CHAPTER 3 Managing and Caring for the Self

1. Explain the theoretical underpinnings on how to manage and care for different
aspects of the self
2. Demonstrate new skills and learnings for better managing of one’s self and
behaviours
3. Apply these new skills to one’s self and functioning for a better quality of life

3.1. Learning to be a Better Student

Metacognition –commonly defined as “thinking about thinking” (Livingston 1997; Papaleontiou-
Louca 2003).
- The awareness of the scope and limitations of your current knowledge and skills
(Meichenbaum 1985 in American Institutes for Research 2010). Due to this awareness,
metacognition enables the person to adapt to their existing knowledge and skills to
approach a learning task, seeking for the optimum result of the learning experience
(American Institutes for Research 2010).
- Also includes keeping one’s emotions and motivations while learning in check
(Papaleontiou-Louca 2003). Some people learn better when they like the subject, some
when they are challenged by the topic, and others if they have a reward system each
time they finish a task. The emotional state and the motivation of a person then should
also be in the preferred ideal state for that person in order to further facilitate his or her
learning.
- As seen from these definitions, metacognition has two aspects: (1) self-appraisal and (2)
self-management of cognition (Paris and Winnograd 1990 in Papaleontiou-Louca 2003).
Self-appraisal is your personal reflection on your knowledge and capabilities while self-
management is the mental process you employ using what you have in planning and
adapting to successfully learn or accomplish a certain task (Paris and Winnograd 1990 in
Papaleontiou-Louca 2003). Similar concepts, usually called elements of metacognition,
are metacognitive knowledge or what you know about how you think, and
metacognition regulation or how you adjust your thinking processes to help you learn
better (American Institutes for Research 2010).
- Under metacognitive knowledge, there are several variables that affect how you know
or assess yourself as a thinker. First is the personal variable, which is your evaluation of
your strengths and weaknesses in learning. Second is the task variable, which is what
you know or what you think about the nature of the task, as well as what strategies the
task requires. Lastly, strategy variable refers to what strategies or skills you already have
in dealing with certain tasks (American Institutes for Research 2010).
 - However, it must be noted that in order to make self-appraisal and self-management
work, you must have an accurate self-assessment – you must be honest about what you
know and capable of in order to find ways to utilize your strengths and improve on your
weaknesses (Schoenfield 1987 in Papaleontiou-Louca 2003).

Other skills that can help you in exercising metacognition (Waterloo Student Success Office,
n.d.):
1. Knowing your limits – looks at the scope and limitations of your resources so that you can
work with what you have at the moment and look for ways to cope with other
necessities.
2. Modifying your approach – begins with the recognition that your strategy is not appropriate
with the task and/or that you do not comprehend the learning experience successfully.
You should learn to adjust or change your strategy.
3. Skimming – basically browsing over a material and keeping an eye on keywords, phrases, or
sentences. It is also knowing where to search for such key terms. This technique
works best when you want to get an idea about the contents of a reading material,
when you are trying to read through several materials in a limited time frame, or when
you want to focus on certain details, among others.
4. Rehearsing – not just about repeatedly talking, writing, and/or ding what you have learned,
but also trying to make a personal interpretation or summary of the learning
experience. One of the fun ways of doing this is by imagining yourself being interviewed
about your task.
5. Self-Test – trying to test your comprehension of your learning experience or the skills you
have acquired during learning. Self-test does not only focus on what you have learned
but also on how you learned it. After the experience, ask yourself, “What strategies did I
use?” “How successful were my learning strategies?” “How can I further improve my
learning skills?”

Other strategies that you need to develop include asking questions about your methods,
self-reflection, finding a mentor or support group if necessary, thinking out loud (though you
have to be considerate of others also when doing this), and welcoming errors as learning
experiences. “Welcoming errors” does not mean seeking them or consciously making them as
much as possible. It means that when you commit a mistake, you do not dismiss it as
insignificant or you do not try to avoid responsibility of the results. You must process themto
learn every lesson that you can take about yourself, about the topic, and other people or
things. By having a more positive attitude toward mistakes, you will also have the courage to
venture into new and unknown learning experiences that may one day interest you.

Using these strategies, you can at least identify four types of metacognitive learners (Perkins
1992 in Cambridge International Examinations 2015):
1. “tacit” learners – unaware of their metacognitive processes although they know the extent of
their knowledge
2. “aware” learners – know some of their metacognitive strategies but they do not plan on how
to use these techniques
3. “strategic” learners – strategize and plan their course of action toward a learning experience
4. “reflective” learners – reflect on their thinking while they are using the strategies and adapt
metacognitive skills depending on their situation

Other tips in studying (Queensland University of Technology Library n.d.):

1. Make an outline of the things you want to learn, the things you are reading or doing, and/or
the things you remember.
2. Break down the task in smaller and more manageable details.
3. Integrate variation in your schedule and learning experience.
4. Try to incubate your ideas. Sometimes, during incubation, you suddenly have ideas coming to
you. Write them down in a notebook first and do not integrate them into the draft yet.
Review what you have written when the incubation period is done.
5. Revise, summarize, and take down notes then reread them to help you minimize cramming
in thelast minute, especially when you have a weakness in memorizing facts and data.
6. Engage what you have learned. Do something about it. You may want to look for other
definitions and compare or contrast materials. Use your new knowledge during
discussions – just do something about it.

3.2.Setting Goals for Success

Albert Bandura’s Self-efficacy Theory

Self-efficacy theory – based on the assumption that psychological procedures serve as a means
of creating and strengthening expectations of personal efficacy
Self-efficacy – people’s beliefs about their capabilities to produce designated levels of
performance that exercise influence over events that affect their lives

Acts of people with “high assurance in their capabilities”:

1. approach difficult tasks challenges to be mastered
2. set challenging goals and maintain strong commitment to them
3. heighten or sustain efforts in the face of failures or setbacks;
4. attribute failure to insufficient effort or deficient knowledge and skills which are
acquirable; and
5. approach threatening situations with assurance that they can exercise control over them.

In contrast, people “who doubt their capabilities”:

1. shy away from tasks they view as personal threats;
2. have low aspirations and weak commitment to goals they choose to pursue;
3. dwell on personal deficiencies, obstacles they will encounter, and all kinds of adverse
outcomes, rather than concentration on how to successfully;
4. slacken their efforts and give up quickly in the face of difficulties;
5. are slow to recover their sense of efficacy following failure or setbacks; and
6. fall easy victim to stress and depression.

Dr. Bandura described four main sources of influences by which a person’s self-efficacy is
developed and maintained. These are:
1. performance accomplishments or mastery experiences – the most effective ways to create a
strong sense of efficacy;
2. vicarious experiences - ;
3. verbal or social persuasion – a way of strengthening people’s beliefs that they have what it
takes to succeed; this can provide a temporary boost in perceived ability; and
4. physiological (somatic and emotional) states–it is not the intensity of the emotional or
physical reaction that is important, but rather, how it is perceived and interpreted.

Bandura’s quotes about self-efficacy (Kendra 2017):

“Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the sources of
action required to manage prospective situations” (From Social Foundations of Thought and
Action: A Social CognitiveTheory,1986)

“If efficacy beliefs always reflected only what people can do routinely, they would rarely
fail but they would not set aspirations beyond their immediate reach nor mount the extra effort
needed to surpass their ordinary performances” (From Encyclopedia of Human Behavior, 1994)

“Self-belief does not necessarily ensure success, but self-disbelief assuredly spawns
failure” (From Self-efficacy: The Exercise of Control, 1997)

“By sticking it out through tough times, people emerge from adversity with a stronger
sense of efficacy” (From Encyclopedia of Human Behavior, 1994)

“People’s beliefs about their abilities have a profound effect on those abilities. Ability is
not a fixedproperty; there is a huge variability in how you perform. People who have a sense of
self-efficacy bounce back from failure; they approach things in terms of how to handle them
rather than worry about what can go wrong” (From Self-efficacy: The Exercise of Control, 1997)

Carol Dweck’s Fixed and Growth Mindset Theory

Two types of mindset:
1. fixed mindset – people who believe that success is based on their innate abilities have a
“fixed” theory of intelligence; dread failure because it is a negative statement of their
basic abilities
2. growth mindset – people who believe that success is based on hardwork, learning, training,
and perseverance have growth theory of intelligence; do not mind or fear failure as
much because they realize their performance can be improved and learning comes from
failure

These two mindsets play an important role in all aspects of a person’s life. Dr. Dweck
argues that the growth mindset will allow a person to live a less stressful and more successful
life.
In a fixed mindset, students believe their basic abilities, their intelligence, their talents
are just fixed traits. They have a certain amount and that’s that, and their goal becomes to look
smart all the time and never look dumb. In the growth mindset, students understand that their
talents and abilities can be developed through effort, good teaching and persistence. They
don’t necessarily think everyone’s the same or anyone can be Einstein, but they believe
everyone can get smarter if they work for it.
Individuals with growth mindset are more likely to continue working hard despite
setbacks while individuals with fixed mindset can be affected by subtle environmental cues. For
example, children given praise such as “good job, you are smart” are more likely to develop a
fixed mindset whereas, if given compliments like “good job, you worked very hard” are likely to
develop a growth mindset. In other words, it is possible to encourage students to persist
despite failure by encouraging them to think about learning in a certain way (Upclosed 2017).

Edwin A. Locke’s Goal Setting Theory

Goal Setting Theory – assumes that introspective reports provide useful and valid data for
formulating psychological concepts and measuring psychological phenomena (e.g., purpose,
goal commitment, self-efficacy)

Goal attributes – goals have both an internal and external aspect. Internally, they are ideas
(desired ends); externally, they refer to the object or condition sought (E.g., a job, a sale,
a certain performance level). The idea guides action to attain the object. Two broad attributes
of goals are content (the actual object sought) and intensity (the scope, focus, and complexity,
among others of the choice process). Qualitatively, the content of a goal is whatever the person
is seeking. Quantitatively, two attributes of content, difficulty and specificity, have been studied
(Locke 2017).

14 Research Findings

1. The more difficult the goal, the greater the achievement.

2. The more specific or explicit the goal, the more precisely performance is regulated.
3. Goals that are both specific and difficult lead to the highest performance.
4. Commitment to goals is most critical when goals are specific and difficult.
5. High commitment to goals is attained when:
a. the individual is convinced that the goal is important;
b. the individual is convinced that the goal is attainable (or that, at least, progress
can be made toward it)
6. In addition to having a direct effect on performance, self-efficacy influences:
a. the difficulty level of the goal chosen or accepted;
b. commitment to goals;
c. the response to negative feedback or failure; and
d. the choice of task strategies
7. Goal setting is most effective when there is feedback that shows progress in relation to
the goal.
8. Goal setting (along with self-efficacy) mediates the effect of knowledge of past
performance on subsequent performance.
9. Goals affect performance by affecting the direction of action, the degree of effort
exerted, and the persistence of action over time.
10. Goals stimulate planning in general. Newly learned plans or strategies are most likely to
be utilized under the stimulus of a specific, difficult goal.
11. When people strive for goals on complex tasks, they are least effective in discovering
suitable task strategies if:
a. they have no prior experience or training on the task;
b. there is high pressure to perform well; and
c. there is high time pressure (to perform well immediately)
12. Goals (including goal commitment), in combination with self-efficacy, mediate or
partially mediate the effects of several personality traits and incentives on
performance.
13. Goal-setting and goal-related mechanisms can be trained and/or adopted in the absence
of training for the purpose of self-regulation.
14. Goals serve as standards of self-satisfaction, with harder goals demanding higher
accomplishment in order to attain self-satisfaction that easy goals. Goals can also be
used to enhance task interest, reduce boredom, and promote goal clarity. When used to
punish or intimidate people, however, goals increase stress and anxiety.
3.3. Taking Charge of One’s Health

Stress – a feeling of being overwhelmed, worried, or run-down.

- Can affect people of all ages, genders, and circumstances and can lead to both physical
and psychological health issues.
- Any uncomfortable ‘emotional experience accompanied by predictable biochemical,
physiological and behavioral changes’
- Can be beneficial at times, producing a boost that provides the drive and energy to help
people get through situations like exam or work deadlines
- Extreme amount of stress can have health consequences and adversely affect the
immune, cardiovascular, neuroendocrine and central nervous system
- Inevitable to life so we have to learn how to handle and cope with it – be familiar with
other approach to a healthy lifestyle, which is self-care

Hans Selye – defined stress as the body’s nonspecific response to any demand, whether it is
caused by or results in pleasant or unpleasant stimuli
1. distress–unpleasant or harmful variety of stress which often brings disease; stress in daily life
that has negative connotations such as divorce, punishment, injury, negative feelings,
financial problems, and work difficulties
2. eustress – often indicates euphoria; stress in daily life that has positive connotations such as
marriage, promotion, baby, winning money, new friends, and graduation

Stress Syndrome:
1. The alarm stage –represents a mobilization of the body’s defensive forces. The body is
preparing for the “fight or flight” syndrome. This involves a number of hormones and
chemicals exerted at high levels, as well as an increase in heart rate, blood pressure,
perspiration, and respiration rate, among others.
2. The stage of resistance – the body becomes adaptive to the challenge and even begins to
resist it. The length of this stage is dependent upon the body’s innate and stored
adaptation energy reserves and upon the intensity of the stressor. The acquired
adaptation is lost if the individual is subject to stillgreater exposure to the stressor. The
organism then enters into the third and final stage.
3. The exhaustion stage – the body dies because it has used up its resources of adaptation
energy. Thankfully, few people ever experience this last stage.

Chronic stress – unpleasant, even when it is transient. A stressful situation – whether

something environmental, such as a looming work deadline, or psychological, such as
persistent worry about losing a job – can trigger a cascade of stress hormones that produce
well-orchestrated physiological changes. A stressful incident can make the heart pound and
breathing quicken. Muscles tense and beads of sweat appear
Techniques to Counter Chronic Stress (Health Harvard 2017):
1. Relaxation response – deep abdominal breathing, focus on a soothing word (such as
peace or calm), visualization of tranquil scenes, repetitive prayer, yoga, and tai chi
2. Physical activity – exercise helps relieve muscle tension
3. Social support – confidants, friends, acquaintances, co-workers, relatives, spouses, and
companions all provide a life-enhancing social net, and may increase longevity

Self-care Therapy (Nancy Apperson 2008):

1. Stop, breathe, and tell yourself: “This is hard and I will get through this one step at a
time.”
2. Acknowledge to yourself what you are feeling. All feelings are normal so accept whatever
you are feeling.
3. Find someone who listens and is accepting. You do not need advice. You need to be
heard.
4. Maintain your normal routine as much as possible.
5. Allow plenty of time for a task.
6. Take good care of yourself. Remember to:
a. Get enough rest and sleep
b. Eat regularly and make healthy choices
c. Know your limits and when you need to let go
d. Identify or create a nurturing place in your home
e. Practice relaxation or meditation
f. Escape for a while through meditation, reading a book, watching a movie, or
taking a short trip

Self-Compassion Therapy
Self-compassion Phrases
 This is a moment of suffering
 Suffering is a part of life
 May I be kind to myself
 May I give myself the compassion I need

Self-Compassionate Letter
1. Candidly describe a problem that tends to make you feel bad about yourself
2. Think of an imaginary friend who is unconditionally accepting and compassionate
3. Write a letter to yourself from that perspective. What would your friend say about your
perceived problem? What words would he or she use to convey deep compassion? If
 your friend were to make any suggestions, how would they reflect unconditional
understanding?
4. When you are done writing, put the letter down for a while and come back to it later.
Read the letter again, letting the words sink in, allowing yourself to be soothed and
comforted.