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Detailed Contents
Foreword
Preface
Why Integrated Campaigns? Why Now?
Organization of the Book
Acknowledgments
About the Authors
Introduction: Campaigns in the Professional Public Relations Context
Public Relations Theories and Principles
Excellence Theory
Systems Theory
Diffusion Theory
Framing Theory
Agenda Setting & Agenda Building Theories
Situational Crisis Communication Theory
Two-step Flow Model
Models of Public Relations Practice
Press Agentry
Public Information
Two-way Asymmetrical
Two-way Symmetrical
Public Relations Planning Models
R-A-C-E, R-O-P-E, or R-O-S-I-E
ROSTIR: Research, Objectives, Strategies, Tactics,
Implementation & Reporting
Communication Goals
Pulling It All Together
Think Critically
Key Terms
Concept Case: Equality Today
Chapter 1 Introduction to Integrated Campaigns
A Need for New Public Relations Planning Models
Emerging Models
The Six Steps of ROSTIR
The Value of Public Relations Planning Models
 Conclusion
Think Critically
Key Terms
Concept Case: Introducing Equality Today
Case Study: “Seize the Holidays” With Krusteaz: A Virtual Baking
Event
Research/Diagnosis
Objectives
Strategies
Tactics
Earned
Shared
Owned
Implementation
Reporting/Evaluating
Theories
Models
Chapter 2 Strategic Communication Campaign Fundamentals
Why We Plan
Elements of a Strategic Plan
Research, Diagnosis, and Goal Setting
Objectives
Strategies
Tactics
Implementation
Reporting/Evaluation
Budget
Putting It All Together
Conclusion
Think Critically
Key Terms
Concept Case: Mission-driven Planning for Equality Today
Case Study: OSCAR MAYER’S Wakey, Wakey, Eggs and Bakey!
Research/Diagnosis
Objectives
Strategies
Target Audience
 Tactics
Owned
Shared
Earned
Implementation
Reporting/Evaluation
Theories
Chapter 3 Understanding PESO
What Is PESO?
Paid Media
Earned Media
Shared Media
Owned Media
When Should Each of the PESO Channels Be Used?
Campaigns in Action
Paid Media
Earned Media
Shared Media
Owned Media
Continuous Integration
Conclusion
Think Critically
Key Terms
Concept Case: Equality Today’s Channel, Partner, and
Measurement Brainstorming
Case Study: The Proud Whopper—Be Your Way Campaign
PESO Model
Owned
Shared
Earned
Paid
Theories
Chapter 4 Research, Part 1: Diagnosis and Developmental Research
Developmental Research: Diagnosing the Problem and/or
Opportunity
Researching and Measuring the Problem/Opportunity
Research Terminology and Techniques
 Data
Qualitative and Quantitative Research
Secondary and Primary Research
Validity
Conducting Research
Secondary Research
Case Studies
Government Data
Scholarly Research
Think Tank/Nonprofit Reports
Trade Association Research
Primary Research
Polling and Surveys: Opinion and Awareness
Content Analysis
Competitor Analysis
Experimental Research
Interviews
Focus Groups
Conclusion
Think Critically
Key Terms
Concept Case: Research for Issue Prioritization at Equality Today
Case Study: Hallmark Itty Bittys Steal the Spotlight
Research/Diagnosis
Primary Research: Getting to Know the Consumer
Objectives
Strategy
Implementation
Tactics
Paid
Earned
Shared
Reporting/Evaluation
Theories
Chapter 5 Research, Part 2: Goals
Understanding Your Organization and Its Goals
The Goal-Setting Process
 Seeking the Impact Role for Communication
Defining the Scope
Selecting Audiences for Outreach
Defining the Desired Change
Prioritizing Budgets and Resources
Writing Goals
Types of Goals
Context: Mission versus Situation
Visionary Goals, Concrete Objectives
Goal-Setting Challenges
Working with Organizational Decision Makers
Prompting More Research
Conclusion
Think Critically
Key Terms
Concept Case: Equality Today Sets Communication Goals
Case Study: #WeighThis—Redefining Self-worth from Lean
Cuisine
Research/Diagnosis
Objectives
Strategy
Tactics
Paid
Earned
Shared
Owned
Implementation
Reporting/Evaluation
Theories and Models
Chapter 6 Objectives
What Makes High-Value Objectives?
Management by Objectives
Types of Objectives
Writing S.M.A.R.T. Objectives
Specific
Measurable
Attainable
 Relevant
Time-Bound
Additional Objective Frameworks
Connecting Objectives to Key Internal Audiences
Do Your Objectives Make Organizational Decision Makers
Excited?
Proving Relevance: Will Completing Your Objectives Drive
Positive Change?
Are You Connecting Short- and Long-Term Objectives?
Conclusion
Think Critically
Key Terms
Concept Case: Setting Objectives for Equality Today
Case Study: Cookie Care Delivers Sweet Results for Doubletree by
Hilton
Research/Diagnosis
Objectives
Strategy
Tactics
Paid
Shared
Owned
Reporting/Evaluation
Theories
Chapter 7 Strategies
Choosing Your Channels: The PESO Model
The Model
Paid
Earned
Shared
Owned
How the Model Overlaps
How to Build an Integrated Campaign Strategy around PESO
The Right Approach for Your Audience(s)
Demographics
Geography
Psychographics
 Activity/Interest
Influence
Channel Consumption
Leveraging Your Organization’s Strengths and Resources
Subject Matter Expertise
Imagery/Visuals
Dynamic Presenters/Personalities
Data
Organizational Vision or Narrative
History/Institutional Authority
The Competitive Landscape
Understand Competitors and External Challenges
Avoid What Everyone Else Is Already Doing
Conclusion
Think Critically
Key Terms
Concept Case: Channel Selection for Equality Today
Case Study: MasterCard Bites into Apple Pay
Research/Diagnosis
Objective
Strategy
Tactics
Earned & Paid
Owned
Shared & Owned
Paid, Earned, Shared & Owned
Implementation
Reporting/Evaluation
Cut through the Chatter
Lead the Conversation on Contactless Security
Drive MasterCard Sign-ups on Apple Pay
Theories
Chapter 8 Tactics
Tactical Approaches
Paid Media
Timing
Budget
 Messaging
Content Creation
Advertising
Advertorial Content
Earned Media
Timing
Budget
Messaging
Content Creation
Media Relations
Shared Media
Timing
Budget
Messaging
Content Creation
Owned Media
Timing
Budget
Messaging
Content Creation
Website Content Management
Marketing
Publications
Conclusion
Think Critically
Key Terms
Concept Case: Tactical Choices for Equality Today
Case Study: Cinnamilk by General Mills
Campaign Focus: Promotional
Research/Diagnosis
Objective
Strategy
Tactics
Paid & Owned
Earned
Shared
Implementation
 Reporting/Evaluation
Theories
Model
Chapter 9 Implementation
Key Skills for Implementing PR Campaigns
Project Management Basics
Budgeting
Dividing Tasks among a Team
Creating Timelines and Deadlines
Setting Clear Expectations and Ensuring Clear
Communication
Working with Non-PR People
Working with the Media
Self-awareness and Self-evaluation
Persistence and Perseverance
Preparing for Change
Conclusion
Think Critically
Key Terms
Concept Case: Equality Today Meets Unexpected Obstacles
Case Study: Missing Type—U.K.’S National Health Service
Research and Diagnosis
Objectives
Strategy
Tactics
Earned
Shared
Owned
Implementation
Reporting/Evaluation
Theories
Model
Chapter 10 Reporting and Evaluation
Evaluating Your Campaign
Media Evaluation
Digital Evaluation Metrics and Approaches
Turning Evaluation into Improvement
 Reporting on Your Campaign
Objective-driven Reporting
Prioritization: What Information Is Most Important for the
Reader?
Format: How Should Your Information Be Best Presented to
Your Audience?
PESO: Special Reporting Considerations
Paid Media
Earned Media
Shared Media
Owned Media
Integrated Reporting
Conclusion
Think Critically
Key Terms
Concept Case: Reporting Results—Equality Today’s Annual
Meeting
Case Study: Cans Get You Cooking
Research/Diagnosis
Developmental Research and Insights
Objectives
Strategies
Tactics
Paid
Earned
Shared
Owned
Implementation
Reporting/Evaluation
Theories
Chapter 11 Formulating an Integrated Campaign—Case Studies
Product Marketing
Brewing Inspiration to Engage Coffee Fans
Research/Diagnosis
Objectives
Strategies
Tactics
 Shared
Paid + Shared
Owned
Paid + Owned + Shared
Earned + Shared
Owned + Shared
Implementation
Reporting/Evaluation
Earned
Shared
Theories
Model
Activism
One for All: Mississippians’ Fight for a New Flag
Research/Diagnosis
Objectives
Strategy
Tactics
Earned + Owned
Shared
Owned
Implementation
Reporting
Theories
Model
Engagement
Appreciating Mom; World’s Toughest Job—American
Greetings
Research/Diagnosis
Objectives
Strategies
Tactics
Shared + Owned
Implementation
Reporting/Evaluation
Earned
Shared
 Owned
Theories
Model
Crisis Communication
Harambe’s Last Day at the Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical
Garden
Research/Diagnosis
Objectives
Strategies
Tactics
Owned
Earned
Shared
Implementation
Reporting/Evaluation
Theories
Model
Global and Multicultural
UNICEF: Toys in Mourning
Research/Diagnosis
Objectives
Strategies
Tactics
Earned + Shared + Owned
Implementation
Reporting/Evaluation
Theories
Model
Teens 4 Pink: Sisters Network and Eisai Inc. with Shared
Voice Public Relations
Research/Diagnosis
Objectives
Strategy
Tactics
Earned
Shared
Owned
 Implementation
Reporting/Evaluation
Theories
Model
Internal Communication and Employee Relations
Responding to “Ferguson”: From Tragedy to Positive Change
Research/Diagnosis
Objectives
Strategies
Tactics and Implementation
Earned + Shared
Owned
Reporting
Theories
Model
HP Global Wellness Challenge
Research/Diagnosis
Objectives
Strategies
Tactics
Owned & Shared
Implementation
Challenges during Implementation
Reporting/Evaluation
Theories
Model
Appendix
Glossary
References
Index
Foreword

The world of public relations has never been more exciting! When I began
my career (back when we walked uphill both ways to school … in the snow
and barefoot), there were a handful of things communicators did: media
relations, events, reputation management, crisis communications, internal
communications, and public affairs.

Today, nearly everything an organization does to communicate with its

stakeholders is considered public relations—from Facebook ads and
influencer relations to content marketing and search engine optimization. It’s
so prevalent, in fact, that many marketers are beginning to expand their
communications skills so they can keep up. The best part about that is they
have to keep up—we’re already there.

There are search engine specialists learning how to pitch journalists and
bloggers to earn the precious link back to their websites. There are product
marketers learning how to write so they can create owned content that is
interesting and valuable to an audience. And there are social media experts
who have been thrown headfirst into a crisis and have had to figure out how
to communicate their way out.

To boot, we finally have a way to show the effectiveness of a public relations

program through data. Call it Big Data, small data, or attribution, a
communicator has the tools at his or her disposal to prove we are an
investment, rather than an expense—as has so long been the case.

It is our time to shine, and we have to make the most of it.

But we aren’t quite there yet. I have a friend who is an executive at a Global
500 company. She recently said to me, “You know what’s wrong with the PR
industry? Most don’t know what a strategy is or how to develop one.”

That’s a real challenge. As an industry, we tend to focus on the tactics and

start there versus starting with the end (and the organization’s goals) in mind.
I often say to our freshly graduated new hires, “Let’s say you’re getting
married and we’re at the wedding a year from now. What does it look like?” I
ask them to picture everything—from flowers and invitations to dinner and
the band. After they’ve described it to me, I explain that what they just did is
create the strategy for their wedding. It’s the picture of what it looks like
when the day arrives. From there, I ask them to work backward and figure
out what needs to be done to get there—this is where the tactics come into
play.

As you begin your career—or a new campaign for a new year—think about
what success looks like in the end. Picture what will have had to happen for
you to reach your vision. Will you have built a community? What does that
look like? Will you have everyone talking about your brand? What will that
include? How many people will you have in the nurturing pipeline? What
kinds of sales will you have created?

After you know what you want to accomplish, you can work backward to
figure out how you’ll get there.

The only way to change the perception people have of the PR industry—that
we don’t do only media relations, that we can develop a strategy, that we can
measure our work—is to do things differently. And that begins with strategy
development that has measurable goals and more than earned media—or
media relations—included.

Now that you know what you want to accomplish, it’s time to implement the
ROSTIR and PESO models. You’ll learn more about these, and how they
work, in Public Relations Campaigns: An Integrated Approach. You’ll learn
how to implement them and measure both models.

What you will know how to do, by the time you finish reading, is how to do
research (R) to help you develop your goals, create your objectives (O) and
strategies (S), build a list of tactics (T), figure out your implementation (I)
and timeline, and then design your reporting tools (R), and do your
evaluation.

The tactics are where PESO comes in—paid, earned, shared, and owned
media.
Paid media is advertising. Not just Super Bowl–type advertising but the kind
that you can use to amplify your messages online, such as Facebook
advertising or pay-per-click. E-mail marketing also falls under paid
marketing because there is an expense to developing a program.

Earned media is what most people know as publicity—or media relations.

You are earning the coverage or mention or interview or story with
journalists, bloggers, and influencers.

Shared media is social media. It’s more than just posting on your networks,
though. It’s being strategic about what you’re sharing, engaging in
conversation, and building community.

And owned media is content marketing. Though it started out as blogging,

it’s evolved to website content, contributed content for publications and
blogs, podcasts, videos, livestreaming, and more.

I am often asked which is the most important of the four media types. While
they’re of equal importance, particularly in an integrated campaign, I am
preferential to owned media. You cannot have P, E, or S without O. You
need content to share on social media. You need content to amplify through
paid media. And you need content to share with journalists and bloggers to
prove you have a unique perspective and can string together some sentences
intelligently. Content sits at the middle of the model. Get that right—and I
mean really right—and you’ll win every time.

If you start your planning process with ROSTIR and create an integrated
model with PESO, you’ll have better search engine optimization and first
page Google results. You’ll even come up in voice search. You’ll build
community and engage brand ambassadors and loyal customers. You’ll
develop mini sales teams outside of your organization—the people who
cannot wait to tell others about you. And you’ll work with your internal sales
team to convert leads to customers.

That is the pot of gold at the end of the rainbow. If you can prove
communications brought leads into the organization, and you helped to
convert them, you suddenly go from a “nice to have” to a necessity.
Regina Luttrell and Luke Capizzo will help you get there. If you are a student
or a seasoned professional, the case studies, tips, “Think Ahead” points, and
the “Think Critically” questions included in this book will help you make the
most of your future in communications.

The world, as they say, is our oyster right now. Let’s not let marketing or
search engine specialists or advertisers take what belongs to us. It’s time to
stand up and prove we can do more than media relations. Build programs that
are strategic. Measure our effectiveness (and tweak, as necessary). And take
the lead with public relations. I hope you’ll join Regina, Luke, and me in
showing every organization in the world that public relations is where they
should start and end.

— Gini Dietrich, CEO of Arment Dietrich and author of Spin Sucks

Preface
Why Integrated Campaigns? Why Now?
The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics predicts the employment of public
relations specialists will grow by 12 percent between 2012 and 2022. Growth
is being driven by the need for organizations to maintain their public image
and build relationships with critical stakeholders and publics. Students are
graduating and moving into a communications work environment that is fully
integrated: public relations, social media, marketing, and advertising are all
part of the equation at many organizations. In fact, the 2017 Global
Communications Report, the second collaborative research project between
The Holmes Report and the USC Annenberg Center for Public Relations,
states that 47 percent of public relations professionals believe public relations
will be more closely aligned with marketing over the next five years Paul
Holmes, “2017 Global Communications Report Predicts Convergence of
Marketing and PR.” holmesreport.com.
(https://www.holmesreport.com/latest/article/2017-global-communications-
report-predicts-convergence-of-marketing-and-pr). What is evident is that the
profession of public relations is shifting. Central to success in this changing
environment is a strategic approach to strategic public relations planning that
balances paid, earned, shared, and owned media.

Our book—designed for an upper-level Public Relations Campaigns class—-

integrates public relations strategies, marketing approaches, and new media
opportunities. Readers will learn about how today’s practitioners implement
award-winning campaigns and the research-driven, strategic choices that
underscore that success. Public Relations Campaigns: An Integrated
Approach leads with public relations but provides broad coverage of the
rapidly changing skills and tactics students and practitioners need to thrive in
the field of public relations. The foundation of the book is rooted in public
relations principles that emphasize a practical approach to developing
successful integrated public relations campaigns. It provides students with the
framework and theory-based knowledge to begin their work not just as
tacticians but as counselors who provide research, perspective, and insights
that help organizations communicate more effectively, understand complex
environments, build relationships, and add strategic value and insights.
While practical in nature, the pedagogical approach to this textbook is
student-centered, inquiry-based learning. Readers have the opportunity to
first examine the essential elements of public relations planning, then analyze
various public relations case studies, and also develop the skills and
perspective to plan an integrated campaign of their own with the information
they have learned.

A variety of features reinforce this approach, providing tips, structure,

examples, and context. Each chapter is organized with clear learning
objectives (“Think Ahead” points to begin each chapter) and “Think
Critically” questions to reinforce and practice key elements. Public Relations
Campaigns: An Integrated Approach is geared toward the many public
relations (PR) students each year enrolling in “campaigns” classes, with the
goal of providing learners with a robust and realistic framework for
understanding, developing, and executing integrated public relations
campaigns. We designed this book to be a guide and reference point for
readers by including a series of real-world examples that give context and
insight into the world of public relations today.
Organization of the Book
Leveraging practical applications of each theory or model of interest, this
book provides numerous case studies to aid in a deeper understanding of the
underlying principles. Part I introduces readers to the theories behind public
relations and the process of public relations planning, placing particular
importance on the ROSTIR model for public relations planning:
Research/Diagnosis, Objectives, Strategy, Tactics, Implementation, and
Reporting/Evaluation as well as the PESO model—paid media, earned media,
shared/social media, and owned media. For an advanced course on campaign
development, this model moves beyond traditional R.O.P.E. or R.A.C.E.
planning models to focus students on each step of the strategic planning
process.

Part II delves deeper into each individual component of both ROSTIR and
PESO so that students are exposed to a richer discussion of each step of the
planning process of an integrated campaign, including how public relations
practitioners are aligning strategies to achieve client objectives. Key
definitions are provided to help in mastering the language of public relations
professionals. A wide variety of strategies and tactics are introduced to
expose students to the many paid, earned, shared, and owned media
approaches available to them. It also showcases the ways in which these
approaches can combine to support achieving organizational and
communication goals and objectives.

Part III brings the text together by including a series of strategic public
relations campaigns that give readers the opportunity to review, discuss, and
critically analyze multiple public relations campaigns across a variety of
disciplines. Using theories and models presented in the text, learners can
evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of individual campaigns, assess how
ROSTIR and PESO were critical to the planning process, and understand
how multiple organizations from Fortune 500 companies to nonprofit
organizations developed, implemented, and evaluated their public relations
campaigns.
Introduction: Campaigns in the Professional Public Relations
Context

This section provides an introduction to some of the most

commonly used PR models, theories, and principles in the practice
of public relations.

Part I: Strategic Public Relations Planning

Chapter 1: Introduction to Integrated Campaigns

Real-world campaigns are challenged by time, budgets, personnel,

personalities, and internal barriers. But talented practitioners can
use the tools of public relations and integrated communication to
develop comprehensive, cohesive, results-driven strategic
campaigns. Students begin to understand the impact of campaigns
while learning the strategy behind integrated planning.

Chapter 2: Strategic Communication Campaign Fundamentals

This chapter hones in on why public relations practitioners plan,

expands on the elements of a strategic plan, and explores the
ROSTIR framework for campaign development.

Case Study: Oscar Mayer’s Wakey, Wakey, Eggs and Bakey!

Chapter 3: Understanding PESO

The key to mastering integrated public relations is to recognize the

importance of the PESO model and formulate strategic plans based
on weaving together paid, earned, shared, and owned media. This
chapter explains what PESO is and introduces how each approach
can be used to form a strategic, holistic campaign.

Case Study: The Proud Whopper—Burger King’s Be Your Way

Campaign

PART II: Discovering ROSTIR

Chapter 4: Research, Part I: Diagnosis and Developmental
Research

Research is the first step in the public relations planning process.

This chapter centers on understanding your organization’s industry
and community environment, crafting research questions, and
selecting research methods for integrated public relations
campaigns.

Case Study: Hallmark Itty Bittys Steal the Spotlight

Chapter 5: Research, Part II: Goals

Understanding an organization and its goals helps public relations

practitioners define key audiences, stakeholders, and publics. This
chapter provides insights to help apply organizational goals to
communication- and campaign-focused goals.

Case Study: #WeighThis—Redefining Self-worth from Lean

Cuisine

Chapter 6: Objectives

In this chapter, readers begin to identify what constitutes high-

value objectives. Readers will be able to differentiate between
various types of objectives, recognize and craft S.M.A.R.T
objectives, and learn to focus objectives toward key audiences.

Case Study: Cookie Care Delivers Sweet Results for Doubletree by

Hilton

Chapter 7: Strategies

Choosing the right channels can be challenging. Chapter 7

summarizes how best to integrate strategies into public relations
campaigns by assessing the right approach for an organization’s
target audience, leveraging an organization’s strengths and
resources, and examining the competitive landscape.
Case Study: MasterCard Bites into Apple Pay

Chapter 8: Tactics

Defining the right tools and tactics is critical for the success of any
campaign. This chapter classifies the various types of paid, earned,
shared, and owned tactics and illustrates how they are strategically
used in public relations planning.

Case Study: Cinnamilk by General Mills

Chapter 9: Implementation

This chapter demystifies the processes behind implementation,

including implications surrounding the components of the
campaign such as creating timelines, dividing tasks among a team,
setting deadlines, setting clear expectations, working with other
people outside of the field of public relations, building relationships
with the media, prioritizing, and the importance of awareness and
self-evaluation.

Case Study: Missing Type—U.K.’s National Health Service

Chapter 10: Reporting and Evaluation

This chapter focuses on connecting measurement and evaluation to

the overall objectives, how to tell if objectives are achievable, and
the best path to prioritize information based on their value to the
decision-making process.

Case Study: Cans Get You Cooking—Can Manufacturers Institute

with Hunter Public Relations

Part III: Campaigns in Action

Chapter 11: Formulating an Integrated Campaign—Case

Studies

This chapter includes a variety of standard campaign types with

 which all PR professionals should be familiar and comfortable.
These archetypal campaigns include product marketing, activism,
community and consumer engagement, crisis communication,
global and multicultural communication, and internal relations.
This chapter contains campaigns that demonstrate both the
ROSTIR and PESO models combining a variety of paid, earned,
shared, and owned media strategies and tactics so that students can
fully understand the circumstances under which each of these
channels can add value to the process.

Student Learning Resources

This book leads with public relations but offers an integrated approach that
encompasses aspects of social media, marketing, advertising, and client
management, for a broader view of the campaign planning process. This text
is offered in 11 chapters, making the content easy to digest within a one-
semester course.

Think Ahead: Learning objectives appear at the beginning of each

chapter to engage students, encouraging them to think about the
material before they connect with the text.

Think Critically: These end-of-chapter questions challenge

students to reflect on and apply the material they have learned.

Case Studies: Numerous case studies demonstrate the proven

ROSTIR (research/diagnosis, objectives, strategies, tactics,
implementation, reporting/evaluation) and PESO (paid, earned,
shared, owned) campaign processes from research to reporting,
illustrating exactly how PR campaigns function in the professional
world.

Concept Case: At the conclusion of each chapter, readers are

introduced to a series of exercises where they can apply the
takeaways from each topic to the operational activities of a
fictitious client, Equality Today, an LGBTQ advocacy organization
 whose mission is to achieve equal rights for individuals across the
spectrums of gender and sexual orientation in their family,
professional, and civic lives.

PRo Tips: Call-out boxes highlight tips from public relations

professionals and educators.

Key Terms: Highlighted vocabulary is used as a study guide with

complete definitions in the glossary.

Appendix: The appendix includes additional reading material that

accompanies and adds additional depth to chapters from the text,
particularly in the areas of research, strategy, and tactics.

Digital Resources
Instructor Teaching Site (Password Protected)

SAGE edge for Instructors supports your teaching by making it easy to

integrate quality content and create a rich learning environment for students.
The site includes the following resources:

Test banks provide a diverse range of pre-written options as well as the

opportunity to edit any question and/or insert your own personalized
questions to effectively assess students’ progress and understanding.
Sample course syllabi for semester and quarter courses provide
suggested models for structuring your courses.
Editable, chapter-specific PowerPoint® slides offer complete flexibility
for creating a multimedia presentation for your course.
EXCLUSIVE! Access to full-text SAGE journal articles that have
been carefully selected to support and expand on the concepts presented
in each chapter is included.
Carefully selected web-based video resources feature relevant
interviews, lectures, personal stories, inquiries, and other content for use
in independent or classroom-based explorations of key topics.
Web resources are included for further research and insights.
Student Study Site (Open Access)

SAGE edge for Students provides a personalized approach to help students

accomplish their coursework goals in an easy-to-use learning environment.
The site includes the following resources:

Mobile-friendly eFlashcards strengthen understanding of key terms and

concepts.
Mobile-friendly practice quizzes allow for independent assessment by
students of their mastery of course material.
Carefully selected web-based video resources feature relevant
interviews, lectures, personal stories, inquiries, and other content for use
in independent or classroom-based explorations of key topics.
Web resources are included for further research and insights.
EXCLUSIVE! Access to full-text SAGE journal articles that have
been carefully selected to support and expand on the concepts presented
in each chapter is included.

The website also offers a complete planning framework with an abundance of

example/template materials:

Complete PR plan framework

Example media alerts
Sample press releases
Media pitches
Process documents
Example project reports

Regina M. Luttrell

Syracuse University, New York

Luke W. Capizzo

University of Maryland, College Park

Acknowledgments

We would like to express our deepest appreciation to those who reviewed

drafts of the manuscript and made truly insightful suggestions that we have
done our best to incorporate into this book:

Jennie Donohue, Marist College

Chike Anyaegbunam, University of Kentucky
Minjeong Kang, Indiana University
Nicki L. Boudreaux, Nicholls State University
Nancy Kerr, Champlain College
Donna J. Downs, Taylor University
Robin Street, University of Mississippi
Shirley A. Serini, Valdosta State University
L. Simone Byrd, Alabama State University
Colleen Fitzpatrick, Saint Mary’s College
Janis Teruggi Page, The George Washington University
Astrid Sheil, California State University San Bernardino
Maha M. Bashri, Bradley University
Felicia LeDuff Harry, Nicholls State University
Lars J. Kristiansen, James Madison University
Bernardo H. Motta, University of South Florida Saint Petersburg
John Powers, Quinnipiac University

We give special thanks to Terri Accomazzo and Anna Villarruel, our editors
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 DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
 FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
 Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA

I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
 The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

 This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
 “We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
 Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
 BRAZIER

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

 FINISHING THE BOTTOM

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

 LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
 Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

 BEATING THE BARK

WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT

MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN