ung in the borehole thanks to the swivel, which does not rotate.

The drill string, which contains

the drill pipe, drill collars, and the bit, is linked to the bottom end of the Kelly below the rig floor.
The KB spins on the rotary table, which turns the Kelly and, as a result, the drill string. The rock
is broken up into rock cuttings by the rotating drill bit.

Figure 1: different components of rotary system

1.2 Types of drilling rigs

A drilling rig is a steel structure that includes other rig components and equipment. There are
many types and designs of drilling rigs based on equipment usage, geographical location of well,
position and height of derrick, type of pipe used, and method of rotation. Any of the attributes
can be used to classify drilling rigs. Based on the geographical location of usage, it can be
classified as a cable tool rig or a rotary drill rig. Rotary drilling rigs are further divided into two
types: shore (also known as marine) and onshore (also known as land) rigs.

The most commonly used rigs in the industry are the jack-ups, used to drill in shallow water,
semi-Submersible used to drill in deep water and land rigs are moved on trailers and spotted on
concrete bases on land.

Fixed platforms and drillship are other types which can have drilling facilities on board. The most
expensive to run is the drillship followed by the Semi, then the jack-up and finally the land rig.
This is all down to size, equipment differences and also the difficulty with logistics to and from
the rig. Each rig will have similar drilling equipment on board but some will vary due to the
nature of the rig.

The figure below depicts from left to right; Land rigs, fixed platform, jack-up, semi-submersible,
drillship, tension leg platform.

Figure 2: different types of drilling rigs

 i. Semi-submersible drilling rig
Semi-submersible drilling rigs are the most common type of offshore floating drilling rigs and
can operate in deep water and usually move from location to location under their own power.
They partially flood their pontoons for achieving the desired height above the water and to
establish stability. “Semis” as they are called may be held in place over the location by mooring
lines attached to seafloor anchors or may be held in place by adjustable thrusters (propellers)
which are rotated to hold the vessel over the desired location (called dynamically positioned).

ii. Jack -up drilling rig

These rigs are towed into location and then jack their 3 legs down until the legs reach the sea
bed. Some larger rigs can have up to 5 legs. The rig will then raise itself out of the water to the
desired height. Jack-ups are good in water depths of up to 120 m and can be found most
commonly in the North Sea because of the sea’s shallow nature. Once settled the jack-up rig has
a static base in which to drill from. When their legs are not deployed, jack-up floats, and are
transported from one drilling location to another. While some are capable of self-propulsion,
most jack-up are transported via tug boats.

iii. Land drilling rig

The land-based drilling rig is the most type used for exploration. This type of rig comes in variety
of sizes depending on the type of well you will be drilling. The rig breaks down into many parts
so that it can be transported with trucks and trailers. First a concrete base will be laid at the
location and a pit will also be dug next to the location for cuttings from the well to be
temporarily dumped into.

These rigs can be assembled very quickly usually within 3-7 days and can be transported in as
little as 12 trucks loads. The depth that a rig can drill to depend on the power of its draw works
which lowers and raises the drill pipe from the well.

iv. Fixed drilling platform

Today they are usually used to tap shallow, long term oil deposits and have multiple wells drilled
from location. These platforms are permanently anchored directly to the seabed with the use of
a steel structure known as a “jacket”. This rises up from a seabed to support a surface deck
which is above the ocean. The jacket provides the rig’s sturdy base and holds everything else out
the water, while the drilling modules and crew quarters are located on the surface deck.

They can drill to depths of about 450 m below the surface, but are expensive to build, so they
usually require large oil discovery to justify their constructions.

1.3 The drill bits

A drilling bit is defined as the cutting or boring tool, which is made up on the end of the drill
string.(Devereux and Devereux, 2012, p. 334)

Its primary purpose is to cut rock from the hole's bottom. A cutting element (cutters) and a fluid
circulation element make up the bit (nozzles). To crush and enter new formations, the drill bit is
mechanically rotated. Cuttings are broken and loosened rocks that are removed from the
wellbore by pumping drilling fluid via nozzles in the drill bit and down the drill pipe. The bit
scrapes, chips, gouges or grinds the rock at the bottom of the hole to drill through it. Drilling
fluid improves penetration rates by utilizing hydraulic force.

Figure 3; typical drill bits

 1.6.1 Two (2) major categories of drill bits

i. Roller cone bit

Roller cone bits are made up of one, two, or three cones with teeth extending from them. The
teeth of these cones push on the formation with enough pressure to exceed the compressive
strength of the rock as they roll over the bottom of the hole. Roller cone bits are less costly and
can manage tougher drilling conditions than currently fixed cutter bits. Except in the smallest
1
hole diameters (8 or lower), roller cone bits are typically more cost-effective in a relatively
2
low-cost drilling operation (land rig).

Figure 4; roller cone bits

Steel teeth cut from the same block of metal as the cones are offered on roller cone bits. Steel
tooth bits or mill tooth bits are the terms for this. The other form of roller cone bit is made up of
steel cones with tungsten carbide teeth that are inserted into holes punched in the cone
surface. Mill tooth bits are extremely durable and can withstand extreme drilling conditions, but
 they wear out rapidly. Shock loadings are not tolerated by tungsten carbide tooth bits, although
they can drill for extended distances before wearing out. When everything else is equal,
tungsten carbide teeth bits are more costly than steel tooth bits of the same size.

ii. Fixed Cutter Bits

Diamond bits and polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) bits are two types of fixed cutter bits.
Because fixed cutter bits have no moving components and just the cutting surfaces to wear out,
they can drill for a long time. Drilling using diamond bits wears down the rock beneath the bit,
resulting in very tiny cuttings known as rock flour. Diamond bits can drill through the hardest
rock, but they are slow and costly. Diamond bits are typically utilized in formations with the
highest compressive strength or in formations that are extremely rough, causing other bit types
to fail prematurely.

Figure 5; Cutter bit

1.6.2 Bit selection

Drill bits come in a variety of sizes and shapes. Bit selection is critical for achieving the highest
drilling performance and, as a result, lowering drilling costs. The drilling records of other nearby
wells are the most essential source of data for the study. Data from electric logs can also help
with bit selection. Sonic logs (which measure sound speed across formations) may be analyzed
to determine rock compressive strengths, which help bit selection.
Bit selection is basically an economic decision: which bits are most likely to drill to the next
casing, logging, or coring point at the lowest total cost?

1.7 Summary
This chapter covers every element of a drilling rig and its components. In addition to rig
categories, the various drilling rig systems are discussed. The different components or device
names with complete figures are shown in this chapter.

Chapter 2: Drilling fluid

2.1 Introduction
The rotary drilling technology requires drilling fluid (also known as drilling mud). The mud is
directly or indirectly responsible for the majority of the issues experienced during well drilling.
The properties of the drilling fluid have a role in the successful completion of a hydrocarbon well
and its cost. The drilling mud itself is not particularly expensive. However, the expense of
making the appropriate decision and maintaining the proper quantity and quality of fluid
throughout drilling operations rises quickly. Some of the most frequent drilling difficulties, such
as rate of penetration, caving shales, stuck pipe, and lost circulation, are directly connected to
the right selection, characteristics, and quality of mud. Furthermore, the muck has an impact on
the formation evaluation and, as a result, the well's efficiency. Furthermore, certain harmful
elements are employed to increase the quality of the drilling fluid, which is a major source of
worry for environmentalists. The addition of poisonous elements pollutes both the underground
system and the earth's surface.

Therefore, the selection of suitable drilling fluid and routine control of its properties are the
concern of the drilling operations related individuals. The drilling and production personnel do
not need a detailed knowledge of drilling fluids, but they should understand the basic principles
governing their behavior, and the relation of these principles to drilling and production
performance. They should have a clear vision of the objectives of any mud program, which are:

 To allow the target depth to be reached.

 Minimize well cost.
  Maximize production from the pay zone.

The well's location, projected lithology, necessary equipment, and mud characteristics are all
factors to consider in the mud program. As a result, this chapter covers the fundamental
components of mud, their roles, various measuring techniques, mud design and calculations, as
well as current knowledge in the development of drilling fluid and future drilling fluid trends.

2.2 Drilling fluid circulating system

The fluid circulation process is important in the rotary drilling process, and drilling fluid is a
crucial component. In reality, no one could successfully drill most wells using the rotary
technique without circulating the drilling fluid. Also, the success or failure of the mud program
can have a big impact on whether the drilling contractor can safely and economically drill the
well to the operator's expectations.

The mud, water and other necessary chemicals, and solids are mixed through the mud-mixing
tank. Then mud goes to the fresh mud pit from where it is pumped to the bottom hole
assembly. Mud passes through the standpipe, hose and swivel, kelly and then the drill pipe, drill
collar to drilling bit. On the return, mud with cuttings passes through the annulus, BOP (Blow out
preventers), channel, shale shaker, desander to desilter to again at the mud pit on the surface.
The use of mud during drilling operations is very crucial.

The primary functions of the drilling fluid are to:

 Remove and transport cuttings from bottom of the hole to the surface through the
annulus (i.e. clean the borehole from cuttings and removal of cuttings).
 Exert sufficient hydrostatic pressures to reduce the probability of having a kick (i.e.
control of formation pressure).
 Cool and lubricate the rotating drill string and drilling bit.
 Transmit hydraulic horsepower to the bit.
 Form a thin, low permeable filter cake to seal and maintain the walls of the borehole and
prevent formation damage (i.e. seal the thief zones).
  Suspend drill cuttings in the event of rig shutdown so that the cuttings do not fall to the
bottom of hole and stick the drill pipe.
 Support the wall of the borehole.
 Maintain wellbore stability (i.e. keep new borehole open until cased).

Other secondary functions include suspending cuttings in the hole and dropping them in surface
disposal areas, improving sample recovery, controlling formation pressures, minimizing drilling
fluid losses into the formation, protecting the soil strata of interest (i.e. should not damage
formation), facilitating drill string and casing freedom of movement, and reducing wear and
corrosion of the drilling equipment.

It is noted that the following side effects must be minimized to achieve the above functions.

 Damage to the subsurface formation, especially those that may be productive

 Loss of circulation
 Wash and circulation pressure problems
 Reduction of penetration rate
 Swelling of the sidewalls of the borehole creating tight spots and/or hole
swelling shut
 Erosion of the borehole
 Attaching the drill pipe against the walls of the hole
 Retention of undesirable solids in the drilling fluid
 Wear on the pump parts

2.3 Classifications of drilling fluid

Drilling fluids are categorized based on their chemical makeup. It may be divided into three
categories: liquids, gases, and liquid-gas combinations. Although pure gas or gas-liquid
combinations are employed, liquid-based systems are more frequent. Compressed air, foam,
clear water, water-based mud, oil-in-water emulsion, and oil-based mud are all examples of
drilling fluids. In addition to the aforementioned, additives are frequently added to these fluids
to address specific downhole issues. Drilling mud is a term used to describe a freshwater or
saltwater based drilling fluid with additives.

The main factors that govern the selection of drilling fluids are;

 The type of formation to be drilled,

 The range of formation data i.e. pressure, temperature, permeability, saturation, and
strength,
 The formation evaluation procedure used,
 The available water quality i.e. fresh or saline water, and
 Ecological and environmental considerations i.e. sustainability analysis However, trial
and error is required to discover the drilling fluid that delivers the lowest drilling cost in
a given location.

The parts that follow go through the various drilling fluids in greater depth.

2.3.1 Water-based mud

The most frequent fluid is water. It becomes natural mud when the solids are entrained in the
water. WBM (water-based mud) is drilling mud with water as the continuous phase .

2.3.1.1 Advantages of water-based mud

 Some clay rapidly hydrates in water, resulting in a significant increase in the viscosity of
the mud, which aids in the transport of rock cuts to the surface.
 Clay particles produce a mud cake, which decreases water loss (less lost circulation) and
prevents the wall from collapsing into the hole (by generating a mud cake, i.e. less
formation damage).
 Mud cost (mud cost = 10% of well cost).

2.3.1.2 Disadvantages of water-based mud

 Reduction in penetration rate.
 Increase in pressure loss due to friction.
2.3.2 Oil-based mud
Oil-based mud (OBM) is defined as the drilling mud made with oil as the solvent carrier for the
solids content. OBM is a drilling fluid in which oil is the continuous phase and where water
content is less than 2% to up to 5%.(Hossain and Al-Majed, n.d., p. 77)

2.3.2.1 Advantages of oil-based mud

 Excellent rheological characteristics at temperatures up to 260 degree centigrade
 More inhibitive than muds based on water.
 Resistant to all sorts of corrosion
 Excellent lubricating properties 
 Allows for mud densities of up to 0.9 g/cm 3

2.3.2.2 Disadvantages of oil-based mud

 Has a greater beginning cost and is generally more expensive.
 Make pollution-control methods stricter.
  Some logging tools are less effective.
  Recovery from a lack of circulation is more difficult. 
 Due to the solubility of a gas in diesel oil, detecting gas kicks is more difficult.

2.3.3 Oil or gas-based mud

For drilling in competent (i.e., the borehole will not collapse) cemented rock or frozen earth,
compressed air is an excellent drilling fluid. When opposed to mud drilling, drilling with
compressed air requires just minor changes to normal drilling equipment and drill bits.

2.3.3.1 Advantages
 High penetration rate
 Better hole cleaning
 Less formation damage

2.3.3.2 Disadvantages
 The sidewalls of the borehole cannot be supported by gases or air.
 The pressure exerted by air is insufficient to prevent formation fluids from entering the
borehole.
2.4 Summary
Almost all of the fundamental and basic components of mud engineering are covered in this
chapter. Two key directions are now being pursued in drilling fluid technologies: I the search for
novel additives to improve the performance of WBM (Water-based mud), and ii) the research
and launch of new combinations and components for OBM (Oil-based mud).

Chapter 3: Casing and Cementing

3.1 Introduction
An oil or gas well is a pressure vessel that transports hydrocarbons from a reservoir to the
surface through a vertical pipeline thousands of feet long.

The steel casing that lines the wellbore provides the pressure vessel with its structural integrity.
This casing pipe must remain in good condition throughout the well's production life until it is
eventually abandoned. That might take up to 40 years. It is critical that the casing be
appropriately constructed, taking into account all of the stresses and environmental conditions
that it will face. The casing is dropped into the drilled hole, with cement placed between it and
the hole. The cement must be able to support the casing (physical loads) without deteriorating
over time. It must prevent the casing from corrosion caused by saltwater in the surrounding
formations.

The cement must also prevent fluids and gases from forming outside of the casing and moving
up the annulus, which could be inconvenient to disastrous.

During the drilling of a well, cement is also employed for other purposes. It might shut up areas
where mud can flow into the formation. It's utilized to stop fluids and gases from moving to the
surface by sealing the wellbore. It's frequently used to seal off the bottom of the well and drill a
new hole away from the existing wellbore.
3.2 Casing
Casing is defined as a heavy large diameter steel pipe, which can be lowered into the well for
some specific functions.(Hossain and Al-Majed, n.d., p. 433) Casing is using a strong steel pipe
used in an oil or gas well to ensure a pressure-tight connection from the surface to the oil or gas
reservoir. It is a steel pipe that runs from the surface to the bottom of the borehole and is
approximately 40 meters long. It is firmly attached to the rocky structure using cement slurry,
ensuring hydraulic insulation. Before drilling the next hole’s section, the area between the
casing string and the borehole is filled with cement slurry. To ensure borehole stability, the final
depth of the well is reached by drilling holes of decreasing diameter and employing protective
casings of the same diameter.

3.2.1 Importance of Casing String

- It helps in the stability of the hole and offers support for weak, vulnerable, or broken
formations. As a result, the borehole does not collapse during drilling, and the hole does
not collapse in or wash out.
- It is designed to keep various fluids and pressure regimes from contaminating the pay
zone in a porous medium. This is accomplished by combining the use of cement with
casing. It is possible to produce from a certain zone.
- Cross-channeling between two or more subsurface fluid-carrying carrying layers is
prevented.
- It shields freshwater sands from contamination by fluids from lower zones and prevents
pollution of near-surface freshwater zones. It prevents water from getting into the
generating formation.
- It shields drilling fluids from subsurface formations and formation fluid invasion
(prevents lost circulation) (i.e. salt water, gas, etc.).
- It allows hydrocarbon fluids to pass through, and most production procedures are done
out using special tubing that runs inside the casing.
- It acts as a framework to mount the BOP for effective drilling control and offers an
appropriate connection for the wellhead equipment.
 - It reduces the amount of damage caused by drilling mud (i.e. water-sensitive shale,
hydrocarbon-bearing zones).

3.2.2 Types of casing string

The roles and names of the different casings differ depending on the depth at which they are
installed. In fact, drilling a hole to total depth (TD) with a tiny diameter drill bit and then casing
the hole from surface to TD is not possible. This is because there are high-pressure zones at
various depths along the wellbore, as well as weak, unconsolidated formations or sloughing,
shale zones. Apart from the difficulties of drilling the rocks encountered, the number and size of
casings also depend on the depth of the well and on the reason for drilling. Starting from the
uppermost and largest casing, the first one comes as the conductor pipe, then the surface casing
and the intermediate casing, and finally the production casing.

The different types of casing are discussed as below;

a. Stove Pipe and Riser

A stovepipe is exclusively used for offshore drilling as a marine conductor, drive pipe, structural
pile, or foundation pile. It's used to keep unconsolidated deposits near the surface from washing
out. It also protects the stability of the ground surface upon which the rig is mounted by
providing a circulation system for the drilling mud. Stovepipe carries no weight from the
wellhead equipment and may be pushed into the ground or into the seabed using a pile driver.

A drilling riser is a pipe that connects a subsea oil well to a surface drilling facility temporarily.
Marine risers and tieback risers are two types of risers that are commonly used. A marine riser is
a pipe that links the BOP stack of a subsea (blowout preventer) to a floating drilling rig. It is
often deployed from fixed platforms or highly stable floating platforms such as a spar or tension
leg platform (TLP).
Figure 6; casing with threaded joints

b. Conductor Pipe
Because the conductor is the first casing string to be run, it has the biggest diameter. To protect
near-surface unconsolidated formations and shut off shallow-water zones, the conductor pipe is
run from the surface to a shallow depth. It allows for mud circulation during the initial drilling
phase. It protects the surface of unconsolidated formations from erosion caused by mud
circulation, which might compromise the rig foundations' integrity. Following casing strings are
protected from corrosion by the conductor pipe. It protects the platform's foundation from
shallow gas flows and protects the platform's foundation during offshore operations. The
surface of the conductor pipe is always cemented. After setting the surface casing, it is
employed to facilitate successive casing strings and wellhead equipment, or the pipe is cut off at
the surface. Conductor pipes are driven with a hammer, ran in a drilled hole, or a combination
of drilling and driving in offshore activities, especially where heavy stones are encountered near
the seabed.
Figure 7 Conductor pipe with riser in the seabed

c. Surface Casing
Following the conductor casing, the surface casing is installed at a depth of 1,000–1,500 feet
below ground level or seabed. It's utilized to keep weak formations from collapsing at shallow
depths and poorly cemented surface beds from washing away. This casing should be installed in
stable rocks like hard limestone. This will guarantee that formations at the casing shoe do not
shatter when exposed to high hydrostatic pressures later.

The surface casing is glued to the surface to improve stiffness and make it capable of sustaining
the compressive stresses caused by the succeeding casings' placement. It safeguards freshwater
sands against contamination by drilling mud, oil or gas, and/or saltwater from the lower zone. It
supports the wellhead and serves as an anchor for the succeeding casing. The surface casing
also protects against shallow blowouts, which is why BOPs are attached to the top of the string.

d. Intermediate casing
Intermediate casing is also called protection casing. It is determined by the depth of the well
and the geology of the region. It's frequently placed below or above an over pressured zone in
the transition zone. It's utilized to guard against troublesome formations including mobile salt
zones, collapsing shales, and thief zones, among others. The primary functions of intermediate
zones are to seal off troublesome zones that contaminate drilling fluid; jeopardize drilling
progress by causing pipe sticking and excessive hole enlargement; contain abnormal pressure
fluids; and protect the formation beneath the surface casing from higher mud pressure. The
pore pressure profile of the subsurface fluids determines the intermediate column casing depth.
Because the hydrostatic pressure of the mud equals the fracture pressure of the weakest
formation present in the open hole as the hole gets deeper, the well must be cased.
Figure 8 ; a detail casing placement at different well depth

e. Production Casing
Production casing is the last casing string placed in the hole and it reaches the top of the pay
formation. Isolating producing zones, controlling reservoir fluids, and allowing selective
production in multi-zone production are the key purposes. This is the string that is used to finish
the well and make holes for hydrocarbon production.

The design of this casing must ensure its resistance to the maximum pressure exerted by the
fluids to be produced, and guarantee its resistance to any corrosion that might be induced by
the chemical composition of the fluids.

3.2.3 Casing connections

The casing strings are transported piece by piece to the rig side. As a result, as each length is run
in the well, it must be linked with threaded connectors. Individual casing joints are connected
using a threaded connector. It is made up of a pin and a box. There are three types of
connections: threaded and linked, integral-joint, and flush joints.

Pins on both ends of the pipe screw into a common coupling in the read and coupled
connections. Threads are cut into the unmodified diameter of the tubes in most threaded and
linked casings. The casing tube ends of integral-joint casing connections are frequently
thickened (swaged) on either the tube ODC or ID (inside or inner diameter) (or both).

3.3 Cementing
Cementing has been one of the most important phases in the drilling and maintenance of
producing wells since the introduction of Portland cements for the building of oil and gas wells
in the 1920s. The cementing procedure entails preparing cement slurry by mixing powder
cement with water and various additives and injecting it into the annular area between the
casing and the wellbore. Oil well cementing is the process of placing cement slurry in the annulus
space between the well casing and the rock formations surrounding the wellbore(Hossain and Al-
Majed, n.d., p. 505)

Figure 9 Cement being pumped into the casing

3.3.1 Objectives of cementing
- To prevent formation collapse by supporting the wellbore walls.
- To establish zonal isolation between geological strata in order to prevent gas or fluid
migration between them. 
- To prevent infiltration of water into oil-producing zones.  

- To keep the casing in place and prevent it from collapsing under pressure by supporting
and sealing it.  
- To prevent well casing corrosion. 
- To reduce the risk of groundwater contamination by oil, gas, or saltwater.

3.3.2 Cement application

a. Primary cementing
Primary cementing is the process of sealing a casing or liner string in a cement sheath. Primary
cementing operations have three basic goals: zonal isolation to prevent fluid movement in the
annulus, casing or liner string support, and protection of the casing string from corrosive
formation fluids.

b. Squeeze cementing
Squeeze cementing is the technique of injecting cement into a limited zone behind the casing,
such as casing leaks or flow channels in formations. It's a repair job that's needed later in the
well's life to fix poor main cementing.

3.4 Summary
This chapter focuses on the types of casing, different components of casing and casing design,
and selection criteria. The chapter also discusses how well cementing plays a vital role by
providing the different functions throughout the life of a well.

Chapter 4: Well Completion

4.1 Introduction
Once a new hole has been drilled to the target level, the choice is taken whether to install
the production casing and finish the well or to plug and abandon it. This crucial assessment
comes after a thorough analysis and review of well test data (coring, logging, and so on).

In petroleum engineering, well completion is the process of making a drilled well ready for
production or injection.(Hossain and Al-Majed, n.d.). Well completion is defined as “the design,
selection and installation of equipment and the specification of treatment and procedures
necessary to allow a safe and controlled flow of hydrocarbon from the well and thereafter to
bring the well into production which satisfies the operator’s objectives for the field
development”. The optimal completion is the cheapest one that meets all of the requirements
throughout its production life. In basic words, "well completion" refers to the processes for
completing a newly drilled well so that reservoir fluids can be delivered effectively and safely to
surface production facilities.

In general, the process of completing a well includes

i) A method of providing satisfactory communication between the reservoir and

the borehole.
ii) The design of the tubular (casing and tubing) that will be installed in the well,
iii) An appropriate method of raising reservoir fluids to the surface.
iv) The design and installation in the well of the various components used to allow
efficient production, pressure integrity testing, and emergency containment of
reservoir fluids.

4.2 Requirements for Well Completion

The primary goal of well completion is to achieve maximum recovery in the safest and most
cost-effective manner possible. The diagram below depicts the several activities directly
connected to well completion. It is the result of the combined impacts of overall reservoir
condition, rock formation features, and fluid properties, project and economic viability, facility
construction, drilling and workover operations, environmental impact considerations, and
eventually production.
Figure 10; a completed sub-sea well

The technique or type of well completion, casing (tubing configuration), completion interval,
and size of production tubing are the most important considerations. The well completion
criteria are shown in the diagram below in chronological order.
Figure 11 different phases of well completion

Once the well completion objectives and the design criteria are set and the wellbore is constructed, the
completion components are installed. A well completion method should meet the following
requirements:

i. To the best extent possible, the connection between the reservoir and the wellbore should be
maintained under perfect conditions.
ii. The flow area between the reservoir and the wellbore should be as large as feasible to reduce oil
and gas flow resistance.
iii. Gas and water channeling and interlayer interference should be avoided by appropriately
isolating oil and gas reserves and aquifers.
iv. Sand production should be tightly regulated.
v. The completion should not only match the well's production needs, but also accommodate the
necessity for artificial lift production later on.
vi. In the later stages of field development, the completion method should allow for sidetracking if
necessary.

4.3 Types of Well Completion

The type of completion is determined by the reservoir's structural and/or geological properties,
formation rock type, and hydrocarbon presence. Completions can be classified into two
categories: conventional completions and smart completions.
Figure 12 different completion methods at production formation zones

In the oil and gas sector, there are various different types of well completions. Open-hole completion,
uncemented liner completion, cased and cemented completions, and perforated completions are the
four types. Various finishing operations are performed in some circumstances to avoid difficulties that
may develop during the reservoir's productive period.

4.3.1 Open-hole Completion

In the open-hole completion technique, production casing is set and cemented to a depth just
above the zone of interest (i.e. producing zone).

Open-hole completion means that the oil reservoir is completely exposed during the completion
of a straight or horizontal well. There are two types of procedures for open-hole completion.
(Renpu, 2011, p. 78) This technique of completion is best used when the reservoir rock has the
right mechanical strength, and it can only be used in reservoirs with enough formation strength
to avoid collapsing or sloughing.
Figure 13; Open-hole completion

4.3.2 Uncemented Liner Completions

Uncemented liners are designed to solve production issues associated with open-hole
completions and to increase their use in various formation types. In an unconsolidated
formation where sand is expected to develop, an uncemented liner may be employed.

An open hole is drilled and the production casing is placed above the producing zone. A short
piece of slotted or wire wrapped casing is then used to line the open hole (or tubing).

4.3.3 Cased and Cemented Completions

Due to technical concerns pertaining to the hole's stability, case-hole completions are more
often employed. This is the most prevalent sort of bottom-hole finishing procedure, especially in
offshore wells where they are more widespread. The production casing or liner is placed and
cemented through and beyond the producing zone or zones in this sort of completion. Shooting
holes in the casing or liner establishes communication with the reservoir.

4.3.4 Perforated Completion

Because of the selectivity, flexibility, cheaper prices, greater safety, and simplicity that these
types of completions give, they are the most preferred across the world. The pay section is
selectively perforated and the production casing is cemented through the producing zone.
Figure 14 a perforated liner at production zone

4.3.5 Multi-Zone Completions

The development of processes for multi-zone well completions has been prompted by the
introduction of directional and multilateral drilling. In general, the multilateral well completion
technique combines selected and many functions. It also has the unique feature of combining
many bores that converge into a mother well. The number of wells, their direction, disposition,
and inclination to the vertical, as well as the kind of completion and isolation chosen for the
well, all influence the development of different systems.
Figure 15; a multi-lateral well

Multi-zone wells can be completed in four different ways. Commingled production, sequential
zonal production, single string multi-zone segregated production, and multi-string (dual) multi-
zone segregated production are the four approaches.

1.7.1.1 Commingled production

It permits all zones to produce at the same time and is only permitted in certain circumstances
where there are no reservoir management issues and regulatory restrictions permit.

1.7.1.2 Sequential zonal production

Because of the simplicity and convenience of installation, completion designers choose single
string or single-zone completion approaches for multi-zone circumstances. This preference is
subject to economics, reservoir management and regulatory requirements.

1.7.1.3 Single string Multi-zone segregated production

When the initial zone has production challenges, these solutions give simple procedures for
bringing in new zones. They can also be used to manage reservoirs by enabling commingling or
separate section production at different phases of the well's life to optimize the reservoir's
maximum capacity.
1.7.1.4 Multi-string (dual) multi-zone segregated production
Dual string multi-zone completions are frequently employed in off-shore and stacked reservoirs
using parallel or concentric tubing. The production rate in the play zone is separated by the use
of parallel tubing. Inflow performance limits this, and the previous solutions outlined above
would be uneconomical. They may frequently double the production of a single well at a very
minimal cost.

4.4 Factors Influencing Well Completion Design

One of the most difficult duties in drilling operations is well completion selection. The optimal
completion is the one that has the lowest initial and ongoing expenses and satisfies the criteria
for the majority of its life. i) Natural occurrences in the field, i.e., does it have a large reserve to
warrant development? ii) Oil production potential and tertiary recovery strategy, i.e., will we
require any artificial lift in the future? And iii) operational and field constraints, such as whether
the oil field is in a distant location.

Several aspects must be considered throughout this stage of the planning process. These issues
can be divided into two categories: reservoir considerations and mechanical considerations.
Before making a design, both reservoir and mechanical factors must be considered. i) producing
rate, ii) numerous reservoirs, iii) reservoir drive mechanism, iv) secondary recovery needs, v)
stimulation, vi) sand control, vii) artificial lift, and viii) workover requirements are among the
reservoir concerns.

4.4.1 Reservoir consideration

In summary, reservoir considerations include the location of various fluids in formations
penetrated by the wellbore, their flow through the reservoir rock, and the rock's properties. The
production rate is sometimes used as the starting point for well completion design since it
delivers the best economic return.

4.4.2 Mechanical consideration

Mechanical considerations include; functional requirements, operating conditions, component
design, component dependability, and safety. The well's mechanical configuration is critical for
doing what has to be done in terms of managing the flow of reservoir fluids, such as oil, gas, and
water. Well completion design is a difficult mechanical challenge to solve. Both in terms of
equipment and procedure, the installation must be kept simple. All operating situations, as well
as accompanying pressure and temperature forces, should be anticipated by selected designs.
The well must be constructed with safety in mind.

4.5 Completion Equipment and Materials

The tools used to put together completion strings in a well are various and diverse.
As a result, only the most important features will be discussed in this chapter. Casing, cement,
perforating, and sand or gravel packs are all components of completions, as are production
equipment like tubing and packers, stimulation, and surface flow control like a wellhead or
Christmas tree.

4.5.1 Casing
The casing installation is an important part of the well drilling and completion process. It is the
initial stage in the process of drilling a well. A sequence of metal tubes is put in a newly bored
hole to finish the well casing. To achieve correct casing installation for each well, effective
planning is required. The type of casing used is determined by the well's underlying
characteristics, such as its diameter and the pressures and temperatures encountered
throughout the well.

Figure 16; Well completion equipment

4.5.2 Cement
The next phase in well completion is cementing the well once the casing has been completed.
This entails injecting cement slurry into the well to replace current drilling fluids and bridging
the gap between the casing and the drilled well's real sidewalls (i.e. annulus) The slurry, which is
made up of a particular blend of additives and cement, is allowed to cure, thereby sealing the
well against non-hydrocarbon fluid entry. The cement allows the casing to be permanently
positioned.

Figure 17; different equipment for a typical well

4.5.3 Perforating and Sand or Gravel Packs

Perforation is done on the casing and cement to allow the hydrocarbons to enter the wellbore.
This process involves running a perforation gun through a wireline, slackline or coiled tubing and
a reservoir-locating device into the wellbore.(Hossain and Al-Majed, n.d., p. 698)

When the reservoir level is reached, the gun is fired to make holes in the well's sidewalls,
allowing the hydrocarbons to flow into the wellbore. Bullets can be fired into the sidewalls of
the casing or jets, or shaped charges can be discharged into the casing to create holes.

4.5.4 Production equipment

The two major components of manufacturing equipment are tubing and packers. Except for the
injection of fresh water, tubing is necessary for the creation of gas containing more than 5%
hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and for all injections and disposals.
Except for the injection of fresh water and wells containing gas with higher than 5% H 2S, or if a
numbered highway or populated area is located within the well's emergency planning zone, all
injections and disposals must be done with a production packer. The principal conduit for
moving hydrocarbons from the reservoir to the surface is production tubing.

4.5.5 Downhole Gauges

This is an electronic or fiber optic sensor to provide continuous monitoring of downhole
pressure and temperature. Gauges either use a 1/4 control line clamped onto the outside of the
tubing string to provide an electrical or fiber optic communication to the surface or transmit
measured data to the surface by the acoustic signal in the tubing wall.

4.5.6 Perforated joint

This is a portion of tubing that has been perforated with holes. It is usually located beneath the
packer and provides a backup entry point for reservoir fluids into the tubing if the shoe becomes
blocked (for example by a stuck perforation gun).

4.5.7 Electrical Submersible Pump

For artificial lifts, this equipment is utilized. If reservoir pressure is insufficient, it helps to supply
energy to pump hydrocarbons to the surface.

4.5.8 Well simulation

Sometimes, petroleum exists in a formation but is unable to flow readily into the well because
the formation has very low permeability, which is called natural low permeability formation. In
addition, formation damage happens around the wellbore caused by the invasion of perforation
fluid and charge debris. Therefore, it is sometimes necessary to clear up the permeable path so
that there will be a smooth production of hydrocarbon. The main purpose of well stimulation is
to increase well productivity and to increase ultimate well recovery.

Figure 18; matrix acidizing process

4.6 Summary
Well, completion is a vital aspect in maintaining good well conditions and delivering the desired
oil rate at the lowest cost to the producing and surface processing facilities.
It also considers the long-term advantages of the reservoir's entire recovery. This chapter covers
the general well completion procedure, as well as the necessary equipment and its functions. It
also goes into the materials that are utilized in well completion projects. This chapter discusses
current well completion patterns and techniques, as well as future developments.

Chapter 5

Well Logging: Principles and Applications

5.1 Introduction
Well logging is a means of recording the physical, acoustic and electrical properties of the rocks
penetrated by a well.(Mondol, 2015, p. 385).

It is carried out by service companies that work for oil corporations on a contract basis. Logging
provides the benefit of measuring rock qualities in person, which cannot be evaluated in a lab
using core samples or cuttings. Logging began with basic electric logs that measured the
electrical conductivity of rocks, but it has evolved into a complex process that is now frequently
employed in various stages of hydrocarbon exploration, production, and monitoring. It offers a
thorough subsurface image of both slow and sudden changes in physical attributes from one
bed to the next, as well as a continuous downhole record. Only a small portion of the reservoir
rocks is cored, and samples of cuttings from the rest of the well provide only a basic knowledge
of the lithology.

Figure 19 Example of a logging tool (left, Courtesy of Schlumberger). The wireline logging operation showing logging truck, logging
cable strung into the rig, then lowered into the borehole with logging tools at the end of the cable (middle). Example of a recorded gamma
ray log display (right)
5.2 Logging tools
Logging tools have been developed over the years to measure radioactivity (e.g. Gamma Ray,
Neutron and Density logs), electrical properties (e.g. SP, Induction and Resistivity logs), acoustic
properties (Sonic log), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR log), pressure, and many other
properties of the rocks and their contained fluids.