Perspective
Avant-Garde Solar Plants with Artificial Intelligence and
Moonlighting Capabilities as Smart Inverters in a Smart Grid
Shriram S. Rangarajan 1,2,*, Chandan Kumar Shiva 3, AVV Sudhakar 3, Umashankar Subramaniam 4,
E. Randolph Collins 2,5 and Tomonobu Senjyu 6
Citation: Rangarajan, S.S.; Shiva,
C.K.; Sudhakar, A.V.V.;
Subramaniam, U.; Collins, E.R.;
Senjyu, T. Avant-Garde Solar Plants
with Artificial Intelligence and
Moonlighting Capabilities as Smart
Inverters in a Smart Grid. Energies
2023, 16, 1112. https://doi.org/
10.3390/en16031112
Received: 9 December 2022
Revised: 11 January 2023
Accepted: 13 January 2023
Published: 19 January 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. Li-
censee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and con-
ditions of the Creative Commons At-
tribution (CC BY) license (https://cre-
ativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Energies 2023, 16, 1112. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16031112
1 Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dayananda Sagar College of Engineering,
Bengaluru 560078, Karnataka, India
2 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29631, USA
3 Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, SR University, Warangal 506371, Telangana, India
4 Renewable Energy Lab, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh 11586, Saudi Arabia
5 College of Engineering, Western Carolina University, Cullowhee, NC 28723, USA
6 Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa 903-0213, Japan
* Correspondence: shriras@g.clemson.edu or shriram-eee@dayanandasagar.edu
Abstract: Intelligent inverters have the capability to interact with the grid and supply supplemental
services. Solar inverters designed for the future will have the ability to self-govern, self-adapt, self-
secure, and self-heal themselves. Based on the available capacity, the ancillary service rendered by
a solar inverter is referred to as moonlighting. Inverters that communicate with the grid but are
autonomous can switch between the grid forming mode and the grid following control mode as
well. Self-adaptive grid-interactive inverters can keep their dynamics stable with the assistance of
adaptive controllers. Inverters that interact with the grid are also capable of self-adaptation Grid-
interactive inverters may be vulnerable to hacking in situations in which they are forced to rely on
their own self-security to determine whether malicious setpoints have been entered. To restate, an
inverter can be referred to as a “smart inverter” when it is self-tolerant, self-healing, and provides
ancillary services. The use of artificial intelligence in solar plants in addition to moon-lighting capa-
bilities further paves the way for its flexibility in an environment containing a smart grid. This per-
spective paper presents the present as well as a more futuristic outlook of solar plants that utilize
artificial intelligence while moonlighting advanced capabilities as smart inverters to form the core
of a smart grid. For the first time, this perspective paper presents all the novel ancillary applications
of a smart inverter while employing Artificial intelligence on smart inverters. The paper’s emphasis
on the Artificial Intelligence associated with PV inverters further makes them smarter in addition
to ancillary services.
Keywords: artificial intelligence; photovoltaic systems; smart inverters; smart grid
1. Introduction
All large-scale solar farms rely on inverters to transform the DC electricity generated
by solar panels into the AC power used by the electrical grid. These solar farms rely on
inverters to transform the DC electricity produced by the sun into the AC electricity re-
quired by the grid during daylight hours. Inverters are essential for large-scale solar farms
because they change the DC electricity generated by solar panels into the AC power used
by our electrical grid. The inverters at these solar farms convert the direct current (DC)
electricity generated by the sun during the day into alternating current (AC) electricity for
the grid, however, they can only run during the day. Since so much renewable energy has
been added to the grid, solar inverters now serve a dual purpose, operating both during
the day and at night. The stability of the renewable energy system may depend on solar
inverters working longer shifts. Solar farms, wind farms, and energy storage devices are
www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2023, 16, 1112 2 of 31

just a few examples of the rapidly expanding renewable energy sources that are changing
the face of the energy sector. When connecting non-constant energy sources (AC or DC)
to the grid, solid-state converters are used. One component of these converters is an in-
verter that connects to the public power grid. However, the term “grid-interactive invert-
ers” is used to refer to these multi-stage converters in the business world and the actual
devices that make up the decentralized power grid are called “distributed generators”
(DGs). The most important function of DGs is provided by inverters, and the widespread
use of these devices has allowed electricity networks to become more adaptable. A
“smart” inverter can proactively and objectively make decisions based on information
gathered from both its internal and external environments. By offering auxiliary services
to power networks, inverters, for example, can be designed to enhance power quality un-
der abnormal conditions. When first installed, inverters are set to a configuration that is
grid-friendly. When inverters are set to grid-forming mode, a standalone microgrid can
be created in the aftermath of a widespread power outage caused by, for example, a nat-
ural disaster.
Another application where inverters are essential is clustering a power grid, also re-
ferred to as a network of microgrids or a grid of microgrids. This is another moniker for
this arrangement. While there are many benefits to the widespread use of DGs, it is also
challenging for electricity grids to maintain their customary levels of security, stability,
and dependability. While droop controllers and other distributed control schemes can
help with DG power sharing, a supervisory control scheme is still necessary for optimal
energy management and economic dispatch. A utility operator and the inverters must be
in constant contact for this plan to work. When modules, sensors, and processors are in-
tegrated into a smart inverter in addition to data packet connections, the resulting system
takes on the characteristics of a cyber-physical system [1,2]. The integrity of safety safe-
guards may be compromised when inverters are linked to communication or a cyber net-
work [3].
Furthermore, because of the lack of inertia in inverter-based DGs, low-inertia mi-
crogrids can be created. This leaves them vulnerable to power outages. Internal switch
short circuits are another potential cause of inverter failure that could compromise the
system. In addition to good governance, other important qualities of a smart inverter are
the ability to fix itself, the ability to change and adapt to its environment, and security.
Finally, an inverter having multiple operating modes should be able to flip between them
without negatively impacting the device’s normal performance. Smart inverters in a su-
pervisory system should be able to self-regulate via communication with agents or a hu-
man supervisor. Information from their local communication or cyber networks is com-
bined with that from their local sensors. A smart inverter could foresee problems and take
corrective measures by considering the status of other distributed generators (DGs), smart
meters, and forecasted data [4,5]. In the following sections, we will also take a high-level
look at some of the more recent advances and present technical issues related to each
function. A typical association of a smart inverter in a smart grid environment is shown
in Figure 1. This paper presents the perspective of smart inverters with advanced capabil-
ities employing artificial intelligence and as moonlighting grid-interactive smart inverters
for ancillary services.
Energies 2023, 16, 1112 3 of 31

Figure 1. Smart inverter in a smart grid environment.

Over the past few years, [6] favorable regulatory rules have been designed to increase
the penetration of renewable energy sources, and the number of distributed generation
systems that are connected to the grid has increased dramatically. Electricity producers
from all over the world are scratching their heads over how to incorporate most effectively
solar photovoltaic (PV) generating units into existing power grids despite the fact that
utility companies do not know how high volumes of variable renewable energy output
will affect grid operation, power quality, and worker and equipment safety. An inverter’s
usefulness is crucial in this situation. Formerly, a fault or other out-of-the-ordinary grid
condition necessitated the disconnection of the inverter from the grid before it could be
reconnected. Newer grid systems, however, need supplementary tools for monitoring
voltage and current [7–10]. It wasn’t until recently that inverters became a practical tool
for grid management and control. Electrical power generated by renewable resources and
stored in batteries typically takes two forms: direct current (DC) and variable frequency
(VFR). All this energy must go through a frequency converter before it can be added to
the grid as a reliable alternating current (AC) [11–13]. In a microgrid, an inverter is what
links the various power generation and consumption nodes together. Thus, it can be used
to regulate power, detect issues, and cut power, when necessary, in addition to converting
AC-DC or vice versa. Some people refer to inverters as the “brains” of a microgrid because
they are responsible for processing and analyzing the inputs and outputs that have the
greatest impact on the microgrid’s ability to exert control over its power distribution. They
gather information and adjust their infrastructure to work best in a safe, standardized,
and simplified setting. Besides its primary role, it also has grid support features such as
voltage and frequency regulation and ride-through capabilities. As a result, smart invert-
ers are cutting-edge pieces of equipment that can ease the process of connecting solar PV
and other DERs to the electrical grid. This is because it is outfitted with state-of-the-art
power electronics, which allow it to simultaneously compensate for DC voltage fluctua-
tions of varying intensities and provide a variety of services. This is effective with PV cells,
whose optimum operating voltage changes with environmental temperature and light in-
tensity. Solar panels generate direct current (DC), and inverters (both traditional and
smart) change this into alternating current (AC) that can be used indoors. An increase in
the number of distributed energy resources (DERs) connected to the grid has necessitated
the use of more robust inverters.
Figure 2 presents the block diagram of a simplified version of an inverter system
comprising of a DC source, a power processing unit, an output filter, grid synchroniza-
tion, and a controller function.
Energies 2023, 16, 1112 4 of 31

Figure 2. Block diagram of a grid-interfaced inverter system along with controller action [14,15].

It is possible that distributed power sources and automated processes could over-
whelm centralized command, management, and information-sharing infrastructures.
Multi-agent systems and other forms of distributed control are integral components of
complex power systems that are needed to meet challenges such as decomposition and
global performance. It is highly desired to have plug-and-play subsystems that are auton-
omous, adaptive, scalable in functionality, and require little to no system administration
in order to lessen the burden of control and communications. This holds true for a large
class of control architectures.
(a) Self-cognizant
Self-awareness is becoming an increasingly necessary component of distributed sys-
tems, which makes higher degrees of autonomy dependent on it. For the sake of this dis-
cussion, say for instance that a system is self-cognizant if and only if it is cognizant of its
own internal state. When used in safety-critical systems, power electronics with built-in
self-awareness can greatly improve operational dependability and lifetime prediction, en-
able fail-safe or maintenance actions, and greatly reduce the likelihood of catastrophic ac-
cidents [16].
(b) Versatility
A good measure of a system’s adaptability is its ability to adapt to new or different
conditions quickly and efficiently, as well as to any changes that are made to the system’s
component parts. There is potential for fault tolerance, control tolerance, frequency toler-
ance, and impedance tolerance to be built into the design of intelligent inverters. Self-tun-
ing controllers based on adaptive laws, such as adaptive maximum power point tracking
(MPPT) and droop and current control, can achieve Lyapunov stability despite the pres-
ence of uncertainty and a broad spectrum of operating conditions. This holds true for any
variety of self-tuning controllers.
Energies 2023, 16, 1112 5 of 31

(c) Autonomy
The ability of a system to determine its own behavior without external control is what
is meant by “autonomy” here. It is necessary for any distributed system to provide the
means for individuals to independently carry out the responsibilities that are assigned to
them. Instead of relying on a traditional hierarchy that is organized from the top down,
modern automation is moving toward a structure that is flatter, more decentralized, and
is based on CPS. This contrasts with the traditional hierarchy, which is organized from
the top down. It is possible that autonomous smart inverters will prove to be an essential
component if there is a disruption in communication within a cyber-physical system [17].
(d) Coordination
Cooperative controllers must be implemented in each smart inverter for the system
or sub-system to reach the desired collective goal. However, this must be done while still
maintaining the system neighbor’s stability and maintaining the quality of the system.
Distributed solutions, on the other hand, call for information to be shared between neigh-
bors and smart inverters that are in proximity. Centralized solutions are the more com-
mon type of solution. Self-organization and resistance to dynamic uncertainty are just two
of the potential benefits that could result from a decentralized control and decision-mak-
ing architecture [18].
(e) Plug-and-Play
A smart inverter can be easily integrated into an existing system thanks to plug-and-
play (PnP) technology, which eliminates the need for any additional configuration or set-
up. Scalability, interoperability, robustness, and dependability are just some of the bene-
fits of PnP functionality, which can be enjoyed with or without communication. To estab-
lish distributed intelligence based on power electronics equipment, the PnP concept was
only recently introduced. This contrasts with the widespread use of the PnP concept in
computing interfaces and industry. When used in microgrids and smart grids, it is possi-
ble to use PnP in power converters with smart inverters and modular hardware structures
to control the voltage and frequency at each individual node.
The ability of smart inverters to switch, conduct, and store electromagnetic energy is
one of the ways in which power electronics are embodied in these devices. In addition to
the internal operations that were just described, the intelligent features will be imple-
mented by utilizing a combination of different types of hardware and control strategies.
Market price signals are monitored by three distinct controllers: an autonomous control-
ler, a cooperative controller, and a transactive controller. Figure 3 is a diagram depicting
the internal structure of a typical smart inverter.
Energies 2023, 16, 1112 6 of 31

Figure 3. A simplified structure of smart inverter and internal hardware structure [14,15].

A smart inverter is not constrained by any one control architecture for the system
and functions most effectively in a decentralized setting. Hierarchical layouts allow for
easier practical application. A microgrid with many feeders and smart inverters can be
represented by the holarchy, a four-level hierarchical structure made of holons, beginning
with the microgrid level and proceeding downwards through the feeder level, the smart
inverter level, and finally the function of the smart inverter.

2. Artificial Intelligence Based Solar Plants as Smart Inverters

Having the ability to regulate grid voltage and frequency, as well as provide auton-
omous ancillary services for grid maintenance, is what is meant by “self-governing.” This
allows for the construction of microgrids and networked microgrids. Setting up mi-
crogrids and networked microgrids, as well as providing support for the grid through the
provision of independent ancillary services requires the ability to modify the voltage and
frequency of the grid. Other modes of operation for grid-tied inverters offer greater ver-
satility than the conventional method of feeding the grid, which entails injecting all avail-
able power into the grid while keeping the power factor at 1.
PV inverters were developed with the goal of sending as much of the solar array’s
active power P (kW) as possible to the point of the common connection while keeping the
power factor at unity. We did this by supplying as much active power as we could while
maintaining a unity power factor. Reactive power Q (kVAR) consumption and generation
capabilities of the three-phase inverter have garnered significant attention from utilities
and independent power producers in recent years. In recent times, this ability has received
a lot of attention. Due to its obvious value, this competency has been receiving a lot of
attention as of late. A photovoltaic inverter will operate at currents that are more than 95%
below its rated output when converting DC solar electricity to AC. Direct current (DC)
and alternating current (AC) are abbreviations for two different types of electrical current.
Reactive power can be generated using the inverter’s excess capacity, which has a variety
of applications. The most efficient operation of the greatest generating resources, all of
Energies 2023, 16, 1112 7 of 31

which are synchronous machines, occurs at exactly 50 or 60 hertz, making it crucial to

keep the frequency as stable as possible within a transmission network. Further, for the
generation load to be distributed equitably amongst them, the speed governors on these
machines must work in unison and in accordance with the set timetable. Frequency sta-
bility requires that the active power produced be exactly equal to the passive power con-
sumed. Since smart inverters are unable to absorb energy, regulating the active power
they produce is only effective in reducing the frequency. Large PV projects often use active
power curtailment and ramp rates to assist alleviate site-specific problems and boost grid
stability. Optimal performance in terms of true power P and VAR component of apparent
power- Q flow throughout the grid is likely to need two distinct control schemes. Manag-
ing active power is related to managing grid frequency. However, managing reactive
power and controlling grid voltage are intertwined.
Reactive power can only be managed at big generation units, but the voltage can be
regulated across the transmission and distribution network by injecting and absorbing
VARs at different points. Overvoltage is dangerous to equipment and loads. Transmission
line losses can be drastically reduced with VAR management, which also improves grid
stability. Transmission lines can either supply or absorb reactive electricity, depending on
the load and the line’s length. When voltages are very high, the reactive power loss pro-
portion of the total power loss typically predominates over the resistive power loss pro-
portion. A static VAR (volt-ampere-reactive) compensation is one use for the reactive
power capacity of a smart PV inverter. This kind of compensator has the ability to either
lower or raise the AC voltage further down the line in response to instructions from the
supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system, or to do so on its own. The
main benefit of this implementation is the low cost of the components used.
Using inverters as a reactive power source necessitates configuring the inverters to
automatically reduce their active power when the peak current limit is reached. A sudden
failure of all inverter-based distributed generators could cause problems far more severe
than a simple drop in voltage due to the increasing prevalence of inverters. To comply
with modern regulations, inverters must stay connected to the grid and continue to sup-
ply reactive power even if the grid voltage drops. This is required by IEEE Std. 1547-2018.
A permanent drop in voltage, however, necessitates cutting power to the inverter. An in-
verter will trip if the active power injected into the grid is allowed to grow too large in
tandem with the increase in reactive power. The active and reactive power available to
the inverter at any given time varies depending on the DC bus voltage Vdc, the modula-
tion index m, and the impedance between the inverter and the grid. Furthermore, this
strength is proportional to the maximum current limit, which is shown as a circle with a
radius of Smax. The second circle is depicted as well; its radius is mVdc Vg/|ZTh|. Two
diagrams are shown in Figure 4. The left-hand diagram depicts how a smart PV inverter
operates in each of the four available power domains, injecting real and reactive power as
needed. The diagram on the right shows how a grid-tied inverter operates in a distribution
system’s four different quadrants. The R/X ratio and the Thevenin impedance are used to
determine the efficacy of the system in this operation. This means that the smart PV in-
verter can function as a moonlighting smart inverter in either a constant power factor
mode or a variable power factor mode, depending on the capacity that is available after
the real power is injected. The smart inverter’s capacity determines whether it operates in
real power mode, reactive power mode, or a combination of both. The Thevenin imped-
ance of the system determines this.
Energies 2023, 16, 1112 8 of 31

Figure 4. Quadrant operation of a Smart PV inverter.

Asymmetrical faults in the power grid and an uneven distribution of single-phase

loads in the distribution grid are just two of the many potential causes of asymmetrical
anomalies. Besides the positive-sequence reactive power support that a smart inverter
typically provides, negative-sequence compensation services can be of assistance to the
grid in these cases. With the addition of q and d axis current control channels, negative-
sequence compensation for the grid currents can be provided. This holds true regardless
of whether the reference frame for developing the control scheme is synchronous. These
channels send the controller the negative-sequence components of the grid current at zero
references, even though the local load may be asymmetrically distributed. The voltage at
PCC includes a negative-sequence component that is not eliminated by this modification.
Therefore, a small amount of active and reactive power oscillations may persist, resulting
in a slight ripple in the inverter’s DC bus voltage. Overvoltage waves can cause severe
damage to DC bus capacitors. The frequency of oscillations and the amplitude of waves
are reduced when the controller’s setpoints are altered from zero. The active and reactive
power fluctuations on the grid can be reduced by adjusting the controller settings, which
also stabilizes the grid’s current.
It is the goal of the negative-sequence controllers’ setpoints to keep the currents
within safe limits while also minimizing power oscillation. The voltage’s negative-se-
quence component at PCC is crucial to accomplishing this goal. Whether or not such ser-
vices can be offered depends on whether the smart inverter incorporates a negative-se-
quence compensation mechanism and whether an appropriate control target is chosen.
Due to the imbalanced nature of the negative sequence correction, some of the inverter
references may enter the overmodulation zone when the power is brought up to its proper
level. To keep the inverter in the linear modulation zone and take advantage of additional
services such as negative sequence and harmonic compensations, a low-frequency com-
mon-mode signal is added to the PWM reference signals. Figure 5 and Table 1 graphically
depict the supplementary grid applications of a moonlighting smart inverter. The long-
term goal is to reduce the need for costly grid-strengthening measures in light of the in-
creasing prevalence of smart inverters. Smart inverters have more of an impact than con-
ventional inverters because of their ability to detect islanding and convert electricity to a
higher frequency without missing the maximum power point. This increases the possibil-
ity for improvement brought about by smart inverters. The power grid can support more
renewable energy sources with the use of smart inverters and the existing infrastructure.
Some of the power quality issues that have worsened as the grid has gotten smarter in-
clude resonance and harmonic distortion, flicker, stability pertaining to the voltage and
Energies 2023, 16, 1112 9 of 31

frequency, and overall reliability of the system. Power can go in both directions when
DERs are broadly implemented into a smart grid. In contrast, power could only travel in
one direction through the old infrastructure. This could lead to a gradual increase in volt-
age at the DERs’ shared connection point which is at the Point of common coupling (PCC).
A smart inverter operating in VAR mode can regulate voltage spikes by injecting and ab-
sorbing VARs, keeping them within acceptable parameters.

Figure 5. Ancillary grid applications of a moonlighting smart inverters.

Table 1. Ancillary grid applications of a Smart PV inverter.

Ancillary Grid Applications of

Description
Moonlighting Smart Inverters
Active power filtering is a function that can be
performed by intelligent inverters equipped with
Active Power filtering
the appropriate controller for reducing the
harmonics.
The frequency and voltage fluctuations could be
Flicker
reduced.
Smart inverters can perform V/f regulation in the
Regulation of Voltage/Frequency
system.
During such an event, smart inverters could give
Ride through capability VAR support and maintain system connectivity by
executing the ride-through operation.
Smart inverters were able to inject and absorb
VARs in the system after the release of IEEE 1547.8
Line losses and UL 1741 standards. Line losses may be
drastically cut down as a result of this which may
result in cost savings.
A good way to avoid utility fines is to use smart
Regulation of voltage power factor inverters with specialized controllers to perform
correction voltage regulation in the system and power factor
correction of local loads.
Virtual detuning could be used by intelligent
inverters with specialized controllers to lessen the
Virtual detuning effects of the network harmonic resonance
phenomenon. The harmonics could also be
decreased with this step.
Energies 2023, 16, 1112 10 of 31

Smart inverters can be used in the healthy phases of

Mitigation of Temporary Single Line to Ground Fault and Double Line to
OverVoltage (TOV) phenomenon Ground Fault conditions to effectively mitigate
TOV.
Capable of analyzing transient faults using the
Anti-island detection
given technique.
The voltage spike generated by DERs’ inward
power flow can be mitigated by voltage regulation
performed by smart inverters. It also helped the
Reverse power flow
widespread adoption of distributed energy
resources (DERs) such as wind and solar power as
well as EVs (PEVs).
Real electricity generation is feasible. Other than
that, reactive power generation/absorption for
Power generation
supplementary services could be accomplished
with the inverter’s unused capacity.
Smart inverters can help restore the power system
by maintaining constant VAR levels while also
Power system restoration
providing real power for black starts and cranking
power.
Installing smart inverters at the line’s midpoint
enables them to successfully execute shunt
correction in the manner of a STATCOM, hence
improving the line’s power transmission capacity.
Enhancement in power transfer
This increased capacity within thermal constraints
capability
would allow for the integration of additional DERs
into the system. There are many financial gains to
be had here as well, and no new electricity
transmission lines are required.
Subsynchronous resonance (SSR) can be reduced
with the help of smart inverters with specialized
Subsynchronous resonance (SSR)
controls. Smart inverters may be able to replace the
need for a STATCOM altogether.

The widespread use of Distributed Energy resources (DERs) in smart grid settings
will be greatly facilitated by this. This has the potential to improve the protection systems
significantly by preventing the circuit breakers from triggering due to reverse power flow.
Many problems associated with power quality, such as voltage flickering, harmonic dis-
tortion, and resonance, have their origins in PV interconnections. Active power filters
(APFs), such as those found in contemporary smart inverters, can reduce, or eliminate
some of these harmonics. In addition, with the aid of a well-designed controller architec-
ture, a smart inverter can perform the function of a virtual detuner, decreasing the likeli-
hood of harmonic resonance in the network. As far as IEEE 519 is concerned, there is no
such thing as separate considerations for network resonance and harmonic distortion. It
seems like a situation where an intelligent inverter would be very helpful. Uneven load
distribution occurs even on a three-phase network. The load balancing function can also
be carried out by a smart inverter. Many groups have formed “smart inverter working
groups” (SIWGs) with the goal of creating legally binding standards for the most cutting-
edge inverter technologies, which are crucial to the stable and secure functioning of the
grid. Two such organizations are the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) and the Cal-
ifornia Public Utilities Commission. Two examples of the many organizations that have
joined forces to form similar committees are presented here. Additional recommendations
Energies 2023, 16, 1112 11 of 31

for the care and operation of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles have been issued by the So-
ciety of Automotive Engineers. These suggestions dealt with a variety of charging meth-
ods and the dependability of the power grid.
The ability of an inverter to maintain a grid connection despite transient terminal
voltages that differ significantly from the system’s nominal voltage is known as “fault
ride-through” (FRT). We refer to a fault as having a “ride through” when it is present and
reactive power assistance is still required. Defects are the most likely source of significant
voltage changes in a power system. Transient voltage increases, as opposed to terminal
voltage falls, may be the result of fault events in power systems exhibiting characteristics.
Because they both result in a sizable current flowing between the phases or to the ground,
short circuits and lightning strikes are two frequent reasons for voltage drops. The appli-
ance will be disconnected from the power grid if the inverter malfunctions until the prob-
lem is resolved. If more inverters fail due to the outage, the current situation might
worsen. If the inverters’ voltage excursions are very brief and the voltage returns to nor-
mal within a predetermined period of time after the excursions are complete, L/HVRT
will allow the inverters to remain connected. The inverter will automatically turn off if a
problem continues past the L/HVRT limit. By providing the required reactive power sup-
ply, a smart inverter that has been updated to the IEEE 1547.8 and UL 1741 Standard can
operate in VAR mode. There is no need to unplug the inverter as a result.
In the event of an asymmetrical fault, such as an SLGF (single line to a ground fault)
or LLGF (double line to a ground fault), the magnitude of voltage in each of the defective
phases falls to zero. The reason for this is that asymmetrical faults are always located at
the ground level. In the healthy phase of a distribution system, the transient voltage rises
caused by asymmetrical failures can exceed the 5% safety margin for such spikes. The
technical term for this event is “transient overvoltage” (TOV). Smart inverters, which em-
ploy specialized controllers, can be used to dampen the TOV phenomena and so reduce
the associated risk. The local operating loads’ power factor can be corrected by the intelli-
gent inverter, which also regulates the voltage across all three phases. Power factors for
inductive loads, such as induction motors, are typically between 0.60 and 0.75. In order to
keep loads running with a power factor greater than 0.9 and without incurring any fees
from the utility company, these power factor correction systems frequently rely on capac-
itor banks as a backup. Nonetheless, harmonic distortion and resonance may result from
the capacitor banks’ interactions with the rest of the system. Because of their one-of-a-kind
controller, intelligent inverters can effectively alter the power factor, serving as a substi-
tute for a capacitor. This is achieved without triggering any unwanted resonance or har-
monics. All auxiliary and augmented services can be performed while the smart inverters’
capacity is underutilized. Smart grid performance may improve if dormant inverters are
brought back online.
The proposed control scheme, which includes the algorithm for centralized reactive
power dispatch and decentralized Volt/VAR control of a smart inverter, is depicted in a
flowchart in Figure 6. An initial X/R value is determined at the PV connection point using
the distribution feeder’s default configuration. This value might be changed if the distri-
bution feeder needs to be reconfigured due to a change in the open-loop point assignment,
a feeder section outage, or a switch in the capacitor bank. PV inverters can reach the nec-
essary reactive power setpoint by using the instantaneous AC voltage value and the
Volt/VAR droop control in accordance with the proposed K (X/R) function. A master/slave
Modbus register mapping for the series-connected inverters can be used to manage the
reactive power output from each PV inverter independently. The distribution manage-
ment system’s centralized reactive power dispatch plan is shown in the diagram on the
right. The DMS Volt/VAR optimization application coordinates the operations of other
legacy voltage regulation devices such as OLTC and shunt capacitors in order to deter-
mine the PV reactive power compensation setpoint Qref. The proposed VVC controller
modifies the Modbus registers to maintain the reactive power output from all PV inverters
Energies 2023, 16, 1112 12 of 31

at a constant value after receiving the reactive power setpoint Qref via the SCADA IEC
61850 standard protocol.

Figure 6. Voltage/Reactive power control algorithm of a smart inverter.

Energies 2023, 16, 1112 13 of 31

The implementation of AI is used to analyze the difficulties associated with power

system design, control, monitoring, forecasting, and security using a variety of techniques.
The five AI techniques that are most frequently mentioned in relation to power systems
are optimization, data exploration, classification, regression, and clustering. In intelligent
PV plants, the best dimensions for photovoltaic (PV) arrays and energy storage systems
(ESS) are determined using linear programming, and model predictive control is used to
ensure optimal system performance. Furthermore, by addressing issues with optimal
power flow (OPF), optimization-based methods are used to manage power system per-
formance. Due to their superior capacity to model complex problems at low cost, optimi-
zation-based methods are also being used in the analysis of power system reliability. Net-
work topology optimization (NTO) and dynamic thermal rating (DTR) technologies help
to increase transmission assets and improve the reliability of the power system. For the
best reliability planning, we then use stochastic dual dynamic programming and Monte
Carlo techniques. To recognize and reduce the impact of uncertainties and interferences
on system dependability, a reliable optimization model for generation and transmission
is developed. Due to easier access to operational data from the power system, artificial
intelligence (AI) implementation has expanded significantly and improved in accuracy.
The gathered information is then used to train artificial intelligence (AI) models that can
quickly identify systemic issues and abnormalities. It is also possible to determine the
mission profile for the operation of PV systems the following day by using irradiance
forecasting with a long short-term memory network.
A mission profile should theoretically be able to control environmental variables
(such as irradiance, temperature, and humidity), energy estimation, annual power gener-
ation, and other visible results. In order to predict the operating conditions and average
more accurately, minimum, and peak power outputs of PV systems, designers can consult
this dataset. It should be easier to spot instances of malicious data injection into the com-
mand and control of power systems thanks to a data-driven approach to security that has
been developed by researchers. The study’s findings suggest this process can be executed
in an online environment using a variety of reinforcement learning techniques. With
proper data organization and categorization, it is much simpler to determine what state a
power system is in and what values are being measured. This is because processing mas-
sive amounts of data rapidly is crucial to the functioning of the power system. By keeping
tabs on the power system in real time, its various operating stages can be categorized, and
any disruptions can be pinpointed. In order to recognize and classify voltage variations
and outages, a professional system analysis is also carried out within the power system.
Monitoring the condition of PV modules is done in real-time using a trained database. In
order to achieve this, a database of PV panel failure states is compiled, which is later used
to guide an ongoing assessment. To obtain the normalized peak amplitude and phase at
a sampled instant, a Fourier linear combiner is employed. Based on the collected data,
diagnoses are made using fuzzy systems. Regression techniques were repurposed by an-
alysts to be used in power system forecasting, demand-side management, and power flow
analysis in order to make the most of the gathered data.
Particle swarm optimization, genetic algorithms, and artificial neural networks are
used to forecast PV power. The Gaussian regression technique is used in this case to de-
termine how the input parameters affect the output energy. To enhance power quality, a
gradient descent least squares regression neural network technique is also developed. By
reducing noise, keeping harmonics to a minimum, and compensating for the DC offset,
this technique has the potential to improve power during both normal and abnormal grid
operations. In addition to the methods already mentioned, regression-based methods can
also be used to perform the power flow analysis. Additionally, the data collected from the
different power system operating states is modified using clustering techniques to achieve
effective modeling of the system with enhanced performance and operation. This is car-
ried out in order to achieve the goal of successful system modeling. Scaling the various
Energies 2023, 16, 1112 14 of 31

virtual power plants to determine the required power output is how the K-clustering tech-
nique is put into practice. In this instance, the distributed dynamic clustering algorithm
aids in the heterogeneous deployment of ESS throughout the power system. A multi-clus-
ter optimization algorithm is used to determine the ideal size of the ESS for PV generation
while taking the uncertainty of the power system into account. such as how a hierarchical
spectral clustering approach is used to examine the connections within a power grid.
The four categories of optimization, classification, regression, and data structure
comprise the core components of artificial intelligence. Between AI and power electronic
applications, these features act as a functional layer. The Smart inverter’s (power electron-
ics domain) functional layer of artificial intelligence could be categorized as follows:

 Optimization: Finding the best option from a range of alternatives, taking into ac-
count constraints, equality requirements, and inequalities, to maximize or minimize
objective functions is referred to as this. To accomplish this, choose the option that
maximizes or minimizes the objective function. For instance, optimization can be
used to investigate the ideal set of parameters that maximizes or minimizes design
goals while maintaining design constraints.
 Classification: This is the process of affixing a label to a piece of input information or
data that indicates which of the k discrete classes it belongs to. In particular, the de-
tection of anomalies and the diagnosis of faults in maintenance are examples of typ-
ical classification tasks that are performed in order to determine fault labels using
condition monitoring information.
 Regression: By figuring out the relationship between the input variables and the tar-
get variables, regression aims to predict the value of one or more continuous target
variables given the input variables. This is done by figuring out how the two sets of
variables relate to one another. For example, it may be simpler to implement an in-
telligent controller if there is a regression model between the electrical input signals
and the output control variables. The values of the control variables can be predicted
using this model as well.
Data structure exploration: Data compression is the process of projecting high-dimen-
sional data down to low-dimensional data in order to decrease the number of features.
This includes data clustering, which is the process of identifying groups of data within a
dataset that are similar to one another; density estimation; and data compression. For in-
stance, the category of “data structure exploration” can be found in the maintenance sec-
tion of the phrase “degradation state clustering”. For instance, 12.4% of all maintenance
tasks, 78% of control tasks, and 9.8% of design tasks all make use of AI. Optimization
constitutes 33.3% of all functions, classification 6.6%, regression 58.4%, and data structure
exploration 1.7%. It demonstrates that the majority of artificial intelligence (AI) work in
power electronics can be boiled down to regression and optimization. Expert systems,
fuzzy logic, metaheuristics, and machine learning are some of the broad classifications
that can be applied to the various AI approaches. A total of 0.9%, 21.3%, 32.0%, and 45.8%
are the percentage of AI applications. This data points to machine learning as being the
primary area of artificial intelligence in power electronics. It should be noted that the in-
vestigation is thorough but not complete. In this context, we restrict our attention to those
areas of AI that have found widespread use in power electronics and with a special focus
on smart inverters. The crisp value is modified in a fuzzy space to finish the nonlinear
mapping between the input and output with carefully considered design principles.

2.1. Expert System

Expert systems have advanced significantly since their inception as one of the first
AI methods to be used in industry. Expert systems are essentially databases that organize
specialized knowledge into catalogs of Boolean logic, which can be used to model the IF-
THEN logic rules of the human brain. It is an intelligent database-based system that sim-
Energies 2023, 16, 1112 15 of 31

ulates the process of inference in order to respond to why and how queries. The infor-
mation, statements, and facts in the IF database come from either real or imagined com-
puter simulations. It has the capacity to obtain regular updates. The expert system’s reli-
ance on system principles and rules—which are specific to the system in question and
thus not universal—is the cause of this. It only works in areas with established, well-de-
fined rules that were developed by experts. Additionally, other cutting-edge AI tech-
niques (such as fuzzy logic and machine learning) can now take the place of expert sys-
tems, offering significantly improved inference and approximation capabilities. This is
made possible by the quick evolution of computational platforms.

2.2. Fuzzy Logic

Fuzzification, rule inference, knowledge base, and defuzzification are typically the
four main parts of a fuzzy logic method. First, membership functions such as triangular,
trapezoidal, Gaussian, bell-shaped, and singleton are fuzzified for the input linguistic var-
iables. Second, the inference module combines the signals in line with IF-THEN fuzzy
rules stored in the knowledge base and derived from expert experience. The third step
involves defuzzifying the output signal. The fuzzy rule has an Antecedent example. Z IS
POSITIVE IF Y IS ZERO AND X IS MEDIUM. The degree of fulfillment for both the ante-
cedent and the consequent is determined by the membership functions. Fuzzy inference
schemes fall into the Mamdani type and Takagi-Sugeno-Kang-type (TSKtype) categories.
In the Mamdani-type fuzzy inference scheme, the membership functions of the antecedent
and the consequent are shape-based functions, such as triangles. The membership func-
tion of the TSK-type fuzzy inference scheme’s antecedent component is the same as the
Mamdani-type, whereas the consequent component’s membership function is singleton
at various constant values. For the same task, the Mamdani-type scheme typically needs
more fuzzy sets than the TSK-type scheme. The TSK-type scheme’s membership function
can be functionally typed as either linear or constant, which is more accurate and effective
in nonlinear approximation than the Mamdani-type’s fuzzy terms. Fuzzy logic can be
used to handle prior knowledge and expert experience before being combined as a hybrid
method with other AI techniques, according to this point of view.

2.3. Metaheuristic Methods

Once the optimization task for a particular application has been defined, the optimal
solution can be found using either a deterministic programming method or a non-deter-
ministic programming method, such as the metaheuristic method. The gradient and Hes-
sian matrices are difficult to use for most optimization tasks in power electronics because
they are complex and difficult to calculate using deterministic programming methods.
Metaheuristic methods serve as a general, end-to-end tool that is efficient and scalable for
a variety of optimization tasks while requiring less specialized knowledge.
The development of metaheuristic methods frequently draws inspiration from bio-
logical evolution. Examples include genetic algorithms that use the natural selection pro-
cess and ant colony optimization algorithms (ACOs), which mimic ants to find the most
effective route to food. The exploration of the ideal solution is sparked by the iterative
procedure. The two types of metaheuristic methods are population-based methods and
trajectory-based methods. Examples of the former are the tabu search method and the
simulated annealing method. For the trajectory-based methods, each exploration stage
only contains one candidate solution, which then transforms into another solution in ac-
cordance with a set of rules. The standard and efficacy of the rule play a major role in
determining the effectiveness of the method. Because of this, for non-convex optimization
problems, the final solution is frequently a local rather than a global one, and the trajec-
tory-based methods typically take a while to converge. The population-based methods
produce a large number of random candidate solutions.
These candidate solutions are changed at each iterative exploration (for example,
crossover in the genetic algorithm) or added and replaced with new candidate solutions
Energies 2023, 16, 1112 16 of 31

in order to improve the quality of the population at the current generation. In order to get
closer to the ideal solution, the population’s suitability is consequently gradually in-
creased. They are especially useful for challenging optimization tasks because they are
faster at convergent convergence and global searching than trajectory-based methods. The
computational burden is greater for population-based approaches. This challenge needs
to be considered for online application scenarios where effectiveness and speed are essen-
tial. The metaheuristic methods qualitatively differ from one another in terms of several
important characteristics, including implementation, simplicity, global convergence, con-
vergence speed, and parallel capability.
Population-based methods are used to solve most optimization problems in power
electronics because of their notable benefits. They are developed using a variety of biolog-
ical inspirations. In addition to the widely used metaheuristic techniques, several other
recently developed approaches, such as biogeography-based optimization, crow search
algorithm, grey wolf optimization, fire-fly optimization algorithm, bee algorithm, colonial
competitive algorithm, teaching-learning-based optimization, etc., have also been used on
a small scale. It is significant to remember that deciding which approach is best depends
on the application. Particle swarm optimization and genetic algorithms are the two me-
taheuristic methods that are most frequently used in power electronics that use smart in-
verters. These techniques serve as the foundation and models for evolutionary algorithms
and swarm intelligence algorithms, respectively, on which different variants are built. Alt-
hough there is no guarantee that metaheuristic methods will lead to a global optimum,
most practical applications will find the solution to be generally satisfactory and accepta-
ble.

2.4. Machine Learning

Machine learning is an approach to programming that seeks to automatically learn
new skills by gleaning knowledge from existing data or interacting with a system to see
what happens. In power electronics, it is broken down into the three subfields of super-
vised learning, unsupervised learning, and reinforcement learning.
(1) Supervised learning
With the aid of a training dataset made up of input-and-output pairs, supervised
learning aims to establish the implicit mapping and functional relationships between in-
puts and outputs. This is especially useful in power electronics applications where it can
be challenging to define a system model. Activities such as regression analysis and classi-
fication are frequently included in supervised learning. The output of the input and out-
put pairs in the training dataset deals with a limited number of discrete categories when
used for classification. Fault diagnosis for a multilevel inverter, where the discrete fault
label is determined using the input fault information, is a typical illustration of a classifi-
cation task. The input and output pairs of a regression task produce one or more continu-
ous variables. Regression is well-suited for predicting how long an IGBT will last before
needing to be replaced because the result, in this case, the residual useful lifetime, is a
continuous variable. The model can be used to analyze data that differs from the set used
for training after it has been trained.
A model’s capacity to handle novel data, such as that present in the testing dataset,
is referred to as generalization. Given that the training dataset typically only contains a
small number of potential input-and-output pairs, generalization on new inputs is one of
the most important performance factors for supervised learning techniques. The three
main categories of supervised learning techniques are connectionism-based methods
(such as the neural network method), probabilistic graphical methods, and memory-based
methods. For neural network methods, the data from the training dataset is used to refine
and transfer the connection weights and architecture of the network. There has been a lot
of research done to improve neural network performance. These improvements offer two
advantages for the power electronics sector. Allowing the neural network’s uncertainty
Energies 2023, 16, 1112 17 of 31

capability to deal with the noisy signal is the first step in strengthening the method. By
incorporating fuzzy logic into the neural network, the fuzzy neural network, and its var-
iations (such as the adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS)) make this possible.
Neural networks need to improve their dynamic performance in order to handle time-
series dataset cases such as intelligent controllers and remain useful in life predictions.
Transient performance can be enhanced over a traditional neural network’s completely
decentralized structure by allowing weights to be shared between layers and cells. With
a convolutional structure (1-D convolutional neural network, time-delayed neural net-
work), weight-sharing can be implemented on a shallow scale. With a recurrent unit in a
recurrent neural network, it can be implemented on a full and deep scale. Recurrent unit
implementations typically have better modeling abilities than ones that use a convolu-
tional structure. The probabilistic graphical methods infer information from the data by
representing input and output pairs graphically. The graphical representation implicitly
depicts the conditional dependence relationship between the decision variables. A Bayes-
ian framework is used to state the fundamental relationship of the model, from which
probabilistic deductions can be made. This indicates that the model is significantly sim-
pler to comprehend than those created using neural network techniques. Additionally,
the probabilistic graphical model performs better in the presence of ambiguity and sparse
data. One typical probabilistic graphical technique is the Bayesian network.
When training is complete, the training dataset is thrown away for neural networks
and graphical methods. As opposed to kernel methods, which throw away the training
dataset after the training phase is over, support vector machines (SVMs) retain the train-
ing dataset and use it in the testing phase, and the knowledge they impart is gleaned
through the selection of key data points (called support vectors) or a subset of the training
dataset. Gaussian processes, a common kernel method, have been applied to the problem
of predicting how long an IGBT will continue to function after its useful life has ended.
Traditional kernel methods (such as Gaussian processes) are computationally expensive
because the entire training dataset is used in the testing phase. Support vector machines
(SVMs) and relevance vector machines (RVMs) are two sparse solutions proposed to re-
duce the computational overhead; in these models, Bayesian methods are used to refine
the parameter estimation. The sparse solution outperforms traditional kernel methods be-
cause it uses a smaller subset of the training dataset in the testing phase. In comparison to
neural network approaches, training datasets for kernel methods tend to be smaller in
size. For this reason, cases with a limited dataset benefit more from the use of kernel meth-
ods. The kernel methods require more memory than the neural network methods because
the training dataset is required in the testing stage. Training dataset usage slows down
testing results as well. Online applications (such as control applications) where execution
time is crucial may want to give it some thought.
(2) Unsupervised learning
Unsupervised learning lacks any output data for the learning target during the learn-
ing process, in contrast to supervised learning, where the dataset is made up of input-and-
output pairs. Data clustering and data compression are two categories that unsupervised
learning tasks typically fall under when applied to power electronics applications. In or-
der to cluster data, it investigates the regularities that are present in the smeared dataset
and separates the dataset into a number of different groups or clusters based on the simi-
larities that exist between them. In this way, the data characteristics within a cluster are
comparable to one another, whereas the data characteristics within other clusters are dif-
ferent from one another. The identification of the discrete health state from the continuous
degradation data in the context of power electronic converter condition monitoring is a
good example of a typical application of data clustering. Data compression aims to reduce
the number of features in a dataset by eliminating extraneous data that is present in the
dataset. The dataset’s integrity can be maintained while obtaining a reduced representa-
Energies 2023, 16, 1112 18 of 31

tion of the dataset using principal component analysis (PCA), for example, with a signifi-
cantly smaller number of features. The number of features in the representation can be
decreased to achieve this. These unsupervised learning algorithms typically have the pur-
pose of preprocessing data before sending it on to the subsequent analytics. Even though
this step is optional, it can help decrease the amount of computer work required and in-
crease the accuracy of the analytics.
(3) Reinforcement learning (RL)
Because reinforcement learning (RL) does not require a data set to learn from, it is an
alternative to conventional learning techniques such as supervised and unsupervised
learning. Rather, it is essentially an optimization or dynamic programming problem that
looks for a suitable action plan that maximizes reward for a particular task. This outcome-
focused methodology comes from continuously improving one’s interactions with simu-
lation models or systems. It will eventually have accumulated sufficient data to learn a
strategy that will produce the best results in relation to the goal you have established.
Theoretically, Markov decision-making can be compared to real-time learning (RL). A Q-
table in the form of an action selection policy is produced by RL training in order to max-
imize the total expected rewards over time. The Q-table, a useful policy matrix, details the
best course of action considering the pertinent condition variables. It is crucial to remem-
ber that RL relies on the interactions between systems rather than on pre-existing datasets.
As a result, it is preferred in circumstances where the system has little information or
where developing its model is challenging. This is because supervised learning, a flexible
tool, is used in most machine learning-related applications in power electronic systems.
Figure 7 displays the artificial intelligence methods related to the power electronics field
that could be used for smart inverters. Figure 8 depicts the function layer connected to the
AI methodologies used in power electronics, and Figure 9 shows the mapping of the func-
tion layer of AI used in power electronics design, control, and maintenance that is relevant
to smart inverters.
The mapping of functional layers of AI-to-AI methods must handle power system
design, control, monitoring, forecasting, and security issues [19–26]. The design, control,
and maintenance could also be referred to as three life phase cycle domains of smart in-
verter systems (applicable to all power electronic devices) are depicted in Figure 9. Five
AI uses can improve power grids. Uses include optimization, data exploration, classifica-
tion, regression analysis, and grouping. In recent years, research in academia has focused
on using AI technology to optimize systems and regulate them. Model predictive control
stabilizes smart PV facilities, and linear programming-based optimization establishes the
best solar panel-to-battery ratio. More data improves performance, which underpins these
two methods. Optimization-based approaches also solve power system optimal power
flow (OPF) issues. Due to their enhanced ability to simulate complex issues at lower costs,
their influence has expanded to power system reliability studies. Optimization-based
method development is key. Network topology optimization (NTO) and dynamic thermal
rating have enabled power system dependability and transmission capacity increases
(DTR). Monte Carlo and stochastic dual dynamic programming are used to make the most
accurate and complete dependability assessments. A reliable generation and transmission
optimization model is needed to identify and minimize interferences and uncertainties
that affect system dependability. More power system data has improved AI’s accuracy.
Figure 10 presents the three life phase cycle domains of smart inverter systems that is also
applicable to all power electronic devices. Figure 11 manifests the application of AI-ML
on a smart inverter for analysis and further action in the form of ancillary services.
Energies 2023, 16, 1112 19 of 31

Figure 7. Artificial Intelligence methodologies employed on Smart inverters.

Figure 8. Function layer domain of smart inverters while AI techniques are mapped onto the power
electronics domain.
Energies 2023, 16, 1112 20 of 31

Figure 9. Function layer domain mapping to Smart inverter domain.

Figure 10. Three life phase cycle domains of smart inverter systems (applicable to all power elec-
tronic devices).
Energies 2023, 16, 1112 21 of 31

Figure 11. Application of Artificial Intelligence (Machine Learning) for Ancillary service initiation
from a Smart inverter.

The acquired data teaches AI learning algorithms to easily spot system flaws and
outliers. The Bayesian ascending algorithm-based data-driven method can achieve this. A
network with long-term and short-term memory can forecast PV system mission profiles.
We use approximated irradiance. An ideal mission profile would supervise visual outputs
including expected energy output, annual power generation, and other climate-specific
information (such as irradiance, temperature, and humidity, amongst others). This infor-
mation is useful for PV system developers to extract the minimum, average, and maxi-
mum power outputs and PV operational parameters. This data set helps explain PV func-
tional features. Data-driven security can also detect malicious data injection into power
system control. Virtual reinforcement learning approaches may enable this.
More precise predictions of the power generation supplied into the grid are required
due to an increase in photovoltaic (PV) systems connected to the grid in recent years [27–
40]. The main cause of the increase is the decline in investment costs, which will be be-
tween 10–20% between 2019 and 2022. Other factors that have contributed to the increase
include incentives, restrictions on technical requirements for building works, and other
directives. Grid-connected photovoltaic (PV) systems will increase power outages and
possibly lead to grid instability because of the unpredictable nature of the weather. This
growth is anticipated to last for several more years. Because of the liberalization of the
electricity markets, which has significantly helped to rebalance supply and demand, spot
markets for electricity have also emerged. It is imperative that local communities, major
generators, retailers, and big-end consumers all provide accurate forecasts of their pro-
duction and consumption. To accomplish this, these market participants have heavily re-
lied on a variety of forecasting methodologies.
When the whole system is considered, it is possible to build energy markets and re-
serve control grids in such a way that electricity generation and consumption are in sync.
Energies 2023, 16, 1112 22 of 31

Even if PV’s popularity has increased, so has the difficulty system owners and managers
confront in keeping up with installations. This is because both solar irradiance and PV
outputs are notoriously difficult to anticipate. In addition, the study finds that if a gener-
ator or retailer fails to achieve their expected output or demand, they will have to turn to
the balancing market and pay very high fees to remedy the imbalance. Since the balancing
market is the only option when supply and demand are mismatched. Due to these obsta-
cles, there is widespread consensus that reliable forecasting models are essential to the
development of more effective market systems. Preliminary studies showed a wide vari-
ety of applications for outcome prediction in the context of managing distributed energy
resource networks. However, most efforts have been put toward load forecasting rather
than looking at the outcomes of distributed energy resources. Several studies have found
that accurate load forecasting can improve system effectiveness. Research that goes be-
yond using prediction outputs alone is being conducted to make electricity systems more
reliable. The results show that the weather, an inherently chaotic system, has a significant
role in forecasting. This makes it difficult to foresee outcomes for extended periods of
time, such as the next season. In order to better understand the behavior of dispersed en-
ergy supply and loads, intelligent methodologies based on statistical and stochastic mod-
els were developed.

3. Artificial Intelligence Applied to PV-Based Smart Inverter Systems

3.1. Artificial Intelligence Models for Solar Irradiance Forecasting of PV Interfaced with Smart
Inverters
The viability of employing artificial neural networks (ANNs), support vector ma-
chines (SVMs), k-nearest neighbors (k-NNs), and deep learning (DLs) to predict solar ir-
radiance. The ANN algorithm fared better than DL, SVM, and kNN when it came to fitting
the data. Grid operators, prediction horizons, and solar irradiance forecasting models are
all investigated, as are their interactions with one another. The solar perimeter sub-image
is obtained radially, and then the irradiance of the sun can be estimated using deep learn-
ing and gradient-boosted trees. Successful predictions of solar irradiance have been made
using a wide range of DL models. Long short-term memory (LSTM) neural networks are
one technique for forecasting future solar irradiance. We were able to fairly distribute our
limited resources among a wide range of jobs by employing the tried-and-true method,
which improved performance across the board and produced better metric results. In or-
der to forecast solar irradiation, it uses convolutional long short-term memory (LSTM)
networks with wavelet decomposition. The wavelet decomposition divides the raw solar
irradiance into several subsequences, which aids in network model optimization. This
method improves the precision and efficacy of traditional DL-based forecasting tech-
niques. Time series models for forecasting solar irradiance can be made with the aid of DL
techniques. In order to increase accuracy, performance, and predictability, the developed
models consider univariate data from both single- and multi-location sources. One can
build a reliable forecasting system by adjusting the ANN model for the current season.
The newly discovered strategy makes use of Pearson correlation to help input perti-
nent data into the ANN model. This improves the model’s computational capabilities,
allowing for more precise predictions, which is especially helpful when dealing with ex-
treme outliers and dynamic scenarios. Possible strategies for accurately predicting future
sun irradiation include investigating the use of Gaussian process regression. Probabilistic
renewable energy management systems may now be developed, which will facilitate the
functioning of energy trading platforms and provide crucial support to smart grid opera-
tors according to the findings of this study. Stochastic power systems, which may be iden-
tified by their intrinsic unpredictability, can be developed thanks to the findings of this
study. In addition to deep learning and neural networks, other common ways to estimate
solar irradiance include multigene genetic programming and machine-learning classifiers
Energies 2023, 16, 1112 23 of 31

such as the multi-layer perceptron neural network and the Naive Bayes method. The ad-
vent of deep learning and neural networks paved the way for the development of both
techniques [41–50].

3.2. Artificial Intelligence Model for Controller Action of the Smart Inverters
In order to reduce harmonic distortion, the inverter controller is in charge of manag-
ing the power and frequency output on the AC side of the inverter. An inverter control
algorithm is used to activate the inverter’s switches. AI improves the responsiveness of
inverter controllers to transient errors and the precision of controllers. Standard control-
lers make use of PI and PR-based algorithms; however, when integrated with AI, these
controllers significantly enhance. The PID controller’s accuracy and overall effectiveness
as a robust controller benefit greatly from the addition of fuzzy logic inverter control. As
the ANFIS-based inverter controller is being detailed, a simulated version using artificial
neural networks is being tested. Most inverter controllers using AI technology produce
power with a low total harmonic distortion (THD).
Natural disasters, physical attacks, or cyber-attacks could cause the utility electricity
that is required for the operation of power systems to go out of service. Isolated microgrids
need inverters that can determine if there is a disruption in the utility’s power supply in
order to operate properly. A local controller is built into each individual inverter with the
responsibility of keeping track of the terminal voltage and reporting any potential
changes. It is very likely that grid power has been lost when the measured voltage and
frequency are outside of the typical operating range established by IEEE Standard 1547-
2018 [51–60]. Comparing the measured values to the operational range will reveal this.
The IEEE advises figuring out how long the voltage has been outside of the typical pa-
rameters before attempting to fix the voltage issue. This is a requirement for taking part
in any activity. The disconnecting of the connection between the inverter and the power
grid is carried out by the static transfer switch. By measuring the voltage buildup at the
opposite end of the STS, it is easy to resynchronize a single inverter when it is operating
in islanded mode. Resynchronization is a remarkably easy process as a result. Two differ-
ent PI controllers can be given information about the voltage amplitude and phase differ-
ences that have been found across the STS. These controllers’ output signals would be
used to modify the voltage of the inverter’s amplitude and phase. High current transients
may be avoided, and the system may be able to gradually resynchronize with the grid.
The synchronization information might not be available if the STS is placed a long way
from the inverter. Because of this, the microgrid requires the presence of a supervisory
controller. Through low-bandwidth communication signals, this controller must be able
to provide synchronization data. Using systems that completely ignore the grid side of
the STS and only rely on measurements of current and voltage taken at the inverter is also
conceivable. To reduce the amount of transient overcurrent generated, these systems typ-
ically involve a quick detection of the grid phase angle.

3.3. Artificial Intelligence-Based Monitoring System for PV Plants

Precise identification of the various stages and parameters of operation is produced
by effective data management and classification. The operation of the electricity grid de-
pends on the ability to analyze large amounts of data quickly and effectively. Continuous
real-time monitoring of the power system’s characteristics enables the classification of the
system’s various operational phases and interruption detection. The electricity system
also undergoes an expert system analysis to detect and categorize voltage fluctuations and
outages. It is possible to monitor PV module health by collecting data on PV panel failures
under different settings and then evaluating that data in real-time with a trained database.
A Fourier linear combiner is also used to calculate the normalized peak amplitude
and phase during the sampling process. Next, fuzzy systems are used to use the data for
diagnostic purposes. The collected data can now be used in power system forecasting,
Energies 2023, 16, 1112 24 of 31

demand side management, and power flow analysis more successfully by modifying re-
gression methods. As a result, the information that was gathered became more valuable.
A genetic algorithm, particle swarm optimization, and an artificial neural network are
used to forecast the power generated by PV systems. Here, we employ the Gaussian re-
gression method to investigate how different input factors affect the output voltage. Ad-
ditionally, a gradient descent least squares regression-based neural network technique is
developed to improve power quality. By reducing noise, lowering harmonics, and adjust-
ing for the DC offset, this technique can increase power during both regular and excep-
tional grid operations. In addition to the methods described so far, regression-based tech-
niques can also be used to perform the power flow analysis.
In addition, the data collected from the power system’s various operational states is
used to refine the clustering methods, leading to a more precise model with enhanced
performance and operation. The K-clustering technique is used to determine the necessary
amount of output power. With this strategy, several virtual power plants’ capacities are
increased. To manage the diverse ESS deployments across the electrical grid, we employ
a technique called distributed dynamic clustering. Utilizing a multi-cluster approach, we
can maximize PV generation with the smallest possible ESS footprint. This enables us to
do so while accounting for the inherent unpredictability of the electricity grid. Further-
more, a hierarchical spectral clustering approach is used to examine the various linkages
within the power grid.

3.4. Artificial Intelligence-Based Protection System for Islanding Operation and Fault Ride
Through Capability
The protection mechanism is designed to cut power to the inverter-based DGs such
as PV as soon as an issue is detected. There is a decreasing detectable area and an increas-
ing detectable duration. An anti-islanding defense strategy can be active, passive, or hy-
brid, depending on how involved the user is in the anomaly detection process. Identifying
active islanding requires perturbing the system in issue and paying close attention to the
resulting signal. However, when applied to a multi-inverter system, the active technique
presents challenges and raises power quality problems.
By closely monitoring the system’s operational metrics, the passive islanding detec-
tion method seeks to pinpoint the most likely causes of a problem. Once the threshold has
been established, incorrect classification will endanger islanding operations. This led to
the development of a third technique, which uses the threshold to find anomalies and then
disturbs the system to confirm the discovery. The development of this method was moti-
vated by the drawbacks of the first two approaches. This method can also be referred to
as “hybrid islanding detection”. Finding outliers through the combination of the two is
effective but time-consuming. By first analyzing the incoming signal to create a database
of all possible abnormalities and then instructing the classifier to identify the operating
condition by evaluating the real-time signals, artificial intelligence offers a quicker and
more accurate approach to the identification of abnormalities than traditional methods.
This tactic is justified considering the provided constraint. The accuracy with which prob-
lems can be localized is improved by preprocessing the signals and extracting features to
expand the data matrix and identification capabilities.
It is not advised to disconnect DGs as soon as a grid anomaly is discovered because
doing so could jeopardize grid stability. Due to the grid codes’ support for fault ride-
through or low voltage ride-through, the PV system must continue to be connected to the
grid and inject a reactive current. This helps with efforts to restore voltage stability. To
activate the ride-through function, one can make changes to the inverter’s controller or
use an accessory such as a flexible alternating current transmission system (FACTS) de-
vice such as a STATCOM [61–65]. LVRT can be made functional with just a small, inex-
pensive change to the controller. A dual-current controller is required to control the in-
verter’s reactive power injection and polarity reversal in the event of an error. A droop-
based LVRT technique is also applied. In this method, in the event of a dip in DC link
Energies 2023, 16, 1112 25 of 31

voltage, the controller switches from the maximum power point tracking (MPPT) mode
to the ride-through mode. The FACTS device and inverter control are introduced with the
intention of synchronized control of reactive power injection. Both the injection require-
ment and the priority distribution have an impact on them.
Artificial intelligence (AI)-based methodologies such as fuzzy logic control (FLC) and
computation-based techniques such as particle swarm optimization (PSO) are used to en-
hance the inverter controller’s LVRT capabilities. FLC-based control reliably achieves
LVRT using a vector control plot for the DC link voltage, whereas PSO tends to increase
the nonlinear system’s LVRT capacity.

3.5. Artificial Intelligence-Based Approach for Maximum Power Tracking

The inverter must draw the most power from the PV array during DC/DC conver-
sion. The perturb and observation method uses a hill-climbing algorithm to find a PV
curve’s maximum value. The system cannot be trusted due to the increase in step size.
The optimization and control of mission profiles can happen more quickly thanks to au-
tomatic intelligence. The fuzzy logic controller and neural network controller both follow
the same maximum operating point when taking the mission profile into account, thanks
to the genetic algorithm’s optimization. Transients show harmonics and disturbances in
the tracked power output, whereas power consumption shows output power loss caused
by a specific MPP algorithm. The research demonstrates that while some MPPT algo-
rithms, such as the P&O and incremental conductance approaches, are easy to construct,
they have drawbacks such as slow response times, significant power loss, and output tran-
sients. The grid will be cut off from the DGs once a problem has been found and the LVRT
has failed to fix it [66–70]. Limiting transient voltage and preventing frequency runaway
requires controlling DG disconnects and reconnects. Both modes of operation are con-
trolled by a single control structure, with the outer loop acting as a reference generator for
the current loop when it is operating independently and a static control switch facilitating
controller switching. With static switch basis control methods, there is a sizable delay in
response and transients. Artificial intelligence-enabled methods allow for seamless
switching between modes. A transition controller based on fuzzy logic (FL) is used to es-
tablish a reference trajectory and smooth the transition, in addition to a model predictive
control (MPC)-based transition controller with stable output and simple implementation.

3.6. Artificial Intelligence-Based Approach for the Failure Diagnosis of a PV System

Recent years have shown the reliability and efficacy of AI-based, data-driven, intel-
ligent fault classification approaches for diagnosing failure in grid-connected PV convert-
ers. Multilayer H-bridge inverter power switch failures are categorized using a neural
network (ANN). With the help of Digital Wavelet Transform (DWT), information such as
signal strength, energy, etc. may be gleaned from inverter output voltage data. Then, an
ANN is trained using one input layer, one output layer, and a hidden layer. Faults in grid-
connected PV systems are categorized using a radial basis function network (RBFN). The
time series of data from the inverter’s output is preprocessed using a wavelet approach.
The Radial basis function network (RBFN) with a Gaussian kernel is fed data by these
features. Using supervised learning, a Probabilistic Neural Network (PNN) can detect
problems in diode-clamped multilevel inverters. The Daubechies order 4 (db4) mother
wavelet is used in DWT feature mining. After that, we use a PNN with many feedforward
layers and no iterations to fine-tune the weights. Intelligent condition monitoring for grid-
connected PV systems is achieved using Multilayer Perceptron Neural Network
(MLPNN). Data on the voltage and current flowing through a failed inverter switch are
used by DWT to calculate characteristics. Dimensionality is reduced via principal compo-
nent analysis (PCA), and only relevant features are recorded. PV inverters that are con-
nected to the grid rely on fault prediction methods such as rapid clustering and the Gauss-
ian mixture model. Information on the inverter’s current, voltage, and IGBT temperature
as they occur in real-time. Defects can be predicted with the help of the Gaussian mixture
Energies 2023, 16, 1112 26 of 31

model, and clusters of comparable data can be organized using the fast-clustering method.
In this study, we introduce a modified CNN GAP (global average pooling) technique for
inverter switch failure diagnosis. The CNN GAP model receives 1D, first-dimensional
time series data directly from the inverter. Multiple convolutions and layer pooling are
used to create 2D feature maps for the input layer. The diagnostic outcome is acquired in
the output softmax layer after the GAP layer has compressed the output image.

3.7. Artificial Intelligence-Based Big Data and Analytics Support for PV System
Using the Internet of Things (IoT), smart devices, and artificial intelligence (AI) data
mining inside the Digital Twin (DT) framework enables data-driven product design, man-
ufacturing, and servicing. The DT framework is the result of an IoT platform combining
physical system data with historical data from a PV system connected to the grid. Safer
transition networks and better data collecting and analysis are made possible by the smart,
industrial, and energy internet. Because of this, DT frameworks become more efficient and
focused on the needs of their end users, improving AI’s data-handling capabilities. Due
to their inherent randomness, raw data are not ideal for use in most PV system applica-
tions. That is why it is crucial to use the DT framework to obtain your data in tip-top shape
before you try to extract useful features. These characteristics should take PV system dy-
namics into consideration without compromising the uniqueness of the observed data.
Besides economic dispatch, a supervisory or tertiary controller can exchange syn-
chronization data to integrate microgrids into a grid. A supervisory framework incorpo-
rating weather forecast data can also mitigate intermittent renewable energy issues. Wind
turbines cease rotating at their wind speed limit. A big cloud passing overhead might also
reduce PV array production unexpectedly. Losing a wind or solar farm could cause fre-
quency and voltage swings due to the increased amount of renewable energy. If the
weather forecast is known in advance, solar and wind farms can be gradually shut down
while the remaining sources, especially high inertia synchronous generators, are gradu-
ally ramped up to avoid under-frequency trips.

3.8. Importance of IEC 61850 Standard and Digital Twin towards Smart PV Inverters
Grid-forming and grid-following performance are both enhanced by integrating
smart inverters with external data sources. In order to send information to the utility op-
erator, smart inverters use a communication network, which leaves them open to hacking
and human error. In order to overcome this issue, a reference system (model) is needed to
tell the difference between legitimate power company setpoints and those used by fraud-
sters. Using a message authentication code (MAC) for encrypted transmission guarantees
that a setpoint came straight from the utility and was not tampered with in transit. It is
possible to hack the utility computer and transmit setpoints using encrypted tags. Self-
protecting inverters can be built according to standard operating parameters and grid reg-
ulations. Based on the expected output’s safety, the inverter can determine whether to
activate the new setpoints or not. Cyberattacks may prompt more sophisticated counter-
measures. Stable, expandable, low-latency, high-range, and sufficient-data-rate commu-
nication networks are required for grid-interactive inverters. Connectivity between IEDs,
such as smart inverters, is enhanced by IEC 61850 [71–75]. The information models used
by GOOSE, MMS, and SMV can all be mapped to IEC 61850. Information Exchange De-
vices (IEDs) use the generic-object-oriented-substation-events (GOOSE) protocol to pub-
lish and subscribe to data, while the manufacturing-message-specification (MMS) proto-
col is used for client/server communication between IEDs and the utility operator to trans-
fer real-time data and supervisory control data, and the sample-measured-values (SMV)
protocol transmits digitized signals from measurement units. Processing and end-to-end
data packet transmission delays render centralized control ineffective against fast dy-
namic phenomena. It is possible for hackers to cause widespread instability by manipu-
lating end-to-end packet delays between smart inverters, sensors, and utilities. Wireless
networking can be established entirely via wireless means, or it can be a hybrid of wireless
Energies 2023, 16, 1112 27 of 31

and wired connections, using technologies such as cellular or Wi-Fi. While wired connec-
tions are more secure against electromagnetic interference (EMI), they are also less scala-
ble. Although it is the slowest kind of wired communication, power line communication
is also the most affordable. Typically, this technology has been used in relay and protec-
tion systems. When operating in islanded mode, inverters that rely on power lines to ex-
change data risk losing this information. Although a mesh wireless network has a higher
tolerance for failures without data loss, transmission performance may be lowered due to
routing. Inverters can connect to other inverters and smart gadgets in the area via sparse
communication, streamlining processes, and allowing for expansion.
When a physical object and its digital counterpart are connected to one another via
the internet, they form what is known as “digital twins”, which can share and receive data
in real time. This digital duplication can also have real-time conversations with its coun-
terpart. One way to think of a digital twin is as a software copy. Because of their ability to
facilitate bidirectional data flow, digital twins simplify the process of merging the digital
and physical realms. In addition to improving the accuracy of the twining process, it also
aids system operators by allowing for real-time monitoring and control, which boosts the
overall performance of the underlying physical system. These advantages emerge from
the enhanced functionality of the underlying physical system. VPPs and other organiza-
tions can benefit from digitizing EESs in several ways, including the ability to anticipate
and prepare for change, increase security, and take part in wholesale energy markets that
are abundant in DERs [76–79]. Additionally, enhanced productivity helps VPPs and other
businesses. Blockchain technology, digital twins, and massive amounts of data are used
to achieve this purpose. Data is gathered in real-time from the physical asset using Inter-
net of Things (IoT)-connected sensors and communicated to the digital twin in a two-way
interaction. Due to its multi-source, multi-scale, noisy, and heterogeneous nature, col-
lected data requires a strong reliance on big data analytics that is inherent in cloud com-
puting-based data processing. In the future, feature extraction and data fusion will be
achievable using technology that employs artificial intelligence on large datasets. By in-
corporating data from both physical and digital sensors, this model can dynamically rec-
ognize, forecast, optimize, and regulate any process. What this suggests is that the concept
of the digital twin will soon merge with others, such as IoT, big data, AI, and data fusion.
If a digital item is to be compared to its physical counterpart, the two must have function-
ally identical capabilities. One can judge success based on how quickly a digital twin
model can be built, how efficiently physical assets are used, and how accurately prognos-
tics and diagnostics can be carried out. Digital twins are being used in more and more
contexts, from smart inverters. ISO 23247-1 is a standard for the automation system and
integration of the digital twin framework for manufacturing, published by the Interna-
tional Organization for Standardization (ISO) (ISO). Several other normative documents
exist, such as ISO 10303, ISO 13399, and OPC Unified Architecture.
It is essential to gather historical and real-time data streams from sources such as
weather stations, satellite imagery, consumer behaviors, and volatile electricity prices in
order to develop accurate short- or long-term forecasting models for renewable power
generation, load pattern recognition, and electricity tariffs in EESs. This is necessary in
order to achieve the goal of developing accurate forecasting models for renewable power
generation. In addition to this, it is necessary to gather charging sessions from electric
vehicle charging stations. The Internet of Things makes it possible for vast information
and communication networks to come together to create this high-velocity, real-time het-
erogeneous data streams. These data streams are produced as a result of these networks.
When applied to massive amounts of aggregated raw data, the application of artificial
intelligence algorithms, big data analytics, and data fusion methodologies can result in
the development of relevant insights and the facilitation of enhanced decision-making.
The DT model of Electrical Energy Systems (EESs) that was developed will aid network
operators in the following areas: steady-state evaluation; identification of extreme events;
monitoring the status of health, and making decisions with confidence in response to
Energies 2023, 16, 1112 28 of 31

rapid changes in the system. Before anything such as this can be performed, the forecast-
ing model needs to be validated first. It is also able to provide advice on the most efficient
way to set up EESs, reduce the strain placed on those systems by distributing resources to
areas in which they are required the least, and postpone the date on which expensive re-
pairs and upgrades are necessary to be performed. Additionally, independent infrastruc-
tures, such as electrical systems, can perform intricate coordination with their neighbors
by utilizing DT-DT communication. This is possible because of the independence of these
systems.

4. Conclusions
The inverter regulates voltage and maintains grid limits. When utility power fails,
grid-adapting resynchronizes and self-heals. Developers added more cyberattack-preven-
tion features. Smart inverters fix internal problems to prevent power outages. Grid-con-
nected inverters are proactive and reactive. Smart inverters benefit from AI-based re-
search projects focusing on system-level issues in the solar PV value chain. ANNs and
other task-dependent architectures power today’s AI. ANNs can predict time-series irra-
diance and power. GAs and population-based optimization are new. A smart inverter
meets all the above criteria. AI-powered solar plants can work with smart grids and
backup generators. This paper describes AI techniques used in smart inverters. Recent
discoveries on the Design, control, and maintenance of smart inverters can be categorized
using AI. Expert systems, fuzzy logic, metaheuristics, and machine learning are four types
of AI used in power electronics. Relevant AI algorithms are compared in depth, including
their use, benefits, and limitations. AI applications optimize, classify, predict, and explore
data structures. Difficulties and future research areas are highlighted alongside life cycle
examples. This perspective paper presented an overview of the effectiveness of AI-pow-
ered solar plants, also known as smart inverters, along with additional functions and
moonlighting features that comprise a smart grid.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.S.R.; methodology, S.S.R., C.K.S. and A.V.V.S.; valida-
tion, S.S.R. and C.K.S.; formal analysis; investigation; resources, data curation.; writing—original
draft preparation, writing—review and editing, visualization, S.S.R., C.K.S., A.V.V.S., U.S., E.R.C.
and T.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Kashani, G.; Mobarrez, M.; Bhattacharya, S. Smart inverter voltwatt control design in high PV-penetrated distribution systems.
IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 2019, 55, 1147–1156.
2. Arbab-Zavar, B.; Palacios-Garcia, E.; Vasquez, J.; Guerrero, J. Smart Inverters for Microgrid Applications: A Review. Energies
2019, 12, 840.
3. Sahoo, S.; Dragicevic, T.; Blaabjerg, F. Multilayer Resilience Paradigm Against Cyber Attacks in DC Microgrids. IEEE Trans.
Power Electron. 2020, 36, 2522–2532. https://doi.org/10.1109/tpel.2020.3014258.
4. Ağbulut, Ü.; Gürel, A.E.; Biçen, Y. Prediction of daily global solar radiation using different machine learning algorithms: Eval-
uation and comparison. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2020, 135, 110114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.110114.
5. Rajagukguk, R.A.; Ramadhan, R.A.; Lee, H.-J. A Review on Deep Learning Models for Forecasting Time Series Data of Solar
Irradiance and Photovoltaic Power. Energies 2020, 13, 6623. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13246623.
6. Sun, Z.; Zhang, X.-Y. Advances on Distributed Generation Technology. Energy Procedia 2012, 17, 32–38.
7. Xue, Y.; Divya, K.C.; Griepentrog, G.; Liviu, M.; Suresh, S.; Manjrekar, M. Towards next generation photovoltaic inverters. In
IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition; 2011; pp. 2467–2474. Available online: http://ieeex-
plore.ieee.org/lpdocs/epic03/wrapper.htm?arnumber=6064096 (accessed on 25th December 2022).
8. Doukas, H.; Patlitzianas, K.D.; Kagiannas, A.G.; Psarras, J. Renewable energy sources and rationale use of energy development
in the countries of GCC: Myth or reality? Renew. Energy 2006, 31, 755–770.
9. Trabelsi, M.; Ben-Brahim, L. Experimental photovoltaic power supply based on flying capacitors multilevel inverter. In Pro-
ceedings of the 2011 International Conference on Clean Electrical Power (ICCEP), Ischia, Italy,14–16 June 2011; pp. 578–583.
Energies 2023, 16, 1112 29 of 31

10. Trabelsi, M.; Ben-Brahim, L.; Ghazi, K.A. An improved Real-Time Digital Feedback Control for grid-tie multilevel inverter. In
Proceedings of the Industrial Electronics Society, IECON 2013-39th Annual Conference of the IEEE, Vienna, Austria, 10–13
November 2013; IEEE: 2013; pp. 5776–5781.
11. Walling, R.A.; Clark, K.; Member, S. Grid Support Functions Implemented in Utility-Scale PV Systems. In IEEE PES T&D 2010;
IEEE: 2010; pp. 1–5.
12. Paál, E.; Tatai, Z. 2010, September. Grid Connected Inverters influence on power quality of Smart Grid. In Proceedings of the
Proceedings of 14th International Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference EPE-PEMC 2010, Ohrid, Macedonia, 6–8
September 2010; IEEE: 2010; pp. T6-35.
13. Ullah, N.R.; Thiringer, T.; Karlsson, D. Voltage and Transient Stability Support by Wind Farms Complying With the E.ON Netz
Grid Code. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 2007, 22, 1647–1656.
14. Varma, R.K.; Rangarajan, S.S.; Axente, I.; Sharma, V. Novel application of a PV solar plant as STATCOM during night and day
in a distribution utility network. In Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE/PES Power Systems Conference and Exposition, Phoenix, AZ,
USA, 20–23 March 2011; pp. 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1109/PSCE.2011.5772611.
15. Srinivasarangan Rangarajan, S.; Sharma, J.; Sundarabalan, C.K. Novel Exertion of Intelligent Static Compensator Based Smart
Inverters for Ancillary Services in a Distribution Utility Network-Review. Electronics 2020, 9, 662. https://doi.org/10.3390/elec-
tronics9040662.
16. Adekola, O.I. Design and Development of a Smart Inverter System. Doctoral Dissertation, Cape Peninsula University of Tech-
nology, Captown, South Africa
17. Xue, Y.; Guerrero, J.M. Smart inverters for utility and industry applications. In Proceedings of PCIM Europe 2015; International
Exhibition and Conference for Power Electronics, Intelligent Motion, Renewable Energy and Energy Management, Nuremberg,
Germany, 19–20 May 2015; VDE: 2015; pp. 1–8.
18. Mitchell, M. Self-awareness and control in decentralized systems. In AAAI 2005 Spring Symposium on Metacognition in Computa-
tion; Menlo Park, CA, USA, 2005; pp. 80–85.
19. Riverso, S.; Sarzo, F.; Ferrari-Trecate, G. Plug-and-Play Voltage and Frequency Control of Islanded Microgrids With Meshed
Topology. IEEE Trans. Smart Grid 2014, 6, 1176–1184.
20. Monti, A.; Ponci, F. PEBB Standardization for High-Level Control: A Proposal. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2011, 59, 3700–3709.
21. Zhang, R.; Hredzak, B. Distributed Dynamic Clustering Algorithm for Formation of Heterogeneous Virtual Power Plants Based
on Power Requirements. IEEE Trans. Smart Grid 2021, 12, 192–204. https://doi.org/10.1109/tsg.2020.3020163.
22. Zhao, S.; Blaabjerg, F.; Wang, H. An Overview of Artificial Intelligence Applications for Power Electronics. IEEE Trans. Power
Electron. 2021, 36, 4633–4658. https://doi.org/10.1109/tpel.2020.3024914.
23. Khan, M.A.; Kurukuru, V.S.B.; Haque, A.; Mekhilef, S. Islanding Classification Mechanism for Grid-Connected Photovoltaic
Systems. IEEE J. Emerg. Sel. Top. Power Electron. 2021, 9, 1966–1975. https://doi.org/10.1109/jestpe.2020.2986262.
24. Ebrahimi, S.M.; Salahshour, E.; Malekzadeh, M.; Gordillo, F. Parameters identification of PV solar cells and modules using
flexible particle swarm optimization algorithm. Energy 2019, 179, 358–372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.04.218.
25. Angadi, S.; Yaragatti, U.; Suresh, Y.; Raju, A. System Parameter Based Performance Optimization of Solar PV Systems with
Perturbation Based MPPT Algorithms. Energies 2021, 14, 2007. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14072007.
26. Adib, A.; Lamb, J.; Mirafzal, B. Ancillary services via VSIs in microgrids with maximum DC-bus voltage utilization. IEEE Trans.
Ind. Appl. 2019, 55, 648–658.
27. Shriram, S. Rangarajan, E. Randolph Collins, J. Curtiss Fox, Efficacy of a Smart Photovoltaic inverter as a virtual detuner for
mitigating Network Harmonic Resonance in Distribution Systems. Electr. Power Syst. Res. 2019, 171, 175–184.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2019.02.001.
28. Ministry of Energy, Transportation and Industry, Present Status and Promotion Measures for the introduction of Renewable
Energy in Japan, 8 August 2017. https://bit.ly/2IG6m2B
29. Trueblood, C.; Coley, S.; Key, T.; Rogers, L.; Ellis, A.; Hansen, C.; Philpot, E. PV Measures Up for Fleet Duty: Data from a
Tennessee Plant Are Used to Illustrate Metrics That Characterize Plant Performance. IEEE Power Energy Mag. 2013, 11, 33–44.
30. Elexon. Load Profiles and Their Use in Electricity Settlement. 2004. Available online: https://www.elexon.co.uk/wpcontent/up-
loads/2013/11/load profiles v2.0 cgi.pdf (accessed on 25th November 2022).
31. Collins, L.; Ward, J. Real and reactive power control of distributed PV inverters for overvoltage prevention and increased re-
newable generation hosting capacity. Renew. Energy 2015, 81, 464–471.
32. Kashani, M.G.; Pulakhandam, H.; Bhattacharya, S.; Katiraei, F.; Kaiser, D. Design considerations and test setup assessment for
power hardware in loop testing. In Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting, Cincinnati,
OH, USA, 1–5 October 2017; IEEE: 2017, pp. 1–8.
33. Kashani, M.G.; Mobarrez, M.; Bhattacharya, S. Variable interleaving technique for photovoltaic cascaded dc-dc converters. In
IECON 2014-40th Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society, Dallas, TX, USA, 29 October 2014–1 November
2014; IEEE: 2014; pp. 5612–5617.
34. Investigation & Correction of Phase Shift Delays in Power Hardware in Loop Real-Time Digital Simulation Testing of Power
Electronic Converters. Available online: http://cigre-usnc.tamu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/QTPresentation Farid Katiraei
CIGRE EPRI 2015-Final.pd (accessed on 5th December 2022).
35. Serban, I.; Cespedes, S.; Marinescu, C.; Azurdia-Meza, C.A.; Gomez, J.S.; Hueichapan, D.S. Communication Requirements in
Microgrids: A Practical Survey. IEEE Access 2020, 8, 47694–47712.
Energies 2023, 16, 1112 30 of 31

36. Yazdani, S.; Ferdowsi, M.; Davari, M.; Shamsi, P. Advanced Current-Limiting and Power-Sharing Control in a PV-Based Grid-
Forming Inverter Under Unbalanced Grid Conditions. IEEE J. Emerg. Sel. Top. Power Electron. 2019, 8, 1084–1096.
37. Sahoo, S.; Dragicevic, T.; Blaabjerg, F. Resilient Operation of Heterogeneous Sources in Cooperative DC Microgrids. IEEE Trans.
Power Electron. 2020, 35, 12601–12605. https://doi.org/10.1109/tpel.2020.2991055.
38. Qi, Q.; Tao, F.; Hu, T.; Anwer, N.; Liu, A.; Wei, Y.; Wang, L.; Nee, A. Enabling technologies and tools for digital twin. J. Manuf.
Syst. 2021, 58, 3–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmsy.2019.10.001.
39. Wu, X.; Shen, C.; Iravani, R. A Distributed, Cooperative Frequency and Voltage Control for Microgrids. IEEE Trans. Smart Grid
2016, 9, 2764–2776.
40. Hossen, T.; Gursoy, M.; Mirafzal, B Digital twin for self-security of smart inverters. In Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE Energy
Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE), Vancouver, BC, Canada, 10–14 October, 2021.
41. Pilehvar, M.S.; Mirafzal, B. Smart inverters for seamless reconnection of isolated residential microgrids to utility grid. In Pro-
ceedings of the 2020 IEEE Electric Power and Energy Conference (EPEC), Edmonton, AB, Canada, 9–10 November 2020; pp. 1–
6.
42. Pilehvar, M.S.; Mirafzal, B. A frequency control method for islanded microgrids using energy storage systems. In Proceedings
of the 2020 IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition (APEC), New Orleans, LA, USA, 15–19 March 2020; pp.
2327–2332.
43. Pilehvar, M.S.; Benzaquen, J.; Shadmand, M.B.; Pahwa, A.; Mirafzal, B.; McDaniel, J.; Rogge, D.; Erickson, J. Modeling, control,
and stability of smart loads toward grid of nanogrids for smart cities,. Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics
Society (IECON), Washington, DC, USA, 21–23 October 2018.
44. Hossen, T.; Sadeque, F.; Gursoy, M.; Mirafzal, B. Self-secure inverters against malicious setpoints. In Proceedings of the 2020
IEEE Electric Power and Energy Conference (EPEC), Edmonton, AB, Canada, 9–10 November 2020; pp. 1–6.
45. Hossen, T.; Sharma, D.; Mirafzal, B. Smart Inverter Twin Model for Anomaly Detection. In Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE 22st
Workshop on Control and Modeling for Power Electronics (COMPEL), Cartagena, Colombia, 2–5 November 2021.
46. Pilehvar, M.S.; Mirafzal, B. Energy-storage fed smart inverters for mitigation of voltage fluctuations in islanded microgrids. In
Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE Electric Power and Energy Conference (EPEC), Edmonton, AB, Canada, 9–10 November 2020; pp.
1–6.
47. Gursoy, M.; Fateh, F. A model-reference adaptive direct-power control scheme for grid-interactive inverters. In Proceedings of
the 2021 IEEE 22st Workshop on Control and Modeling for Power Electronics (COMPEL), Cartagena, Colombia, 2–5 November
2021.
48. Khan, M.T.A.; Milani, A.A.; Chakrabortty, A.; Husain, I. Comprehensive dynamic modeling of a solid-state transformer-based
power distribution system. In Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE), Milwaukee,
WI, USA, 18–22 September 2016; pp. 1–8.
49. Ministry Energy, Transport and Industry Recent Trends in Solar PV Market and Issues., 2014, bit.ly/2tjKqxD [24] Fukushima
Prefecture, Renewable Energy Promotion Center, fukushima-pv-hojo.org, 2018. (In Japanese)
50. Xin, H.; Zhang, M.; Seuss, J.; Wang, Z.; Gan, D. A Real-Time Power Allocation Algorithm and its Communication Optimization
for Geographically Dispersed Energy Storage Systems. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 2013, 28, 4732–4741.
51. Jabr, R.A. Minimum loss operation of distribution networks with photovoltaic generation. IET Renew. Power Gener. 2014, 8, 33–
44.
52. Seuss, J.; Reno, M.J.; Lave, M.; Broderick, R.J.; Grijalva, S. Advanced inverter controls to dispatch distributed pv systems. In
Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE 43rd Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC), Portland, OR, USA, 5–10 June 2016; pp. 1387–
1392.
53. Abate, S.R.; McDermott, T.E.; Rylander, M.; Smith, J. Smart inverter settings for improving distribution feeder performance. In
Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE Power Energy Society General Meeting, Denver, CO, USA, 26–30 July 2015; pp. 1–5.
54. Common Functions for Smart Inverters, Version 3. Resources with Electric Power Systems. Available online:
http://www.epri.com/abstracts/Pages/ProductAbstract.aspx? (accessed on 7th December 2022).
55. Jalali, G.; Ahmed, S.; Kim, H.; Pan, Z. Instability detection and protection scheme for efficiency optimized v/f driven synchro-
nous reluctance motors (synrm). In Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE), Mil-
waukee, WI, USA, 18–22 September 2016; pp. 1–6.
56. Farivar, M.; Neal, R.; Clarke, C.; Low, S. Optimal inverter var control in distribution sys tems with high PV penetration. In
Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE Power and Energy Society General Meeting, San Diego, CA, USA, 22–26 July 2012; pp. 1–7.
57. Wanzeler, T.; Vieira, J.P.A.; Radatz, P.; Souza, V.C.; Pinheiro, D.C. Assessing the performance of smart inverter volt-watt and
volt-var functions in distribution systems with high PV penetration. In Proceedings of the 2018 Simposio Brasileiro de Sistemas
Eletricos (SBSE), Niteroi, Brazil, 12–16 May 2018; pp. 1–6.
58. Andrea, D.P.; Pio, D.N.L.; Santolo, M. Super twisting sliding mode control of smart-inverters grid-connected for PV applica-
tions. In Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE 6th International Conference on Renewable Energy Research and Applications (ICRERA),
San Diego, CA, USA, 5–8 November 2017; pp. 793–796.
59. Hossan, M.S.; Westfallen, V.; Paaso, E.A.; Avendano, M.; Bahramirad, S. Usage of smart inverter Q-V droop functionality for
irradiance variation induced voltage fluctuation reduction considering system uncertainty. In Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE
Power & Energy Society Innovative Smart Grid Technologies Conference (ISGT), Washington, DC, USA, 19–22 February 2018;
pp. 1–5.
Energies 2023, 16, 1112 31 of 31

60. Howlader, A.M.; Sadoyama, S.; Roose, L.R.; Sepasi, S. Experimental analysis of active power control of the PV system using
smart PV inverter for the smart grid system. In Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE 12th International Conference on Power Electronics
and Drive Systems (PEDS), Honolulu, HI, USA, 12–15 December 2017; pp. 497–501.
61. Pecenak, Z.K.; Kleissl, J.; Disfani, V.R. Smart inverter impacts on California distribution feeders with increasing pv penetration:
A case study. In Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Power & Energy Society General Meeting, Chicago, IL, USA, 16–20 July 2017; pp.
1–5.
62. Dao, V.T.; Ishii, H.; Hayashi, Y. Voltage and energy loss assessment for systems with smart inverter functions of rooftop solar.
In Proceedings of the 2017 14th International Conference on Electrical Engineering/Electronics, Computer, Telecommunications
and Information Technology (ECTI-CON), Phuket, Thailand, 27–30 June 2017; pp. 159–162.
63. Ustun, T.S.; Aoto, Y. Impact of Power Conditioning Systems with Advanced Inverter Capabilities on the Distribution Network.
In Proceedings of the 53rd IEEE International Universities Power Engineering Conference, Glasgow, Scotland, 4–7 September
2018.
64. Parajeles, M.J.; Quirós-Tortós, J.; Valverde, G. Assessing the performance of smart inverters in large-scale distribution networks
with PV systems. In Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE PES Innovative Smart Grid Technologies Conference—Latin America (ISGT
Latin America), Quito, Ecuador, 20–22 September 2017; pp. 1–6.
65. Abdollah, K.; Su, W.; Jin, T. A machine learning based cyber-attack detection model for wireless sensor networks in microgrids.
In IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics; 2020.
66. IEEE 1547 Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems. Available online:
http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/scc21/1547/1547 index.html (accessed on 23rd November 2022).
67. Rule 21 Smart Inverter Working Group Technical Reference. Available online: http://www.energy.ca.gov/electricity analy-
sis/rule21/ (accessed on).
68. Seuss, J.; Reno, M.J.; Broderick, R.J.; Grijalva, S. Improving distribution network pv hosting capacity via smart inverter reactive
power support. In Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE Power & Energy Society General Meeting, Denver, CO, USA, 26-30 July 2015;
IEEE: pp. 1–5.
69. Turitsyn, K.; Sulc, P.; Backhaus, S.; Chertkov, M. Local control of reactive power by distributed photovoltaic generators. In
Proceedings of the 2010 IEEE International Conference on Smart Grid, Gaithersburg, MD, USA, 4–6 October 2010; IEEE: 2010;
pp. 79–84.
70. Kashani, M.G.; Cho, Y.; Bhattacharya, S. Design consideration of volt-var controllers in distribution systems with multiple pv
inverters. In Proceedings of the 2016 ECCE Conference, Milwaukee, WI, USA, 18-22 September 2016; IEEE: 2016, pp. 1–5.
71. Kashani, M.G.; Babaei, S.; Bhattacharya, S. SVC and statcom application in electric arc furnace efficiency improvement. In Pro-
ceedings of the 2013 4th IEEE International Symposium on Power Electronics for Distributed Generation Systems (PEDG), Rog-
ers, AR, USA, 8–11 July 2013; IEEE: 2013, pp. 1–7.
72. Liu, Y.; Huang, C.; Chang, Y.; Lee, Y. Voltage impact mitigation by smart inverter control for PV integration at distribution
networks. In Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Conference on Applied System Invention (ICASI), Chiba, Japan, 13–17
April 2018, pp. 192–195.
73. Montenegro, D.; Bello, M.; York, B.; Smith, J. Utilising observability analysis to cluster smart inverters on secondary circuits for
residential deployment. CIRED Open Access Proc. J. 2017, 2017, 2572–2575.
74. Tamai, M.; Komatsu, T.; Mitani, T.; Goda, T.; Hashimoto, J.; Otani, K. Design of a novel Distribution System Simulator. In
Proceedings of the Annual Conference of National Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan, (IEEJ), 6-162, Toyama, Japan, 15–
18 March 2017.
75. IEC/TR 61850-90-7 Communication Networks and systems for power utility automation, Part 90-7: Object models for power
converters in distributed energy resources (DER) systems. In Proceedings of the International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC), February 2013.
76. Hashimoto, J.; Ustun, T.S.; Otani, K. Smart Inverter Functionality Testing for Battery Energy Storage Systems. Smart Grid Renew.
Energy 2017, 8, 337–350. https://doi.org/10.4236/sgre.2017.811022.un.
77. Ustun, T.; Mekhilef, S. Design and implementation of static synchronous series compensator with a soft-switching H-bridge
inverter with DSP-based synchronization control. In International Review of Electrical Engineering-IREE; 2010; Volume 5, pp. 1347–
1353, ISSN 1827-6660.
78. Hubble, A.H.; Ustun, T.S. Scaling renewable energy based microgrids in underserved communities: Latin America, South Asia,
and Sub-Saharan Africa. In Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE PES PowerAfrica, Livingstone, Zambia, 28 June 2016–3 July 2016;
pp. 134–138.
79. Ustun, T.S.; Konishi, H.; Hashimoto, J.; Otani, K. Hardware-in-the loop Simulation based Testing of Power Conditioning Sys-
tems. In Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE 1st International Conference on Industrial Electronics for Sustainable Energy Systems
(IESES), Hamilton, New Zealand, 31 January 2018–2 February 2018.

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual au-
thor(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.