CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Generally, soil is regarded as that part of the earth’s crust where plants grow Parr,

Papendick, Hornick and Meyer (1992) reported as a central resource base for producing the

fiber and food needed to sustain a rapidly increasing world population. Soil Science Society

of America (SSSA, 1987) defined soil as the unconsolidated mineral or organic material on

the immediate surface of the earth that serves as a natural medium for the growth of land

plant. Singer and Munn (1996) sees soil as the unconsolidated thin variable layer of mineral

and organic matter on the earth surface that form as a result of physical, chemical and

biological processes operating over a long period of time. On the other hand soil can be

described as a collection of natural bodies occupying a portion of the earth’s crust that

supports plant growth and have properties due to the integrated effect of climate and

vegetation acting upon parent materials conditioned by relief over a long period of time

(Kellogg, 1974).

Soil quality describes how well a soil performs the function of maintaining

biodiversity and productivity, partitioning water and solute flow, filtering and buffering,

nutrient cycling and providing support for plants and other structures. Karlen et al. (1997)

defined soil quality as the ability of a specific soil type to function within natural or managed

ecological limits to sustain plant and animal productivity, maintain or improve air and water

quality and support human health and habitation. Parr et al. (1992) argues that soil quality is

the capacity of the soil to produce nutritious food and crops in a sustainable manner over the

long term and to enhance human and animals health without adversely impairing the natural

resources base or adversely affected the environment. Doran and Parkin (1994), presented a

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function based definition of soil quality as the capacity of a soil to function within the

ecosystem boundaries to sustain biological productivity, maintain environment quality and

promote plant and animal health.

Fire can be defined as the combination of heat and light in the presence of oxygen and

other combustible materials. It is the visible effect of the process of combustion or burning.

Fire is one of the few tools available to an African man for clearing land before farming

which is part of the system of shifting cultivation, control of insects and diseases improve

pasture quality for cattle as well as control the competing vegetation (Fonseca et al., 2017).

All these practices are engaged by farmers but in most cases the fire spread beyond the

confines of the farmlands uncontrolled and destroys the adjourning ecosystem such as forests,

savannahs, plantations and thus resulting in bushfire.

Bushfire can either be natural or anthropogenic (Bowman et al., 2001). According to

van Stroppiana et al. (2000), the anthropogenic source of bushfire accounts for over 70 % of

all fire across the African continent. All bushfire regardless of whether natural or human-

induced alters the recycling of soil nutrients. Bushfire significantly affects soil properties

because organic matter located on or near the soil surface is rapidly combusted. The changes

in organic matter in turn may affect several physical, chemical and biological properties of

the underlying soil. However, although some nutrients are volatilized and lost, most nutrients

are made more available.

Catalanotti (2009) defined fire severity as the magnitude of fire disturbance in terms

of the effects on ecosystem properties both above and below the ground which includes

factors such as intensity of fire, duration of fire, fire extent, type of vegetation present,

topography of the land, organic matter and soil organism. The severity of bushfire varies

depending on weather and climate, vegetation, presence of combustible materials and soil

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properties (Ojeda et al., 2010). Bushfire severity can play an important role in how severely

soil properties can be altered (Certini, 2005). When bushfire occur, soil properties are

positively or negatively altered (Shakesby and Doer, 2006). Based on this contextual

background, this study investigated bushfire influence on the status of soil fertility indicators

in oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) plantation in Edo State, Nigeria.

1.2 Statement of the Research Problem

Fire is a disturbance which influences the distribution, structure and function of

ecosystems and it is experienced periodically by some ecological systems (Catalanotti, 2009).

It can cause major changes in plant communities depending on their intensity, extent,

frequency, seasonality and resilience of component species (Dayayi, Adel Pashaki and

Kuhestani, 2013). One of the major impacts of bushfire on the ecosystem is the removal of

vegetation. However, in the process of biomass combustion, soil properties are influenced

differently. While some nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorous are volatilized and lost,

calcium is made more available (John et al., 1976). The removal of vegetation cover during

burning exposes the soil to various forms of degradation, including erosion, leaching and

reduction in soil porosity (Ferreira, 2008). Slow infiltration and percolation in soil have also

been attributed to the burning of vegetation which leads to high runoff resulting in the topsoil

being washed away (Kato, 2002). The changes in soil composition and processes are however

dependent on the fire regime which involves season, frequency, intensity, time, size and

pattern of fire.

Bushfire also influences the physicochemical and biological properties of soil. The

burning of vegetation and plant liters the soil surface layer and alters nutrients dynamics.

Increased N, P, K, Ca and Mg concentrations are often found in soil after fire events since ash

has high contents of these nutrients, significant rise in soil pH and even changes proper ties in

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soil physical properties (Mataix-Solera et al., 2009; Verma and Jayakumar, 2012). Forest

fires increase soil hydrophobicity through the formation of a water repellent layer, which

decrease soil water affinity and increase water and soil losses (Keesstra et al., 2017). Bushfire

exposes the surface of soil, alters soil aggregates stability, increased density and alters soil

texture (Stoof, 2011). The ash resulting from the burned vegetation contains basic cations

which increase soil pH. Increased bushfire may increase clay and silt contents which can be

explained by the physical weathering of sand sized particles in silt and clay particles. With

the above assertions, there is the need to extend investigations on bushfire occurrence that

may pose a threat to this economic cash crop. Also, protecting oil palm plantations from

bushfire occurrence is vital since most of the locals’ livelihoods are inherently inseparable

from the oil palm plantations.

Fire as an ecological disturbance to soils has been investigated. Globally, a number of

works have been carried out on the impact of bushfire on forest and plantation ecosystems.

Prominent among them are; impact of high intensity fire on mixed evergreen and mixed

conifer forest in the peninsular ranges of southern California, USA (Janet et al., 2006); post

fire severity and vegetation response following eight large bushfire across the Western United

States (Robichaud, 2007); effects of fire frequency on nutrient levels in soil of Aleppo pine

forests in southern France (Iglesias, 2010); effects of a bushfire on selected physical,

chemical and biochemical soil properties in a Pinus massoniana forest in south China (Xue

and Chen, 2014); ignition patterns influencing fire severity and plant communities in pacific

Northwest, USA (Martin and Hamman, 2016); effects of fire severity and post post-fire

climate on short-term vegetation of mixed conifer and red fire forest in the Sierra Nevada

Mountain of California (Meng et al., 2015); fire severity levels on soil chemicals and physical

properties in Zagros forests western Iran (Mehdi, 2012) and post-fire regeneration of tree

species in a tropical dry deciduous forest, Western Ghats, India (Verma, 2015).

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 Several studies have also been carried out in Nigeria. Some works include; impact of

bushfire on soil and vegetation properties of rubber plantation in RRIN, Benin City

(Orobator, 2019); effects of burnt and unburnt land on the soil physiochemical characteristics

in Ekeya-Okobo Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State (Ubuoh, Ejekwolu and

Onuigbo, 2017); effect of bush burning on herbaceous plant diversity in Lagos State

Polytechnic, Ikorodu campus (Sanyaolu, 2015); effect of fire on soil nutrients and

microorganism at Yankari National Park, Bauchi (Abdulhameed et al., 2006) and assessment

of bushfire impact on availability of NTEPs to rural household in Oyo States (Adebayo,

2015).

Specifically, works on soil quality under oil palm plantations have also been carried

out. They include; soil texture effects on soil characteristics under oil palm (Elaeis

guineensis) plantation of selected environment in Edo State, Nigeria (Orobator, et al., 2018);

suitability assessment of soils supporting oil palm plantation in the coastal plains sand of Imo

State, Nigeria (Ukaegu, et al., 2015); multivariate analysis of soils under oil palm cultivation

with oil palm at NIFOR main station (Umumarogie-Ilori et al., 2012); comparative analysis

of soils under oil palm holdings of varying ages on the coastal plains sand of southwestern

Nigeria (Ekande, 1994) and several others.

The above-mentioned studies failed to examine the influence of bushfire on soil

fertility indicators of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) plantation. This implies that quantitative

data on the effects of bushfire on soil physicochemical and biological properties of oil palm

(Elaeis guineensis) plantation are scarce. The importance of oil palm to the Nigeria economy

cannot be over emphasized because it is a major export earner for the country and serves as

source for rural livelihood. Therefore, an investigation on bushfire influence on the status of

soil fertility indicators in oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) plantation is sacrosanct. This study will

provide a unique perspective on the effects of bushfire on oil palm (Elaeis guineensis)

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plantation, as well as make noteworthy contributions to a better understanding of fire ecology

of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) plantation ecosystems. It is on this basis that the following

research questions were formulated.

1.3 Research Questions

1. Is there any significant difference in the physicochemical and biological properties of

soils between the unburnt and burnt oil palm plantations in the study area?

2. Is there any significant relationship between the soil physicochemical and biological

properties in the unburnt and burnt oil palm plantations in the study area?

3. What is the implication of bushfire on soil properties in the oil palm plantation in the

study area?

1.4. Aim and Objectives

The aim of this research is to examine bushfire influence on the status of soil fertility

indicators in oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) plantation in Edo State, Nigeria. The specific

objectives were to:

i. determine the differences in the soil physicochemical and biological properties

between the unburnt and burnt oil palm plantations in the study area,

ii. examine if any significant relationship exist between soil properties in the unburnt and

burnt oil palm plantations in the study area, and

iii. ascertain the implication of bushfire on soil properties in the oil palm plantations in

the study area.

1.5 Research Hypotheses

1. There is no significant difference in the physicochemical and biological properties of

soils between the unburnt and burnt oil palm plantations.

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 2. There is no significant relationship between the physicochemical and biological

properties of soils in the unburnt and burnt oil palm plantations.

1.6 Significance of the Study

Monitoring ecological effects of bush burning in different ecosystems is a crucial

issue to assess the sustainability of this practice on a short, medium and long term.

Knowledge of bushfire effects is important to ecologists because fire as a disturbance process

is an integral part of the concept of ecosystem management. Biogeographers and pedologists

are interested in the factors that affect soil properties of particular biomes. This research can

be used by ecologists, soil scientists, planners, natural resources and plantation managers for

long-term and strategic planning in the growth and development of oil palm plantations. It

will also assist oil palm plantation managers in their efforts to inform others about the role of

bushfire. Thorough and accurate monitoring, evaluation and understanding of post-bushfire

effects are essential for assessing bushfire disturbances on oil palm plantations. This

investigation will help to provide the basis for broad scale understanding of the role of

bushfire in the structuring and functioning of oil palm plantations.

Researchers who are interested in sustaining the agricultural practice of oil palm

plantations due to its enormous economic benefits will find this study beneficial as it will

address issues to manage and curtail bushfire in the ecosystem with particular reference to oil

palm plantations. The empirical findings obtained from this research will be of immense

ecological benefits to both private and corporate investors in oil palm plantations besides

government agencies. It will also aid to reduce the menace of bushfire especially to prevent

frequent occurrences. It will help a great deal in the formulation and implementation of

sustainable policies for the growth and development of oil palm plantations.

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 Additionally, Okunuvbe community, where the present study sites are located will

find this study a valuable resource which can be a ready tool for policies on the conservation

of their oil palm plantations. This investigation is important in understanding that bushfire is

a fundamental phenomenon of ecosystems that must be understood and managed to meet

ecosystem management goals. It will help to complement the understanding of bushfire

effects within particular ecosystem as ecologists seek to identify unifying trends in burn

severity as well as soil response across post-bushfire landscape. This study will further offer

insights in the scale and pattern of soil properties differences under burnt and unburnt oil

palm plantations. It will aid decision makers to attain site-specific decisions, detect and

develop management policies for sustainable oil palm plantations utilization.

1.7 Scope of the Study

This study focused on investigating bushfire influence on the status of soil fertility

indicators in oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) plantation in Edo State, Nigeria. The soil

physicochemical and biological properties examined included soil texture (sand, silt and silt),

bulk density, soil organic matter, soil pH, potassium, calcium, magnesium, available

phosphorous, total organic carbon, effective cation exchange capacity, zinc, iron, copper,

manganese, cobalt, chromium, cadmium, lead, nickel, arsenic, vanadium, total heterotrophic

bacteria count and total heterotrophic fungi count. The statistical tools adopted were analysis

of variance (ANOVA) and pearson product-moment correlation.

1.8 Study Area

1.8.1 Location, Topography and Drainage

Okunuvbe is located within the geographical coordinates of Latitudes 6° 37' 5.24" N

to 6° 36' 46.97" N and Longitudes 5° 45' 53.88" E to 5° 45' 49.16" E. Okunuvbe is spatially

bounded by Odiguete village to the north and Igbakhue village to the southwest and is

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approximately 37 km from the capital city of Benin. The topography of Okunuvbe is

relatively flat, with an average elevation of 44 m above sea level and it is drained by river

Okhuo, a tributary to the Ovia river which is the largest and longest river in Edo State.

1.8.2 Climate

Okunuvbe community belongs to the Af category of Koppen’s climatic classification

(Atedhor, Odjugo and Alex, 2011). The climate is tropical, characterized by relatively wet

and dry seasons. The rainfall throughout West Africa depends upon the interaction of warm

moist tropical maritime air mass and the hot and dry tropical continental air mass. The two air

masses meet along the inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ) which moves in response to

the seasonal deposition of the overhead sun. Rainfall amounts are generally related to the

thickness of the tropical maritime air mass. The tropical maritime air mass is wedge-shape

and thins northwards. Consequently, when the ITCZ moves northwards over the study area in

April, rainfall becomes progressively heavier and more steady, reaching its peak in August.

In September, as the ITC2 moves southwards, rainfall becomes higher and sporadic.

The rainfall of Okunuvbe community is concentrated in the months of April and

October, though heavily in the month of June and July but with break in August (Atedhor,

Odjugo and Alex, 2011). Mean annual rainfall is about 2,255 mm with cold harmmatan spell

between December and January. Okunuvbe community has 25°C and 29°C for mean

minimum and maximum temperatures (Ugwa Umweni and Bakare, 2016). Humidity in

Okunuvbe community is generally above 72 %, the highest occurring between the month of

July and September, while the area is characterized by moderate wind speed and sunshine

hours of between 2 to 7 hours per day during the wet and dry days respectively. Duration of

sunshine hour is significant to perennial crop production.

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1.8.3 Soils and Vegetation

The soils of Okunuvbe community have been developed from unconsolidated marine

sediment of Miocene-Pleistocene age. This is the part of the area known as coastal plain

sands to indicate the extensive red yellow weathered soil and loose ill-sorted sands overlying

the Bendel-Ameki group (Fapohunda, 1986). The soil of the study area has been described as

Rhodic and Kandiudulf by Ugwa, Obazuaye and Ahana (2016). The soil type found in

Okunuvbe community is red and yellow weathered soil with colors which result from the

accumulation of metal oxides, particularly iron and aluminum. Okunuvbe community lies

within the zone of tropical rainforest vegetation belt (Atedhor, Odjugo and Alex 2011). The

land is used mainly for oil palm (Elaeis guineeensis) cultivation and other arable crops. Tree

such as Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) and Iroko (Milicia excelsa) are scattered within

the area. Other grasses that exists often pose fire danger during hamattan are Andropogon

Spp, Pennisetuna Spp and Chromolaena odoranta.

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 CHAPTER TWO

CONCEPTUAL FRAMWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter comprises of two sections. The first section which is the conceptual

framework gives knowledge into the nature of bushfire, the relationship that exist between

soil and vegetation as well as their structure and basics to examine changes as a result of

bushfire occurrence in oil palm plantation. The second section attempts a thorough review of

past studies and reveals the trends and gap(s) in existing knowledge.

2.2 Conceptual Framework

2.2.1 Fire Ecology

Fire ecology is a branch of ecology that examines the origin of fire, its relationship as

well as the role of fire in ecosystems and what influences its spread and its intensity on the

ecosystem (Ecological Society of America, 2000). Many factors such as topography, fire fuel,

and weather and fire history influence the probability of ignition of fire and combustion. Fire

ignited on the top of a slope is likely to spread slowly as its burns downhill whereas at the

foot of a slope it will spread more rapidly as it burns uphill, this is because the air is warmer.

Topography features such as streams and lakes can create firebreaks, thus influencing the

distribution of burns across the landscapes. Weather affects fire intensity. Fires in dry, windy

conditions will spread rapidly compared to moist conditions. Most of the factors responsible

for fire intensity also affect the rate of spread of the fire. The components of fire ecology

include fire intensity, fire severity, and fire regime and history.

Catalanotti (2009) defined fire severity as the magnitude of fire disturbance in terms

of the effects on ecosystem properties both above and below the ground. The extent or

11
severity of bushfire varies depending on the climate, vegetation, presence of combustible

materials and soil properties (Ojeda et al., 2010). However the severity of bushfire can play

an important role in how severely soil properties can be altered (Certini, 2005). Fire regime

refers to the periodicity and pattern of naturally occurring fires in a particular area or

vegetation type, described in terms of frequency, severity, season and areal extent (Adamu,

2011). Fire regimes are typically described in terms of either fire characteristics or fire effects

and that basic fire characteristics have been used to describe fire regimes includes fire extent,

season and fire frequency (Ecological Society of America, 2000).

Fire history involves how often fires have occurred in a given geographical area.

Through recorded history we can see into the recent past but trees are our source of

information on fires in the distance past. When fire goes through an area the growth rings of

that particular tree may be scarred on live trees this is called a fire scar, otherwise the history

of particular ecosystem can be got from or plantation manager as in the case maybe. Fire

behavior according to Adamu (2011) is the manner in which a fire burns in response to the

variables of fuel, weather and topography. During bushfire, whether planned or unplanned,

plant cover and litter layers are consumed and the mineral soil is heated resulting in changes

in the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil (Hubbert et al., 2006). The

combination of combustion and heat transfer produces sharp temperature gradients in the

topsoil profile (Certini, 2005). The extent, duration, intensity and severity as well as post-fire

condition of the fire goes a long way in determining to what extent or degree the soil

properties that are affected.

2.2.2 Ash-Bed Effect

Following fire, variable amounts of ash are left remaining on the soil surface until the

ash is either blown away or is leached into the soil by precipitation. On severely burned sites,

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large layers of ash can are present (up to several centimeters thick). The accumulation of

thick layers of ashy residue remaining on the soil surface after a fire is referred to as the “ash

bed effect” (Hatch, 1960; Pryor, 1963; Humphreys and Lambert, 1965; Renbuss, 1972). The

severe burning conditions necessary to create these thick beds of ash affect most of the

physical, chemical and biological soil properties. Soil changes associated with ash beds can

occur as a result of fire itself (soil heating), residual effect of ash deposited on the soil surface

or a combination of both (Raison, 1979). The amount and type of ash remaining after fire

depend upon the characteristics of the fuels that are combusted such as fuel densities, fuel

moisture content, total amount of the fuel load consumed and severity of the fire (Gillon,

1995). As a result of the fire, the ash remaining after a fire can range from small amounts of

charred dark colored fuel residues to thick layers of white ash that are several centimeters

thick (DeBano, 1998). When densely packed fuels are completely combusted, large amounts

of residual white ash are usually in one place on the soil surface following burning.

The severe heating during fire will change the color of the soil mineral particles to

reddish color and where extreme soil heating has occurred the mineral soil particles may be

physically fused together. Silicon melts at temperatures of 1,414 °C. Chemically, fire

consumption of aboveground material determines the amount of ash produced. Ash consists

mostly of carbonates and oxides of metals and silica along with small amounts of P, S, and N

(Raison et al., 1990). Johnston and Elliott (1998) found that ash on uncut forest plots

generally had the highest pH and the lowest P concentrations. Physical changes associated

with the ash bed effect mainly include changes in soil structure and permeability to water.

The combustion of organic matter in the upper part of the soil profile can totally destroy soil

structure, and the ashy material produced often seals the soil to water entry. Plant roots and

seeds are also destroyed so that the vegetation of these sites depends on long-term ecological

succession to return to its former vegetative cover. Indirectly, the large amounts of ash can

13
affect soil microbial populations. A study of the effects of ash, soil heating and ash heat

interaction on soil respiration in two Australian soils showed that large amounts of ash

slightly decreased respiration but small amounts of fire had non-effect (Raison and McGarity,

1980).

2.2.3 Soil Characteristics

Many of the changes in soil physicochemical and biological properties that occur

during fire are related to the degree and duration of soil heating. Ahmed (2007) and Elfiati

and Delvian (2016) asserted that bushfires can cause loss of biodiversity and alter soil

physiochemical and biological properties thereby affecting the composition of the soil

2.2.4 Soil Physical Properties

Soil physical properties are those characteristics, processes or reactions of a soil that

are caused by physical forces that can be described by or expressed in physical terms or

equations (Soil Science Society of America, 2001). Verma and Jayakumar (2012) stated that

these important soil physical characteristics that are affected by soil heating include; soil

color, soil structure, soil texture (sand, silt and clay), water repellency, bulk density and total

porosity. However, this research focused on soil texture and bulk density.

2.2.4.1 Soil Texture

Verma and Jayakumar (2012) noted that the component of soil texture (sand, silt and

clay) have a high temperature capacity and a high temperature thresholds and are not usually

affected by fire unless they are subjected to high temperature at the mineral soil surface (A-

horizon). However Jhariya (2014) stated that the most sensitive textural fraction is clay and

that the impact of forest fire on soil texture is significant. Nardoto and Bustamante (2003) in

examining soil nitrogen dynamics and microbial biomass in savannas of central Brazil

14
reported that percent sand, silt and clay varies from burnt to unburnt sites at the 0 to 5 cm

depth.

2.2.4.2 Bulk Density

Soil bulk density is the mass of dry soil per unit bulk volume (expressed in Mg m -3)

and is related to total porosity which is the volume of pores in a soil sample (non-solid

volume) divided by the bulk volume of the sample. Fire can influence the bulk density of soil

because of the collapse of aggregate and clogging of voids by ash and dispersed clay

minerals. As a consequence, soil porosity and permeability decreases leading to a decline in

the water holding capacity of the soil.

2.2.5 Soil Chemical Properties

The chemical properties of the soil that are affected by fire include individual

chemical characteristics (Leonard, 1998). As a general rule, the total amounts of chemical

elements are never increased by fire. Soil chemical properties commonly affected by fire

include organic matter, nutrient elements such as nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus,

exchangeable cations such as calcium, potassium and magnesium and pH (soil reaction).

2.2.5.1 Soil Organic Matter and Soil Organic Carbon

Soil organic matter (SOM) plays a major impact of fire on soils resulting from the

combustion of organic matter. Consumption of organics can range from scorching to

complete ash (Neary, 2004). Combustion of organic matter increases with an increase in

temperature which results to a reduction or total removal of the organic material on the

surface of the soil in addition to the upper soil horizons (Certini, 2005). Verma and

Jayakumar (2012) stated that the effect of fire on SOM is highly dependent on the type,

intensity of fire including soil moisture, soil type and nature of the burnt materials.

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 The effects of fire on soil organic carbon of mineral soil range from no effect to a loss

of 60 % (Certini, 2005; Bormann et al., 2008). According to Miller et al., (2013) stated that

there appears to be only limited amounts of total ecosystem organic carbon that is lost during

a fire event because most ecosystem organic carbon is stored below the ground. Johnson and

Curtis (2001) made a Meta data analysis on a comprehensive database of soils from North

America affected or not by different fire treatment. They detected significant differences in

both soil C and N after 10 years from the fire event. Lower C content was found in soils

affected by prescribed fire and higher soil C content following bush burning.

2.2.5.2 Soil pH

Soil pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion activity in the soil and is determined at

specified moisture contents. Certini (2005) noted that soil pH is inexorably increased by soil

heating as a result of organic acids denaturation. This increase according to him was

principally due to the production of K and Na oxides, hydroxides and carbonates. Schafer and

Mack (2010) explained that the presence of ash may increase soil pH due to its high pH

content. However, Fonseca, Figueiredo, Nogueira and Queiros (2017) observed that in each

soil depth the mean values of pH prior fire and 36 months post fire were not significantly

different.

2.2.5.3 Effective Cation Exchange Capacity

Generally, reduction in effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC) as a result of fire

is proportional to the amount of the total cation capacity that is provided by the organic

component (DeBano et al., 1998). Fire directly affects the ECEC of soil by combustion of

soil organic matter and the transformation of clay minerals (Zavala et al., 2014). ECEC is a

critical soil property that provides storage for nutrient cations and its sources are organic

matter and clay minerals (Ulery, Graham, Goforth and Hubbert, 2017).

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2.2.5.4 Nitrogen

Nitrogen (N) is one of the soil nutrients most affected by fire (Mataix-Solera,

Guerrero, 2007). Ahmed (2007) reported that the effect of fire on N content in the soil has

been observed to increase or decrease. During combustion most N is lost by volatilization at

200°C (Chander et al., 1983). Ahmed (2007) found that intense fires caused a decrease in N

while less intense fires causeed no changes. However, in Al Kahla forest, total N decreased

significantly (P < 0.05) at 1 to 10 cm soil depth in burnt sites. This could be attributed to

increase in the bacteria species fixing nitrogen as a result of increase in mineralization in

short period after forest fire.

2.2.5.5 Phosphorus

Phosphorus (P) is probably the second most limited nutrient found in natural

ecosystems. Deficiencies of avl P have been reported in P-fixing soils (Vlamis et al., 1955)

and as a result from N fertilization applications (Heilman and Gessel, 1963). P uptake and

availability to plants is complicated by the relationship between mycorrhizae and organic

matter and in most cases does not involve a simple absorption from the soil solution (Trappe

and Bollen, 1979). P is lost at a higher temperature during soil heating than N, and only about

60 % of the total P is lost by non-particulate transfer when organic matter is totally

combusted (Raison et al., 1990). The combustion of organic matter leaves a relatively large

amount of highly available P in the surface ash found on the soil surface immediately

following fire. This highly available P, however, can be quickly immobilized if calcareous

substances are present in the ash and thus can become unavailable for plant growth.

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2.2.5.6 Exchangeable Cations

Ahmed (2007) reported that because oxides of magnesium, calcium, manganese are

vaporized at only very high temperature, gaseous releases of these elements during fire are

usually trivial. Adams and Boyle (1980) in examining the effects of fire on soil nutrients in

clear-cut and whole-tree harvest sites in central Michigan under Qrura-populus

grandidentata forest soils found out that a month after burning available Ca, Mg and K were

significantly higher than pre-fire levels, but after further three months the increase were

almost gone. Francos et al. (2018a) noted that no significant differences in extractable Na

were observed across the sites.

2.2.5.7 Micronutrients

The influence of fire on micronutrient availability is useful to understand its effect on

the post-fire recovery of soils and plant (Garcia-Marco and Gonzalez-Prieto, 2008 cited in

Verma and Jayakumar, 2012). However, Aref et al. (2011) reported that in Al-Hilia forest,

heavy metals such as molybdenum increased from 0.15 mg kg -1 to 0.2 mg kg-1 after the fire

and it was maximal at 1 to 10 cm in the burnt site. Similarly, cobalt and lead increased

significantly (P < 0.001) from 0.03 mg kg -1 to 0.63 mg kg-1 and from 0.23 mg kg-1 to 0.54 mg

kg-1 respectively at 1 to 10 cm after fire. There was a significant change in nickel only at 20

to 30 cm of soil surface from 0.12 mg kg-1 to 0.21 mg kg-1 to 0.21 mg kg-1 after fire.

Considering the micronutrients in Ragadan forest, although significant differences were

recorded between burnt and normal sites, there was no particular pattern observed. In Al

kahla forest, there was no significant difference in nickel at all soil depths in burnt and

normal sites. However, the response of micronutrients such as iron, manganese, copper and

zinc to fire is not well known because of dearth of definite studies (Certini, 2005).

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2.2.5.8 Heavy Metals

Heavy metals constitute an ill-defined group of inorganic chemical hazards and those

most commonly found at contaminated sites are lead (Pb), chromium (Cr), arsenic (As),

cadmium (Cd), vanadium (V), cobalt (Co) and nickel (Ni) (Kirpichtchikova, Manceau,

Spadini, Panfili, Marcus and Jacquet, 2006). Soils are the major sink for heavy metals

released into the environment and unlike organic contaminants which are oxidized to carbon

(IV) oxide by microbial action, most metals do not undergo microbial or chemical

degradation (Adriano, 2003). Their total concentration in soils persists for a long time after

their introduction (Maslin and Maier, 2000). The presence of toxic metals in soil can severely

inhibit the biodegradation of organic contaminants. Heavy metal contamination of soil may

pose risks and hazards to humans and the ecosystem through: direct ingestion or contact with

contaminated soil, the food chain (soil-plant-human or soil-plant-animal-human), reduction in

food quality and land agricultural usability.

2.2.6 Soil Biological Properties

According to Jhariya and Raj (2014), fire can affect biological organism including

invertebrates and micro-organism in both direct and indirect ways. They also stated that fire

results in the reduction in micro-organism in both direct and indirect ways. Fire was also

stated to result in the reduction of micro-organism biomass, which plays an important role in

nutrient cycling and energy flow in forest ecosystem. Neary (2014) asserted that biological

properties are altered by change or loss of microbial species and populated dynamics,

reduction or loss of invertebrates, partial elimination (through decomposition) of plant roots.

Invertebrates play an important role in litter decomposition, carbon and nutrient

mineralization, soil turnover and soil structure formation (Neary, 2004). The direct effects of

fire on soil dwelling invertebrates are less marked than those on the microorganism due to the

19
higher mobility that enables invertebrates a greater potential to escape heating by burrowing

deep into the soil (Certini, 2005). According to Neary, Klopatek, Debano and Folliot (1999),

soil dwelling invertebrates plays a significant role in litter decomposition, carbon and nutrient

mineralization, soil turnover and soil structure formation. The direct effects of fires on soil

dwelling invertebrates are less marked than those on micro-organisms also, in contrast to

plants, may be able to move away from fire (Verma and Jayakumar, 2012).

The effect of fire on the soil microorganism population and species composition

depend on the severity of the fire. Soil organisms are diverse and include such group as algae,

bacteria, fungi, nematode, millipedes, earthworms etc. The respond to these microorganism

are not well understood, because of the challenge of their size. Microbial biomass of soil is

defined as the part of the organic matter in the soil that constitutes living smaller organisms.

They noted that the soil microbial biomass is a potential source plant nutrients and higher

level of soil microbial biomass is an indicator of soil fertility and soil health. Neary et al.

(1999) noted that fire can significantly alter microbes that affect large-scale processes such as

nutrient cycling.

2.3 Literature Review

Many research works have shown that bushfire causes significant differences in soil

properties and that the impact of fire may lead to soil quality deterioration. For instance,

Santana et al. (2018) assessed the effect of a wildfire event on physicochemical and

biological properties of soil in a eucalyptus forest. Part of a seven-year-old eucalyptus forest

was affected by wildfire. Soil and plant litter sampling was performed in three areas; in the

forest that was not affected by the fire, in the forest affected by fire and in an adjacent natural

pasture area (the original vegetation). Seven soil samples were collected from 0.00 to 0.05

and 0.05 to 0.20 m layers of each plot for biological analysis and three soil samples were

20
collected for chemical and physical analyses. Results indicated that fire increased soil pH

values, ECEC and base saturation, as well as K, Ca, and Mg contents but decreased potential

acidity and P content in the soil. Soil physical properties were not altered by wildfire. The

total abundance of macro fauna and of annelids, arachnids, coleopteran, and isopteran

decreased due to the wildfire, resulting in lower soil diversity. Hymenoptera abundance

increased because of the fire event. The feeding activity of organisms in the soil surface layer

decreased due to the fire. The wildfire in the eucalyptus forest in the Pampa biome altered

soil chemical and biological properties.

Prescribed fires are a common management practice in the Mediterranean region and

can be an alternative to reduce the quantity of fuel and hence decrease the wildfire risk.

Hence, Fonseca et al. (2017) evaluated the effect of prescribed fire on soil proprieties and soil

erosion on Mediterranean mountain area. This research focused on effects of prescribed fire

on soil properties and soil erosion processes. Soil chemical properties were assessed before

two, six and thirty-six months after the fire. Despite low fire intensity, soil chemical changes

were observed. Thirty-six months after the fire it turned out that the soil organic matter, pH

values and electrical conductivity were similar to those seen before the fire. However, the

same was not verified with the values of the exchangeable bases, extractable potassium and

phosphorus and exchangeable acidity that differ from the observed ones before the fire.

Runoff and soil loss were monitored in a set of 4 m 2 paired plots installed in the study area,

during 14 months after the fire and summed annual losses equivalent to 10.3 mm runoff and

1.3 Mg ha−1 soil loss. Although corresponding to a short monitoring period, these results may

add to a better knowledge of the potential susceptibility of burnt shrub lands to soil

degradation and their natural recovery rates.

The slash-and-burn technique used in Eastern Province, Zambia were cut trees are

piled and burned in only a part of the cleared fields, because adequate tree biomass is not

21
available to burn the entire field spurred Kaori Ando et al. (2014) to evaluate the changes in

soil organic matter followed by nutrient release occurring immediately after burning in spots

unburned and burned with emergent and bush trees. Fire intensity was significantly higher

where emergent tree piles were present. Total carbon (C) decreased by 25.1 % and 14.7 % in

spots burned with emergent and brush tree piles, respectively, while total nitrogen (TN)

decreased by 15.0 % only at spots burned with emergent tree piles and did not change

significantly elsewhere. Additionally, the mortality of microbes with soil heating caused an

increase in C mineralization after fire. The levels of available nutrients, such as ammonium

nitrogen, available phosphorus (P) and exchangeable potassium (K) and calcium (Ca),

increased following the decomposition of soil organic matter and microbial mortality that

occurred with an increase in fire intensity. Net N mineralization did not occur, especially in

spots burned with emergent tree piles, because the N content of labile organic matter

decreased. Maize (Zea mays L.) grain yield increased with fire intensity, because fire

increased nutrient availability and limited weed biomass. Although the burned emergent and

bush tree piles occupied only 6.9 and 7.5 % of total cleared field, respectively, the grain yield

in spots burned with emergent and bush trees accounted for 21 and 15 % of the total yield,

respectively. Therefore, the burning of bush trees, which is increasing because of the

decreased number of emergent trees, could result in a decrease in grain yield but could also

alleviate the overall severe loss of soil organic matter.

Vania et al. (2010) investigated the effect of fire on soil nutrient availability in an

open savannah in central Brazil. Fire is common in savannas but its effects on soil are poorly

understood. We analyzed long-term effects of fire on surface soil of an open Brazilian

savanna in plots submitted to different fire regimes during 18 years. The five fire regimes

were: unburned, quadrennial fires in middle dry season, and biennial fires in early, middle or

late dry season. Soil was collected and analyzed for pH, organic matter, total N, potential

22
acidity, exchangeable cations and available P, S, Mn, Cu, Zn and Fe. We applied multivariate

analysis to search for patterns related to fire regimes, and to local climate, fuel, and fire

behavior. Spearman test was used to establish correlations between soil variables and the

multivariate analysis gradient structure. Seasonal differences were tested using test. We

found evidence of long-term fire effects: the unburned plot was segregated mainly by lower

soil pH; the quadrennial plot was also segregated by lower soil pH and higher amount of

exchangeable cations; the time of burning during the dry season in biennial plots did not

significantly affect soil availability of nutrients. Differences in elements amounts due to the

season of soil sampling (wet or dry) were higher due to the effect of fires. Higher availability

of nutrients in the soil during the wet season was probably related to higher nutrient inputs

via rainfall and higher microbial activity.

In another study, Nyadz et al. (2019) examined the effect of fires on the distribution

of SOCS under different vegetation types. Soil samples were randomly collected on 34 plots

and 24 sample points at depths 0 to10, 10 to20 and 20 to 30 cm per plot in Northern Region

of Ghana. Experimentally, 50 x 50 m plots were marked out on burnt and unburnt lands under

four different vegetation types. Carbon (C) and bulk density were estimated using Walkley

Black and core methods respectively. Results show that SOC insignificantly (P > 0.05) varied

under the vegetation types with close savanna woodland recording the highest of

approximately16.7t/ha on unburnt sites and approximately 19.4 t/ha on burnt sites while

Grass/herbs with scattered trees and shrubs (GHST) recoded approximately 7.9 t/ha and

approximately 9.4 t/ha on unburnt and burnt sites, respectively. The difference in C and bulk

density across depth were statistically significant (p < 0.05). A strong negative correlation

existed between bulk density and C and bulk density and SOC. The study concluded that

contrary to previous studies fire significantly (p < 0.05) increased SOC on fallow lands

23
depending on fire temperature. However, vegetation types in the savannah of Ghana were

observed to have an insignificant impact on the quantity of SOC.

Fire can have large effects on ecosystems, with phosphorus being highly important in

this regard, especially when considering productivity in burned or adjacent ecosystems after

fire. Unfortunately, existing data pose contradictions and methodological challenges to

assessing P availability. Therefore, Jorg Schaller et al. (2014) investigated fire effect of P

availability in topsoil. The impact of fire on topsoil available P was estimated using three

different types of organic soil layers (raw humus from spruce, humus from beech, and peat)

and two fire regimes (obtaining black carbon and ash). Our findings suggest a strong fire

impact on P availability, by enhancing available P during burning to black carbon and to ash

dependent on calcite content. Fire impact on P availability is on a similar order of magnitude

as mineral weathering and annual P cycling/uptake in/by ecosystems. Furthermore, the

proportion of available P in relation to total P depends on the origin of the organic soil layers.

When related to the remaining mass after burning, as is commonly done, P availability can be

overestimated by up to 1400 %. Results from the study provided a realistic magnitude of

shifts in P release and P availability by fire events of different intensity for widely abundant

ecosystem conditions. Taking the importance of P for ecosystem processes into account,

these results are highly relevant, because fires for fuel reduction are a common application

and for temperate and boreal ecosystems even moderate climate change scenarios predict an

increasing appearance of fires in these regions.

Ekua et al. (2019) examined anthropogenic fires on some soil properties and the

implications of fire frequency for the guinea savanna ecological zone, Ghana. Data on fire

counts were obtained from the CSIR Meraka institute, South Africa and fire densities

calculated for each district. Soils were sampled in burned and unburnt woodlands and crop

fields and analyzed for pH, available P, total N, SOC, exchangeable Ca and Mg, CEC, ECEC,

24
and texture. The fire densities varied amongst the selected districts. Of the six districts, the

East Gon district recorded the highest fire density (1.0 fires km -2).Tamale recorded the lowest

density (0.3 fires km-2). Total N, SOC showed a stronger association. High fire frequencies

were recorded in districts with high grass fuel loads and abundant wildlife. Fire aided the

mineralization of TN, SOC and exchangeable Ca as burned fields. Further studies are needed

to fully understand the importance of fire regimes on soils in the Guinea savanna. Traditional

ecological knowledge on the use of fire could be harnessed to reduce indiscriminate

vegetation burning in the region.

Alcaniz et al. (2020) evaluated the high density of fuel accumulated in the

Mediterranean ecosystems due to land abandonment which resulted in high severity fires.

They determine the short- and long- term effects of the combined management practices of

prescribed fires and goat grazing on the chemical properties of soils in Tivissa, Tarragona

(NE Iberian Peninsula). Forty-two samples were collected in a 4 × 18 m plot before the

prescribed fire of 2002 (1), immediately after the 2002 prescribed fire (PF) (2), one year after

the 2002 PF (3), three years after the 2002 PF (4), and thirteen years after the 2002 PF (5).

Soil samples were taken at each sampling point from the top layer (0 - 5 cm), sieved to obtain

a < 2 mm fraction, and soil pH, ECEC, Total C, total N, available P, K +,Ca2+, and Mg2+ were

determined. The results indicate that the short-term effects of fire are more relevant than

those attributable to the livestock over the long term due to the low grazing intensity of less

than one goat per ha. The long-term effects of prescribed fires were not visible in the

research, suggesting that they recovered after burning with all their functions intact and with

enhanced levels of natural fertility. Combined land management practices of prescribed fire

and livestock grazing did not affect soil chemical properties. The applied management

enhanced soil fertility and boosted the ecosystem’s resilience.

25
 Jhariya and Singh (2021) investigated effect of fire severity on soil properties in a

seasonally dry forest ecosystem of central India. In order to carry out this study, soil was

sampled from 0-10 to 10-20cm depths from different fire Zone of Bhoramdeo wildlife

sanctuary of Chattisgarh, India. The level of macronutrients, stock, nitrogen stock, and

microbial biomass carbon was higher at no-fire zone than in the rest of the sites (high,

medium, and low severity fire zone(69.51 ton ha -1) followed by medium (66.55 ton ha -1)or

low fire severity(53.69 ton ha-1). The total soil nitrogen stock across the sites ranged between

2.60 and 4.08 ton ha-1, and it was higher in the no-fire zone followed by the medium fire

severity, high fire severity and low fire severity zones. Such information on wildfire and soil

attributes is essential for the preparation of better management and action plan to regulate the

forest soil quality.

2.3.1 Summary and Synthesis

Studies on fire ecology indicated that the behavior of micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Cu and

Zn), heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Co, Cr, Ni, As and V) and soil bacteria to bushfire is not well

known because not much is available in the literature. This study will enhance the knowledge

of the effect of bushfire on soil micronutrients and heavy metals as well as soil bacteria in

this particular biome. Furthermore, Xue et al. (2014) reported that most studies focused on

soil organic and chemical characteristics with few reporting their effect on soil bulk density.

These reasons have shown that an empirical investigation on the impact of bushfire on soils

of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) plantation is necessary. This will be of great significance to

the field of fire ecology in particular and to biogeographical studies in general. Definitely,

this research will in no small measure help to fill the identified gap(s) in knowledge.

26
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter involves the materials and methods adopted in this study and are divided

into three major sections. They include data and sources of data, procedures and methods of

data collection and laboratory analyses.

3.2 Data and Sources of Data

This study depended on both primary and secondary sources of data. The primary data

include data obtained from direct field observations and measurements and soil

physicochemical and biological properties from the unburnt and burnt oil palm plantations

while secondary data were gotten from published and unpublished academic journal articles,

textbooks, and other online materials.

3.3 Reconnaissance Survey and Selection of Study Sites

Before field work, a reconnaissance field survey was conducted with the aim of

getting familiar with the study area and to know the extent of fire as well as identify visible

changes that occurred during and after the fire. The oil palm plantation in Okunuvbe

community of Ovia North East Local Government Area of Edo State was chosen as the study

area. A sample area measuring 100 × 100 m was mapped out for the collection of soil

samples both in the burnt and unburnt oil palm plantations respectively. The dominant type of

vegetation in the study sites was oil palm trees which is the focus of this research. The

topography of the study site was a gentle slope with a running stream down slope. In the

burnt area of the oil palm plantation (Plate 3.1) upslope, there is the presence of undergrowth

and wood debris and oil palm trees. In the unburnt area (Plate 3.2) downslope before the

27
stream, very little undergrowth and rubber trees planted in the mist of the oil palm tree. To

achieve the objectives of this research, river site oil palm plantation was adopted as the study

area engulfed by fire exactly a year ago located at Ovia North East Local Government Area,

Benin City, Edo State. The oil palm plantation was burnt due to anthropogenic activities

which went out of control leaving some area of the plantation burnt and other areas unburnt.

Plate 3.1: Burnt Oil Palm Plantation

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2021

28
 Plate 3.2: Unburnt Oil Palm Plantation

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2021

3.4 Field Measurements and Soil Sampling

Soil samples were collected using systematic random methodology at distance of 15

m apart from each sampling point, using a soil auger. These soil samples were collected at the

surface layer (0 to15 cm depth) from each sampling point respectively. This sampling depth

gives a reasonable estimate of the availability of most plant nutrients, while soil

mineralization occurs here. Ten (10) soil samples were collected each from the burnt and

unburnt sites, thus, a total of twenty (20) soil samples were collected for the purpose of this

study. The spatial location and elevation of each sampling point was identified with the aid of

a hand-held Garmin GPSMAP 64st model receiver (See Table 3.1). To avoid mix up, the soil

samples from each sampling point were stored in polythene bags, labeled accordingly and

29
 then taken to the laboratory where they were air dried at room temperature, crushed and

passed through a 2mm sieve for the determination of selected physicochemical properties.

During the collection of soil samples, plant foliage, furrow, compost pits, old manures, wet

spots, rocks, and areas near trees were avoided and excluded. This helped to minimize

differences, which may arise because of the dilution of soil organic matter due to mixing

through cultivation and reduce the stoniness of the soil samples, among other factors

(Orobator et al., 2018). The instruments used for soil sampling included; soil auger,

measuring tape, global positioning system (GPS), white masking tape, bowl, buckets, camera,

black polythene bags, field notebook and pen.

Table 3.1: Location of Study Sites and Sampling Points

Elevation (m)
Study Site Sampling Point Location of Sampling Point

Unburnt Oil Palm Plantation

Unburnt Oil Palm Plantation U1 N 06° 34.148’ E 005’35.765’ 37

U2 N 06°34.144’ E 005° 35.762’ 37

U3 N 06° 34.146’ E 005° 35.764’ 38

U4 N 06° 34.143’ E 005° 35.754’ 37

U5 N 06° 34.149’ E 005° 35.752’ 35

U6 N 06° 34.142’ E 005° 35.750’ 36

U7 N 06° 34.153’ E 005° 35.752’ 37

U8 N 06° 34.159’ E 005° 35.755’ 35

U9 N 06° 34.157’ E 005° 35.763’ 34

U10 N 06° 34.161’ E 005° 35.766’ 32

Burnt Oil Palm Plantation

Burnt Oil Palm Plantation B1 N 06° 34.100’ E 005° 35.793’ 58

B2 N 06° 34.098’ E 005 ° 35.789’ 55

B3 N 06° 34.098’ E 005° 35.785’ 49

B4 N 06° 34.103’ E 005° 35.785’ 50

B5 N 06° 34.103’ E 005° 35.781’ 55

B6 N 06° 34.098’ E 005° 35.777’ 55

B7 N 06° 34.104’ E 005° 35.771’ 52

30
 B8 N 06° 34.096’ E 005° 35.767’ 52

B9 N 06° 34.100’ E 005° 35.762’ 50

B10 N 06° 34.095’ E 005° 35.760’ 51

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2021

3.5 Soil Laboratory Analyses

Particle size distribution was determined by hydrometer method (Gee and Or, 2002).

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) particle size classification was adopted

in expressing soil particle size fractions (Soil Survey Staff, 2003). Bulk density was

determined by core method (Nnaemeka, Esio and Igba, 2013).

Soil pH was measured electrometrically in 1:2.5 soil/ water ratio (Hendershot,

Lalande and Duquette, 1993) whereas organic carbon was estimated using the method

described by Nelson and Sommers (1982). Total nitrogen was evaluated using modified

micro Kjeldahl method (Bremner and Milvaney, 1982). Total available phosphorus was

determined using Bray II method (Olsen and Sommers, 1982). Extract for available P was

prepared with ammonium fluoride and P determined using molybdenum blue method

(Murphy and Riley, 1962). For determination of exchangeable Ca, Mg, K and Na, soil

samples was first leached with 1 N ammonium acetate solution (pH = 7.0). Exchangeable Ca

and Mg were determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometer while exchangeable Na

and K will be determined by digital flame photometry (Onyekwelu, Mosand and Stimm,

2008). Effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC) was determined by saturating 10g of soil

with normal natural ammonium acetate solution, washing out the excess ammonium with

methanol and subsequently distillation of the absorbed ammonium into boric solution. The

distillate will titrate against standard hydrochloric acid (Nnaemeka et al., 2013). Flame

31
photometer was used to determine the amount of potassium in the samples (Adekunle et al.,

2011). The samples (1gm each) were shaken for one hour in ten milliliter of sterile saline

(0.95% w/v NaCl) at 150 rpm. 10-fold dilution of samples was then carried out with sterile

saline.

One gram of the oven dried ground soil samples was placed in 100cm 3 kjedahl

digestion flask, which has been previously washed with nitric acid and distilled water. The

samples were subjected to wet digestion (AOAC, 1990) reacted with 2cm 3 of 60 % per

chloric acid (HClO4), 10cm3concentrated nitric acid (HNO3) and 1.0 cm3 concentrated

sulphuric acid (H2SO4). The mixture was swirled gently and slowly at moderate heat on the

digester, under a fume hood. The heating continuous until dense white fumes appeared which

was then digested for 15 minutes, set aside to cool and diluted with distilled water. The

mixture was filtered through the Whatman filter paper into a 100cm 3 volumetric flask, diluted

to mark (Sahrawal et al., 2002 and Inuwa et al., 2007). The blank and the samples were

digested in the same way. The concentration of the heavy metals present in each soil was

obtained from the calibration plot made with various concentrations of the standard.

Enumeration of the total bacterial load of the soil samples was carried out by plating

(pour-plating) of 0.1 ml of the appropriate soil dilution on nutrient agar plates. Inoculated

plates were incubated for 24 hours at 30°C and microbial load was determined as a colony

forming units (cfu/g × 103) in each sample (Phil-Eze, 2010).

3.6 Statistical Analyses

This study employed both descriptive and inferential statistical methods. Data were

subjected to statistically analyses using the Microsoft excel (2010) and Statistical Package of

Social Sciences (SPSS) version 24. Descriptive statistical analysis was carried out on the data

in order to understand the nature and properties of their distribution. Range, mean, standard

32
deviation and coefficient of variation were all computed for all the soil properties. Student t-

test and Pearson Product-Moment Correlation statistical tools were used to test Hypothesis 1

and 2 respectively.

33
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

This chapter is concerned with the impact of bushfire on the physicochemical and

biological properties of soils in unburnt and burnt oil palm plantations. It considered whether

differences between the soil properties in unburnt and burnt oil palm plantations were

significant or not. The relationships between the soil physicochemical and biological

properties were also evaluated.

4.2 Bushfire Influence on Soil Properties in Unburnt and Burnt Oil Palm Plantations

This section considered the effects of bushfire on physical, chemical and biological

properties in unburnt and burnt oil palm plantations at the surface soil (0 to 15 cm).

4.2.1 Influence of Bushfire on Soil Physical Properties (Sand, Silt, Clay and Bulk

Density)

Soil texture (sand, silt and clay) is an important soil characteristic that influences

organic matter content, effective cation exchange capacity and pH buffering capacity. The

range and mean values of sand, silt, clay and bulk density of surface soils (0 to 15 cm) in both

unburnt and burnt oil palm plantations is shown in Table 4.1. For the unburnt oil palm

plantation, the values of sand fractions vary from 690 to 830 g kg -1 with mean of 780.30 g kg-
1
while in the burnt oil palm plantation, the values of sand content vary from 800 to 850 g kg -1

with mean of 813.10 g kg-1.

34
 Soil Depth Unburnt Oil Palm Plantation Burnt Oil Palm Plantation p-val
Parameter (cm)
Range Mean Std. CV Range Mean Std. CV
(%) (%)
Sand 0 - 15 690 - 832 780.30 51.73 6.63 800 - 850 813.10 19.75 2.43 0.06
(g kg-1)
Silt 0 - 15 150 - 290 188.00 53.49 28.46 100 - 180 161.60 25.22 15.61 0.13
(g kg-1)
Clay 0 - 15 18 - 80 31.70 19.32 60.95 16 - 45 25.30 9.74 38.50 0.20
(g kg-1)
BD 0 - 15 1.31 - 1.47 1.39 0.04 3.21 1.35 - 1.47 1.39 0.03 2.61 0.41
(Mg m-3)
Table 4.1: Results of Sand, Silt, Clay and Bulk Density (BD) of Unburnt and Burnt Oil
Palm Plantations
Source: Author’s Field Work, 2021

The high mean sand content values (> 700 g kg-1) observed across the sites is

indicative that the soils of both the unburnt and burnt oil palm plantations are sandy.

Although, soils in the burnt site had a higher mean sand content (813.10 g kg -1) than the

unburnt site (780.30 g kg-1). This suggests the positive impact of bushfire on sand content in

this site. As indicated in Table 4.1, in unburnt oil palm plantation, the values of silt content

vary from 150 to 290 g kg-1 with mean of 188.00 g kg-1 and 100 to 180 g kg-1 with mean of

161 g kg-1 in burnt oil palm plantation. The result implies a non-significant (p > 0.05)

reduction in silt content after bushfire.

Under unburnt oil palm plantation, clay fractions vary from 18 to 80 g kg -1 with mean

of 31.70 g kg-1 and 16 to 45 g kg-1 with mean value of 25.30 g kg-1 in burnt oil palm

plantation. Results revealed a non-significant (p > 0.05) impact of bushfire on clay fractions

although clay was higher under unburnt oil palm plantation than in burnt oil palm plantation.

The result showed that the soils of burnt and unburnt oil palm plantations were loamy sand

texture. Bulk density (BD) values in unburnt oil palm plantation range from 1.31 to 1.47 Mg

m-3 with mean of 1.39 Mg m-3 but range from 1.35 to 1.47 Mg m -3 with mean of 1.39 Mg m-3

in burnt oil palm plantation. Results showed a neither non-significant increase nor decrease in

35
 the mean values of BD as they were the same (1.39 Mg m -3). This may suggest that the

intensity of the fire could not cause destruction or collapse of soil aggregation.

4.2.2 Bushfire Influence on Soil pH and Effective Cation Exchange Capacity in Unburnt

and Burnt Oil Palm plantations

The range and mean values of soil pH and effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC)

of surface soil (0 to 15 cm) in both burnt and unburnt oil palm plantations are presented in

Table 4.2. Estimates of pH value in unburnt oil palm plantation vary from 5.20 to 6.30 with

mean value of 5.66 and 5.30 to 6.00 with mean value of 5.81 in burnt oil palm plantation. At

both sites, results showed that burnt oil palm plantation had higher values of pH than the

unburnt site. This infers that soil pH values increased relatively in the burnt oil palm

plantation; implying that the burnt oil palm plantation is less acidic than the unburnt site.

Soil Depth Unburnt Oil Palm Plantation Burnt Oil Palm Plantation p-value
Parameter (cm)
Range Mean Std. CV Range Mean Std. CV
(%) (%)
pH 0 - 15 5.20 - 6.30 5.66 0.32 5.59 5.30 - 6.00 5.81 0.20 3.49 0.07

ECEC 0 - 15 2.56 - 5.77 3.44 0.94 27.28 1.45 - 3.18 2.48 0.60 24.38 0.00*
(cmol kg−1)
4.2 Results of Soil pH and Effective Cation Exchange Capacity (ECEC)
Source: Author’s Field Work, 2021

In unburnt oil palm plantation, the values of ECEC content vary from 2.56 to 5.77

cmol kg−1 with mean of 3.44cmol kg-1 and 1.45 to 3.18 cmol kg−1 with mean of 2.48 cmol kg−1

in burnt oil palm plantation. The results revealed a decline in ECEC concentrations post fire.

This denotes a negative effect of bushfire on ECEC. However, the difference of ECEC

contents between the burnt and unburnt oil palm plantations was significant (p < 0.05).

4.2.3 Bushfire Impact on Soil Organic Matter, Total Organic Carbon, Total Nitrogen

and Available Phosphorus in Unburnt and Burnt Oil Palm Plantations

36
 The range and mean values of soil organic matter (SOM), total organic carbon (TOC),

total nitrogen (TN) and available phosphorous (P) contents of surface soil (0 to 15 cm) in

both unburnt and burnt oil palm plantations is depicted in Table 4.3. In unburnt oil palm

plantation, SOM contents vary from 2.00 to 5.20 g kg -1 with mean of 3.76 g kg-1 but in burnt

oil palm plantation, the values vary from 2.80 to 5.60 g kg -1 with mean of 4.06 g kg-1. The

range and mean values in the burnt site indicates that there was a non-significant (p > 0.05)

increase of SOM content. This suggests the positive effects of bushfire on SOM in this

biome.

Soil Depth Unburnt Oil Palm Plantation Burnt Oil Palm Plantation p-value
Parameter (cm)
Range Mean Std. CV Range Mea Std. CV
(%) n (%)
SOM 0 - 15 2.00 - 5.20 3.76 1.01 26.98 2.80 - 5.60 4.06 0.89 21.91 0.24
(g kg-1)
TOC 0 - 15 0.28 - 3.48 2.03 1.00 49.40 1.08 - 3.88 2.34 0.89 38.02 0.24
(g kg-1)
TN 0 - 15 0.02 - 0.24 0.14 0.07 49.01 0.08 - 0.28 0.17 0.06 38.54 0.23
(g kg-1)
avl P 0 - 15 0.46 - 5.68 3.14 1.77 56.47 1.24 - 6.55 3.68 1.74 47.13 0.24
(mg kg-1)
Table 4.3: Results of Soil Organic Matter (SOM), Total Organic Matter (TOC), Total
Nitrogen (TN) and Available Phosphorus (avl P) of Unburnt and Burnt Oil Palm
Plantations
Source: Author’s Field Work, 2021

Estimates of TOC concentration in unburnt oil palm plantation range from 0.28 to

3.48 g kg-1 with mean value of 2.03 g kg-1 but in the burnt site TOC values range from 1.08 to

3.88 g kg-1 with mean value of 2.34 g kg -1. The results revealed that there was an increase of

TOC content in soils of the burnt oil palm plantation. This upsurge in TOC values after

bushfire may be due to external inputs of charred material and ash. Differences of TOC

concentrations between the studied sites were marginal hence; they were not significantly

different (p < 0.05). Values of TN contents in unburnt oil palm plantation range from 0.02 to

37
 0.24 g kg-1 with mean of 0.14 g kg-1 but vary from 1.24 to 6.55 g kg -1 with mean of 0.17 g kg-1

in burnt oil palm plantation. This result infers that TN increased in the burnt site compared to

unburnt site. Under unburnt oil palm plantation, estimates of avl P vary from 0.46 to 5.68 g

kg-1 with mean of 3.14 g kg-1 and 1.24 to 6.55 g kg-1 with mean of 3.68 g kg-1 in burnt oil palm

plantation. The present study showed that avl P content increased non-significantly (p > 0.05)

from the unburnt oil palm plantation to the burnt oil palm plantation. This suggests that

bushfire resulted in the enrichment of avl P.

4.2.4 Influence of Bushfire on Exchangeable Bases (Calcium, Sodium, Magnesium and

Potassium) in Unburnt and Burnt Oil Palm Plantations

The range and mean values of calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg) and

potassium (K) of surface soil in both burnt and unburnt oil palm plantations are shown in

Table 4.4. Under unburnt oil palm plantation, the values of Ca content vary from 1.78 to 4.00

cmol kg−1 with mean of 2.38 cmol kg −1 and 1.00 to 2.20 cmol kg −1 with mean of 1.72 cmol

kg−1 in burnt oil palm plantation. The results indicated a lower mean Ca value (1.72 cmol

kg−1) at the burnt oil palm plantation than at the unburnt oil palm plantation (2.38 cmol kg −1).

This connotes a negative effect of bushfire on Ca.

The values of Na content in unburnt oil palm plantation vary from 0.15 to 0.34

cmol kg−1 with mean of 0.21 cmol kg−1and 0.10 to 0.21 cmol kg−1 with mean of 0.16 cmol

kg−1 in burnt oil palm plantation. The result of this present study connotes that the unburnt oil

palm plantation had higher Na values compared to the burnt oil palm plantation. This infers a

negative impact of bushfire on Na.

Soil Depth Unburnt Oil Palm Plantation Burnt Oil Palm Plantation p-value
Parameter (cm)
Range Mean Std. CV Range Mean Std. CV
(%) (%)

38
Ca 0 - 15 1.78 - 4.00 2.38 0.65 27.24 1.00 - 2.20 1.72 0.42 24.64 0.00*
(cmol kg−1)
Na 0 - 15 0.15 - 0.34 0.21 0.06 27.33 0.10 - 0.21 0.16 0.34 23.24 0.00*
(cmol kg−1)
Mg 0 - 15 0.43 - 0.97 0.57 0.16 27.59 0.23 - 0.53 0.41 0.10 25.22 0.00*
(cmol kg−1)
K 0 - 15 0.12 - 0.25 0.19 0.04 22.71 0.20 - 0.46 0.27 0.07 28.44 0.00*
(cmol kg−1)
Table 4.4: Results of Calcium (Ca), Sodium (Na), Magnesium (Mg) and Potassium (K)
of Unburnt and Burnt Oil Palm plantations

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2021

The concentration of Mg in unburnt site range from 0.43 to 0.97 cmol kg −1 with mean

of 0.57 cmol kg−1 but vary from 0.23 to 0.53 cmol kg−1 with mean of 0.41 cmol kg−1 in burnt

site. This result exhibited the negative impact of bushfire on Mg in this ecosystem as lower

Mg values were observed in the burnt site than the unburnt site. Potassium (K) content in

unburnt oil palm plantation vary from 0.12 to 0.25 cmol kg −1 with mean of 0.19 cmol kg-1 and

0.20 to 0.46 cmol kg -1 with mean of 0.27 cmol kg −1 in burnt oil palm plantation. Unlike Ca,

Na and Mg, this result showed the positive impact of bushfire on K, as higher values of K

were observed in burnt oil palm plantation than unburnt oil palm plantation. Nevertheless, the

differences were significant (p < 0.05).

4.2.5 Bushfire Effect on Iron, Copper, Manganese and Zinc in Unburnt and Burnt Oil

Palm Plantations

The range and mean values of iron (Fe), copper (Cu), manganese (Mn) and zinc (Zn)

(micronutrients) of surface soil in both unburnt and burnt oil palm plantations are revealed in

Table 4.5. The values of Zn content in unburnt oil palm plantation vary from 7.62 to 13.20

mg kg-1 with mean value of 9.94 mg kg-1 and 8.85 mg kg-1 to 16.84 mg kg-1 with mean value

of 12.04 mg kg-1 in burnt site. Results indicate that the burnt oil palm plantation had

significant (p < 0.05) higher values of Zn comparative to unburnt site. This result revealed the

39
 positive effect of bushfire on Zn concentrations. In unburnt oil palm plantation, the range of

values of Cu vary from 0.74 to 1.46 mg kg -1 with mean value of 0.98 mg kg -1 and 0.69 to 1.10

mg kg-1 with mean value of 0.74 to 1.46 mg kg-1 in burnt oil palm plantation. Higher values of

Cu were found in soils of unburnt oil palm plantation than burnt oil palm plantation. This

signifies a negative impact of fire on Cu contents.

Soil Depth Unburnt Oil Palm Plantation Burnt Oil Palm Plantation p-value
Parameter (cm)
Range Mean Std. CV Range Mean Std. CV
(%) (%)
Zn 0 - 15 7.62 - 13.20 9.94 1.79 18.03 8.85 - 16.84 12.04 2.98 24.77 0.03*
(mg kg-1)
Cu 0 - 15 0.74 - 1.46 0.98 0.24 24.97 0.69 - 1.10 0.87 0.13 15.44 0.11
(mg kg-1)
Fe 0 - 15 54.20 - 64.52 59.11 3.77 6.38 55.40 - 72.60 62.68 6.68 10.66 0.07
(mg kg-1)
Mn 0 - 15 1.38 - 2.60 2.20 0.39 17.64 1.62 - 3.10 2.55 0.42 16.56 0.00*
(mg kg-1)
Table 4.5: Results of Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu), Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn) in Unburnt
and Burnt Oil Palm plantations
Source: Author’s Field Work, 2021

Estimates of Fe concentrations in unburnt oil palm plantation range from 54.20 to

64.52 mg kg-1 with mean value of 59.11 mg kg -1 while in the burnt site, it range from 55.40 to

72.60 mg kg-1 with mean value of 62.68 mg kg -1. Results indicated a non-significant (p >

0.05) higher Fe mean value in burnt site than unburnt site. Manganese (Mn) concentration

values vary from 1.38 to 2.60 mg kg-1 with mean value of 2.20 mg kg-1 in unburnt site and

1.62 to 3.10 mg kg-1 with mean value of 2.55 mg kg-1 in burnt site. This result showed the

positive effect of bushfire on Mn in this plantation.

4.2.6 Bushfire Impact on Heavy Metals: Lead, Cadmium, Cobalt, Chromium, Nickel,

Arsenic and Vanadium in Unburnt and Burnt Oil Palm Plantations

40
 The range and mean values of lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr),

nickel (Ni), arsenic (As) and vanadium (V) in both unburnt and burnt oil palm plantations are

indicated in Table 4.6. The values of Pb content in unburnt oil palm plantation vary from

10.38 to 14.04 mg kg-1 with mean value of 11.87 mg kg -1and 10.41 to 22.40 mg kg-1 with

mean value of 15.15 mg kg-1 in burnt site. Results show a positive impact of bushfire on Pb as

there was a significant (p < 0.05) increase from 11.87 mg kg -1 in the unburnt site to 15.15 mg

kg-1 in the burnt site.

Soil Depth Unburnt Oil Palm Plantation Burnt Oil Palm Plantation p-value
Parameter (cm)
Range Mean Std. CV Range Mean Std. CV
(%) (%)
Pb 0 - 15 10.38 - 14.04 11.87 1.37 11.51 10.41 - 22.40 15.15 4.09 27.03 0.01*
(mg kg-1)
Cd 0 - 15 0.08 - 0.19 0.15 0.03 21.94 0.15 - 0.33 0.20 0.06 28.91 0.00*
(mg kg-1)
Co 0 - 15 2.05 - 4.61 3.63 0.77 21.28 3.72 - 8.20 5.09 1.48 29.07 0.00*
(mg kg-1)
Cr 0 - 15 2.61 - 5.89 4.62 0.97 21.02 4.70 - 10.50 6.52 1.90 29.19 0.00*
(mg kg-1)
Ni 0 - 15 2.20 - 4.98 3.93 0.83 21.16 4.01 - 8.50 5.42 1.54 28.45 0.00*
(mg kg-1)
As 0 - 15 1.28 - 2.87 2.26 0.47 21.20 2.30 - 5.12 3.19 0.95 29.79 0.00*
(mg kg-1)
V 0 - 15 0.85 - 2.01 1.52 0.34 22.13 1.55 - 3.42 2.12 0.62 29.26 0.00*
(mg kg-1)
Table 4.6: Results of Lead (Pb), Cadmium (Cd), Cobalt (Co), Chromium (Cr), Nickel
(Ni), Arsenic (As) and Vanadium (V) in Burnt and Unburnt Oil Palm plantations
Source: Author’s Field Work, 2021

Table 4.6 reveals that the values of Cd concentration in unburnt oil palm plantation

vary from 0.08 to 0.19 mg kg-1 with mean of 0.15 mg kg-1 but in burnt site, Cd content vary

from 0.15 to 0.33 mg kg-1 with mean value of 0.20 mg kg-1. Student t-test revealed a

significant (p < 0.05) increase in Cd concentrations after bushfire as the mean value increased

from 0.15 mg kg-1 in unburnt plot to 0.20 mg kg -1 in burnt plot. Cobalt (Co) concentration

values in unburnt oil palm plantation vary from 2.05 to 4.61 mg kg-1 with mean of 3.63 mg

41
kg-1 while in burnt oil palm plantation; Co values vary from 3.72 to 8.20 mg kg-1 with mean

value of 5.09 mg kg-1. Similar to Pb and Cd, Co concentration indicated a significant (p <

0.05) increase from mean value of 3.63 mg kg-1 in unburnt site to 5.09 mg kg-1 in the burnt site.

Estimates of Cr range from 2.61 to 5.89 mg kg-1 with mean of 4.62 mg kg-1 in unburnt

oil palm plantation soils and 4.70 to 10.50 mg kg-1 with mean of 6.52 mg kg-1 in burnt oil

palm plantation soils. Results show that the values of Cr increased significantly (p < 0.05)

after fire incidence. This indicates a positive impact of bushfire on Cr. Regarding Ni contents,

the values in unburnt oil palm plantation range from 2.20 to 4.98 mg kg-1 with mean of 3.93

mg kg-1 and 4.01 to 8.50 mg kg-1 with mean of 5.42 mg kg-1in burnt site. Results revealed that

similar to Cr, Co and Cd, Ni concentrations was positively influenced by bushfire because the

mean value of Ni significantly (p < 0.05) increased after fire.

In unburnt oil palm plantation, the values of As content range from 1.28 to 2.87 mg

kg-1with mean value of 2.26 mg kg-1. Conversely in the burnt site, As values range from 2.30

to 5.12 mg kg-1 with mean of 3.19 mg kg-1. Similar to Pb, Ni, Co and Cd, As concentration

indicated a significant (p < 0.05) increase from mean value of 2.26 mg kg-1 in unburnt site to

3.19 mg kg-1 in the burnt site. This implies a positive impact of fire incidence on the

concentrations of As in this agroecosystem. Under unburnt oil palm plantation, estimates of

V concentration vary from 0.85 to 2.01 mg kg-1 with mean of 1.52 mg kg-1 while for burnt

soils, V contents vary from 1.55 to 3.42 mg kg-1 with mean value of 2.12 mg kg-1. Student t-

test revealed a significant (p < 0.05) increase in V concentrations after bushfire as the mean

value increased from 1.52 mg kg-1 in unburnt plot to 2.12 mg kg-1 in burnt plot. This implies a

positive effect of bushfire on V concentrations.

A general analysis of bushfire influence on heavy metals suggests a positive effect in

this oil palm plantation. Values of all the examined heavy metals significantly (p < 0.05)

42
increased after bushfire incidence.

4.2.7 Bushfire Influence on Soil Total Heterotrophic Bacteria Count (THBC) and Total

Heterotrophic Fungi Count (THFC) in Unburnt and Burnt Oil Palm Plantations

The range and mean values of total heterotrophic bacteria count (THBC) and total

heterotrophic fungi count (THFC) of surface soil in both unburnt and burnt oil palm

plantations are revealed in Table 4.7. THBC concentrations in unburnt soils vary from 1.50 to

2.38 cfu/g × 103 with mean of 2.13 cfu/g × 10 3, but in unburnt soils, THBC vary from 1.80 to

2.88 cfu/g × 103 with mean of 2.40 cfu/g × 103.

Soil Depth Unburnt Oil Palm Plantation Burnt Oil Palm Plantation p-value
Parameter (cm)
Range Mean Std. CV Range Mean Std. CV
(%) (%)
THBC 0 - 15 1.50 - 2.38 2.13 0.23 10.96 1.80 - 2.88 2.40 0.34 14.46 0.01*
cfu/g×103
THFC 0 - 15 1.60 - 3.60 2.43 0.67 27.71 2.20 - 5.00 3.59 0.93 26.14 0.00*
cfu/g×103
Table 4.7: Results of Total Heterotrophic Bacteria (THBC) Count and Total
Heterotrophic Fungi (THFC) Fungi in Unburnt and Burnt Oil Palm Plantations
Source: Author’s Field Work, 2021

The result implies that THBC increased in soils of the burnt site than in the unburnt

site. Also, the differences were significant (p < 0.05). This denotes the positive effect of

bushfire on THBC in this plantation. Values of THFC in unburnt oil palm plantation range

from 1.60 to 3.60 cfu/g × 103 with mean value of 2.43 cfu/g × 10 3 and 2.20 to 5.00 cfu/g × 103

with mean value of 3.59 cfu/g × 103 in burnt site. The result suggests that THFC increased in

the burnt site than in the unburnt site. This infers that bushfire had positive effect on THFC.

Hypothesis 1 which states that there is no significant difference in the

physicochemical and biological properties of soils in unburnt and burnt oil palm plantations

was tested. Student t-test results revealed that there was a significant difference (p < 0.05) of

43
ECEC, Ca, Na, Mg, K, Zn, Mn, Pb, Cd, Co, Cr, Ni, As, V, THBC and THFC between the

unburnt and burnt oil palm plantations This affirmed that there is a significant difference in

the physicochemical and biological properties of unburnt and burnt soils in the oil palm

plantations. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected.

4.3 Correlation between the Physicochemical and Biological Properties of Soils in

Unburnt and Burnt Oil Palm Plantations

The correlation coefficients of the physicochemical and biological properties of soils

in unburnt and burnt oil palm plantations are revealed in Tables 4.8 and 4.9 respectively.

Sand revealed a significant negative correlation with silt (p < 0.01) in the unburnt oil palm

plantation (Table 4.8) but correlated significantly and positively with BD, Pb, Cd, Co, Cr, Ni,

Va (p < 0.05) in burnt oil palm plantation (Table 4.9). However, in burnt oil palm plantation,

sand indicated a significant negative relationship with Ca, Mg, K, ECEC (p < 0.05) and silt (p

< 0.01). In both study sites, silt correlated significantly and negatively with sand (p < 0.01),

while in the burnt site, silt showed a significant negative relationship with clay, BD, Pb, Ca,

Co, Cr, Ni, A and Va (p < 0.05), but correlated significantly and positively with Ca, Mg, K,

Na, ECEC (p < 0.05). Clay denoted a significant negative correlation with Ca, Mg, K, Na an

ECEC (p < 0.01) in burnt oil palm plantation, but correlated significantly and positively with

44
Table 4.8: Correlation Coefficients of the Physicochemical and Biological Properties of Soils in Unburnt Oil Palm Plantation
Sand Silt Clay BD pH SOM TOC TN avl P Ca Mg K Na ECEC Zn Cu Fe Mn Pb Ca Co Cr Ni As V THBC THFC

Sand 1

Silt -0.933** 1

Clay -0.094 -0.270 1

BD 0.315 -0.172 -0.369 1

pH 0.261 -0.156 -0.267 -0.055 1

SOM 0.024 -0.002 -0.061 -0.284 -0.012 1

TOC 0.026 0.000 -0.070 -0.270 -0.019 1.000** 1

TN 0.025 -0.006 -0.048 -0.309 -0.002 0.999** 0.998** 1

avl P 0.094 -0.044 -0.130 -0.269 0.040 0.992** 0.992** 0.992** 1

Ca 0.292 -0.324 0.115 0.549 -0.062 -0.410 -0.406 -0.414 -0.437 1

Mg 0.274 -0.312 0.130 0.540 -0.058 -0.393 -0.389 -0.397 -0.424 0.999** 1

K 0.450 -0.475 0.109 0.605 0.102 -0.445 -0.441 -0.448 -0.457 0.963** 0.962** 1

Na 0.363 -0.380 0.080 0.603 0.073 -0.540 -0.537 -0.545 -0.554 0.972** 0.968** 0.989 1

ECEC 0.308 -0.339 0.116 0.558 -0.040 -0.419 -0.416 -0.423 -0.445 0.999** 0.998** 0.972 0.979 1

Zn -0.217 0.038 0.474 -0.159 -0.083 -0.499 -0.497 -0.487 -0.543 -0.084 -0.067 -0.005 0.005 -0.070 1

Cu -0.373 0.365 -0.014 -0.146 0.366 0.005 0.008 0.040 0.040 -0.212 -0.210 -0.198 -0.188 -0.210 0.060 1

Fe 0.070 -0.145 0.213 0.154 -0.159 -0.632 -0.627 -0.629 -0.630 -0.080 -0.083 0.053 0.067 -0.061 0.827** -0.095 1

Mn -0.008 -0.051 0.163 -0.308 0.000 -0.305 -0.301 -0.276 -0.272 -0.437 -0.437 -0.327 -0.335 -0.423 0.758 0.269 0.766** 1

Pb -0.144 0.168 -0.080 -0.339 0.343 0.775 0.769 0.780 0.794 -0.641 -0.630 -0.597 -0.662 -0.639 -0.394 0.402 -0.468 -0.140 1

Cd -0.245 0.267 -0.085 -0.488 0.114 0.555 0.549 0.553 0.577 -0.955** -0.953** -0.914** -0.939** -0.955** -0.107 0.192 -0.096 0.206 0.803** 1

Co -0.282 0.326 -0.146 -0.492 0.068 0.582 0.577 0.581 0.603 -0.961** -0.958** -0.937** -0.959** -0.963** -0.126 0.179 -0.117 0.203 0.791** 0.993** 1

Cr -0.314 0.347 -0.120 -0.513 0.059 0.568 0.563 0.567 0.584 -0.963** -0.959** -0.941** -0.961** -0.964** -0.091 0.174 -0.098 0.215 0.782** 0.991** 0.999** 1

Ni -0.311 0.351 -0.140 -0.486 0.100 0.531 0.526 0.529 0.549 -0.965** -0.961** -0.930** -0.948** -0.964** -0.064 0.186 -0.059 0.235 0.777** 0.991** 0.995** 0.997** 1

As -0.328 0.369 -0.143 -0.505 0.088 0.554 0.549 0.554 0.573 -0.959** -0.955** -0.933** -0.951** -0.960** -0.094** 0.216 -0.095 0.221 0.795** 0.987** 0.996** 0.998** 0.998** 1

0.997*
V -0.314 0.346 -0.120 -0.539 0.085 0.576 0.570 0.576 0.594 -0.951** -0.948** -0.933** -0.951** -0.953** -0.133 0.187 -0.143 0.180 0.803** 0.990** 0.996** 0.997** 0.994** * 1

THBC -0.116 0.106 0.017 -0.129 0.400 -0.575 -0.580 -0.546 -0.556 0.263 0.261 0.319 0.364 0.274 0.321 0.399 0.289 0.303 -0.240 -0.351 -0.353 -0.331 -0.298 -0.279 -0.301 1

THFC 0.001 -0.217 0.599 -0.116 -0.171 -0.453 -0.462 -0.463 -0.479 -0.190 -0.195 -0.102 -0.079 -0.178 0.604 -0.236 0.670 0.397 -0.234 0.150 0.074 0.094 0.113 0.069 0.071 -0.045 1

Note: * = Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed), ** = Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Source: Author’s Field Work, 2021

45
 Table 4.9: Correlation Coefficients of the Physicochemical and Biological Properties of Soils in Burnt Oil Palm Plantation
Sand
Silt Clay BD pH SOM TOC TN avl P Ca Mg K Na ECEC Zn Cu Fe Mn Pb Ca Co Cr Ni A Va THBC THFC

Sand 1

Silt -0.935** 1

Clay 0.393 -0.694* 1

BD 0.635* -0.587* 0.234 1

pH 0.353 -0.373 0.252 0.300 1

SOM 0.145 -0.307 0.500 -0.208 0.305 1

TOC 0.145 -0.307 0.500 -0.208 0.305 1.000** 1

TN 0.153 -0.306 0.482 -0.189 0.364 0.996** 0.996** 1

0.995*
avl P 0.165 -0.326 0.509 -0.202 0.315 0.998** 0.998** * 1

Ca -0.610* 0.797** -0.828** -0.658* -0.352 -0.222 -0.222 -0.210 -0.224 1

Mg -0.608* 0.792** -0.819** -0.660* -0.351 -0.188 -0.188 -0.178 -0.188 0.995** 1

K -0.570* 0.775** -0.851** -0.611* -0.353 -0.341 -0.341 -0.329 -0.342 0.983** 0.981** 1

Na -0.547 0.739** -0.805** -0.669* -0.236 -0.221 -0.221 -0.213 -0.227 0.945** 0.948** 0.961** 1

ECEC -0.606* 0.795** -0.831** -0.659* -0.347 -0.226 -0.226 -0.214 -0.228 0.999** 0.997** 0.987** 0.955 1

Zn 0.058 -0.022 -0.061 0.056 0.052 -0.281 -0.281 -0.297 -0.259 0.062 0.054 0.084 0.155 0.068 1

Cu 0.345 -0.403 0.344 0.179 -0.005 0.123 0.123 0.134 0.121 -0.340 -0.323 -0.276 -0.348 -0.334 -0.769 1

Fe 0.014 0.041 -0.135 0.070 -0.044 -0.358 -0.358 -0.377 -0.337 0.105 0.092 0.122 0.167 0.108 0.989 -0.802 1

Mn 0.204 -0.182 0.058 0.137 -0.186 -0.492 -0.492 -0.513 -0.455 -0.047 -0.060 0.012 -0.050 -0.045 0.808 -0.406 0.824 1

Pb 0.585* -0.781** 0.838** 0.603* 0.382 0.241 0.241 0.233 0.241 -0.992** -0.989** -0.973** -0.932** -0.991** -0.146 0.408 -0.194 -0.025 1

Cd 0.655* -0.847** 0.865** 0.550* 0.343 0.320 0.320 0.311 0.320 -0.963** -0.961** -0.947** -0.905** -0.963** -0.222 0.522 -0.279 -0.069 0.978** 1
0.998*
Co 0.651* -0.844** 0.866** 0.568* 0.341 0.284 0.284 0.275 0.286 -0.975** -0.974** -0.957** -0.920** -0.975** -0.181 0.487 -0.234 -0.022 0.986** * 1
0.998*
Cr 0.654* -0.843** 0.856** 0.571* 0.338 0.273 0.273 0.263 0.273 -0.973** -0.972** -0.950** -0.907** -0.972** -0.180 0.496 -0.235 -0.030 0.984** * 0.999** 1
0.994* 0.995*
Ni 0.590* -0.801** 0.878** 0.555* 0.316 0.279 0.279 0.268 0.279 -0.976** -0.973** -0.958** -0.927** -0.976** -0.207 0.500 -0.259 -0.043 0.989** * 0.996** * 1
0.983* 0.984*
A 0.700 -0.873** 0.841** 0.587* 0.367 0.306 0.306 0.296 0.311 -0.977** -0.974** -0.968** -0.929** -0.977** -0.131 0.414 -0.180 0.017 0.980** * 0.989** * 0.978** 1
0.998* 0.998*
V 0.648* -0.842** 0.868** 0.566* 0.346 0.290 0.290 0.282 0.292 -0.975** -0.974** -0.958** -0.923** -0.975** -0.189 0.490 -0.242 -0.027 0.986** * 1.000** * 0.996** 0.989** 1
0.779*
THBC -0.061 -0.134 0.469 -0.180 0.388 0.778** 0.778** * 0.765** -0.319 -0.321 -0.460 -0.360 -0.334 -0.282 -0.084 -0.316 -0.493 0.357 0.341 0.330 0.308 0.335 0.368 0.338 1

THFC -0.265 0.296 -0.231 -0.661 -0.444 0.203 0.203 0.188 0.177 0.534 0.519 0.507 0.551 0.533 -0.326 0.219 -0.333 -0.365 -0.487 -0.328 -0.373 -0.359 -0.381 -0.438 -0.378 -0.054 1

Note: * = Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed), ** = Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Source: Author’s Field Work, 2021

46
Ca, Mg, K, Na, ECEC and THBC (p < 0.05) but correlated significantly and positively with

PB, Cd, Co, Cr, Ni, A and V (p < 0.05).

In both unburnt and burnt sites (Table 4.8 and Table 4.9), SOM indicated a significant

positive relationship with TOC, TN and avl P (p < 0.01) and also significantly and positively

correlated with THBC (p < 0.01), but in the burnt site only. TOC revealed a significant and

positive relationship with TN and avl P (p < 0.01) at both sites and correlated significantly

and positively with THBC (p < 0.01) in the burnt site. TN revealed a significant and positive

relationship with avl P (p < 0.01) at both sites and correlated significantly and positively with

THBC (p < 0.01) in the burnt site. Available P revealed a significant and positive relationship

with SOM, TOC and TN (p < 0.01) at both sites and correlated significantly and positively

with THBC (p < 0.01) in the burnt site. In unburnt oil palm plantation (Table 4.8), Ca

correlated significantly and positively with Mg, K, Na and ECEC (p < 0.01) but correlated

significantly and negatively with Ca, Co, Cd, Ni, As and V in the same site. In the burnt site

(Table 4.9), Ca displayed a significant and positive relationship with silt, Mg, K, Na and

ECEC (p < 0.01) and significant and negative correlation with sand, BD, (p < 0.05), clay, Pb,

Cd, Co, Cr, Ni, As and V (p < 0.01).

Mg indicated a significant negative relationship with Cd, Co, Cr, Ni, As and V (p <

0.01) but significantly and positively correlated with Ca, K, Na and ECEC (p < 0.01) in

unburnt oil palm plantation (Table 4.8). In the burnt site (Table 4.9), Mg correlated

significantly and negatively with sand, BD (p < 0.05), clay, Pb, Cd, Co, Cr, As, V and Ni (p <

0.01). Conversely, under the same site, Mg showed significant and positive relationship with

silt, K, Na and ECEC (p < 0.01). K revealed a significant negative relationship with Pb, Cd,

Co, Cr, As, V and Ni (p < 0.01) but correlated significantly and positively with Ca, Mg, Na

and ECEC (p < 0.01) in the unburnt oil palm plantation (Table 4.8). But in the burnt site

(Table 4.9), K indicated a significant negative relationship with sand, BD (p < 0.05), Pb, Cd,

47
Co, Cr, As, V and Ni (p < 0.01) and significant positive relationship with silt, Mg, Ca and

ECEC (p < 0.05). Na shows a significant negative relationship with Pb, Cd, Co, Cr, As, V

and Ni (p < 0.01) but significantly and positively correlated with Ca, Mg, K and ECEC (p <

0.01) in the unburnt oil palm plantation (Table 4.8). In the burnt oil palm plantation (Table

4.9), Na indicated a significant positive relationship with ECEC, Mg, Ca and silt (p < 0.01)

and significant negative relationship with clay, Pb, Cd, Co, Cr, As, V, Ni (p < 0.01) and BD

(p < 0.05). ECEC revealed a significant negative relationship with Pb, Cd, Co, Cr, As, V and

Ni (p < 0.01) but correlated significantly and positively with Ca, Mg, K and Na (p < 0.01) in

unburnt oil palm plantation. In the burnt site ECEC correlated significantly and negatively

with Pb, Cd, Co, Cr, As, V, Ni (p < 0.01), sand and BD (p < 0.05) and significantly and

positively correlated with silt, Ca, Mg, K and Na (p < 0.01). Zn correlated significantly and

positively with Fe (p < 0.01) but correlated significantly and negatively with As (p < 0.01) in

unburnt oil palm plantation. In the burnt site, Zn indicated significant and positive

relationship with Fe (p < 0.01) but correlated significantly and negatively with Cu (p < 0.01).

Table 4.8 shows that Cu in burnt oil palm plantation indicated a significant negative

correlation with Zn and Fe (p < 0.01). For the unburnt and burnt site, Fe correlated

significantly and positively with Zn and Mn (p < 0.01) but revealed a significant and negative

correlation with Cu (p < 0.01) in the burnt site. In both study sites, Mn indicated a significant

and positive correlation with Fe (p < 0.01), while under unburnt oil palm plantation, Pb

correlated significantly and positively with Co, Cd, V, As, Cr and Ni (p < 0.01) but correlated

significantly and positively with sand, BD (p < 0.05), clay, Co, Cd, V, As, Cr and Ni (p <

0.01) in burnt site. Cd under unburnt oil palm plantation revealed a significant and positive

relationship with Pb, Co, Cr, As, Ni and V (p < 0.01) but significantly and negatively

correlated with Ca, Mg, K, Na and ECEC (p < 0.01). For the burnt site, Cd significantly and

48
positively correlated with sand, BD (p < 0.05), clay, Co, Cd, V, As, Cr and Ni (p < 0.01) but

significantly and negatively correlated with silt, Ca, Mg, Na, ECEC and K (p < 0.01).

Table 4.8 indicated that cobalt (Co) significantly and negatively correlated with Ca,

Mg, K, Na, ECEC (p < 0.01) but conversely correlated significantly and positively with Pb,

Cd, Cr, Ni, As, V (p < 0.01). In burnt oil palm plantation (Table 4.9), Co denoted a

significant and positive relationship with clay, Pb, Cd, Cr, Ni, As, V (p < 0.01), sand and BD

(p < 0.05). However, Co significantly and negatively correlated with silt, Ca, Mg, K, ECEC,

Na (p < 0.01). Cr showed a significant and negative relationship with Ca, Mg, K, ECEC, Na

(p < 0.01) but conversely correlated significantly and positively with Pb, Cd, Co, Ni, As and

V (p < 0.01) in the unburnt oil palm plantation. For the burnt site, Cr indicated a significant

and positive relationship with sand BD (p < 0.05), clay, Pb, Cd, Co, Ni, As and V (p < 0.01)

and correlated significantly and negatively with silt, Ca, Mg, ECEC, K and Na (p < 0.01) in

the burnt site.

For Ni, in unburnt oil palm plantation, a significant negative correlation with Ca, Mg,

Na, K and ECEC was observed while Ni correlated significantly and positively with Pb, Cd,

Co, Cr, As and V (p < 0.01) (Table 4.8). But in the burnt site (Table 4.9), a significant and

positive relationship was observed between Ni and sand, BD (p < 0.05), clay, Pb, Cd, Co, Cr,

As and V (p < 0.01) but correlated significantly and negatively with silt, Ca, Mg, Na, K and

ECEC (p < 0.01). As observed in Table 4.8 As revealed a significant and negative

relationship with Zn, ECEC, Na, K, Ca and Mg (p < 0.01) in unburnt site, while in the burnt

site, As correlated significantly and negatively with silt, Ca, Na, Mg, ECEC and K (p < 0.01)

and correlated significantly and positively with BD (p < 0.05), clay, Pb, Co, Cr, Co, V and Ni

(p < 0.01). In unburnt oil palm plantation, a significant and negative relationship between V

and Ca, Na, ECEC, K, Mg was observed (Table 4.8), but in the same site, V indicated a

significant and positive relationship between Pb, Cr, Co, Cd, Ni and As. For the burnt site

49
(Table 4.8), V revealed a significant and positive relationship with sand, BD (p < 0.05), clay,

Pb, Cr, Co, Cd, Ni and As (p < 0.01). THBC revealed a significant and positive relationship

with SOM, TOC, TN and avl P in burnt oil palm plantation while THFC revealed a

significant negative relationship with BD (p < 0.05).

In examining the significant relationships that existed among the physicochemical and

biological properties of soils under the unburnt and burnt oil palm plantations, hypothesis 2

was tested. Pearson’s Product-Moment Correlation results revealed that the relationships

were either significant or non-significant and positive or negative. Therefore, the null

hypothesis is rejected.

50
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

This study on bushfire impacts on soil physicochemical and biological properties of

oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) plantations in Edo State, Nigeria came up with important results

that will contribute to a better understanding of bushfire influences in oil palm plantation

ecosystems in the tropics. This chapter summarizes the major research findings, conclusions

and recommendations.

5.2 Summary of Findings

This study has been able to reveal changes and the implication of bushfire on the soil

physicochemical and biological properties of oil palm plantations. The findings from the

study are highlighted as follows:

1. Bushfire has varied impacts on the physicochemical and biological properties of soil

in oil palm plantations. The examined soil properties were either positive or

negatively influenced by bushfire.

2. The soil BD results revealed that the soils in the study sites do not suffer from any

mechanical impediments to crop root growth.

3. The hypothesis that there is no significant difference in the physicochemical and

biological properties of unburnt and burnt soils in the study sites was tested. Student t-

test results confirmed that soil quality indicators exhibited significant differences

between both sites.

4. The similarities observed in the values of some soil properties are related to the

characteristics of both oil palm plantations. This is due to the occurrence of litter on

51
 the soils from the unburnt oil palm plantation, while the burnt oil palm plantation has

both soil undergrowth and some litter on its soil.

5. The relationship between soil physicochemical and biological properties under each

oil palm plantation can be attributed to the impact of bushfire disturbances.

5.3 Conclusion and Recommendations

The study demonstrated the response of soil properties of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis)

plantations to bushfire. The varied values of the physicochemical and biological properties of

soils in both the unburnt and burnt oil palm plantations affirmed it. This was followed by the

identified relationships that existed between the soil properties. Evidence from the study

suggests that from oil palm plantation sustainable management stand point, a participatory

method should be adopted for the improvement of environmental protection and ecological

stability of oil palm plantations. Some suggested recommendations include:

1. The government should establish and promote oil palm plantation conservation

awareness among the various communities through extension services.

2. Prescribed burning in farms should be encouraged to avoid accumulation of fire fuels

to lessen the menace of uncontrolled bush burning on adjoining oil palm tree

plantations. The use of prescribed burning can minimize the risk of bushfires as well

as the extent of land area burned by bushfires.

3. It is not possible to totally stop uncontrolled bush burning, thus famers should be

specifically enlightened on the need to construct fire guards around their farms. In

addition, most of the present tracks would serve the purpose if they were expanded

and frequently maintained to avert the encroachment of grass.

4. There is need for adequate preparations by government agencies towards post-fire

ecological responses and management strategies in the oil palm plantations. General

52
 preparation of personnel and the availability of equipment will aid to suppress

bushfire in the rubber plantations.

5. The government needs to develop partnerships with natives to ensure that the soil

properties of oil palm plantation ecosystems are conserved and at the same time

provide essential ecosystem services and products.

6. Oil palm plantations should be safeguarded from bushfire by establishing and

maintaining bare-ground firebreaks or fire roads within their plantation boundaries.

This will sufficiently reduce the spread of fire from adjoining farmlands.

53
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