earth need to be moved over rough terrain.

Fixed Position Excavating Equipments

Fixed-position machines are divided into rope operated and hydraulically operated categories. The basic
structural assembly of each is similar and both have a base frame and tracks or wheels supporting the
digging arm and superstructure; see the figure below. Although both types are usually powered by a
diesel engine, the mechanical parts and operating mechanisms of each are different.

Fig. 1 Crane-shovel mounting and revolving superstructure

A fixed-position rope operated excavator may be converted from a basic machine to operate as any
one of the following types: face shovel, back actor (backhoe), grab, and dragline. Conversion to a crane,
crane and fly-jib, pile driver with leaders, pile-boring machine, earth compactor, demolition tool, or rock
breaker is normally a standard option.

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Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.

Fig. 2 Crawler-mounted dragline

Fig. 3 Basic part of dragline

Fig. 4 Dragline bucket

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Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.

In contrast, the hydraulically operated machines are generally manufactured for a specific application,
e.g. backhoe and are not convertible into other forms. Because of their lower maintenance costs and
improved performance, increasingly hydraulics is replacing ropes and gears.

Fig. 5 Components of a hydraulic excavator-backhoe

Power Shovel
Power shovels are used primarily to excavate earth and load it into trucks or tractor pulled wagons or onto
conveyor belts. They are capable of excavating all classes of earth, except solid rock, without prior
loosening.

Front shovel
The excavator operates best from a flat prepared surface to work above the tracks against an excavation
face. It serves only to loosen and load material and is mostly used in quarrying and road cuttings. Some
leverage against the wall is possible, particularly with hydraulically controlled machines, enabling some
faces to be tackled directly without the need for the soil to be loosened first.

Fig. 6 Cable operated crawler-mounted power shovel

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Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.

Fig. 7 Basic parts and operation of a cable-operated power shovel

Hydraulically Operated Front Shovel

Unlike the rope operated machine, the bucket is not rigidly attached to the arm, but connected to it by
means of a knuckle joint and positioned with hydraulic arms. Thus the bucket is pressed into the soil with
a regulated force and consequently considerably more control over the shape of the excavation face is
possible than with ropes.
The hydraulic machine may adopt many movements; it can work like a rope machine or claw its way up
the face by pressing and relieving. The teeth act like rippers causing the loosened material to fall into the
bucket. Alternatively, the full power of the machine may be applied to force out rocks and boulders. The
action may also be applied to strip the face in layers or even perform the tasks of the loading shovel.

Fig. 8 Components of a hydraulic power shovel

Fig. 9 digging action of hydraulic shovel

Selecting the Type and Size of Power Shovel

In selecting the type of shovel one should consider the probable concentration of work to be performed. If
there will be numerous small jobs in different locations, the mobility of the rubber-tired-mounted shovel
will be a distinct advantage. If the work will be concentrated in large jobs, mobility will be of less
importance and the crawler-mounted shovel will be more desirable.
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Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.

The two primary factors which should be considered are the cost per volume of material excavated and
the job conditions under which the shovel will operate.

In estimating the cost per volume the following factors should be considered:
(i) The size of the job, as a larger job may justify the higher cost of a large shovel.
(ii) The cost of transporting a large shovel will be higher than for small one.
(iii) The depreciation rate for a large shovel may be higher than for a small one, especially if it is to be
sold at the end of a job, owing to the probable greater difficulty of selling a large shovel.
(iv) The cost of downtime for repairs for a large shovel may be considerably greater than for a small
one, owing to increased delays in obtaining parts for a large shovel, especially if the parts must be
manufactured to order.
(v) The combined cost of drilling, blasting, and excavating rock for a large shovel may be less than for a
small shovel, as a large machine will handle bigger rocks than a small one. This may permit a
saving in the cost of drilling and blasting.
(vi) The cost of wages per volume will be less for a large shovel than for a small one.

The following job conditions should be considered in selecting the size of a shovel:
(i) High lifts to deposit earth from a basement or trench into trucks at natural ground level will require
the long reach of a large shovel.
(ii) If blasted rock is to be excavated, the large-size dipper will handle bigger rocks
(iii) If the material to be excavated is hard and tough, the dipper of the large shovel, which exerts higher
digging pressures, will handle the material more easily.
(iv) If the time allotted for the completion of a project requires a high hourly output, a large shovel must
be used.
(v) The size of available hauling units should be considered in selecting the size of a shovel. If small
hauling units must be used, the size of the shovel should be small, whereas if large hauling units
are available, a large shovel should be used.
(vi) The weight limitations imposed by most states for hauling on highways may restrict the size of a
shovel if it is to be hauled over state highways. Also, the clearance of bridges and underpasses may
restrict the size.

The Output of Power Shovels

The actual output of a power shovel is affected by numerous factors, including the following:
(i) Class of material
(ii) Depth of cut
(iii) Angle of swing
(iv) Job conditions
(v) Management conditions
(vi) Size of hauling units
(vii) Skill of the operator
(viii) Physical condition of the shovel

Production (Output) of Power Shovels

Method 1- The production of the cable shovel is determined from the generated data as given in table1
and 2. In this method, the output of a shovel is expressed in bank-measure volume per hour. The
capacity of a dipper (bucket) is based on its struck volume. In excavating some classes of materials, it is
possible for a dipper to pick up a heaping volume which may exceed the struck volume
.

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Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.

Table 1 Ideal output of cable-operated power shovels in cubic meters per hour, bank measure
Class of material Size of shovel, cu m.
0.29 0.38 0.57 0.76 0.95 1.14 1.33 1.53 1.91
Moist loam, or light 1.1* 1.4* 1.6* 1.8* 2.0* 2.1* 2.2* 2.4* 2.6*
sandy clay 65# 88# 126# 157# 190# 218# 244# 272# 309#
Sand and gravel 1.1 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.4 2.6
61 84 118 153 176 206 229 252 298
Good common earth 1.4 1.7 2.1 2.4 2.6 2.8 2.9 3.1 3.4
54 73 103 134 160 183 206 229 268
Hard, tough clay 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.5 3.7 4.0
38 57 84 111 137 156 180 202 236
Wet, sticky clay 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.5 3.7 4.0
19 30 53 72 91 110 125 141 175
Well-blasted rock 30 46 72 95 118 137 156 175 210
Poorly-blasted rock 11 19 38 57 73 88 107 122 149

* These values are the depths of cut in meters.

#
These values are the ideal outputs in cubic meters.

(i). The effect of the depth of cut on the output of a shovel is illustrated in table 2, below. In
The table the percent of optimum depth of cut is obtained by dividing the actual depth of cut by the
optimum depth for the given material and dipper, then multiplying the result by 100.

Actual depth of cut

. i.e. Percent optimum depth = x 100
optimum depth of cut

Table 2 Conversion factors for depth of cut and angle of swing for a power shovel
Percent of Angle of swing, deg
optimum depth
45 60 75 90 120 150 180
40 0.93 0.89 0.85 0.80 0.72 0.65 0.59
60 1.10 1.03 0.96 0.91 0.81 0.73 0.66
80 1.22 1.12 1.04 0.98 0.86 0.77 0.69
100 1.26 1.16 1.07 1.00 0.88 0.79 0.71
120 1.20 1.11 1.03 0.97 0.86 0.77 0.70
140 1.12 1.04 0.97 0.91 0.81 0.73 0.66
160 1.03 0.96 0.90 0.85 0.75 0.67 0.62

(ii) The angle of swing of a power shovel is the horizontal angle, expressed in degrees, between the
position of the dipper when it is excavating and the position when it is discharging the load. The total time
in a cycle includes digging, swinging to the dumping position, dumping, and returning to the digging
position. If the angle of swing is increased, the time for a cycle will be increased, while if the angle swing
is decreased, the time for a cycle will be decreased. Table 2 illustrates the effect of the angle of swing on
the output of a shovel.
The output of a shovel operating at 900 swing and optimum depth, which is obtained from table 1
should be multiplied by the proper conversion factor from table 2 in order to obtain the probable output for
any given depth and angle of swing. The information given in the above tables is based on extensive field
studies which might not exactly fit to the particular conditions on a project.
(iii) There are certain conditions at every job over which the owner of the shovel has no control. These
conditions must be considered in estimating the probable output of a shovel. Job conditions may be
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classified as excellent, good, fair, and poor. There is no uniform standard which may be used as a guide
in classifying a job. Each job planner must use his own judgment and experience in deciding which
condition best represents his job. Table 3 shows the effect of job conditions on the output of a power
shovel.

Table 3 Factors for job and management conditions

Management conditions
Job conditions
Excellent Good Fair Poor
Excellent 0.84 0.81 0.76 0.70
Good 0.78 0.75 0.71 0.65
Fair 0.72 0.69 0.65 0.60
Poor 0.63 0.61 0.57 0.52

(iv) While the owner may not be able to improve job conditions, he may take several steps to
improve management conditions, including the following:
1. Greasing and lubricating the shovel frequently.
2. Checking the shovel parts that are subject to the greatest wear, and replacing worn parts while
the shovel is not being operated, as at the end of a shift.
3. Replacing badly worn wire rope between shifts.
4. Replacing dull dipper teeth with sharp ones, as required.
5. Giving the shovel a major overhaul between jobs, if necessary.
6. Keeping at the job extra parts that are subject to the greatest wear.
7. Keeping the pit floor clean and smooth to permit better truck spotting and to reduce the angle of swing.
8. Providing adequate trucks of the correct size to eliminate lost time in loading and waiting for trucks.
9. Paying a bonus to the crew for production in excess of an agreed amount to encourage high
production.
10. Providing a competent supervisor to keep the job running smoothly.

Table 3, above, illustrates the effect of the management condition

Example: (Illustrating the effect of the various factors)
Consider a 0.76-cu-m power shovel for excavating hard clay with a depth of cut of 2.3 m. An analysis of
the project indicates an average angle of swing of 750, job conditions will be fair, and management will be
good. Determine the probable output in cubic meter per hour bank measure.

Solution:
The ideal output will be 111m3/hr and the optimum depth is 2.7m. (Table 1)
Percent of optimum depth is; (2.3 / 2.7) * 100 = 85.2
The depth-swing factor is; 1.05 (Table 2)
The job-management factor is; 0.69 (Table 3)
3
The probable output per hr; 111 * 1.05 * 0.69 = 80.4 m
For the 50-min hr the probable output will be (50/60) * 80.4 = 67 m3 in bank measure volume.

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Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.

Method 2
In this method the production of hydraulic shovel is calculated using the following equation,
Production (l..cum) = C. S. V. B. E
Where C = cycles / hr. (table 5)
S = swing factor (table 2)
V = heaped bucket volume (l.cum) (refer table 4 for bucket rated capacity)
B = bucket fill factor (table 6)
E =job efficiency or operating factor or time factor.

The volume of material actually contained in one bucket load is defined as follows:
1. Plate line capacity is the bucket volume contained within the bucket when following the outline of
the bucket sides.
2. Struck capacity is the bucket capacity when the load is struck off flush with the bucket sides.
3. Water line capacity assumes a level of material flush with the lowest edge of the bucket (i.e. the
material level corresponds to the water level that would result if the bucket were filled with water)
4. Heaped volume is the maximum volume that can be placed in the bucket without spillage based
on a specified angle of repose for the material in the bucket.

Table 4. Bucket-capacity rating methods

Machine Rated Bucket Capacity
Backhoe and shovel
Cable Struck volume
Hydraulic Heaped volume of 1:1 angle of repose
Clamshell Plate line or water line volume
Dragline 90% of struck volume
Loader Heaped volume of 2:1 angle of repose

Table 5 Standard cycles per hour for hydraulic shovels

Machine size
Small (under 3.8 cum) Medium ( 3.8- 7.6 cum) Large (over 7.6 cum)
Bottom Front Bottom Front Bottom Front
Material dump dump dump dump dump dump
Soft 190 170 180 160 150 135
(sand,gravel,coal)
Average 170 150 160 145 145 130
(common earth, soft
clay, well blasted
rock)
Hard 150 135 140 130 135 125
(Tough clay, poorly
blasted rock)

Table 6. Bucket fill factor for excavators

Material Bucket Fill Factor
Common earth, loam 0.80-1.10
Sand and gravel 0.90-1.00
Hard clay 0.65-0.95
Wet clay 0.50-0.90
Rock, well blasted 0.70-0.90
Rock, poorly blasted 0.40-0.70

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Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.

Example
Calculate the expected production in loose cubic meter (l.cum) per hour of a small hydraulic excavator.
Heaped bucket capacity is 0.57 cum. The material is sand and gravel with a bucket fill factor of 0.95. Job
efficiency is 50min.-hr. average depth of cut is 4.3 m. and maximum depth of cut is 6.1 m. Average swing
is 90o.

Solution
Cycle output = 180 cycles / hr (table 4)
% optimum depth = 4.3 / 6.1 * 100 = 70.49%
Swing- depth facto =0.945
Bucket volume =0.57 cum
Bucket fill factor =0.95
Job efficiency = 50/60 =0.833
Production = 180* 0.945*0.57*0.95* 0.833 l.cum
= 76.73 l.cum

Hoes
The term hoe applies to an excavating machine of the power-shovel group. It is referred to by
several names, such as hoe, backhoe, back shovel, and pull shovel.
Hoes are used primarily to excavate below the natural surface of the ground to which the machine rests.
They are adapted to excavating trenches, pits for basements, and general grading work, which requires
precise control of depths. Because of their rigidity they are superior to draglines in operating on close-
range work and damping into trucks. Because of the direct pull on the dipper, hoes may exert greater
tooth pressure than power shovels.
In some respects hoes are superior to wheel- or ladder-type trenching machines, especially in
digging utility trenches whose banks are permitted to establish natural slopes and for which trench
shoring will not be used.

Fig. 10 Components of a hydraulic excavator-back hoe

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Fig. 11 Crawler-mounted hydraulically operated hoe.

Fig. 12 Wheel-mounted hydraulically operated hoe.

Output of Hoes
When a hoe is used to dig at moderate depths, the output may approach the output of a power
shovel of comparable size digging in the same class of material. However, as the depth is increased, the
output of the hoe will decrease considerably. The most effective digging action occurs when the dipper
stick is at right angles to the boom. The greatest output will be obtained if digging is done near the
machine, because of the reduced cycle time, and because the material rolls back into the dipper better
when the dipper is pulled upward near the machine.
The output of a hydraulic hoe can be calculated in the similar manner as described in method 2
for hydraulic shovel. The standard cycles per hour for the hydraulic backhoe can be taken from table 7.

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Table7. Standard cycles per hour for hydraulic backhoe

Machine size
Small ( 0.76cum or Medium (0.94- Large (over 1.72cum)
Type of material less) 1.72cum)
Soft 250 200 150
(sand,gravel,coal)
Average 200 160 120
(common earth, soft
clay,)
Hard 160 130 100
(Tough clay, poor
rock)

DRAGLINES
The dragline is a very versatile machine that has the longest reach for digging and dumping of
any member of the crane-shovel family. It can dig from above machine level to significant depths in soft to
medium-hard material. The components of a dragline are shown in Fig 4.

Fig 4. Dragline and its components.

Bucket teeth and weight produce digging action as the drag cable pulls the bucket across the
general surface. Digging is also controlled by the position at which the drag chain is attached to the
bucket. The higher the point of attachment, the greater the angle at which the bucket enters the soil.
During hoisting and swinging, material is retained in the bucket by tension on the dump cable. When
tension on the drag cable is released, tension is removed from the dump cable, allowing the bucket to
dump. Buckets are available in a wide range of sizes and weights, solid and perforated. Also available are
archles buckets which eliminate the front cross-member connecting the bucket sides to provide flow of
material into and out of the bucket.

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While the dragline is a very versatile excavator, it does not have the positive digging action or
lateral control of the shovel. Hence the bucket may bounce or move sideways during hard digging. Also,
more spillage must be expected in loading than would occur with a shovel. While a skilled dragline
operator can overcome many of these limitations, the size of haul units used for dragline loading should
be greater than that of those used with a similar-size shovel. The minimum bucket size to be used on a
dragline depends on machine power, boom length, and material weight. Therefore, use the dragline
capacity chart provided by the machine manufacturer instead of the machine’s lifting capacity chart to
determine maximum allowing bucket size.

Output of Dragline
The data for ideal output and material are generated for diesel-powered, cable-operated dragline in the
similar manner as those developed for the shovels. These are presented in Table 8, 9 and 10. From
these data, ideal output can be taken for particular type of material and the bucket capacity. This data is
then multiplied by the swing-depth factor, job-management factor and operating factor to obtain the actual
output of the dragline. Hence’
Expected actual output = Ideal output * swing-depth factor * Job-management factor
* operating factor.
Table8. Ideal dragline output –short boom in B cy /hr (b cum / hr)

Table9. Optimum depth of cut for dragline in ft (meters)

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Table 10. Swing- depth factor for draglines

Example
Calculate the expected output of a dragline in loose cubic meter per hour based on the following
information.
Dragline bucket capacity = 1.53 cum
Average swing angle =120o
Average depth of cut = 2.4 m
Material to excavate =common earth
Job condition = good
Management = Fair
Operating time =50 min.-hr

Moving Excavating Equipments

Scraper
The scraper is a self loading, transporting and spreading machine predominantly used for general
leveling. It is used to cut on a downward gradient to take full advantage of gravity. For cutting the bowl is
lowered and the apron opened, forward movement of the machine directs the cutting edge into the soil
causing it to boil upward into the bowl. Approximately 50 – 100 m of travel is required to fill the bowl.
Excavation is carried out in layers of from 150 to 300 mm in depth; the leveling action is thus achieved as
a gradual process. During the discharging stage ejection takes place whilst the unit is moving: again the
height of the bowl is set to spread the material in a controlled layer and the soil is pushed out of the soil
with the aid of the ejector plate.
In general, towed scraper capacities range from about 8 up to 30 m3 heaped capacity, motorized scrapers
from 15 up to 50 m3 heaped capacity (heaping at a slope of 1:1).

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Motorized Scraper
Unlike the towed scraper the engine is self-contained within the machine and power thus supplied
directly to the wheels. The whole unit is supported on very large volume tires. Because of loss in traction
when using wheels rather than tracks motorized scraper frequently requires pushing assistance during
the loading phase. Haul speeds up to 60 km/h are possible with well-graded roads, yielding considerable
improvement in output. For example, with the 20 m3 heaped capacity scraper bowl output up to 150 m3/h
hauling over 1km is possible.

Fig. 13 wheel mounted and self-loading scraper

Push loading
The method is used mainly with the standard scraper. The bulldozer is fitted with a very robust
blade and mounted on to the dozer frame through shock absorbers to take up impact, while the scraper is
stiffened at the rear to form a push block. The pusher is used only during the loading phase and the
scraper moves off under its own power as soon as the bowl is fully loaded. Generally a pusher serves
from three to five scrapers working as a team, so although in practice high production is possible, the high
cost of the scraper and bulldozer team limits the use of the motorized system to fairly large projects.
Several push load systems are in use and are shown in figure below.

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Fig.1. Method of push loading scrapers

As a general rule:
Ts
N =
Tp
Where N = number of scrapers served
Ts = cycle time for scraper
Tp = cycle time for pusher tractor
Table 4 Representative pusher tractor cycle times
Method of loading Loading conditions Cycle time
*Favorable 1.7
Back track Average 2.5
Unfavorable 3.0
Favorable 1.2
Chain Average 1.6
Unfavorable 2.0
Favorable 1.2
Shuttle Average 1.6
Unfavorable 2.0

* Favorable loading conditions include loading in a large pit or cut, ripping hard rock prior to loading,
loading down grade, maintaining a smooth loading surface, and using a pusher tractor whose power is
matched with the size of the scraper. Unfavorable loading conditions are the opposite of those for
favorable conditions.

Production Data
Ideal output from motorized scraper is given below. In practice, production may vary considerably from
these recommendations and should be adjusted accordingly.

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Fig.2. Ideal output of motorized scraper

Example
A rubber-tired motorized scraper has a capacity of 16 / 23 m3 (struck / heaped). The machine is operated
on firm loam up a gradient of 6 % at an altitude of 900 m where the air temperature during the day is
300C. The rated power of engine is 335 kW. The gross laden weight of the unit is 720 KN, made up of 360
KN self-weight and 360 KN payloads. The total load is distributed with 50% on each axle. Determine:
(a) if the wheels will slip;
(b) If sufficient rim pull is available given the traveling speeds for the following gear ratios:
1st gear 5 km/h
nd
2 gear 12 km/h
rd
3 gear 18 km/h
top gear 40 km/h
Information
Approximate coefficients of traction are given in table 5. For wet materials the coefficients are difficult to
determine but cohesive materials are especially affected and the coefficient of traction could be reduced
by up to 50%.
Table 6 gives approximate values of percentage rolling resistance for rubber tires and also tracks
operating on different soil types

Table 5. Approximate coefficient of traction

Type of surface (dry) Rubber tires Tracks
Smooth concrete 0.8 – 1.0 0.3 – 0.6
Clay 0.5 – 0.8 0.6 – 0.9
Firm sand / gravel 0.3 – 0.8 0.7 – 0.9
Loose sand 0.1 – 0.2 0.3 – 0.5
Loose gravel 0.2 – 0.4 0.4 – 0.7
Packed snow 0.1 – 0.4 0.2 – 0.6
Firm loam 0.4 – 0.8 0.6 – 1.0
Loose loam 0.4 – 0.6 0.7 – 1.0

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Table 6 Rolling resistance

Rolling resistance (%)
Ground surface condition
Rubber tires Tracks
Concrete 1.5 0
Fine gravel / sand 2.0 0
Loose gravel 10.0 5
Loose sand 10.0 5
Soft mud 16.0 7
Deeply rutted loam 16.0 7
Loose loam 4.0 3
Firm loam 2.0 1
Packed snow 2.5 0

Solution
(a) (i) From Table 5-5 the coefficient of traction for firm loam is, say, 0.6. The gross laden weight of the
unit is 72000 kg of which 36000 kg is supported on the drive axles.
Therefore the maximum usable rim pull is 36000 x 0.6 x gN, where g is the force of Gravity,
(g)= 9.81 m/s2, which reduces to 212 KN.

(ii) Maximum power supplied from the engine is 335 kW. Typically for this size of machine, the
efficiency in transferring the engine power into rim pull is about 80% and

3.6 × engine power (kW ) × efficiency

Supplied rim pull (in KN) =
speed ( km / h)
3.6 × 335 × 0.8
Supplied rimpull : in 1st gear = = 193 kN
5
3.6 × 335 × 0.8
Supplied rimpull : in 2 nd gear = = 80 kN
12
3.6 × 335 × 0.8
Supplied rimpull : in 3 rd gear = = 54 kN
18
3.6 × 335 × 0.8
Supplied rimpull : in top gear = = 24 kN
40

(iii) Approximate reduction in engine horse power for altitude depends upon the manufacturer engine
performance specification but for a four-cycle diesel engine the losses are approximately:

Altitude

0 – 300 m ……………………………… no loss in performance

300m and above ……………………… reduces available rim pull by 3% per 300 m.

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(iv) Approximate reduction/increase in engine power for temperature

Temperature (0C) -150 00 150 300 450

Reduction (%) +6 +3 0 -3 -5

Therefore total reduction of rim pull = 6% + 3% = 9%.

Available rim pulls corrected for temperature and altitude:

1st 2nd 3rd 4th

Gear

Rim pull (KN) 176 73 49 22

Supplied rim pull in first gear 176 KN. This is less than usable rim pull of 212 KN (see (i)); therefore the
wheels will not slip.

(b) (i) Rolling resistance from table 5-6 for firm loam = 2%.

Supplied rim pull required to overcome rolling resistance

= total weight unit x rolling resistance

2 9.81
= 72000 × × = 14 kN
100 1000

(ii) Supplied rim pull required to overcome grade resistance

6 9.81
= 72000 × × = 42 kN
100 1000

Therefore total supplied rim pull required = 56 KN

The scraper will generate sufficient rim pull in second gear to climb the grade and thus if the unit is to be
operated at heaped capacity the maximum speed along the haul is 12 Km/h. However, top gear may be
engaged where there is no gradient. Should it be necessary to operate the machine on loading in first
gear, on an upward gradient, then clearly the available rim pull is 176 – 56 = 120 KN. In effect this value
is the draw bar pull, and is the available pull which could be exerted on a load that is being towed, for
example a box scraper attached to a crawler dozer.

Note: Repeat the calculation in the unloaded condition.

Grader
Many earth moving projects require the final ground surface to be smooth and level without
undulations and ridges. Although a skillful driver using a bulldozer can in many instances achieve
adequate results, the grader has been specifically developed for trimming the sub-grade sub-base
surface on roads and road cuttings and banks, for smoothing of the walls on earth-fill dams and
maintaining haul roads. It is self transporting and supported on two or three axles. The three-axle

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configuration has proved necessary to carry the large engine and provide more traction and is today the
more popular type.

The Moldboard
The moldboard on modern machine is operated hydraulically from the driver cab, and although it works
similar to the bulldozer blade, it is hung between the axles, and the magnifying effect of uneven and stony
ground is very much reduced. The pitch of the moldboard is adjusted to suit the work. It is tilted back
when cutting and forwards when spreading. The more upright the moldboard, the greater the mixing and
rolling which will be given to the material to be spread.

Grader blade length and corresponding engine power

Engine (kW) Blade length (m) Machine weight (kg)

26 – 37 2.5 2500

37 – 52 3.0 3500

52 – 67 3.0 – 3.5 6500

67 – 89 3.0 – 3.5 8000

89 – 104 3.5 – 4.0 10000

104 – 119 3.5 – 4.0 13000

119 – 134 3.5 – 4.0 14000

134 – 224 4.0 – 4.5 25000

Methods of Working with the Grader: - The blade can be used in several positions for:

(a) Leveling and trimming on the horizontal, with the moldboard central or swung out either to the left
or right. (Fig. 5.3a). If the moldboard is set at an angle on plan, the material will roll off the blade to form a
windrow. However, with the blade at right angles to the line of movement, then only spreading or trimming
is obtained.

(b) Leveling and trimming to the slope and vertical face (Fig. 5.3b)

(c) Forming ditches (Fig. 5.3c). The moldboard is angled both on plan and in the vertical and set such that
the blade just protrudes beyond the outside line of the wheels nearest to the ditch to be shaped. A
windrow is formed along the top of the ditch. The ditch is deepened gradually, trimming of a layer at a
time, keeping the nearside wheels in the ditch.

(d) Backfilling along trenches (Fig. 5.3d). The action is similar to that for producing a windrow.

Department of Civil Engineering Page 19 of 21 October, 2009

Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.

Recommended operating speeds in km/h

Grading site roads ………………………………………… 4 – 9

Scarifying (e.g. soil stabilization) …………………………. 8 – 18

Forming ditches …………………………………………… 4 – 8

Spreading ………………………………………………….. 4 – 10

Trimming and leveling …………………………………… 9 – 40

Snow ploughing …………………………………………… 8 – 20

Self-transporting …………………………………………… 10 – 40

Fig. 5.3 Methods of working with the grader

The demands on the grader clearly are very varied, so robust engines up to 300 hp (223 kW) are
common. Hydraulic control of the attachments is standard on the latest models.

Department of Civil Engineering Page 20 of 21 October, 2009

Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.

Fig 12. A view of motor grader

Department of Civil Engineering Page 21 of 21 October, 2009