ADVANCED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS –

ARCH 335

EXPERIMENT FILE

AKSHITA CHHATWAL
A1904016123
AMITY SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING
AMITY UNIVERSITY , NOIDA
FACULTY GUIDE : DR. PRIYANKA SINGH
AMITY SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND SYSTEMS | ARCH335

- TABLE OF CONTENTS -

SR. NAME OF EXPERIMENT EXP. DATE OF REMARKS

SN NO. SUBMISSION /SIGN.
O.

1 Earthwork Excavation Equipment 1 20-08-2020

2 Earthwork Transportation Equipment 2 03-09-2020

3 Electrical hand tools for construction 3 10-09-2020

4 Construction equipment India Vs Japan 4 17-09-2020

5 Daulat Beg Oldie Road Case Study 5 23-09-2020

6 Burj Khalifa case study - Glass 6 1-10-20

7 Prestressed and Pre-fabricated 7 15-10-20

8 Defects in concrete 8 22-10-20

Experiment No. 1

Name of Experiment: Earthwork Excavation Equipment

Aim of the Experiment: To study about different types of Earthwork Excavation equipment with its
capacity, functionality, make and model etc.
Resource Requirement: Through various internet sources and leanings from class.

Theory : There are various types of Earthwork Excavation Equipment.

1.EXCAVATORS

DEFINE Excavators are heavy construction equipment consisting of a boom, dipper (or stick), bucket and
cab on a rotating platform known as the "house". The house sits atop an undercarriage with tracks or wheels.
They are a natural progression from the steam shovels and often mistakenly called power shovels.

Fig 1 : Excavator
 TYPES:

• Crawler Excavators.
• Dragline excavators.
• Suction Excavators.
• Skid steer excavators.
• Long reach excavators.
• Backhoe Excavators.
• Power Shovel Excavators.
• Wheeled excavators
• Mini Excavators
• Amphibious excavator

FUNCTIONS:
• Digging of trenches, holes, foundations

• Demolition

• Material handling

• General grading/landscaping

• Brush cutting with hydraulic attachments

• Forestry work

• Lifting and placing of pipes

• Mining, especially, but not only open-pit mining

• River dredging
CAPACITY

1.6-4 cum (Bucket Capacity)

2.RIPPER

DEFINE It is a construction tool that is designed to make excavating tough soil so much more efficiently.
Through this it can add ripping capabilities to the excavator, which adds a certain value of effectiveness to it.

Fig 2 : Ripper

FUNCTIONS:

It has numerous functions. It has ability to;

1. Dig hard soil

2. Level the varying terrains
3. Compact soil layer
4. Excavate any type of soil
5. It also function of ripping the soil
6. It has ability of clearing the ground.

TYPES

Hinge-Style Ripper:

The hinge-style ripper, also known as the radial-type ripper , is fixed to the bulldozer with a pin, around
which the ripper arm rotates. Because of its manoeuvrability, this type of ripper is best at creating sculpted
and natural-appearing rock cuts.

Parallelogram-Style Ripper:
The parallelogram-style ripper features two hinged arms, which keep the shank (the tang of the tooth)
vertical and hold the tooth at a constant angle as it is lowered into the material.

CAPACITY : 10 ton to 150 ton

3.CLAMSHELL

DEFINE The clamshell bucket is a sophisticated articulating two-piece bucket mechanically hinged at the
middle to form a claw-like appendage with an internal volume. It is attached by a hangar or bracket and uses
ground engaging tool on its cutting edge to dig in a vertical direction.

Fig 3 : Clamshell

The FUNCTIONS of clamshell bucket are:

 Digging pits for ground construction work.
 Ideal for digging and loading material in tight and limited spaces.
 Material handling, loading and unloading industrial wastes, grains, sands, etc.
 Heavy duty mechanical clamshell is ideal for dredging application by crane.
TYPES

1. Hydraulic Clam Shell Bucket - These types of buckets typically come in a wide range of sizes and
capacities, making them amenable to many aggregates applications. Such flexibility also makes this
particular kind suitable for an array of material handling functions. Because of their center rotation
mechanism, hydraulic buckets require fewer parts.

2. Single Rope Cable Clam Shell Bucket - Cranes in which the holding and closing lines are shared .

3. Electro Hydraulic Clam Shell Bucket - In some cranes, electric is supplied to the clam shell. These
types of buckets are frequently found in ship gears and overhead gantry cranes where barge unloading and
heavy handling are encountered.

4. Rehandling Clam Shell Bucket - Stock pile material that flows freely (for example, wood chips, coal
and fertilizer) is often handled by this type of bucket yard.

5. Digging Clam Shell Bucket - The heaviest materials, those used during excavation, for example, can
quickly challenge even the most well-built buckets.

6. Ore Clam Shell Bucket - The mining industry often brings about the most extreme material handling
situations. That is because it involves materials like pig iron, ferro-manganese, chrome ore, iron ore
briquettes and nickel ore.

GRAB CAPACITY:

0.6 m – 3.5m3

4.DREDGER
 Fig 4 : Dredger

DEFINE Dredger mainly involves carrying out excavation, of either naturally deposited sediments or man-
made debris such as rocks, bottom sediments, construction debris, and refuse, and plant or animal matter on
the bottom of either shallow seawater or freshwaters. In general terms, dredging implies digging up of the
gathered sediments from the seabed and disposing them off at some other site.

FUNCTIONS

Excavation

Digging up of the gathered sediments from the seabed

Clearing of deposits and cleaning, widening or deepening of a water body

Channelize the construction of a network of bridges

Recreational activities.

TYPES

Mechanical Dredgers:

Bucket Dredger: The bucket dredger is usually a fixed type stationary dredger which rotates in arc by
winches around the dredging site.
Grab Type Dredger: This is a stationary dredger which has a grab as a dredging tool (Two equivalent
scoops or shell operated hydraulically).

Backhoe Dredger: Also known as fixed arm dredger, it is a stationary type dredger which is usually
mounted on a barge or work near the banks

Hydraulic Dredgers:

Suction Dredger: It is a stationary dredger normally used for mining sand. The suction pipe of this dredger
is inserted into the sand deposit and water jets are used to bring the sand up from the excavation site.

Cutter Suction Dredger: It is another stationary dredger with a cutter head as a dredging equipment to
loosen the base which is to be dredged.

Trailing Suction Hopper Dredger: This is a self-propelled ship carrying the dredger equipment having a
hold or hopper arrangement to fill it with excavated material while following a pre-set dredging operation

Reclamation Dredger: This is actually an assisting equipment in the dredging operation and not a dredger
itself. It is used to empty the hopper barges sediments using suction pipe which can be lowered in the hopper
barge hold.

CAPACITY – 3000-9500 cum

5.BACKHOE

Fig 5 : Backhoe
DEFINE A backhoe loader, also called a loader backhoe, digger in layman's terms, or colloquially
shortened to backhoe within the industry, is a heavy equipment vehicle that consists of a tractor-like unit
fitted with a loader-style shovel/bucket on the front and a backhoe on the back.

FUNCTIONS:
Backhoe loaders can be used for a wide variety of tasks:
• construction
• small demolitions,
• light transportation of building materials,
• powering building equipment,
• digging holes/excavation,
• landscaping,
• breaking asphalt
• paving roads.

TYPES

Center Mount Backhoes

Frequently referred to as a center pivot backhoe, this type of loader has the backhoe mounted at the center of
its rear frame. Its gullwing legs swing down and provide stabilization. This design reportedly provides a
wider stance and more ground clearance, making it ideal for sloped terrain and heavy loads.

Sideshift Backhoes

This type of backhoe is mounted on frame rails and stabilizers that allow the operator to shift work or
materials from one side of the loader to the other, greatly saving the time it would take to reposition the rig.
Ideal for narrow corridors or work situations where the machine is positioned close to buildings or other
immovable objects, sideshift backhoes strike the perfect balance of precision and productivity.

CAPACITY

1 cum (min. bucket capacity)

6.GRADERS
 Fig 6 : Graders

DEFINE: A grader is a construction machine with a long blade used to create a flat surface. It is
commonly called in names such as road grader, a blade, a maintainer and motor grader, Graders Used in
construction. Graders are mostly been used in road construction for construction and maintenance of dirt
roads and gravel roads.

TYPES:

Rigid frame motor grader: These usually have a single axle and are incapable of moving either left or right
amount a point on the axle.

Articulated frame motor graders: These usually have both a front and rear axle. The blade is usually
located somewhere between the two axles. The articulated frame graders are usually in small places where
there is very less space to move and turn-about in.

FUNCTIONS:

Removal of snow, debris and earth-moving purposes.

 Making smoother surfaces, fine grade, levelling soil and shifting small amounts of dirt.

To set native soil foundation pads to finish grade prior to the construction.

Ensure that the compactor is effectively used with minimum load on it.

In the construction and maintenance of roads.

CAPACITY: The capacity for the graders is 192 cubic meter per hour.

7.POWER SHOVEL

Fig 7 : Power Shovel

DEFINE: Power shovel is digging and loading machine consisting of a revolving deck with a power
plant, driving and controlling mechanisms, sometimes a counterweight, and a front attachment, such as a
boom or crane, supporting a handle with a digger at the end. The whole mechanism is mounted on a base
platform with tracks or wheels. Power shovels are used principally for excavation and removal of debris.

TYPES:
Wheel Mounted: It is mounted on rubber tyred wheels.
Crawler Mounted: It is mounted to a crawler track.
 Mechanically operated: Mechanical cable-operated shovels apply engine power to the base and to the
attachment by means of clutches, gears, shafts, winch drums, and cable.
Electrically operated: Electric cable-operated shovels have several electric motors supplied with
current by a power line, or more rarely, by a deck-mounted generator, replacing the engine and most of
the clutches, gears, and shafts of the mechanical shovel.
Hydraulic shovels: Hydraulic shovels have engine-driven pumps to provide pressure for rams and
motors.

FUNCTION:
Excavating trenches
Lifting dumped earth
Removal of boulders, without loosening
For digging purposes

CAPACITY: Power shovels used for construction have a capacity of 3 cubic meters, for mining
purposes the capacity ranges from 2-3 cubic meters & for stripping it goes up to 150 cubic meters.

8.SCRAPER

Fig 8 : Scraper
DEFINE: The scraper is a large piece of construction equipment which is issued for excavation, mining,
agriculture & earthmoving services. The rear part has a vertically moving hopper with a sharp front
edge. The hopper can be hydraulically raised and lowered. The front edge cuts into the soil and fills the
hopper, once it is filled it is closed and raised and transported to the fill area and dumped.

TYPES:
Single engine wheeled scraper: The most common type of scrapper consisting of a bowl and an apron
to avoid flying of the materials during dumping.
Dual engine wheeled scraper: It is a more powerful variant, used for tougher terrains it has extra power
capacity enabling earthmoving work in wet conditions and even soft soils.
Elevating scraper machine: Elevating scraper machine is better suited for fine soils, like clay, top soil
etc. it also helps in homogenizing the materials.
Pull type scraper machine: An unpowered trailer needs to be fitted with the tractor to be propelled, it is
better suited for projects like farming and soft soil.

FUNCTIONS:
Earth removal on construction sites.
Scrapers can easily move wet soil.
30% reduction in fuel consumption compared to alternatives.
Scrapers can dig, load, haul and dump.
Also used for mining purposes.

CAPACITY: The capacity for the scraper ranges from 10-15 cubic meters when struck & heaped.
 9.DRAGLINE

Fig 9 :Dragline

DEFINE: Dragline excavator is used for civil engineering projects and surface mining. It has the ability
to excavate very deep down the earth. Word drag is used because it has the ability to drag material at far
distance from the machine. Dragline consists of drag rope, large bucket, boom, hoist rope and driving
motors.

TYPES: There are three types of dragline;

Wheel mounted dragline: Wheel mounted draglines are suitable for operation on firm ground, they are
self-propelled and their travel speed is also higher.
Crawler type dragline: These can be operated over soft ground, which can’t support wheel movement,
however the travel speed of these is very slow.
Truck mounted dragline/portable dragline: These are same as wheel mounted draglines with an
advantage of portability, i.e. they are not stationary.

FUNCTIONS:
Road excavation
Deep down pile driving
Construction of ports, harbor etc.
Surface mining
Deep down excavation
Under water excavation

CAPACITY: The bucket capacity of a dragline excavator is 30 cubic meters.

10.BULLDOZER

Fig 10 :Bulldozer

DEFINE: A bulldozer is a tractor unit with a blade attached to its front. The blade is used to push, shear,
cut, and roll material ahead of the tractor. It is strong machine that mainly assist with pushing, digging,
excavating, and leveling materials like soil and debris at a work site. They come with large, heavy blades
in the front that push material.

TYPES:

Crawler Bulldozer: A crawler bulldozer also called as track bulldozer is apt for jobs that require
high tractive effort. This heavyweight is great for moving heavy materials from one area to
another.
Wheel Bulldozer: This machine is sometimes referred to as a tire bulldozer and is normally
larger than a crawler bulldozer. Most wheel dozers are equipped with torque converters and
power-shift transmissions, some are direct drive.
Mini Bulldozer: This smaller bulldozer is also known as a compact bulldozer. A mini dozer is
great for projects that require more maneuverability and versatility than larger machinery.
Hybrid bulldozers: Hybrid bulldozers are advanced equipment that makes use of electronic
components and are equipped with a combination of blades that can work in waterlogged and
very hard conditions simultaneously.

FUNCTION: The function of bulldozers can be classified into:

Land clearing
 Stripping of soils

Sidehill cuts

Excavation

Spreading

Dozing rocks or frozen ground

Maintaining haul roads

Clearing floors of borrow and quarry pits

Towing other pieces of construction equipment

Assisting scrapers in loading

CAPACITY: The capacity of the excavator ranges from 2.8-5 cubic meters.

CONCLUSION :

Proper use of appropriate equipment contributes to Economy, Quality, Safety, Speed and Timely
completion of the Project. Construction equipment is an important part of any construction process.

A wide variety of relatively heavy machines which perform specific construction (or demolition)
functions under power. It is customary to classify construction machines in accordance with their
functions.

REFERENCES :

https://www.bigrentz.com/blog/types-of-excavators
https://www.constructionequipment.com/rippers
https://www.britannica.com/technology/clamshell
https://www.marineinsight.com/types-of-ships/different-types-of-dredgers-used-in-the-maritime-industry/
https://www.constrofacilitator.com/backhoe-loaders-an-overview-of-parts-and-functions/
https://basiccivilengineering.com/2015/05/use-of-grader-in-construction-advantage.html
https://www.britannica.com/technology/power-shovel
https://www.britannica.com/technology/scraper-construction
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragline_excavator#:~:text=A%20dragline%20excavator%20is%20a,to%20be
%20built%20on%2Dsite.
https://www.britannica.com/technology/bulldozer
Experiment No. 2

Name of Experiment: Earthwork Transportation Equipment

Aim of the Experiment: To study about different types of Earthwork Transportation Equipment with its
capacity, functionality,types etc.
Resource Requirement: Through various internet sources and leanings from class.

Theory : There are various types of Earthwork Transportation Equipment.

1. Backhoe Loaders

DEFINE

Backhoe loaders, often called backhoes, have a body that's similar to a farm tractor and include an
adjustable shovel in front and a small bucket in the back for digging. Backhoe loaders are considered
medium-sized construction equipment for smaller jobs and are capable of working in limited space to
perform various operations. One of the best attributes of backhoe loaders is that they are wheel-driven
and can be used in urban areas. They can even be driven to a job site. The bucket in the back can be
changed to dig trenches of different widths.

Fig.1 Back hoe loader

TYPES

• Center Mount Backhoes

Frequently referred to as a center pivot backhoe, this type of loader has the backhoe mounted at the center of
its rear frame. Its gullwing legs swing down and provide stabilization.

• Sideshift Backhoes

This type of backhoe is mounted on frame rails and stabilizers that allow the operator to shift work or
materials from one side of the loader to the other, greatly saving the time.

FUNCTIONS:

• Attachment adjustment is easy

• Designed to move easily over the rough terrain
• Fitted for digging ditches, laying pipes, planting underground cables or laying the foundation for
buildings and drainage systems
• Helps in decreasing labour cost
• Operator friendly
• They can move dirt, backfill excavations, dig holes and trenches, and place pipes and other
materials.

• CAPACITY

Backhoe Bucket Capacity - 0.2 cum

2. Bulldozers

DEFINE

Bulldozers are considered one of the strongest and most reliable heavy equipment used in the
construction industry. A bulldozer is a powerful and extremely heavy machine used to move dirt along
large open tracts of land. Bulldozers have a wide, flat blade in front that can be operated using two
hydraulic pistons to move the blade in a limited range of angles and depths. They are normally used to
push piles of earth and for rough or fine grading, depending on the size of the bulldozer. A bulldozer's
considerable weight helps it crush large boulders, among other operations.
 Fig : 2 Bulldozer

TYPES :

• Crawler Bulldozer A crawler is sometimes referred to as a track bulldozer and looks most similar to
a tractor. This heavyweight is great for moving heavy materials from one area to another.
• Wheel Bulldozer This machine is sometimes referred to as a tire bulldozer and is normally larger
than a crawler. A wheel dozer is more maneuverable than a crawler since its tires offer better overall
handling.
• Mini Bulldozer This smaller bulldozer is also known as a compact bulldozer. A mini dozer is great
for projects that require more maneuverability and versatility than larger machinery.

FUNCTIONS:
Bulldozers are strong machines that mainly assist with

• Pushing

• digging,

• excavating,

• and leveling materials like soil and debris at a work site.

CAPACITY
 Standard Blade Capacity (m3) - 2.21

3.Trencher

DEFINE

A trencher is a piece of construction equipment used to dig trenches, especially for laying pipes or
electrical cables, for installing drainage, or in preparation for trench warfare.

Fig : 3 Trencher

TYPES

• Wheel trencher
A wheel trencher or rockwheel is composed of a toothed metal wheel. It is cheaper to operate and maintain
than chain-type trenchers.

• Chain trencher
A chain trencher cuts with a digging chain or belt that is driven around a rounded metal frame, or boom. It
resembles a giant chainsaw. This type of trencher can cut ground that is too hard to cut with a bucket-
type excavator, and can also cut narrow and deep trenches.
 • Micro trencher
A micro trencher is a "small rockwheel" specially designed for work in urban area. It is fitted with a cutting
wheel that cuts a microtrench with smaller dimensions than can be achieved with conventional trench
digging equipment.

FUNCTIONS:

• Cutting Pavement
• Creating Drainage
• Shoveling
• Digging for Electrical Wires
• Digging for Electrical Wires

CAPACITY

Operating Weight. 259 kg.

4. Compactor

DEFINE

A compactor is a machine or mechanism used to reduce the size of material such as waste material or bio
mass through compaction. A trash compactor is often used by a home or business to reduce the volume of
trash it produces

Fig : 4 Compactor
TYPES

1. Light soil compacting equipment

• Vibrating plate compactor
• Rammers/Jumping Jack

2.Heavy soil compacting equipment/compaction roller

• Smooth roller – static

• Smooth roller – vibrating
• Sheep foot roller
• Pneumatic roller

FUNCTIONS:

• Used for compacting crushed rock as the base layer underneath concrete or stone foundations or
slabs.

• For creating a level grade, while the jumping jack compactor has a smaller foot.

• used to compact the backfill in narrow trenches for water or gas supply pipes etc.

CAPACITY :

Travel speed : upto 66 ft.p/min

5. Loaders

DEFINE

A loader is a heavy equipment machine used in construction to move aside or load materials such as asphalt-
demolition,debris, dirt, snow, feed, gravel, logs,raw minerals,recycled material, rock, sand, woodchips, etc.
into or onto another type of machinery (such as a dump truck, conveyor belt, feed-hopper, or railroad car).
Fig : 5 Loader

TYPES

There are many types of loader, which, depending on design and application, are called by various names,
including

• bucket loader,
• front loader, front-end loader,
• payloader, high lift
• scoop, shovel,
• skip loader,
• wheel loader, or skid-steer.

FUNCTIONS:
A loader is a heavy equipment machine used in construction to move aside or load materials such as asphalt,
demolition debris, dirt, snow, feed, gravel, logs, raw minerals, recycled material, rock, sand, woodchips, etc.

CAPACITY
The capacity of a loader bucket can be anywhere from 0.5 to 36 m3 depending upon the size of the machine
and its application.

CONCLUSION :

Heavy equipment is essential for construction jobs of almost any size, from home building to large-scale
commercial and civil projects. Earth-moving equipment covers a broad range of machines that can excavate
and grade soil and rock, along with other jobs. Earth movers and other heavy equipment help to speed not
only earth work but also materials handling, demolition, and construction. Many types of heavy construction
equipment are designed for multiple functions, making them indispensable on job sites.

REFERENCES :

https://www.thebalancesmb.com/must-have-earth-moving-construction-heavy-equipment-844586
https://www.engineeringcivil.com/backhoe-loader-construction-equipment.html
https://www.bigrentz.com/blog/bulldozer-types
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trencher_(machine)
https://www.bigrentz.com/how-to-guides/5-uses-trencher
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loader_(equipment)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loader_(equipment)#:~:text=A%20loader%20is%20a%20heavy,%2C
%20sand%2C%20woodchips%2C%20etc.
https://kor-pak.com/compactor-used-construction/
https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/plate-compactor-rammer-7286770388.html
https://basiccivilengineering.com/2015/05/use-of-compactor-in-construction.html
Experiment No. 3

Name of Experiment: Electrical hand tools for construction

Aim of the Experiment: To study about different types of Electrical hand tools for construction with its
functionality, types etc.
Resource Requirement: Through various internet sources and leanings from class.

Theory : There are various types of Electrical hand tools for construction.

1. Drilling Machines

DEFINE : A drilling machine, is used to cut holes into or through metal, wood, or other materials Drilling
machines use a drilling tool that has cutting edges at its point. Drilling machines may be used to perform
other operations.

Tool which makes hole is called as drill bit or twist drill

Fig.1 Drilling machines

TYPES:

• There are two types of drilling machines used by maintenance personnel for repairing and fabricating
needed parts: hand-feed or power-feed.
• Other types of drilling machines, such as the radial drill press. numerically controlled drilling
machine. multiple spindle drilling machine, gang drilling machine, and turret drill press, are also
there.

FUNCTIONS:
They can perform countersinking, boring, counterboring, spot facing, reaming, and tapping.

WEIGHT: 5.9 KG

2. Pipe Bender

DEFINE : The pipe bender is another vital construction tool that an electrical contractor is required to have
while working at commercial construction sites. This tool allows the electricians to bend the pipes that they
are installing when working on commercial construction buildings and thus work in a faster and more
efficient manner.

Fig.2 Pipe Bender

SPECIFICATIONS : There are three basic parts to any pipe bender:

● The shoe former, which the pipe will wrap around as it is bent into shape
● The roller, which exerts the pressure and form needed to bend the pipe into shape

● The handles, which exerts the majority of the force needed to bend the metal pipe

TYPES: There are four types of pipe benders: dual pipe, mini pipe, ergonomic, free-standing, ratchet pipe,
and conduit pipe.

FUNCTIONS: A pipe bender is used to bend a range of piping but most commonly; plumbing
and conduit (electrical) piping. It is used to bend pipe in different directions and around obstacles instead of
creating a fitting.

WEIGHT : 25.5 Kilograms

3. Pliers

DEFINE : Pliers are used for many different purposes, especially the handling of various types of wires.
Electrical contractors work with electricity, which can be extremely dangerous if he or she accidentally
touches a live wire. Therefore, electricians use pliers for holding the wires when they are working with live
electricity in order to ensure safety.

Fig.3 Pliers
TYPES: The Types of Pliers and Their Uses
• Waterpump pliers
• Cutting, crimping & stripping pliers
• Locking pliers
• Long-nose pliers
• Fencing pliers
• Combination pliers

FUNCTIONS:

• Many applications including electrical, communications and construction work

• Use to grip small objects, reach awkward places, holding wires, bend loops, and attach wires
• For work involving cutting and skinning wires, cutting and removing pins, nails and other fasteners.
• Common pliers, used in many applications and assembly work.
• Use for cutting nails, rivets close to work.

WEIGHT : 450 grams

4. Hammer

DEFINE : A hammer is a tool consisting of a weighted "head" fixed to a long handle that is swung to
deliver an impact to a small area of an object. This can be, for example, to drive nails into wood, to
shape metal (as with a forge), or to crush rock.

Fig.4 Hammer
SPECIFICATIONS : The modern hammer head is typically made of steel which has been heat treated for
hardness, and the handle is typically made of wood or plastic.

For its design, manufacturers commonly use a wooden, glass-fiber, and sometimes steel handle. It comes
with or without the rubber grip, though we would recommend buying one with the rubber grip for more
comfort.

TYPES:

• Claw Hammer
• Ball Pein Hammer
• Straight Pein
• Cross Pein Pin Hammer
• Club Hammer
• The Sledge Hammer
• Joiner’s Mallet
• Soft-faced Hammer

FUNCTIONS: Hammers are used for a wide range of:

• driving,

• shaping,

• reaking applications.

WEIGHT : Commonly , 8 to 16 oz.

5. Concrete saw
DEFINE : A concrete saw (also known as a consaw, road saw, cut-off saw, slab saw or quick cut) is
a power tool used for cutting concrete, masonry, brick, asphalt, tile, and other solid materials.

Fig.5 Concrete saw

SPECIFICATIONS : The saw blades used on concrete saws are often diamond saw blades to cut concrete,
asphalt, stone, etc. Abrasive cut-off wheels can also be used on cut-off saws to cut stone and steel. The
significant friction generated in cutting hard substances like concrete usually requires the blades to be cooled
to prolong their life and reduce dust.

TYPES: There are many types ranging from small hand-held saws, chop-saw models, and big walk-behind
saws or other styles, and it may be powered by gasoline, hydraulic or pneumatic pressure, or an electric
motor.

FUNCTIONS:
Cutting concrete, masonry, brick, asphalt, tile, and other solid materials.

WEIGHT: 125 KG

CONCLUSION:

It is paramount for construction workers and his or her team to have the right tools and equipment to do
his or her job at the site. Without the proper tools, construction workers would not only not be able to
work properly, but this is something that would likely disrupt the overall project. For example, if an
construction worker does not have the right tools, he or she is not going to be able to work efficiently,
 which means that he or she might delay his or her job. A small delay can end up delaying the overall
project, which can be quite costly. As a result, electricians working on commercial construction require
proper construction tools and equipment for them to be able to work efficiently and productively.

REFERENCES:

https://esub.com/resources/construction-tools-equipment-used-electrical-contractors/
https://dir.indiamart.com/impcat/concrete-cutting-saws.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete_saw
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammer
https://my.rs-online.com/web/p/pliers/3057419/
https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/concrete-hand-saw-machine-11402625755.html
https://in.rsdelivers.com/product/rs-pro/t591057/rs-pro-pipe-bender-for-use-with-stainless-
steel/0514896
https://smithy.com/machining-handbook/chapter-6/page/1
https://www.communityadvertising.org/pipe-bending-101-your-basic-guide/
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/safety_haz/hand_tools/pliers.html#:~:text=Pliers%20are%20made
%20in%20various,of%20tasks%20including%20cutting%20wire
Experiment No. 4

Name of Experiment: Construction equipment India Vs Japan

Aim of the Experiment: To analyse case study of different construction equipments used in India and Japan
Resource Requirement: Through various internet sources and leanings from class.

Theory : The various construction equipments are :

CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENTS

India

▸ Indian Earthmoving & Construction Industry Association Ltd. (IECIAL) in 1986 with the objective
to make the body a national point of reference for the Indian earthmoving & construction equipment
industry was rechristened. the association started with 10 Indian member companies, primarily
manufacturers and importers of tractors, earthmoving and allied equipment.

Japan

Popular Japan Manufacture :

▸ Komatsu Ltd is a Japanese multinational corporation established in 1921 that manufactures

construction, mining, and military equipment.

▸ Hitachi Construction Machinery Co. Ltd. is a construction equipment company in Japan

▸ Nissha, established in 1929. They mainly offer proprietary technologies that enable to create added
value on the surfaces of various materials .
1.Backhoe Loader

Fig : 1 Backhoe Loader

▸ A Backhoe is a type of excavating equipment, or digger, consisting of a digging bucket on the end of
a two-part articulated arm. It is typically mounted on the back of a tractor or front loader, the latter
forming a "backhoe loader"

Comparison of Backhoe Loader

India Japan

Cost: 18-45 lakh Cost: 10-37 lakh

Manufacturer: Case, JCB, CAT, Manufacturer: Iseki

Mahindra, Ace Etc.

Capacity: 1.0 cum (min. bucket capacity) Capacity: 1.0 cum (min. bucket capacity)
2.Excavators

Fig : 2 Excavators

▸ Excavators are heavy construction equipment consisting of a boom, dipper, bucket and cab on a
rotating platform known as the "house". The house sits atop an undercarriage with tracks or wheels.
They are a natural progression from the steam shovels and often mistakenly called power shovels.

Comparison of Excavators

India Japan

Cost: 48-75 lakh Cost: 26 lakh

Manufacturer: JCB, TATA, Hitachi, Manufacturer: Komatsu Limited,

Beml, Hyundai, L&T, Sany, Volvo, Hitachi, Mitsubishi Motors
Kobelco, Doosan

Capacity: 1.6-4 cum (Bucket Capacity) Capacity: 1.6-4 cum (Bucket Capacity)
3.Bulldozers

Fig : 3 Bulldozers

▸ It is strong machine that mainly assist with pushing, digging, excavating, and leveling materials like
soil and debris at a work site. They come with large, heavy blades in the front that push material.

Comparison of Bulldozer

India Japan

Cost: 31-80 lakh Cost: 37-63 lakh

Manufacturer: Caterpillar, CAT, Manufacturer: Komatsu Limited,

Bluegreen Equipment etc. Marubeni Corp., Ichikawa Co.

Capacity: 2.8cum - 5cum Capacity: 2.8 cum – 5 cum

4.Graders

Fig : 4 Graders

▸ A grader is a construction machine with a long blade used to create a flat surface. It is commonly
called in names such as road grader, a blade, a maintainer and motor grader, Graders Used in
construction. Graders are mostly been used in road construction for construction and maintenance of
dirt roads and gravel roads.

Comparison of Grader

India Japan

Cost: 18-29 lakh Cost: 22 lakh

Manufacturer: Mahindra, Case, Volvo, Manufacturer: Onaga Shoji Co. Ltd.

CAT, Ace etc.

Capacity: 192 cum/hr Capacity: 192 cum/hr

5.Trenchers

Fig : 5 Trenchers

▸ A trencher is a piece of construction equipment used to dig trenches, especially for

laying pipes or electrical cables, for installing drainage, or in preparation for trench warfare.
Trenchers may range in size from walk-behind models, to attachments for a skid loader or tractor, to
very heavy tracked heavy equipment.

Comparison of Trenchers

India Japan

Cost: 3.5 lakh Cost: 7.5 lakh

Manufacturer: Delta Trenchers, Manufacturer: Hitachi

Vermeer India, Tirupati automobile,
World wide machinery solutions

Capacity: (Speed) 300 meter/hr Capacity: (Speed) 300 meter/hr

6.Tower Cranes

Fig : 6 Tower Cranes

▸ It is a type of machine, generally equipped with a hoist rope, wire ropes or chains, and sheaves, that
can be used both to lift and lower materials and to move them horizontally. It is mainly used for
lifting heavy things and transporting them to other places.

Comparison of Tower Cranes

India Japan

Cost: 35-55 lakh Cost: 56 lakh

Manufacturer: ECEL, Schwing Stetter Manufacturer: Hitachi, Tadano

India Pvt. Ltd., Matrix

Enterprises, Lokpal Industries

Lifting Capacity: 5 tons Lifting Capacity: 5 tons

7.Pavers

Fig : 7 Pavers

▸ Pavers are paving stones, tile, brick or brick-like pieces of concrete commonly used as exterior
flooring. In a factory, concrete pavers are made by pouring a mixture of concrete and some type of
coloring agent into a mold of some shape and allowing to set.

Comparison of Pavers

India Japan

Cost: 5-25 lakh Cost: 18-22 lakh

Manufacturer: VOLVO CE India Pvt. Manufacturer: Hanta Machinery

Ltd., Kesar Road equipments, Hindustan
Road equipments, Sany Global

Speed : 200 ft/ min. Speed : 200 ft/ min.

8.Compactor

Fig : 8 Compactor

▸ The various types of rollers which are used for compaction are:

▸ Sheepsfoot Rollers.

▸ Pneumatic tired Rollers.

▸ Vibratory Rollers.

▸ Grid Rollers.

▸ Smooth Wheel Roller.

Comparison of Compactor

India Japan

Cost: 3-10 lakh Cost: 6.7-10 lakh

Manufacturer: Britannia Engineering Manufacturer: Kojima, Sakai

Limited, Amazing Infra Equipment
Private Limited, Shree Vinayak
Industries.

Speed : 1-1.25 km per hour Speed : 1-1.25 km per hour

9.Dump Trucks

Fig : 9 Dump Trucks

▸ Large truck for transporting heavy loads, with a back part that can be raised at one end so
that its contents fall out.

Comparison of Dump Trucks

India Japan

Cost: 15-35 lakh Cost: 26-30 lakh

Manufacturer: TATA Motors Ltd., Manufacturer: Kyokuto Kaihatsu

SINTEX , BAPL Ltd., Ashok Leyland, Kogyo
EICHER

Capacity: 30-100 ton Capacity: 25 tons

10. Pile Boring Machine

Fig : 10 Pile Boring Machine

▸ A pile driver is a device used to drive piles into soil to provide foundation support for buildings

India Japan

Cost: 10-20 lakh Cost: 15 lakh

Manufacturer: Tirupati, TATA Motors Manufacturer: NISSHA

LTD., Ashok Leyland

Capacity: (Boring depth) 15- 30m Capacity: (Boring depth) 15-24 m

Most Influential Brands : ENR list

OBAYASHI CORP., Tokyo,

Japan

15th Rank in 2018 ENR list

TAISEI CORP., Tokyo, Japan

23rd Rank in 2018 ENR list

LARSEN & TOUBRO LTD.,

Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

24th Rank in 2018 ENR list

Value of the world's leading exporters of construction

Exporters
33342

26588
MILLION DOLLARS

11317

9216

5614

3177

2668

1300

1067

EUROPEAN CHINA REPUBLIC OF JAPAN RUSSIAN INDIA UNITED ARAB SWITZERLAND CHINESE
UNION (28) KOREA FEDERATION EMIRATES TAIPEI

COUNTRY
REFERENCES:

https://connect2india.com/global/construction-equipment-export-from-india/1
https://www.statista.com/statistics/224045/export-value-of-the-leading-construction-exporters-
worldwide-since-2009/
https://www.bigrentz.com/blog/bulldozer-types
https://www.decisiondatabases.com/ip/4916-feller-bunchers-industry-market-report
https://www.sakainet.co.jp/en/
https://www.lexico.com/definition/telehandler
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pile_driver
https://www.nissha.com/english/company/outline.html
https://info.japanesecartrade.com/content-item/1099-japan-excavators-machinery
http://www.powerplus.us/product-category/BULLDOZER/
https://www.made-in-china.com/price/japan-used-grader-price.html
https://www.cat.com/en_IN/products/new/equipment/wheel-tractor-scrapers.html
https://www.clevelandbrothers.com/new-equipment/machines/wheel-tractor-scrapers/
https://www.qyresearch.com/index/detail/1104643/global-feller-bunchers-market
https://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/pile-driving-equipment-types-uses/17605/
https://www.alibaba.com/showroom/japan-pile-driver.html
https://www.alibaba.com/showroom/earth-roller-compactor.html
Experiment No. 5

Name of Experiment: Daulat Beg Oldie Road

Aim of the Experiment: To analyse case study of Daulat Beg Oldie Road and study about different types of
equipments used.
Resource Requirement: Through various internet sources and leanings from class.

Theory : The theory of Daulat Beg Oldie road and the equipments used are :

DAULAT BEG OLDIE ROAD

INTRODUCTION

In 2000, when India’s Border Roads Organisation (BRO) began the construction of 255-km-long Darbuk-
Shyokh-Daulat Beg Oldie (DSDBO) all-weather road, the idea was to connect Leh, the capital of Ladakh to
Daulat Beg Oldie (DBO), an Indian military base, located at the Northernmost tip of India in the Karakoram
mountains. In the past month, the road has come at the forefront of the India-China stand-off. Daulat Beg
Oldie is a name hard to forget. A quick examination of the etymology reveals the rather exotic origins of the
name, translated from Turkic as ‘the spot where the rich man died’.

Location of the road

● The 255-km road from Darbuk traverses at an altitude of 14,000 feet and reaches Shyok, the last
Indian village in the region.

● This road joins Leh to the Karakoram Pass, which divides Ladakh from China’s Xinjiang province.

● Between Shyok and Karakoram Pass lies Daulat Beg Oldie (DBO), a plateau at an altitude of over
16,000 feet and the location of an Advanced Landing Ground (ALG) used by the air force to drop
supplies.
 Fig : 1 Location

Background

● The road’s construction was started in 2000 and was to be completed by 2012.

● However, the construction could not be finished as the road was aligned with the shyok riverbed that
led to it being damaged every summer during flooding.

● Later, major portion of the road was realigned, keeping them away from the river.

● In October 2019, the 430 m Colonel Chewang Rinchen Setu over Shyok river was inaugurated that
joins Durbuk to DBO in Eastern Ladakh.

● India has decided to not stop road construction of the Line of Actual Control (LAC) despite the
border confrontations and objections by China.

Introduction

● India brings an exclusive insight into the construction of an all-weather road which will connect Leh
with Daulat Beg Oldie at the base of the mighty karakoram mountain.

● The Daulat Beg Oldie highway provides the Indian military access to the section of the Tibet-
Xinjaing highway

● That passes through Aksai China. The road runs almost parallel to the LAC at Aksai China.
 ● The Border Roads Organisation (BRO) has adopted a modern technology.

Fig :2 Costruction on DAULAT BEG OLDIE ROAD

Importance

● The road runs parallel to the LAC, is of strategic importance to India as it will help it to manage the
borders and the areas near Aksai Chin, Chip Chap River and Jiwan Nalla.

● The road will also help in the faster deployment of Army troops in the area. Another importance of
this road is that it branches off towards the Galwan Valley where another military standoff was
prompted.

● Thus, the road will help the Indian military to mark its presence in the area in comparison to the
patrolling by the troops in the area.

Fig:3 Indian Military

Challenges

● The construction of the road is a challenge as the laborers at such a height need to be acclimatised
and due to the weather work can happen only for few summer months.

● Only 4 months to work during summers (temp 12 degrees) namely, April - July

● Formation cutting becomes difficult due to the glaciers

● Snowfall during cloudy sky.

EQUIPMENT : PULVERISER

Fig:4 Pulveriser

ABOUT:
Pulverizers are machines that crushes demolished material between one fixed and one moving jaw to reduce
the particle size and to separate iron from other material. We have two main categories of pulverizers the
bulk pulverizers and the demolition pulverizers.

OPERATIONS:
First the crushed stones and sand are spread on the road surface, and then the admixture is laid ahead of a
pulveriser, which rolls over them, mixes them and spreads the components evenly over the road surface
The pulveriser rolls over the admixture mixing all the three components, spreading them evenly over the
road surface. The surface is watered for some time. The exercise is repeated after a few days to form the
second coating. Then the bitumen is laid over the surface as done in the conventional method.
Cement treated Sub Base Technology (CTSB)

● The Border Roads Organisation (BRO) has adopted a modern technology, Cementaceous Sub Base
(CTSB) — a first-of-its-kind in Asia — for the construction of the sensitive high-altitude Daulat Beg
Oldi road bordering China in eastern Ladakh.

● Under the CTSB technology, a dry admixture is mixed with sand and crushed stones by means of a
machine known as pulveriser.

● First the crushed stones and sand are spread on the road surface, and then the admixture is laid ahead
of a pulveriser, which rolls over them, mixes them and spreads the components evenly over the road
surface.

● The road length would be completed within three months. The same length would have been
completed in two to three years using the conventional method.

ADVANTAGES of CTSB

● CTSB provides a durable,long-lasting base in all types of climates.

● Can speed up the project completion.

● Can reduced thickness of pavement.

● Reduced project cost (approx. 8 to 10 thousand rupees per metre)

● Reduced consumption of aggregate.

● Reduced consumption of bitumen.

Specifications:

Carrier weight class ¹ 22 t - 27 t

Service weight ² 2 560 kg
Jaw opening 875 mm
Jaw depth 610 mm
Blade length 190 mm
Cutting force - upper blades 290 t
Crushing force, jaw tip 90 t
Operating pressure 350 bar
Oil flow 150 l/min - 250 l/min
Closing cycle 2,5 Seconds
Opening cycle 2,9 Seconds
Max operating pressure, rotation 170 bar

MANUFACTURERS :

Unisoft Peripherals, Harissons Machinery, SSI Shredding Systems Inc. Etc.

EQUIPMENT : ROAD PAVERS

Fig:5 Road Paver on site

A road paver also known as paver finisher, asphalt finisher paving machine is a construction equipment
used to lay asphalt on roads, bridges, parking lots and other such places.

It lays the asphalt flat and provides minor compaction before it is compacted by a roller.

OPERATIONS :
From the Paver truck, the hot mix material is dumped into the hopper, which is then transferred to the
spreading screw by a chain conveyor

The screws of the mechanical pavers function to equally spread the hot mix material along the paving width

Specifications

Engine Power : 170 kW

Basic width : 2.5 m

Hopper capacity : 13.5 t

Tractor weight : 14,600 kg

Paving speed : 20m/min

Fig:6 News on India Today

REFERENCES:

https://www.opindia.com/2020/06/amidst-intense-lac-standoff-china-tries-to-open-new-fronts-in-ladakhs-
depsang-and-daulat-beg-oldie-sectors/

https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/j-k/bro-uses-modern-technology-to-build-sensitive-ladakh-road-1963

https://www.indiatoday.in/programme/india-first/video/ladakh-exclusive-durbok-shyok-daulat-beg-oldie-
strategic-road-1708572-2020-08-07?fbclid=IwAR0ftOhHiGUkrDOLBY3LO9Dzscc6P0_IQu-
FG6NtHCpVLmttuRc8gsCbdFc

https://www.epiroc.com/en-in/products/excavator-attachments/hydraulic-pulverizers/bulk-pulverizer-bp-
2050-r

https://indianexpress.com/article/research/daulat-beg-oldie-a-strategic-post-named-after-the-spot-where-a-
sultan-died-6475627/

https://www.britannica.com/technology/bulldozer

https://www.bigrentz.com/blog/bulldozer-types
 EXPERIMENT NO. 6

NAME OF EXPERIMENT: Case study of Glass used in Burj Khalifa.

AIM: To study about Glass used in the façade of Burj Khalifa, Dubai its applications, processes,
maintenance and other qualities and features.
RESOURCE REQUIREMENT:
The resources for the following experiment have been derived from a variety of online articles, websites
books & research documents some of which are listed as:
https://www.burjkhalifa.ae/img/FACT-SHEET.pdf, http://www.glazette.com/solar-&-thermal-control-
glasses-in-burj-khalifa-194.html, https://www.glassonweb.com/news/burj-khalifa-world-record-highest-
aluminium-and-glass-facade, https://source.thenbs.com/case-study/guardian-glass-covers-the-burj
khalifa/hxGAzbzaii8gztn1gQrj1b/hxGAzbzaii8gztn1gQrj1b,https://www.guardianglass.com/us/en/products/
brands/sunguard/solar/silver-20 ; and more.

THEORY: The Burj Khalifa, (Burj Dubai) is the world’s tallest building at 2,716.5 feet, developed by
Emaar properties. It is described as both a ‘vertical city’ and ‘a living wonder’.
Exterior cladding of Burj Khalifa began in May 2007 and was completed in September 2009, covering a
curtain wall area of 132,190 square meters by the help of 24,348 panels.

CURTAIN WALL:
The façade is curved in order to disperse sunlight. Typical panels on the Burj measure 4 feet 6 inches wide
by 10 feet 8 inches high and weigh about 800 pounds each, growing wider at the building’s edges and taller
toward the top.
The tower’s ability to withstand wind loads is quite high. It has accomplished a world record for the highest
installation of an aluminum and glass façade, at a height of 512 meters (1,679.8 ft).

Figure 1 CURTAIN WALL

Application & fixing process:
 o The vast project involved more than 380 skilled engineers and on-site technicians.
o At the initial stage of installation, the team progressed at the rate of about 20 to 30 panels per day,
before increasing to as many as 175 panels per day.

Glass Panels: The 2 specific types of glass used in the Burj are:
1. Guardian SunGuard : Guardian SunGuard Solar Silver 20 which gives a silver appearance is
produced by patented silacoat process, offering a combination of practical benefits like; enhanced
chemical and mechanical durability, excellent energy performance, uniform reflection and
transmission of colors. This glass can also be tempered, heat-strengthened and curved.

Figure 2 PROPERTIES OF THE GLASS

2. Guardian ClimaGuard:
ClimaGuard Low-E blocks up to 50% more unwanted solar energy than standard clear glass, and
up to 40% more than even dark tinted glass. Its High performance glass delivers medium to high
visible light transmission and moderate reflectivity together with maximum energy savings.

At the uppermost levels, the unitized panels were made narrower and taller than on lower floors,
easing the installation process. The skyscraper’s “curved” façade serves two design purposes,
dispersing both the Dubai sunlight and the desert wind. Coating with a green substrate reduce
glare and improve visual comfort and offers energy control option to provide the optimum
internal environment.

CHARACTERISTICS:
o Testing & application: A factory was specially opened dedicated
entirely for making customized glass panels for the structure.

The installation of 1 panel from scratch costs about $2000.The total number of panels installed cost
up to $4,80,00,000 approx.

Figure 3 SPECIALISED FACTORY SETUP

Figure 4 TESTING PROCESS
o Sustainability: The building is provided with a low-emissivity glass with enhanced thermal insulation
against high ambient temperatures of Dubai.
Heat strengthened glass was mainly used, unlike tempered glass that is mainly used because of the
following reasons :
1. to avoid the risk of spontaneous breakage
2. to present a better optical quality

o Micro-climatic Effect:
The surrounding area of a building (other buildings, desert, mountains) absorbs the intense heat all
day long and it continues to radiate this heat throughout the night.
Low E glass helps to reflect that long wave radiation and minimize the transmission of it. The other
advantage of Low E glass in the Middle East is that it helps reduce condensation on the exterior glass
throughout the hotter summer months.

Figure 5 PROPERTIES OF THE GLASS

CONCLUSION:
The glass for the Burj has been supplied by Guardian Glass, an architectural glass producer for commercial
and residential markets. Guardian glass offers outstanding energy efficiency and total design flexibility,
while meeting both technical building requirements and environmental needs.
Burj Khalifa features more than 1.8 million square feet (174,000 m2) of Guardian SunGuard Solar Silver
20 and Guardian ClimaGuard NLT Low-E. Altogether these Guardian products offer superior solar and
thermal performance.
The glass resists the movements as the frame is considered to move and hold the glass with some space in
the frame (there is no direct contact between glass and frame).

Figure 6 FEATURES OF THE GLASS

REFERENCES: The references for the above experiment are provided herewith:
https://www.burjkhalifa.ae/img/FACT-SHEET.pdf, http://www.glazette.com/solar-&-thermal-control-
glasses-in-burj-khalifa-194.html, https://www.glassonweb.com/news/burj-khalifa-world-record-highest-
aluminium-and-glass-facade, https://source.thenbs.com/case-study/guardian-glass-covers-the-burj-
khalifa/hxGAzbzaii8gztn1gQrj1b/hxGAzbzaii8gztn1gQrj1b,https://www.guardianglass.com/us/en/products/
brands/sunguard/solar/silver-20
 EXPERIMENT NO. 7

NAME OF EXPERIMENT: Pre-stressed & Pre-fabrication Technology

AIM: To study about Pre-stressed & Pre-fabrication Technology its features and applications in structures.
RESOURCE REQUIREMENT:
The resources for the following experiment have been derived from a variety of online articles, websites
books & research documents some of which are listed as:
http://www.understandconstruction.com/precast-concrete-construction.html,
https://www.cement.org/cement-concrete-applications/products/prestressed-
concrete,https://civiltoday.com/civil-engineering-materials/concrete/225-pre-stressed-concrete,
http://www.builtconstructions.in/OnlineMagazine/BuiltConstructions/Pages/Precast-Technology-
0434.aspx,https://www.preca.in/precast-technology.php,
http://mohua.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/Provisions%20in%20NBC_2016_New%20Technology.pdf ;
and more.

THEORY: The rapid growth and development of urban centers today call for shorter timelines and reduced
cost in the construction sector. Cost effective, proven technologies ensuring the highest standards and
uniformity in quality are the need of the hour; a need that is now effectively met by Prestressed and Precast
Technology.

The concept of precast construction includes those buildings where the majority of structural components
are standardized and produced in plants in a location away from the building, and then transported to the site
for assembly. These components are manufactured by industrial methods based on mass production in order
to build a large number of buildings in a short time at low cost.

This type of construction requires a restructuring of the entire conventional construction process to enable
interaction between the design phase and production planning in order to improve and speed up the
construction. One of the key premises for achieving that objective is to design buildings with a regular
configuration in plan and elevation.
HISTORY OF PRESTRESSED AND PRECAST TECHNOLOGY:
Concrete, in some form, has been in use from over 5000 years, when the Egyptians built the Pyramids.
Later, the Romans further reformed the use of concrete by pouring it into moulds, and using it to build their
complex network of aqueducts, culverts, and tunnels. The invention of Portland cement in the 19th century
completely revolutionized the construction industry.
The idea of the application of prestressing to improve the performance of reinforced concrete structure
became prevalent in the first half of the 20th century, during which the preliminary prestressed bridges were
built across Europe and USA own to the work of pioneers like Hewett, Dyckerhoff & Widmann Co., and
Freyssinet. During the last 50 years advancement in prestressing technology meant that the most significant
advantage of usage of prestressed concrete, creating longer spans than those achieved by ordinary reinforced
concrete, was then applied for the production of beams and floor slabs which revolutionized the building
construction industry.
 Figure 7 PRECAST BUILDING MODULE BEING CONSTRUCTED

PREFABRICATED CONCRETE:
Precast concrete is an alternative to cast-in-situ concrete. While cast-in-situ concrete is cast in its actual
location, precast concrete is cast at another location, either at the building site or in a factory, and is then
lifted to its final resting place and fixed securely. This means that unlike cast-in-situ construction, which is
monolithic or continuous, precast concrete buildings are made of separate pieces that are bolted or connected
together.
Reinforced concrete is a material usually used for structural systems due to its strength, durability, and
affordability. Precast concrete is used in the following ways:
•To make beams, columns, floor slabs, foundations, and other structural members for buildings
•To make wall or cladding panels for buildings
•To make precast pre-stressed elements for buildings
•To make components for infrastructure projects: elements such as bridge spans, or metro line
viaducts are often precast in a casting yard
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE:
Pre-stressed concrete is a form of concrete where initial compression is given in the concrete before
applying the external load so that stress from external loads are counteracted in the desired way during the
service period. This initial compression is introduced by high strength steel wire or alloys (called ‘tendon’)
located in the concrete section.
Figure 8 HOUSE BEING BUILT BY PRESTRESSED CONCRETE PANELS
Compressive stresses are induced in prestressed concrete either by pre- tensioning or post-
tensioning the steel reinforcement.

In pre-tensioning, the steel is stretched before the concrete is placed. High-strength steel tendons
are placed between two abutments and stretched to 70 to 80 percent of their ultimate strength.
Concrete is poured into molds around the tendons and allowed to cure. Once the concrete reaches
the required strength, the stretching forces are released. As the steel reacts to regain its original
length, the tensile stresses are translated into a compressive stress in the concrete. Typical
products for pretensioned concrete are roof slabs, piles, poles, bridge girders, wall panels, and
railroad ties.
In post-tensioning, the steel is stretched after the concrete hardens. Concrete is cast around, but
not in contact with unstretched steel. Once the concrete has hardened to the required strength, the
steel tendons are inserted and stretched against the ends of the unit and anchored off externally,
placing the concrete into compression. Post-tensioned concrete is used for cast-in-place concrete
and for bridges, large girders, floor slabs, shells, roofs, and pavements.

ADVANTAGES:

• Shorter on-site times as factory production proceeds ahead of site construction.

• Dimensional accuracy.
• Precast elements may be prestressed to achieve greater strength requirement and load bearing
capacity.
• Large floor spans
• Mechanization and Mass Production.
• Walls with Insulation possible.
• Less wastage
• Ease of construction
• Longer life and durability
• Greater quality control in all facets of production, because work takes place under cover allowing
optimum and shorter concrete curing conditions independent of climate.
• Economy in formwork by repetitive use.

DISADVANTAGES:
 • Advance meticulous planning required.
• Requirement of Casting / Stacking - Large Space
• Detailed joints & connections - Micro Details
• Restriction on size & weight - transportation
• Deployment of Plant and Machinery - Initial High Investment
• Less suitable for Buildings with irregular features

CONCLUSION:
Prefabricated components are increasingly becoming an eminently improving technology to achieve cost
effective and speedy construction in the construction industry. This increasing trend for prefabricated
components has now turned into numerous applications as they can provide a much faster output for the
ever-increasing urban construction demand. In addition to this, adopting prefabrication technology also
promoted mechanization in the construction industry and created new areas of employment. The study
emphasizes the effect of prefabrication technology on the profitability and its effect in the construction
work cycle.
Prefabrication construction technology generates less waste on site because building elements are cast in the
warehouse and then transported to the site for final erection and installation. Therefore, saving in time as
well as money is achieved. It is remarkably seen that the cost of building constructed using prefab
technology is significantly less and duration of construction is also much lesser as compared to traditional
method. The prefab construction method helps in reducing the adverse impacts on the environment and
offers an environmentally friendly construction. Hence, prefab construction technique is much more
efficient and sustainable. The better-quality control may be achieved if this technology is adopted for
repetitive type of works.

REFERENCES: The references for the above experiment are provided herewith:
http://www.understandconstruction.com/precast-concrete-construction.html,
https://www.cement.org/cement-concrete-applications/products/prestressed-
concrete,https://civiltoday.com/civil-engineering-materials/concrete/225-pre-stressed-concrete,
http://www.builtconstructions.in/OnlineMagazine/BuiltConstructions/Pages/Precast-Technology-
0434.aspx,https://www.preca.in/precast-technology.php,
http://mohua.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/Provisions%20in%20NBC_2016_New%20Technology.pdf
EXPERIMENT NO. 8
NAME OF EXPERIMENT: Defects in concrete
AIM: To study about different types of defects in concrete
RESOURCE REQUIREMENT:
The resources for the following experiment have been derived from a variety of online articles, websites
books & research documents some of which are listed as:
https://theconstructor.org/concrete/concrete-defects-types-causes-prevention/8581/,
https://www.aast.edu/pheed/staffadminview/pdf_retreive.php?url=62_23335_CB557_2017_1__1_1_concret
e%20defects.pdf&stafftype=staffcourses, https://www.aboutcivil.org/hard-concrete-defects-problems,
https://theconstructor.org/concrete/construction-defects-concrete-structures/8472/,; and more.

THEORY: Traditionally, reinforced concrete has been considered as a highly durable structural material
requiring little or no maintenance over many decades. In fact, it is this, together with its versatility, that
makes concrete the most popular structural material in many parts of the world. But, like any other material,
concrete is not completely inert to chemical action or immune from physical deterioration arising from
climatic changes, abrasion, damage from high velocity water, fire, impact, explosion, foundation failure or
overloading.

TYPES OF CONCRETE DEFECTS – CAUSES, PREVENTION

Various types of defects which can be observed in hardened concrete surface and their prevention methods
are explained below:

∼ Cracking
Cracks are formed in concrete due to many reasons but when these cracks are very deep, it is unsafe to
use that concrete structure. Various reasons for cracking are improper mix design, insufficient curing,
omission of expansion and contraction joints, use of high slump concrete mix, unsuitable sub-grade etc.

Figure 9 CRACKING OF CONCRETE

 To prevent cracking, use low water – cement ratio and maximize the coarse aggregate in concrete mix,
admixtures containing calcium chloride must be avoided. Surface should be prevented against rapid
evaporation of moisture content. Loads must be applied on the concrete surface only after gaining its
maximum strength.

∼ Crazing
Crazing also called as pattern cracking or map cracking, is the formation of closely spaced shallow
cracks in an uneven manner. Crazing occurs due to rapid hardening of top surface of concrete due to
high temperatures or if the mix contains excess water content or due to insufficient curing.

Figure 10 CRAZING OF CONCRETE

Pattern cracking can be avoided by proper curing, by dampening the sub-grade to resist absorption of
water from concrete, by providing protection to the surface from rapid temperature changes.

∼ Blistering
Blistering is the formation of hollow bumps of different sizes on concrete surface due to entrapped air
under the finished concrete surface. It may cause due to excessive vibration of concrete mix or presence
of excess entrapped air in mix or due to improper finishing. Excessive evaporation of water on the top
surface of concrete will also cause blistering.
Figure 11 CONCRETE BLISTERS

It can be prevented by using good proportion of ingredients in concrete mix, by covering the top surface
which reduces evaporation and using appropriate techniques for placing and finishing.

∼ Delamination
Delamination is also similar to blistering. In this case also, top surface of concrete gets separated from
underlying concrete. Hardening of top layer of concrete before the hardening of underlying concrete will
lead to delamination. It is because the water and air bleeding from underlying concrete are struck
between these two surfaces, hence space will be formed.

Figure 12 DELAMINATION

Like blistering, delamination can also be prevented by using proper finishing techniques. It is better to
start the finishing after bleeding process has run its course.

∼ Dusting
Dusting, also called as chalking is the formation of fine and loose powdered concrete on the hardened
concrete by disintegration. This happens due to the presence of excess amount of water in concrete. It
causes bleeding of water from concrete, with this fine particles like cement or sand will rise to the top
and consequent wear causes dust at the top surface.
Figure 13 DUSTING

To avoid dusting, use low slump concrete mix to obtain hard concrete surface with good wear resistance.
Use water reducing admixtures to obtain adequate slump. It is also recommended to use better finishing
techniques and finishing should be started after removing the bleed water from concrete surface.

∼ Curling
When a concrete slab is distorted into curved shape by upward or downward movement of edges or
corners, it is called curling. It occurs mainly due to the differences in moisture content or temperature
between slab surface (top) and slab base (bottom).

Curling of concrete slab may be upward curling or downward curling. When the top surface is dried and
cooled before bottom surface, it begins to shrink and upward curling takes place. When bottom surface is
dried and cooled due to high temperature and high moisture content, it will shrink before top surface and
downward curling occurs.

Figure 14 CURLING OF CONCRETE SLAB

 To prevent curling, use low shrink concrete mix, provide control joints, provide heavy reinforcement at
edges or provide edges with great thickness.

∼ Efflorescence
Efflorescence is the formation of deposits of salts on the concrete surface. Formed salts generally white
in color. It is due to the presence of soluble salts in the water which is used in making concrete
mix.When concrete is hardening, these soluble salts gets lifted to the top surface by hydro static pressure
and after complete drying salt deposits are formed on the surface.

Figure 15 EFFLORESCENCE

It can be prevented by using clean and pure water for mixing, using chemically ineffective aggregates
etc. And make sure that cement should not contain alkalis more than 1% of its weight.

∼ Scaling
Scaling concrete surface gets deteriorated and flaking of concrete occurs. The main cause for this type of
cases is penetration of water through concrete surface. This makes steel gets corroded and spalling or
scaling may occurs.

Figure 16 SCALING
Some other causes are use of non-air entrained concrete mix, inadequate curing and use of lo strength
concrete etc. This type of defects can be prevented by, using well designed concrete mixes, by adding air
entrainment admixtures, proper finishing and curing, providing good slope to drain water coming on to the
surface etc.

∼ Honeycombing

Honeycombing occurs due to the improper or incomplete vibration of the concrete which results in voids
being left in the concrete where the mortar failed to completely fill the spaces between the coarse aggregate
particles.

Figure 17 HONEY COMBING IN CONCRETE

To prevent Honey combing concrete mixing ratio and measurement should be strictly, inspection regularly.
Concrete mixing should be full and even. Chutes should be used when the feeding height > 2m. Layered
feeding, layered tamping and preventing vibration missing. Blocking the formwork gaps and check the
leakage of grouting during pouring.

CONCLUSION:
The occurrence of concrete cracks is mainly due to structural defects of the concrete itself. The internal
factors are: internal and external stratification during the process of concrete pouring, the existence of
concrete transition zone and multiphase porous system of concrete. However, the reason for those internal
factors is that the material itself cannot be well solved during the process of pouring, which is also the
direction for future research on concrete cracks and prevention.

REFERENCES:The references for the above experiment are provided herewith:

https://theconstructor.org/concrete/concrete-defects-types-causes-prevention/8581/,
https://www.aast.edu/pheed/staffadminview/pdf_retreive.php?url=62_23335_CB557_2017_1__1_1_concret
e%20defects.pdf&stafftype=staffcourses, https://www.aboutcivil.org/hard-concrete-defects-problems,
https://theconstructor.org/concrete/construction-defects-concrete-structures/8472/