SHS

Introduction to World Religions

and Belief Systems
Module 12:
The Brief History, Core Teachings,
Fundamental Beliefs, Practices,
and Related Issues of
Confucianism

AIRs - LM
LU_Introduction to World Religions and Belief Systems _Module12
HUMSS-INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS
Module 12: The Brief History, Core Teachings, Fundamental Beliefs, Practices, and
Related Issues of Confucianism
Second Edition, 2021

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 SHS
Introduction to World
Religions and Belief Systems
Module 12:
The Brief History, Core Teachings,
Fundamental Beliefs, Practices,
and Related Issues of
Confucianism
Introductory Message
This Self-Learning Module (SLM) is prepared so that you, our dear
learners, can continue your studies and learn while at home. Activities,
questions, directions, exercises, and discussions are carefully stated for you
to understand each lesson.

Each SLM is composed of different parts. Each part shall guide you
step-by-step as you discover and understand the lesson prepared for you.

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module or if you need to ask your facilitator or your teacher’s assistance for
better understanding of the lesson. At the end of each module, you need to
answer the post-test to self-check your learning. Answer keys are provided
for each activity and test. We trust that you will be honest in using these.

In addition to the material in the main text, Notes to the Teacher are
also provided to our facilitators and parents for strategies and reminders on
how they can best help you on your home-based learning.

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Thank you.
 Target

Confucius' teachings became the state philosophy of China during the Han
Dynasty. His teachings were the basis of the government civil service exams. The
government liked Confucianism because it taught to respect authority and that a
strong central government was important.
The worldly concern of Confucianism rests upon the belief that human
beings are fundamentally good, and teachable, improvable, and perfectible through
personal and communal endeavor, especially self-cultivation and self-creation.
Confucian thought focuses on the cultivation of virtue in a morally organized
world.
This Self Learning Material is prepared for you to have a better
understanding of the topic. You will surely enjoy using this learning material
because it is self-directed and self-paced and will provide you with information
about the brief history, core teachings, fundamental beliefs, practices, and related
issues of Confucianism.

Most Essential Learning Competency

Analyze the brief history, core teachings, fundamental beliefs, practices, and
related issues of Confucianism. (HUMSS_WRB12-Week 12)
You’re Task:
Now that you know that you will be learning, let’s take a little time to know
what is expected from you. As a learner, you are expected to:
- define Confucianism
- share understanding about Confucianism
- explain impacts of Confucianism in the present time
- analyze the brief history, core teachings, fundamental beliefs, practices, and
related issues of Confucianism.

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 Jumpstart

For you to understand the lesson well, do the following activities.

Have fun and good luck!

Directions: Using the mind map below, list down all your ideas about
Confucianism (History, Core teachings, Fundamental beliefs, Practices). Use a
separate sheet of paper for your answers.

Confucianism

Figure 1

1. 6.
2. 7.
3. 8.
4. 9.
5. 10.

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 Discover

Confucianism
The fundamental concern of the Confucian tradition is learning to be
human. Learning to be human, in the Confucius perspective, entails a broadening,
and deepening of thought and being that acknowledge the interconnectedness of
all the modalities of existence defining the human condition. Through an ever-
expanding network relationship, the Confucian seeks to realize humanity in its all-
embracing fullness. Self-cultivation is an end in itself and its primary purpose is
self-realization. As such a defining characteristic of Confucianism is faith in the
creative transformation of our human condition as a communal act and as a
dialogical response to heaven. This involves the integration of the four dimensions
of humanity: self, community, nature, Heaven.
China’s Three Teaching
There are three major religions in China, namely, Confucianism, Taoism,
and Buddhism. These three religions are collectively called the Three Doctrines
(Molloy 2010, 215) or the Three Teachings (Deming 2015, 119), suggesting their
harmonious co-existence throughout Chinese history. It is said that it is typical
among Chinese, though some may consider themselves as belonging to one of
these religions, to engage in some of the practices of these three religions at the
same time. Of these three religions, Confucianism and Taoism originated in China,
for Buddhism was only brought to China. These three religions flourished in China
almost within the same period, and they influenced each other’s development. We
have already examined Buddhism in a previous chapter and some of the forms it
has taken when it was brought to other countries, especially China and Japan. In
this chapter and the next, we shall then focus on Confucianism and Taoism.
In 2007, it was estimated that there were 6,447,200 followers of
Confucianism in the whole world; and majority of them (6,376,000) lived in Asia
(Matthews 2010, 172). The term “Confucianism” was originally used by the Jesuits
of the sixteenth century to refer to a Chinese cultural tradition named the Ru
Tradition, which generally meant “the tradition of the scholars.” The Jesuits,
accordingly, wanted to transform the tradition into a school of thought, or an
“ism.” Referring to the said tradition as “Ju,” Rule (1986, 2, 195) writes: Until

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Nicholas Trigault published his version of Ricci’s journals in 1615, there was hardly
any knowledge of, not to say debate about, Confucianism ...The Jesuits were
virtually the first Europeans to discover Confucius and Confucianism, ‘the sect of the
literati’ as they not inaccurately called it... The Jesuits, representatives of European
values and intellectual methods, attempted ... to understand Chinese intellectual life
in terms of systems, and transmuted the tradition of the Ju or Chinese ‘scholars’ into
an ‘-ism’, Confucianism. (Quoted in Yao 2000, 16-17)
In addition, Ru were devoted to the study of the “six classics” (the Book of
Poetry, the Book of History, the Book of Rites, the Book of Music, the Book of
Changes, and the Spring and Autumn Annals) and emphasized the virtues of
humaneness (ren) and righteousness (yi) (Yao 2000,17). The association, and
eventually the identification, of the Ru tradition with Confucianism was based on
the recognition of Confucius as the highest figure in the Ru tradition. He was a
great master, teacher, and innovator of the Ru tradition. In light of these
considerations, we thus say that Confucianism has its roots in the Ru tradition.
The originality in Confucianism, as a religion or as a philosophy, lies in the changes
that Confucius and his followers introduced to the tradition to nurture or cultivate
it (Yao 2000, 21.
Confucius is the recognized founder of Confucianism. Though there are
some disagreements about the details in his life, there is no doubt that Confucius
was a historical figure. Also, there was nothing extra-human or supernatural, or
mythical, about the events in his life. He was born in the normal human way, and
he lived and died in the normal human way. Confucius is believed to have lived
from 551 to 479 BCE. His original Chinese name was “Kong Qiu” (or “K’ung Ch’iu);
but he later on became known by the title “Kong Fuzi” (or “Kung Fu Tzu”), which
meant “Master Kong.” The name “Confucius” was actually a Romanized/Latinized
version of his name, created and spread by sixteenth century Jesuit missionaries
(Molloy 2010, 235; Littlejohn 2011, xviii). The following were the highlights of
Confucius’ life as gathered from the accounts by different scholars* which vary in
emphasis and level of detail (see, for instance, the accounts of Molloy 2010, 235-
236; Matthews 2010,182-183; Urubshurow 2009, 458-463; Yao 2000, 21-26).
Confucius was born in the state of Lu, or Shantung province— (presently
Qufu, south of Beijing). His father, named Shulianghe, was a tall soldier who later
on worked as a minor official in Lu (as head of a certain county in Lu). His father
died when he was just three years old. This later on forced the young Confucius to
engage in various forms of physical labor to help his family and finance his studies.

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But despite the difficult circumstances in his life, Confucius was still able to study
and master the skills being studied by educated boys of aristocratic families,
namely, ceremonies, music, archery, carriage driving, calligraphy, and calculation
(or mathematics). It is said that Confucius pursued these things for he simply
loved doing them. He also studied works that later on were called Confucian
classics. While being poor, Confucius grew up as a gentleman. When his mother
died when he was seventeen years old, he mourned for twenty-seven months,
refraining from work, sexual relations, eating refined food, wearing fine clothes,
playing music and others. He later on got married and had a son and a daughter.
He first worked as a keeper of the granary accounts of the Chi family. This
experience opened his eyes to social injustices. Later on, he became a successful
teacher. But he still longed to play an influential part in the government, for he
believed that he could institute social changes once in a government post. At the
age of 51, he became the head of a county in Lu, just like his father. After a few
years, he became the Minister of Industry, Minister of Public Security, and acting
Prime Minister of Lu. His political career, however, was cut short when he offended
one of Lu’s powerful noblemen. At the age of fifty-five, he left Lu and went into exile
in 497 BCE. Along with his disciples, he travelled to several states to search for
other positions while approaching princes and dukes to promote his social
teachings. He was often rejected and once he was even imprisoned and their lives
(his and his students) were endangered. In 484 BCE, Confucius and his disciples
returned to Lu, when the Duke of Ai of Lu invited Confucius to act as his adviser.
He spent his last years as a scholar editing the classics. He died in 479 BCE at the
age of seventy-two or seventy-three.
The Sacred Texts
The sacred and authoritative texts of Confucianism consist of two collections of
books named the Five Classics and the Four Books. The Five Classics (Wujing, Wu-
ching) consist of the following:
1. Book of History {or Book of Documents) {Shujing, Shu Ching): a collection of
historical materials (speeches and reports) on the deeds of emperors, and
pieces used in ritual dance performance at the Zhou royal court (roughly
from 3000 BCE to 700 BCE). The documents contain the idea of the
Mandate of Heaven, the belief that Heaven grants its mandate to emperors
who care for their subjects.
2. Book of Poetry (Shijing, Shih Ching): a collection of 305 poems of the Zhou
period, whose topics include love and war, and are grouped into folk songs,

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 festal songs sung at court ceremonies, and hymns and eulogies sung at
sacrifices to heroes and ancestral spirits of the royal house. It is believed
that there were originally 3,000 poems but Confucius just chose 305 and
“edited them into a book to be used for education” (Yao 2000, 59).
3. Book of Changes (Yijing, / Ching): a book containing a divination system,
referring to a system that shows the patterns of the universe through the
use of the hexagrams (patterns of six yin-yang, divided- undivided, lines),
and which, consequently, enables us to foresee or predict future events. It
was in this book that the concepts of yin and yang were introduced.
4. Book of Rites (Liji, Li Chi): a book containing detailed rules for performing
rites and court ceremonies.
5. Spring and Autumn Annals (Chunqui, Ch’un Ch’iu): a collection of historical
records about the state of Lu, the state where Confucius was born and died.
It must be noted that another book, called the Book of Music, used to be
regarded as the sixth classic. But this book no longer exists. Some think that parts
of this book may have been incorporated in the Book of Rites. Some (Yao 2000, 57)
think that it might have been included in the books burned during the Burning of
the Books, a period, during the Qin Dynasty in 221 BCE, when Confucian
teachings were seen as a threat to the then existing political power (the ban on
Confucian books was lifted when the Qin Dynasty was later on overthrown by the
Han Dynasty in 191 BCE.).
These classics were called “Confucian Classics” not only because of their
relation to the teachings of Confucius, but also because it was traditionally believed
that Confucius played a significant role in their formation. In particular, it was
traditionally believed that Confucius was the one responsible for the form in which
each’ of these books presently appears. The writings were already there but they
were disorganized. Confucius edited and rearranged them so that he could take
them as textbooks for his students (Yao 2000, 53; see also Matthews 2010,188).
Some contemporary scholars, however, have raised some questions about this
belief (Yao 2000, 53-54).
 The Four Books, on the other hand, consist of the following:
1. Analects (Lunyu, Lun Yu): a collection of the sayings, speeches, and
discussions of Confucius and his followers. The sayings and short stories often
begin with the phrase “The Master said.” As Confucius did not write down his
teachings, his students took notes of them. These notes were later on compiled to
form the Analects.

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 2.Great Learning (Daxue, Ta Hsueh): a text discussing the character and
influence of the noble person and deals with the three central Confucian
concerns: education, morality, and politics. It teaches the cultivation of the self
and development of one’s virtue, through learning, as the way to produce order in
the family and state. This book is actually a chapter in the Book of Rites.
3. Doctrine of the Mean (Zhongyong, Chung Yung): a book that
demonstrates the relation of the Way of Heaven and human nature. Accordingly,
it is the way prescribed by heaven that humans achieve virtue or happiness by
living a life of moderation or equilibrium. This book is another chapter in the
Book of Rites, which is believed to have been written by Zisi, a grandson of
Confucius.
4. Mencius {Mengzi, Meng Tzu): a collection of the teachings of Mencius,
often in the form of conversations that Mencius had with kings during his time.
The sayings of the Mencius, just like the Analects, often begin with the phrase
“Mencius said.” Mencius, who lived some generations after Confucius, is regarded
as the second great Confucian thinker after Confucius. Among the key ideas of
Mencius is the thought that human nature is good.
Central Ethical Principal
“Ren” is the central ethical principle, and is equivalent to the concepts love,
mercy, and humanity. It is best explicated by Confucius in the following statement:
“Do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself.” This ethical
principle is further strengthened by the Buddhist tradition that merit is
accumulated by doing merciful acts, which leads to a better next life through
reincarnation.
Five Cardinal Relations
There are five cardinal relations (“wu lun”)
1. Sovereign-Subject
2. Father-Son
3. Elder-Young Brother
4. Husband-Wife
5. Friend-Friend
The family is the center and comes before the individual. The father is the
undisputed head of the family. With regard to filial piety (“xiao”), sons, especially
the oldest son, have specific obligations toward the family and are expected to
respect and care for parents (McLaughlin & Braun, 1998). In pre-modern China, the
act of suicide was not necessarily deviant behavior if it was associated with duty or
loyalty to the family.
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 The Confucian Virtues
Confucius identifies certain virtues, called the Confucian Virtues, which a person
must have to be a junzior a noble person. These virtues are often also called the
five cardinal virtues of Confucianism. But except for the virtues of ren (benevolence)
and li (propriety), scholars differ on what the remaining virtues are to comprise the
five cardinal virtues. The following is one list (by Molloy 2010, 241-43):
1. Ren (Jen) or benevolence or humaneness: generally doing things that benefit
other people. A person practicing ren has compassion for others—as “[compassion
for others is the mark of a good person” (Matthews 2010, 185).
2. Li or propriety: generally doing things that are appropriate in a given situation. It
originally refers to proper ways of performing religious rites and to proper
behavior in court ceremonies. In its general meaning, however, it includes proper
ways of speaking, behaving, dressing, and others, in given social situations. One
has to observe li in every area of life, as in the basic relationships we discussed
above. When the virtue of li is internalized, the result is the virtue of yi (“Yi is
internalized li”—Matthews 2010, 185). One has yi when one has incorporated li
in his/her life.
3. Shu or reciprocity: generally doing things in accordance to the Golden Rule: “Do
not do unto others what you do not want others to do unto you.” In the Analects,
Confucius emphasizes the importance of reciprocity as follows: “Tsu-kung asked,
‘Is there a single word which can be a guide to conduct throughout one’s life?’ The
Master said, ‘It is perhaps the word shu. Do not impose on others what you
yourself do not desire’” (quoted in Matthews 2010, 185).
4. Xiao or filial piety: generally doing things that show love, respect, and
devotion to the members of one’s family. Special emphasis, however, is put on the
duty of children to respect and take care of their parents. In the Analects, we can
read Confucius’ emphasis on the element of respect when taking care of one’s
parents; thus: “Confucius’ pupil Ziyou asked about filial piety. Confucius said, today
filial piety means being about the task of nourishing one’s parents. But that is what
we do for dogs and horses. If the/e is not respect, how do these actions differ?”’
(quoted in Deming 2015, 125). The living and those who passed away constitute
the Chinese concept of family; thus, the virtue of xiao includes the celebration of
ancestral rites that prescribe specific actions, offerings and prayers.

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5. Wen or culture: generally doing things that cultivate one’s sense and appreciation of
culture, which includes acquiring artistic skills (in the areas of music, painting,
dance, and others) and art appreciation (like watching concerts, visiting art
museums, attending art exhibits, and others).
Doctrines, Practices and Rituals
Although Confucianism does not brag to have all the clear-cut answers of
the universe, the ones who practice have a strong belief in rituals. They believe that
participation in ritual serves uniting people and strengthening the community.
However, Confucianism does not hold all the aspects of a religion (such as
Christianity or Islam), nor do they hold regular practices and rituals. Instead, they
symbolize four important times in one’s life. These are birth, reaching maturity,
marriage and death. The practices that go along with these stages are:
 Birth
The Tai-Shen (spirit of the fetus) protects the expectants mother and deals
harshly with anyone/thing that harasses or harms the woman. She receives a
special diet and is given one month to rest after the delivery of the baby. Her
parents are responsible for everything that is needed to support the child, on the
first, fourth-, and twelfth-month anniversary of the child’s birth.
 Death
After the death of a loved one, the family cry aloud to inform the neighbors of
the tragic news. The family begin to mourn by making clothes made of course
material and wearing them. The corpse is placed in a coffin, and many families and
friends bring money to help with the cost of the funeral. Food and objects
important to the deceased are placed into the coffin with him/her. A priest or
minister of any religion performs the burial ritual. The guests follow the coffin
carrying a large willow tree branch. This is meant to symbolize the soul of the
person who has died. Later on, the branch is carried back to the family altar where
is used to "install" the spirit of the deceased. A public worship (called a Liturgy)
is performed on the seventh, ninth, and forty-ninth days after the burial, along with
the first- and third-year anniversary of the death.
https://confucianismbmhs.weebly.com/beliefs--practices.html
 Mandate of Heaven
The belief in the Tao, which generally means Way or Path, as the ultimate
principle governing the universe, and which must be realized by every human
being in his/her actions is shared by both Confucians and Taoists. They, however,
have different attitudes towards the nature of the Tao, or ways of dealing with
it, and
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different views on how the Tao is to be realized or cultivated by humans in their
lives. Taoists believe that the Tao is beyond concepts and words and thus no
amount of education will enable us to know its real nature. The Tao that can be
talked about does not refer to the real, eternal Tao, as the Tao Te Ching (the main
Taoist text) states. What we can do is simply go with its flow, as manifested in the
way nature moves. We shall explore this Taoist attitude towards the Tao in the next
chapter. Confucians, in contrast, think of the Tao as contained in the Way of
Heaven (“Heaven” is Tian, the Will of Heaven or Mandate of Heaven is Tien ming),
which can be known or learned through proper education (by studying the
Confucian books). The emperors of the past, for instance, who ruled by serving the
interests of their people had the Mandate of Heaven. And so studying how these
emperors ruled (in the Book of History) is one way to know the Way of Heaven. The
ideal of Confucians is thus to know the Way of Heaven through education and to
conduct their lives accordingly. “Thus, they devote their life to learning, education
and the transmission of ancient culture because of their belief in the Mandate of
Heaven which can be known through learning, divination and observation ...”
states Yao (2000, 147). For “[t]he Way of Heaven signifies morality, and to follow
the Way of Heaven is to lead a virtuous life” (Yao 2000, 148). Confucians, in sum,
do not speak of a God or gods to ground or justify their beliefs and practices. They
instead speak of the Way or the Mandate of Heaven.
 The Noble Person (Junzi, Chun Tzu)
The way of humans should be in harmony with the way of heaven. Another
way of saying this is that human actions should have the Mandate of Heaven. The
ideal human for Confucians is therefore one who has known the Way of Heaven
through education and acts in harmony with it. Such an ideal human, from the
Confucian point of view, is called a junzi {chun tzu), which is translated as a
superior man, an excellent person, a gentleman, a virtuous person, an exemplary
person, or a noble person.
 Respect for Ancestors and Temple Worship
As noted above, the Chinese concept of family extends to those who have
already passed away. Consequently, the Confucian virtue of filial piety, which
requires respect for one’s family members especially the elders, extends to one’s
dead relatives. To show respect for one’s dead relatives one visits their graves at
least once a year (especially during Tomb Sweeping Day). Family members clean
the tombs of their dead relatives; they place the favorite food and wine of their dead
relatives on their graves, burn incense, and kneel before their graves to pray for

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them. Respect for the dead relatives is also done at home or at a temple. At home,
families usually put-up shrines dedicated to their dead relatives. In these shrines
are ancestral tablets (stones in which the names of the deceased relatives are
curved), portraits of the dead relatives, and incense-stick holders. Confucians also
visit temples to show their respect to Confucius and to pray for his blessings. The
rituals in these temples vary from one region to another.
 Key Festivals and Holidays
Some of the main festivals and holidays celebrated by Confucians are as
follows: birthday of Confucius (September 28th, lasts 10 days), Chinese New Year
(January 31st), Ching Ming or Qingming, also known as Tomb-Sweeping Day or
Ancestors’ Day (takes place 106 days after the winter solstice, families visit their
ancestors or relatives’ graves), and Chongmyo Taeje (to honor the kings and queens
of the Yi dynasty, takes place on the 1st Sunday of May).
Some Challenges
In his discussion of “Confucianism and the Modern World,” Molloy (2010,255-258)
identifies some major challenges of Confucianism. First, the educational
curriculum of Confucianism which was adopted by the government collapsed
during the downfall of the Qing (Chi’ing) Dynasty in 1911. One reason was the
challenge posed by modern education which was more scientific and technology-
based. When modern technology coming from Europe was introduced in China,
traditional Confucianism appeared inadequate. Second, the New Culture movement
in China in 1916, led by those who were able to study in Western universities,
criticized Confucianism on many aspects of it. The movement was heavily
influenced by pragmatism—which generally views truth in terms of its usefulness
or practical consequences. Among others, the movement criticized Confucianism
for allegedly “enslaving women to their fathers and husbands, of subjugating sons
to tyrannical fathers, and of keeping alive a culture and literature that only looked
to the past” (Molloy 2010, 255). Third, Confucianism was greatly weakened when
the Communists took over mainland China in 1949.The communists were critical
of Confucianism for allegedly preaching elitism rather than egalitarianism, or for
preaching inequality in that some people are more privileged and noble than others.
While Confucianism teaches that everyone, in theory, can be a junzi or a noble
person, in practice, not all can avail of the Confucian training necessary to achieve
it. Communists, in contrast, hold that education should be equal to all.

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 Explore

Activity 2. I AM MENTALLY HEALTHY

Directions: Fill in the K and W columns before the lesson. Fill in the L column
after the lesson. Use separate sheet of paper for your answer.

K W

What I know about Confucianism What I want to know

about Confucianism

L
What I have learned about Confucianism
(Write at least the five most important ones.)

(Please refer to the given rubrics)

Area of
10 8 6 4
Assessment
Ideas were Ideas may be Ideas were Ideas were
clearly evident, but the present but poorly
Development organized, on organization of vague developed
of Ideas point and thoughts need and lack
supported with to be organization
valid reasons strengthened
Well written Well written Awkward Poor writing
and fully and, most writing style with little to
elaborated points and points are no specific
Elaboration points with elaborated with general. details
clear and clear and Errors are
accurate detailed also present
information information

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 Deepen

Activity 3. Think It! Write it Up!

Directions: Go online and search: The brief history, core teachings, fundamental
beliefs, practices, and related issues of Confucianism. Answer the following
questions: Use separate sheet of paper for your answer.

1. What were the skills Confucius interested in acquiring? Do you think that
these skills are still relevant in our time? Why?
2. Do you think knowledge of our own rites, rituals, and ceremonies (and how
they should be performed properly) should be part of our education? Why?
3. What for you should one know to be considered an educated person?

(Please refer to the given rubrics)

Area of
10 8 6 4
Assessment
Ideas were Ideas may be Ideas were Ideas were
clearly evident, but the present but poorly
Development organized, on organization of vague developed
of Ideas point and thoughts need to and lack
supported with be strengthened organization
valid reasons

Well written and Well written and, Awkward Poor writing

fully elaborated most points writing style with little to
points with clear elaborated with and points no specific
Elaboration
and accurate clear and are general. details
information detailed Errors are
information also present

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 Gauge

Activity 4. HOW WELL DO YOU KNOW?

Directions: Identify what is referred in the following sentences. Choose the letter
of your answer from the choices. Use separate sheet of paper for your answers.

A. Li (propriety) F. Wen (culture)

B. Zhinyong Chung Yung (Doctrine of
the Mean)
C. Ren (benevolence/humaneness
D. Shu (reciprocity)
E. Lunyu Lun Yu (Analects)
G. Mengzi Meng Tzu (Mencius)
H. Confucius
I. Xiao (filial piety)
J. Daxue Ta Hsueh (Great Learning)

1. Generally doing things in accordance to the Golden Rule: “Do not do unto
others what you do not want others to do unto you.”
2. Generally doing things that cultivate one’s sense and appreciation of
culture, which includes acquiring artistic skills (in the areas of music,
painting, dance, and others) and art appreciation (like watching concerts,
visiting art museums, attending art exhibits, and others).
3. Generally doing things that benefit other people. A person practicing ren
has compassion for others—as “compassion for others is the mark of a
good person”.
4. Generally doing things that show love, respect, and devotion to the
members of one’s family.
5. Generally doing things that are appropriate in a given situation. It
originally refers to proper ways of performing religious rites and to
proper behavior in court ceremonies.
6. A collection of the teachings of Mencius, often in the form of conversations
that Mencius had with kings during his time.
7. A text discussing the character and influence of the noble person and
deals with the three central Confucian concerns: education, morality, and
politics.
8. A collection of the sayings, speeches, and discussions of Confucius and
his followers.
9. A book that demonstrates the relation of the Way of Heaven and human
nature.
10. Was born in the state of Lu, or Shantung province— (presently Qufu,
south of Beijing)

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