.

Acdest;
CHAPTER: 14
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

Formation of Energy Bands: According the Bohr's atomic

isolated (free) atom, the energy levels of clectrons are
to model, in case of
well defined (discrete). But in
case of solids, there is an
electrostatic interaction between electron of one atom and
the electrons of
neighboring atoms and hence the energy levels of each atom
overlap
and form a band. The resulting continuous group of closely spaced energy levels 1s
called as energy band.
Energy Band: It is a continuous group of
closely spaced
energy levels or It is the continuous range of
Eley)
nergies
possessed by an electron in solid. There are nfinitely
many energy bands in solids. The most important energy
bands are
1. Valence Band: It is the Energy band occupied by valence electrons or The energy
the
band which includes energylevels of the valence electrons is called the valence
band. Valance band is completely filled at OK.
Conduction band
2. Conduction Band: The energy band occupied
by conduction electrons or the energy band
above the valance band is called conduction
Energy gaplEg)
band. Conduction band may beempty or Valence band
partially or completely filled.
Forbidden Band or Energy Band Gap (E):The separation between top of
valence band and bottom of conduction band is called forbidden band. Electrons
do not exist in this gap.
Classification of materials on the basis of Conductivity or Resistivity:

Conductors (Metals)D Semiconductors Insulators

have resistivity They have very high
They have very low | They
resistivity (10 2m to intermediate to conductors and resistivity (10" Am to|
insulators (102m to 10° 2m). | 10" Nm).
10 2m).
have conductivity They have very low
They have very high | They (10
conductivity (10 Sm to intermediate to conductors and conductivity
10° Sm). insulators (10° Sm to 10 Sm to 10-" Sm).
Sm ).
conductivity (or
Their conductivity Their conductivity increases (or Their
decreases) with resistivity) does not
decreases (or resistivity resistivity
varies with
with increase in increase in temperature.
increases) temperature.
temperature.
-118-
 and IuSulators on the basis3 61
Semiconductors
Conductors,
Distinguish between
bandtheory ofsolids: Semiconductors
Insulators
Conductors
materials in which
materials in which | The
The materials in which | The and conduction band and
conduction band
conduction band and valance | valance band separated
valance band separated by |
band overlapped (E =0) are | band
called conductors. small energy band gap | by large energy
>3 eV) are

(E 3 eV) are called | gap (E

called insulators.
Semiconductors.

structure at
band structure at | Energy band structure at | Energy band
Energy room temperature:
room temperature: room temperature:
Empty Conduction band
Partlally filed Conduction band
E 3eV
3ev
Ev

band is Conduction band is

Conduction band is Conduction
with free complctcly empty at
completely filled with free partially filled
electrons at room temp. electrons at room room teniperature.

temperature.
Electrons are charge cariers. | Electrons and holes are | No charge carriers.
charge cariers.

Note:
1. In metals (conductors): only electrons are charge carriers.
In semiconductors: elecirons and holes are charge carriers. (Note that, no charge
carriers at OK in semiconductors).
In insulators: no charge carriers.
2. Elemental semiconductors: Ge(E =0.72eV) and Si (E = 1.l eV).
3. Compound semiconductors: examples are
Compound Inorganic: Cds, GaAs, CdSe, InP, etc.
.Compound Organic: Anthracene, doped pthalocyanines,
Compound Organic polymers: polypyrrole, polyaniline, etc.

|4. C, Si and Ge have same lattice structure. Why C is insulator while Si and Ge are
intrinsic semiconductors?
Ans: The four bonding electrons of
C, Si and Ge lie in the second, third and fourth
orbit respectively. Hence, energy needed to take out an electron (ionisation energy
rom these atoms will be least for Ge, followed by Si and highest for C. Hence
number offree electrons for conduction: in Ge and Si are significat but negligibly
small for C.
 W h a t is Hole?
electronic charge (te) in
with effective positive
"electron vacancy
Ans: Hole is
valance band of semiconductor"
senmiconductors:

creation of holes in form

Explain the electrons. These
electrons

Ge, Si
like have four valance conduct
Pure
semiconductors
electrons are free to
atoms. So no
with nearest neighbour as insulator at
four covalent bonds Hence "pure
semiconductors behave

zero temperature).
at OK (absolute

OK and hence few

electrons
covalent bonds breaks
increases, few created in
As temperature becomes free, an vacancy is
conduction. When electron
becomes free for
bond with effective positive charge
(te) is called jole.
electrons
directiotni opposite to motion of the
in a
The hole in valence band
moves
+ e)
hole is considered as positive charge (with charge
in conduction band. Therefore,
carrier.

i) Two-dimensional structure ii) Model of generation of hole

- electron pair(T >0K):
ofGe/Si at T= OK:
Electron vacancy
(hole) Ge

Ge
(
Free electron

v p e s of Semiconductors: Semiconductors are oftwo types, namely

1) Intrinsic Semiconductors 2) Extrinsic Semiconductors
1) Intrinsic Semiconductors:

are called
semiconductors intrinsic
(free from impuitiesand crystal defects)
Pure
semiconductors. Ex:germanium(Ge), silicon (Si).
valance electrons. These electrons form
Puresemiconductors like Ge,Sinave tour
four covalent bonds withzero
nearest
negnborng atoms. So n o electrons are free to
temperaeure). Hence pure semiconductors behave as
conduct at OK (absolute
insulator at OK or at low
temperature.
 are created due to breaking of
clectron hole pairs
As temperature increases, electrons and holes is a n 'intrinsic'
of charge carriers,
covalent bonds (The presence

property of the material). to number of

number of electrons is always equal
n intrinsic semiconductors,
electrons and holes produced in pairs).
holes (
i.e.
concentration.
where n; is called intrinsic carrier
potential
electric field, free electrons m o v e towards positive
Under the action of
holes move towards negative
potential end giving
end giving electron current (T.) and
sum of hole current
and electron current.
hole current (h). The total current I is the

I = Ie+ Ih
Semiconductors at T =
0K and
structure of Intrinsic
Q. Write the energy band
T OK.

Empty Conduction band Partlyfilled

Ec Ec

E, E
anreroanc

At T OK At T OKK
Ecbottom of CB, Eytop of VB
0-hole electron
Extrinsic Semiconductors: An impure or doped semiconductor is called extrinsic
semiconductor.

Formation of Extrinsic semiconductors:

The conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors depends only on its temperature, but
their conductivity is very low at room
temperature. Therefore, intrinsic
semiconductors are not suitable to
develop some improvement electronic devices.
Hence it is necessary to improve their
conductivity. This can be done by adding
suitable impurities to pure semiconductors like Ge and Si.
When small amount (say, few parts per million
added to pure semiconductor, (ppm)) of suitable impurity is
the conductivity is increased manifold (many
Such materials are known as extrinsic or times).
deliberate addition of a suitable doped or
impurity semiconductors. The
the impurity atoms are called impurity to pure semiconductor
is called
dopants. doping and
 The following are the necessary conditions for doping:
1) The size of dopant atoms and the size of pure semiconductor atoms should be
nearly same.
2) The dopant atons should not distort the original crystal lattice of pure
semiconductor.
To follow the above conditions, pentavalent atoms and trivalent atoms are chosen
as impurities to add with pure semiconductors like Ge and Si to obtain extrinsic
semiconductors. There are two types of dopants used in doping the tetravalent Si and
Ge.
1. Pentavalent impurity: like Arsenic (As), Phosphorous (P), Bismuth (Bi),
Aptimony (Sb). The addition of pentavalent atoms to pure semiconductors results
N-type semiconductors.
2. Trivalent impurity atoms like Aluminium (Al), Indium (In), Boron (B), Gallium
(Ga).
The addition oftrivalent atoms to pure semiconductors results P-type semiconductors.

Note:
1) For extrinsic semiconductors, the electron and hole concentration in a
semiconductor at thermal equilibriumis given by ne nh= n
where ne - concentration of free electrons,
n - concentration of holes,

n - intrinsic carrier concentration.

2) Both p - type andn- type semiconductors are electrically neutral. Because, they
are obtained by adding neutral impurity atoms to neutral pure semiconductor (Si or
Ge).
Problem:
A semiconductor has equal electron and hole concentration of 8 x 10" /m. On
doping, the hole concentration increases to 4 x 10 /m.
i) Identify the new type of semiconductor obtained after doping.
ii) Find the new electron concentration.
Ans: i) p-type semiconductor.
=4x 10 /m.
ii) given n, 8 x 10° Im', na
=

Use the formula n, nh* n

n (4 x 10")=(8 x 10
n = 16 x 10/m

atoms to the pure semiconductor to

Doping: The process of adding suitable impurity
is called doping and the inpurity atoms are
increase its conductivity considerably
called dopants.

-122
 i

5.Ac"T
VDonor: The
impurity atom which donates free electron to pure semiconductorsis
called donor. Example: Pentavalent atoms like Arsenic (As), Phosphorous
Bisnuth (Bi), Antimony (Sb). (P),
Acceptor: The impurity atom which accepts electron from pure semiconductor is
called acceptor. Example: Trivalent atoms like Aluminium (Al), Indium
B), Gallium (Ga). (In), Boron
Mention the factors which
on
electuical conductivity of semiconductors depend:
i) For Intrinsic
semiconductor, conductivity depends only on temperaturc,
ii) For extrinsic
semiconductor, conductivity depends its
Concentration of impurity atoms.
on
temperature and

Mention the methods of

increasing the conductivity of semiconductors:
1) In. intrinsic semiconductors, conductivity be increased
can
only by rising
temperature.
2) In extrinsic semiconductors, conductivity can be increased
a) by adding suitable impurity atoms and
6) by raising the temperature.
VDistinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors:
Intrinsic Semiconductors Extrinsic Semiconductors
These are Pure semiconductors like These are impure or doped semiconductors.
Ge and Si.
Number of free electrons and holes Number of Free electrons and holes are
are equal. unequal.
Conductivity depends only on Conductivity depends on
temperature and|
temperature. concentration of impurity atoms.
Conductivity is due to both holes and Conductivity is mainly due to majority charge
electrons. carriers
Their conductivity is relatively very Their conductivity is relatively high at room
low at room temperature. temperature.
No charge carriers at OKK Either Electrons or Holes are charge carriers at
Ci.e. They donotconduct at 0 K). OK (ie They conduct even at 0 K).
Types of extrinsic semiconductors:
1. n-type semiconductors Ge
Free
2. p-type semiconductors electron

N-type semiconductors: Ge
N-type semiconductors are obtained
by adding a pentavalent impurity
(donar) atom like As, Sb, P,... to a Ge
pure semiconductor like Ge or Si.

-12.3
 The phosphorous atomn has five valence clectrons. Among these, four electrons a
involved in the formation of four covalent bonds with the nearest
germanium
atoms. The fifth clcctron is free as shown in
figurc.
.Thus each phosphorous atom donates one free electron. These free electrons cause
conduction cven at 0K.
Energy band diagram,T >OK
When temperature increases (T> 0
K),electron-
pnductonbap hole pairs are produced by the
breakage of
-

----o covalent bonds. As a result, density of free

B electrons (n.) is greater than the density of holes
aae barnd (nh). Therefore free electrons are majority charge
carriers and holes are minority
Ecbottom of CB charge carriers in
the n-type semiconductors.
Eytopof VB
Edonarlevel For n-type sëmiconductor n,>>Dh
P-type semiconductors:
P-type semiconductors are
obtained by adding a trivalent
Ge
(acceptor) impurity atom like boron, phole
índium,.. to a pure semiconductor like
Ge or Si.
B
.The boron atom
has three valence
electrons and they form
three
covalent bonds with three
nearest Ge
germanium atoms as shown in 2

figure.
Boron atom accepts one electron from
the nearest
neighboring Ge atom to
Energy band diagram, T >0K Cu
form fourth covalent bond
by
hole. Thus addition of each creating Ebottom of C8
impurity EEtop ofVB
atom (boron atom) give
These holes
rise to hole. EAacceptor leve!
cause conduction even at --EA lectron
OK. 0hole
Ey
When the temperature increases
(T> 0
K), electron- hole pairs are
produced by the breakage of
result, density of holes (na) Is grcater than covalent bonds. As a
the density of electrons (ne). Therefore,
the holes are
majority charge carriers and electrons are the
in the p-type semi conductors. minority charge cariers
For p-type
semiconductor nh>> n

124

-120-
 and semiconductors:
Distinguish between n-type semiconductors p-type
N-typesemiconductors
P-type semiconductors
Holes are majority charge carriers and free Free electrons majority charge
are

carriers and holes are iminority charge

electrons are minority charge carriers.
carriers.
Only Holes are charge carriers at OK. Only free electrons are charge carriers
a OK.
t is obtained by adding trivalent impurity It is obtained by adding pentavalent
atoms to pure semiconductor. impurity atom to puresemiconductor.
Each impurity atom accepts one Electron Each impurity atom donates one
from pure semiconductor by creating one | electron to Pure semiconductor. Thus

hole. Thus it is called p-type. it is called n-type.

The acceptor energy level (EA) is slightly just The donor energy level (ED) is slightly
above the top of valance band. just below the bottom of conduction
band.
Their conductivity is relatively less. Their conductivity is relatively more.
Semiconductor Diode or Junction Diode:
A semiconductor diode is basically a p-n junction. A pn junction is formed by
doping trivalent impurity on one side and pentavelant impurity on the other side of
single crystal of pure semiconductor.
Circuit symbol of diode:
The arow in the circuit symbol of diode indicates the direction of conventional
current (i. e hole current)

Explain the formaticn of p- n junction (potential barrier near the junction).

The junction between P-type and N-type semiconductor in a
p-n junction.
single crystal is called
If one side of single crystal of
semiconducting material is doped with Diffusion of holeh Diffusion of electrons
acceptor (trivalent) impurity atoms and
other side with donor
(pentavalent) N
impurity atoms, a p-n juuction is formed
Explanation: The
two important
processes occur during the formation of Drift of electrons Drift of holes
P junctions
n are .diffusion and drift
motions.
1. When the p-type semiconductor is V barierheight
placed in contact with suitably
n-type
 semiconductor, the diffusion of holes from p-type to n-type and electrons from n-
type to p-type take place. This results fixed negative space - charge region on p-

side near the junction and fixed positive space - charge region on n-side near the
Junction. This develops a p.d across the junction and is called contact potential
difference or junction potential barrier. This potential barrier prevents the
further diffusion of electrons and holes across the junction.
2. Due to the positive space charge on n- side near the junction and negative space
charge on p- side near the junction, an electric field set up and it is directed from n-
side to p- side. Due to this field, electrons onp- side are drift towards n-side and
hole on n - side drift towards p- side. This results drift current, which is oppoSite

to diffusion current.
Initially, diffusion current is greater than drift current. As diffusion process
continues width of depletion region increases andhence electric field and drift current
increases. This process continues until diffusion current is equal to drift current. Thus
p-n junction is formed. At equilibrium, current in p-n junction is zero.

Depletion Region:
It is the region near the junction of the diode which is completely free from
mobile charge carriers.
Width (thickness) of depletion region is about in the order of one tenth of

micrometer um
The width of depletion region can be varied with the applied voltage.
How can you vary the width of potential barrier in a diode?
Ans: The equilibrium barrier potential can be varied by applying an external voltage V
across the diode.
What is junction potential or barrier potential?
The potential developed across p-n junction which prevents the tlow electrons
from n-region to p-region and boles from p-region to n- region is called barrier
potential or junction potential.
BIASING P-N JUNCTION (or operation of p-n junction):
The p-n junction is said to be biased, when an external voltage is applied across p-
njúnction. There are two types of biasing: 1) Forward biasing 2) Reverse biasing.

Forward bias p-n junction working:

The p-n junction is said to be forward biased, when an external voltage V is
applied across a p-n junction such that p-side is connected to positive terminal of the
battery and the n-side is connected to the negative terminal of the battery. It is shown
in the figure (a).

-126
 Lnder
om n-
on p-

r the V
ntial
the
Fig(b)
ele e eeee
9 i e i eeee 1-V characteristic curve
pace e e ele]9 eeee
mn-

and holes
electrons
site
Figla)
ess V(volt)
ent Figlc)
When external voltage applied across forward biased
ius p-n junction,
1. The direction of the applied voltage
(V) is opposite to direction of junction
barrier potential (Vo). As a result, width of the depletion layer and the barrier
height are decreased [shown in fig b]. The effective barrier height under forward
m bias is (Vo-V).
2. Due to decrease in barrier height,the flow electrons from n-side +
of p-side and
holes from p-side n-side increases. This makes large concentration
near the junction.
gradient
3. Due to large concentration gradient the junction, large current results. The
near
total diode forward bias current is sum of hole diffusion current and electron
diffusion current. The magnitude of this current is usually in mA.
4. Thus in forward biasing:
The current is due to diffusion of majority charge carriers and it is in the
order of 10 A.
Forward bias offers very "small resistance".
The curve obtained on plotting forward bias current (1) against forward bias
voltage (V) is called forward bias characteristics curve (shown in fig c).
Note: Due to the applied voltage, clectrons from n-side cross the depletion region and
reach p-side (where they are minority carriers). Similarly, holes from p-side cross the
junction and reach the n-side (where they are minority carriers). This process under
forward bias is known as minority carrier injection.
/Reverse bías p-n junction working:
The p-n junction is said to be reverse biased, When an external voltage V is
applied across a semiconductor diode such that p-side is connected to the negative
terminal of the battery and n-side to the positive terminal of the battery.

-127
 electrons

N
Fig(b)
e eeee
V,(volt)

Figla)
Figlc) (uA)

When external voltage applied across reverse biased p-n junction,

1. The direction of the applied voltage
(V) is same as the direction of junction
barrier potential (Vo). As a result, width of the
barrier height also increases [shown in
depletion layer increases and the
fig b]. The effective barrier height under
reverse bias is (Vo+ V).
2. Due to increase in barrier height, the
flow of electrons from n»p and holes from
p n decreases. Thus, diffusion current, decreases
under forward bias. largely compared to the diode
3. Due to electric field set up near the
junction, holes drift from n-side
electrons drift from p-side to n- side. This to p-side and
small current and is of the order of few drift motion of carriers gives rise to
uA (10°A).
4. In reverse
biasing:
The current is due to drift motion of
order of 10A. minority charge carriers and is in the
Reverse bias junction offers a
very high resistance.
The curve obtained on
is called reverse bias
plotting reverse bias current versus reverse
characteristics curve (as shown in bias voltage
fig c).
Experimental study of V-I characteristics of p-n
junction diode:
a) Forward bias
b) Reverse bias

diode
mA diode
uA
Baftery Tap key

Batery Tap key

-128
 Reverse Voltage | Reverse Current
Forward Voltage Forward Current
V(V) I(mA) V(V) (mA )
0.1
0.2
0.3 3
0.4

I-V characteristics curve:

1. Make the Circuit connections for (mA)

studying- V characteristics in forward

bias and reverse bias as shown in fig.
C
of junction 2. Vary the applied voltage (V) in small VBr
es and the steps and note down the current ().
eight under
3. A graph is drawn between V and I .This v, (volt) Ve(volt)
gives I-V characteristics curve.
holes from
4. In forward bias, current increases very
o the diode
slowly to certain voltage After LMA)
characteristics voltage, the diode current
p-side and increases significantly (exponentially). This voltage is called threshold voltage or
ives rise to cut-in voltage (-0.2V for germanium diode and -0.7 V for silicon diode).
5. In reverse bias, the current is very small (-uA) and almost remains constant with
change in bias voltage. This current is called reverse saturation current.
nd is in the
6. From graph, slope = ABA 1
BC AV, R
ias voltagge
Kglone of I versus V curve
Important Definitions:
What is Cut-In-Voltage or Knee Voltage or Threshold Voltage?
The forward bias voltage at which forward bias current increases significantly is
called Knee voltage or cut - in- voltage.

What is Break Down Voltage?

The
current under reverse
bias is essentially voltage independent upto a critical
reverse bias voltage, known as breakdown voltage (VB:) or The reverse bias voltage at
HA which reverse bias current increases suddenly is called Break down voltage.

What is Reverse Saturation Current?

key For diode in reverse bias, the current is very small (uA) and almost remains
constant with change in bias voltage. This current is called reverse saturation current.

-129
 S Acaserrng

What is dynamic resistance? R=

R 4 v )

AI
For diodes, the ratio of small change in voltage (AV) to the small change in
current (A)
Applications of p-n junction diode (semiconductor diodes):
1.t is used as rectifier 2.It is used as switch
Rectification: It is the process of conversion ofAC voltage into DC voltage.
Rectifier: It is a device used to convert AC voltage into DC voltage.
What property of diode is used for rectification?
Ans: p-n junction diode conducts current only ah one direction (forward direction).
This unidirectional property of diode is used fof rectification. OR The forward bias
Tesistance is low as compared to reverse bias resistance.
Types of rectifier: There are two types 1) Half wave rectifier 2) Full wave rectifier
Half Wave Rectifier:
Transformer Vin Input Ac wave form

D
tme
Vout Vout A Outgut waye fornt

dme

Half wave rectifier is a device used to convert only one half cycle of AC voltage
into DC voltage.
Explanation: The circuit diagram of half wave rectifier is as shown in figure. It
consists of transformer (step up or step down), a diode D and load resistance R. The
primary coil of transformer is connected to the AC source and the secondary coil is
connected to the diode D and load resistance R
During positive half cycle of input AC voltage (Xis positive with respect to
Y), the diode D is forward biased and it conducts. Hence the current flows
through the loadresistance RL. Thus, voltage appears across R.
During negative half cycle of input AC voltage (X is negative with respect to
Y), the diode D is reverse biased and it does not conducts. Hence no current
flows through the load resistance Rz and no voltage appears across R. Thus,
diode D conducts only positive half cycle of input AC and hence the circuit is
called half wave rectifier.

The frequency of output rectified voltage is equal to frequency input AC

voltage.

-130
 T h e output voltage is unidirectional, pulsating and intermittent. This pulsating
DC may be smoothened by using filter (capacitor or inductor).

VFull wave rectifier:

Full wave rectifier is a device used to convert both half cycles of AC voltage into
DC voltage.
Center tap Input wave form at X
transtormer Vn
time

ut Ac wavg to" at Y
-- Vout Vin
-time
Vout Outpiut Wave form i

time

Working: The circuit diagram of full wave rectifier is as shown in figure. It consists
of centre tapped transformer, two diodes Di, D2 and load resistance
Rz. The primary
coil of transformer is connected to the AC source and the centre tapped secondary coil
is connected to two diodes Di, D2 and load resistance RL.

Case i) During positive half cycle of input AC voltage (the terminal X is positive with
respect to Y):
The diode D is forward biased and it conducts. Hence current flows through the
load resistance R. The diode D2 is reverse biased and it does not conduct.
Case ii) During negative half cycle of AC (the terminal X is negative with respect to
Y:
The diode D is reverse biased and it does not conduct. Diode Da is forward biased
and it conducts. Hence current flows through the load resistance R
as shown in
fig.
Thus, D, conducts positive half cycle of AC and D, conducts negative half cycle of
AC. Hence the circuit is called full wave rectifier.
The frequency of output rectified voltage is twice the frequency of input AC
voltage.
The output voltage is unidirectional and continuous but pulsating. This
pulsating DC is converted into steady DC by using filter (capacitor in parallel
to RL or inductor in series with R)
Filter Circuit: The pulsating DC is obtained during the rectification using diode can
be converted into steady DC using filters like capacitor or inductor. Filter circuit with
capacitor of high value of capacitance C in parallel with load resistance RL is as
shown in fig.

131
 RS. Acnder
Input Ac wave forn1
Vin
DC component

time

AC mains Rectifier R DC output Vout Steady dc oltput

time

Working: When the voltage the capacitor is rising, it gets charged. It RL =0,
across
capacitor gets charged to peak voltage rectified output. If RL # 0 (load is present),
to fall.
capacitor gets discharged through the load and the voltage across it begins
value.
Again, in next half cycle of rectified output it again gets charged to the peak
-

The rate of fall of the voltage across the capacitor depends upon the time constant
(RLC). If time constant is large (for large value of C), rate of fall is small. So voltage
across capacitor is almost equal to peak value ofrectified voltage.
Time Constant: The rate of fall of the voltage across the capacitor depends upon the
inverse product of capacitor capacitance C and the cffective resistance Rz used in the
1
circuit and is cailed the time constant. i.e. time constant=.
RC
Special Purpose (Types) p-n junction diodes:
Types of some special purpose p-n junction diodes are

1) Zener diode
2) Optoelectronic devices.
Some types of optoelectronic diodes are

a) Light emitting diode (LED)

b) Photo diode
c)Photovoltaic cell (solar cell).
Light Emitting Diode (LED): It is a heavily doped p-n junction diode used to
convert electrica! energy into light energy. It is
operated under forward bias.
Circuit symbol

Working Principle: LED is made up of

ailoys o semiconducting materials like
Gallium-Arsenoid Phosphoid (Ga AsP),
-

GaAso.oPo4 is used for red LED

GaAsis used as IR LED.
Due to forward bias, holes in the p-type and electrons in the n-type diffuse towards
the junction. Electron- hoic recombination takes place near the junction. In this

-132
 Hence the diode i
(visible photons). s
is released in the form of light
process, energy
called LED

The frequency ofemitted light is

v5 Eh
where E energy gap
of light emitted first increases
When forward bias current increase, the intensity
of LEDs are designed in
reaches maximum and again decreases in intensity light.
forward bias such that the light emitting efficiency is maximum.

Applications of LED:
1. Used in remote controls.
2. Used in calculators, radio, TV.
3. Used in burglar alarms. eL
4. Used in digital watches.
5. Used in optical communication.

VAdvantages of LED's over Incandescent Lamps:"

i) Operates at low voltages and consumes less
ii) Fast action and no -warm up Power.
time
ii) Emitted light nearly monochromaticrequired.
iv) Long life and ruggedness
(strong).
v Fast on-off switching capability.
Note: Germanium and Silicon are heat
poor light emitters. Hence Ge and Si producing semiconductors and
are not used in the construction of they are very
Photo Diode (Photo Detectors): It is LED.
a diode
electrical energy. OR It is a used to convert
light
is operated under reverse optoelectronic device used for energy into
bias. it Works on
the detecting optical signal. It
principle of photoelectric effect.
Revere blas oltage (
Circuit symbol
A
Ba w
Working Principle: The p n -

When a light of energy junction in

the junction surface (E= hv) greater thanreverse bias does not
electron hole
electron-hole pairs increase the -
energy gap E, of conduct practicaly
pairs are
generated in the semiconductor
reverse
nductor falls on
falls
Energy band gap and saturation current. depletion region.
region. These
Tn
minimum frequeney of
Energy band gap and light detecteded relation is E, hu
maximum rou E =
 AS Acadey

The magnitude of photocurrent (reverse bias

saturation current) is directly
characteristics of photodiode is
proportional to intensity of incident light. The
1-V

shown in fig.

Applications of Photo Diode:

1. Used in logic circuits
2. Used in switching circuits
3. Used in optical communication.
A Used fordetecting optical signals.
emf when solar radiation
Cell: Solar cell is a p-n junction diode which generates
LSolar
falls on the p-n junction.
Working principle: It works on the 1
principle of photoelectric emission. Front
- -V--v
It consists of a thin layer (thickness contact
N
about 300um) of p- Si wafer on Depletion
which a thin layer of n-Si wafer is region
formed by diffusion method. On the
ocher side of p- Si layer is coated 8ack contact* + t ++ t+

with a metal (back contact). On the

electrode is deposited (front contact). This arrangement
p of n-Si layer metal finger
is connected to load resistance RL as shown in fig.
Semiconductors with band gap close to 1.5
Voc ( open circuit voltage)
eV are ideal materials for sola cell
fabrication. Solar cells are made with
semiconductors like Si ( E = 1.1 eV), GaAs V
(E= 1.43 eV).
When a radiation of suitable energy falls
short circuit current)
on the P-N junction, the emf is generated due
to following three basic processes.
i) Generation of electron- hole pair near the jur
i) Separation of electrons and holes due to electric field of the depletion region.
iii) Electrons move towards n- side are collected by front contact and holes reaching
the p- side are collected by back contact. Thus p-side becomes positive and n-side
becomes negative giving rise to photo voltage (emf). Therefore, Photo current
flows through load resistance R
The I- V characteristics for solar cell is as shown (it is drawn in 4h quadrant. this is
because a solar cell does not draw current but supplies the current to the lode)
S.Ac
Mention the important criteria for the selection of a material for solar cell
fabrication:
Ans: i) Band gap (1.0 to 1.8 eV),
ii) High optical absorption (-10* cm ),
ii) Electrical conductivity,
iv) Availability of the raw material, and
v) Cost
Uses of solar cells:
1) Used as power electronic devices in satellites
and space vehicles.
2) Used as power supply to calculators.
3) Used in solar torch lights, solar street
lights and solar electric heaters.
Zener Diode: It is a special
purpose semiconductor diode
reverse bias in the breakdown
region and is used as a
designed to operate under
voltage regulator.
rcuit Symbol:

It operates under reverse bias.

Zener diode is used as
voltage regulator (Output of
unregulated DC power
supply is regulated using a device called Zener diode).
Working Principle: (I- V Characteristics of
Zener diode has
Zener Diode).
heavily doped p and n sections. Due to this,
formed is very thin (<10°
m). As a result, the breakdown of depletion region
a small reverse the junction will occur at
bias voltage (about 5V).
The I-V characteristics of a Zener diode are as shown.
 adesn -
ng of
istor) Truth table:"
table: The table that
gives output logic levels for all possible input logic level
onics combinations is called Truth table.
Three basic logic gates are AND, OR and NOT.
NAND Gates.
ntire ne common logic gates used are AND, OR, NOT,NOR and
T h e logic gates are realized (constructed) by using semiconducting devices (ike
diodes, transistors,...).
Logic gates Boolean Truth table Definition
Cireuit symbol
nge equation
AND gate
i a A BY=A-B| AND gate is logic
(it has two or 0 gate whose output is
more inputs Y = A B
1 0 high only when all
and only one B the inputs are high.
output)
ey OR gate
(it has two or
A B Y=A+B OR gate is logic gate
's more inputs Y A+B whose output is high
and only one only when any one
output) of its input is high.

Not gate in logic

NOT gate
(it is most gate whose output is
negation of its input.
basic gate
with only one YA
A AY-A It is also called as
inverter.
input and one Y=A
Its Output is high
output)
only when input is
lowand vice versa:
NAND gate NAND gate is one
(it has two or A
BY-A B whose output is high
more inputs
and only one
Y-A B B
only when any one
of input are low. It is
output) the combination of
ANDand NOT gates
NOR gate NOR gate is one
it has two or ABY-A+B whose output is low
only when any one
more inputs Y-A+B B_ B of input is high.
and only one Y-A+B t is the combination
output) |1|1 of OR and NOT
A
gates
X-OR gate
(it has two or
ABY=
|0 0 Y-AB+BA X-OR gate is the
more inputs Y-AB+BA combination of one
and only one OR, 2 NOT gates
0
output) and 2 AND gates.

HereY output voltage status, A and

NAND and NOR gates are calledB-inputsVoltage
as universal
status, A-negation of A
logic
using these gates it is possible to realize other basic logicgates. This
like
is because, by
NOT. gates OR, AND and
.Logic gates are used in calculators, digital watches, computers, robots,
ele-communications, etc
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