Environmental Science 16th Edition Ebook PDF

Environmental Science 16th Edition,
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Brief Contents
Preface xv
About the Authors xxii
From the Authors xxiii
Learning Skills xxiv
Humans and Sustainability: An Overview
1 The Environment and Sustainability 2
Ecology and Sustainability

2 Science, Matter, Energy, and Systems 26
3 Ecosystems: What Are They and How Do They Work? 44
4 Biodiversity and Evolution 68
5 Species Interactions, Ecological Succession, and Population Control 88
6 The Human Population and Urbanization 106

7 Climate and Biodiversity 134
Sustaining Biodiversity
8 Sustaining Biodiversity: Saving Species 166
9 Sustaining Biodiversity: Saving Ecosystems 192
Sustaining Resources and Environmental Quality

10 Food Production and The Environment 224
11 Water Resources and Water Pollution 260
12 Geology and Nonrenewable Mineral Resources 300
13 Energy Resources 326
14 Environmental Hazards and Human Health 376
15 Air Pollution, Climate Change, and Ozone Depletion 404
16 Solid and Hazardous Waste 448

Sustaining Human Societies
17 Environmental Economics, Politics, and Worldviews 472
Glossary G1
Index I1
v

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Contents
Preface xv Tying It All Together The Hubbard Brook

Forest Experiment and Sustainability 40
About the Authors xxii
Chapter Review 40
From the Authors xxiii
Learning Skills xxiv Critical Thinking 41
Doing Environmental Science 42

Humans and Sustainability: An Overview
Global Environmental Watch Exercise 42
1 The Environment and Sustainability 2
Data Analysis 43
Key Questions 3
Core Case Study Learning from the Earth 4

3 Ecosystems: What Are They and
1.1 What Are Some Key Principles of Sustainability? 5 How Do They Work? 44
Individuals Matter 1.1 Janine Benyus: Using Key Questions 45
Nature to Inspire Sustainable Design and Living 9 Core Case Study Tropical Rain
1.2 How Are We Affecting the Earth? 10 Forests Are Disappearing 46
1.3 What Causes Environmental Problems? 14 3.1 H

ow Does The Earth’s Life-Support System
Work? 47
Science Focus 1.1 Some Biomimicry Principles 19
3.2 W
hat Are The Major Components of an
1.4 What Is an Environmentally Sustainable Society? 21 Ecosystem? 48
Tying It All Together Learning from Science Focus 3.1 Many of the World’s Most Important
the Earth and Sustainability 22 Organisms Are Invisible to Us 51
Chapter Review 22 3.3 What Happens to Energy in an Ecosystem? 53
Critical Thinking 23
3.4 What Happens to Matter in an Ecosystem? 56
Science Focus 3.2 Water’s Unique Properties 57

Individuals Matter 3.1 Thomas E. Lovejoy—Forest Researcher
Global Environment Watch Exercise 24
and Biodiversity Educator 62
Ecological Footprint Analysis 24 3.5 How Do Scientists Study Ecosystems? 62
Science Focus 3.3 Planetary Boundaries 63

Ecology and Sustainability Tying It All Together Tropical Rain Forests and
Sustainability 64
2 Science, Matter, Energy, and Systems 26
Key Questions 27 Chapter Review 64
Core Case Study How Do Scientists Learn about Critical Thinking 65

Nature? Experimenting with a Forest 28
2.1 What Do Scientists Do? 29 Doing Environmental Science 66
Individuals Matter 2.1 Jane Goodall: Chimpanzee Global Environment Watch Exercise 66
Researcher and Protector 30
Data Analysis 67
2.2 What Is Matter and What Happens
When It Undergoes Change? 31
4 Biodiversity and Evolution 68
2.3 What Is Energy and What Happens
When It Undergoes Change? 35 Key Questions 69
Core Case Study Why Are Amphibians Vanishing? 70

2.4 What Are Systems and How Do They
Respond to Change? 38 4.1 What Is Biodiversity and Why Is It Important? 71
vi
Science Focus 4.1 Insects Play a Vital Role
in Our World 72
Individuals Matter 4.1 Edward O. Wilson: A Champion

of Biodiversity 73
4.2 What Roles Do Species Play in Ecosystems? 74
CASE STUDY The American Alligator—A Keystone Species

That Almost Went Extinct 75
CASE STUDY Sharks as Keystone Species 76
4.3 How Does the Earth’s Life Change Over Time? 77
Science Focus 4.2 Causes of Amphibian Declines 78
4.4 What Factors Affect Biodiversity? 80
Science Focus 4.3 Geological Processes Affect

Biodiversity 81
CASE STUDY The Threatened Monarch Butterfly 83
Tying It All Together Amphibians and

Sustainability 85
Chapter Review 85
Data Analysis 87
5 Species Interactions, Ecological Succession,

and Population Control 88
Key Questions 89
Core Case Study The Southern Sea Otter:

A Species in Recovery 90
5.1 How Do Species Interact? 91
Science Focus 5.1 Threats to Kelp Forests 92
5.2 How Do Communities and Ecosystems Respond to

Changing Environmental Conditions? 95
5.3 What Limits the Growth of Populations? 97
Science Focus 5.2 The Future of California’s

Southern Sea Otters 101
Tying It All Together Southern Sea Otters

and Sustainability 102
Chapter Review 102
Contents vii
Data Analysis 105
6 The Human Population and Urbanization 106
Key Questions 107
Core Case Study Planet Earth: Population

7.4 Billion 108
6.1 How Many People Can the Earth Support? 109
6.2 W
hat Factors Influence the Size of the Human
Population? 109
Science Focus 6.1 How Long Can the Human
Population Keep Growing? 110
CASE STUDY The U.S. Population—Third Largest

and Growing 110
6.3 H
ow Does a Population’s Age Structure Affect
Its Growth or Decline? 113
CASE STUDY The American Baby Boom 114
6.4 How Can We Slow Human Population Growth? 115
CASE STUDY Population Growth in India 116
CASE STUDY Slowing Population Growth in China 118
6.5 W
hat Are the Major Urban Resource and
Environmental Problems? 119
CASE STUDY Urbanization in the United States 119
CASE STUDY Mexico City 124
6.6 H
ow Does Transportation Affect Urban
Environmental Impacts? 124
6.7 H
ow Can We Make Cities More Sustainable and
Livable? 126
CASE STUDY The Eco-City Concept in Curitiba, Brazil 128
Tying It All Together Population Growth,

Urbanization, and Sustainability 130
Chapter Review 130
Data Analysis 133
viii Contents
7 Climate and Biodiversity 134 8.3 H
ow Do Humans Accelerate Species Extinction and
Degradation of Ecosystem Services? 173
Key Questions 135
Core Case Study African Savanna 136 Science Focus 8.2 Honeybee Losses: A Search for
Causes 180
7.1 What Factors Influence Climate? 137
Science Focus 7.1 Greenhouse Gases and Climate 138 Individuals Matter 8.1 Juliana Machado Ferreira:
Conservation Biologist and National Geographic Explorer 182
7.2 What Are the Major Terrestrial Ecosystems and How
Are Human Activities Affecting Them? 140 CASE STUDY A Disturbing Message from the Birds 183
Science Focus 7.2 Staying Alive in the Desert 144

Individuals Matter 8.2 Çağan Hakkı Sekercioğlu:
Protector of Birds and National Geographic
Science Focus 7.3 Revisiting the Savanna: Elephants as
Emerging Explorer 184
a Keystone Species 146
8.4 H
ow Can We Sustain Wild Species and the
Individuals Matter 7.1 Tuy Sereivathana: Elephant Ecosystem Services They Provide? 184
Protector 147
CASE STUDY The U.S. Endangered Species Act 185
7.3 What Are the Major Types of Marine Aquatic Systems
and How Are Human Activities Affecting Them? 152 Tying It All Together Honeybees and
Sustainability 189
Science Focus 7.4 Coral Reefs 156
Chapter Review 189
7.4 What Are the Major Types of Freshwater Systems and
How Are Human Activities Affecting Them? 157 Critical Thinking 190
Individuals Matter 7.2 Alexandra Cousteau: Environmental Doing Environmental Science 191
Storyteller and National Geographic Explorer 162
Tying It All Together Tropical African Savanna

Data Analysis 191
Chapter Review 163
9 Sustaining Biodiversity: Saving Ecosystems 192
Key Questions 193
Doing Environmental Science 165 Core Case Study Costa Rica—A Global Conservation
Leader 194
9.1 W
hat Are the Major Threats to Forest
Data Analysis 165
Ecosystems? 195
Science Focus 9.1 Putting a Price Tag on Nature’s
Ecosystem Services 196
Sustaining Biodiversity
CASE STUDY Many Cleared Forests in the United States
8 Sustaining Biodiversity: Saving Species 166
Have Grown Back 198
Key Questions 167
9.2 How Can We Manage and Sustain Forests? 201
Core Case Study Where Have All the European
Honeybees Gone? 168
9.3 How Can We Manage and Sustain Grasslands? 204
8.1 What Role Do Humans Play in the Loss of Species 9.4 How Can We Sustain Terrestrial Biodiversity? 205
and Ecosystem Services? 169 CASE STUDY Stresses on U.S. Public Parks 207
Science Focus 8.1 Estimating Extinction Rates 170

CASE STUDY Identifying and Protecting Biodiversity in
8.2 Why Should We Try to Sustain Wild Species and the Costa Rica 208
Ecosystem Services They Provide? 170
Contents ix
Science Focus 9.2 Reintroducing the Gray Wolf to 10.6 How Can We Improve Food Security? 252
Yellowstone National Park 209
Science Focus 10.1 Perennial Polyculture and the Land
CASE STUDY Ecological Restoration of a Tropical Dry Institute 253
Forest in Costa Rica 212
Individuals Matter 10.2 Jennifer Burney: Environmental
9.5 How Can We Sustain Aquatic Biodiversity? 213 Scientist and National Geographic Explorer 254
Science Focus 9.3 Ocean Acidification: The Other CO2 Tying It All Together Growing Power
Problem 214 and Sustainability 256
CASE STUDY Upsetting Marine Ecosystems: Jellyfish Chapter Review 256

Invasions 215
Individuals Matter 9.1 Sylvia Earle—Advocate for the

Oceans 218
Tying It All Together Sustaining Costa Rica’s Global Environment Watch Exercise 258
Biodiversity 220
Ecological Footprint Analysis 259
Chapter Review 220
11 Water Resources and Water Pollution 260

Key Questions 261
Doing Environmental Science 222 Core Case Study The Gulf of Mexico’s Annual
Dead Zone 262
11.1 Will We Have Enough Usable Water? 263
CASE STUDY Freshwater Resources in the United
States 265
Sustaining Resources and Environmental CASE STUDY The Colorado River 268
Quality
11.2 How Can We Increase Freshwater Supplies? 269
10 Food Production and the Environment 224
CASE STUDY Overpumping the Ogallala Aquifer 269
Key Questions 225
Core Case Study Growing Power—An Urban CASE STUDY How Dams Can Kill a Delta 272
Food Oasis 226
CASE STUDY The Aral Sea Disaster: An Example
10.1 W
hat Is Food Security and Why Is It Difficult of Unintended Effects 275
to Attain? 227
10.2 How Is Food Produced? 228
11.3 H
ow Can We Use Freshwater More
Sustainably? 276
CASE STUDY Industrialized Food Production in the United
States 232
Individuals Matter 11.1 Sandra Postel: National Geographic
Explorer and Freshwater Conservationist 280
10.3 W
hat Are the Environmental Effects of Industrialized
Food Production? 233 11.4 How Can We Reduce Water Pollution? 280
10.4 H
ow Can We Protect Crops from Pests More CASE STUDY Is Bottled Water a Good Option? 287
Sustainably? 242
CASE STUDY Lead in Drinking Water 288
CASE STUDY Ecological Surprises: The Law of Unintended
Consequences 244 Science Focus 11.1 Treating Sewage by Learning
from Nature 295
10.5 How Can We Produce Food More Sustainably? 247
Tying It All Together Dead Zones and
Individuals Matter 10.1 David Tilman—Polyculture
Sustainability 296
Researcher 252
x Contents
Chapter Review 296
Data Analysis 299
12 Geology and Nonrenewable

Mineral Resources 300
Key Questions 301
Core Case Study The Real Cost of Gold 302
12.1 W
hat Are the Earth’s Major Geological Processes
and What Are Mineral Resources? 303
12.2 H
ow Long Might Supplies of Nonrenewable Mineral
Resources Last? 305
CASE STUDY The Crucial Importance of Rare
Earth Metals 306
12.3 W
hat Are The Environmental Effects of Using
Nonrenewable Mineral Resources? 309
12.4 H
ow Can We Use Mineral Resources
More Sustainably? 312
Individuals Matter 12.1 Maria Gunnoe: Fighting to Save
Mountains 313
12.5 W
hat Are the Earth’s Major Geological
Hazards? 314
Science Focus 12.1 The Nanotechnology Revolution 315
Individuals Matter 12.2 Yu-Guo Guo: Designer of

Nanotechnology Batteries and National Geographic
Explorer 316
Individuals Matter 12.3 Robert Ballard, Ocean Explorer 318

Tying It All Together The Real Cost of Gold and
Sustainability 322
Chapter Review 322
Data Analysis 325
Contents xi
13 Energy Resources 326
Key Questions 327
Core Case Study Using Hydrofracking to Produce Oil

and Natural Gas 328
13.1 What Is Net Energy and Why Is It Important? 329
13.2 W
hat Are the Advantages and Disadvantages
of Using Fossil Fuels? 330
CASE STUDY Oil Production and Consumption in the
United States 332
Science Focus 13.1 Environmental Effects of Natural

Gas Production and Fracking in the United States 336
13.3 W
hat Are the Advantages and Disadvantages of
Using Nuclear Power? 339
13.4 W
hy Is Energy Efficiency an Important Energy
Resource? 345
Science Focus 13.2 The Search for Better Batteries 349
13.5 W
of Using Renewable Energy Resources? 352
Science Focus 13.3 Making Wind Turbines Safer for
Birds and Bats 363
Individuals Matter 13.1 Andrés Ruzo—Geothermal Energy

Sleuth and National Geographic Explorer 366
13.6 H
ow Can We Make the Transition to a More
Sustainable Energy Future? 367
CASE STUDY Germany Is a Renewable Energy
Superpower 369
Tying It All Together Energy Resources

Chapter Review 371
14 Environmental Hazards and Human Health 376
Key Questions 377
Core Case Study Mercury’s Toxic Effects 378
14.1 What Major Health Hazards Do We Face? 379
xii Contents
14.2 H
ow Do Biological Hazards Threaten Individuals Matter 15.1 James Balog: Watching
Human Health? 379 Glaciers Melt 430
CASE STUDY The Global Threat from Tuberculosis 380 CASE STUDY Alaska: A Preview of the Effects
of Climate Change 432
Science Focus 14.1 Genetic Resistance to Antibiotics 381
15.6 How Can We Slow Climate Change? 433
Individuals Matter 14.1 Hayat Sindi: Health Science
15.7 H
ow Have We Depleted Ozone in the Stratosphere
Entrepreneur 382
and What Can We Do About It? 441
CASE STUDY The Global HIV/AIDS Epidemic 383 Individuals Matter 15.2 Sherwood Rowland and Mario
Molina—A Scientific Story of Expertise, Courage,
CASE STUDY Malaria—The Spread of a Deadly and Persistence 443
Parasite 384
Tying It ALL Together Melting Ice in Greenland
14.3 H
ow Do Chemical Hazards Threaten and Sustainability 444
Human Health? 385
Chapter Review 444
Science Focus 14.2 The Controversy over BPA 389
14.4 H
ow Can We Evaluate Risks from Chemical Critical Thinking 446
Hazards? 390
CASE STUDY Pollution Prevention Pays: The 3M
Company 394 Global Environment Watch Exercise 447
14.5 How Do We Perceive and Avoid Risks? 395 Data Analysis 447
CASE STUDY Cigarettes and E-Cigarettes 396

16 Solid and Hazardous Waste 448
Tying It All Together Mercury’s Toxic Effects Key Questions 449
Core Case Study Cradle-to-Cradle Design 450
Chapter Review 400
16.1 W
hat Environmental Problems Are Related to Solid
and Hazardous Wastes? 451
CASE STUDY Solid Waste in the United States 451
CASE STUDY Ocean Garbage Patches: There Is
Global Environment Watch Exercise 402 No Away 452
Data Analysis 403 CASE STUDY E-Waste—A Serious Hazardous

Waste Problem 453
15 Air Pollution, Climate Change,
16.2 How Should We Deal with Solid Waste? 453
and Ozone Depletion 404
16.3 W
hy Are Refusing, Reducing, Reusing, and
Key Questions 405
Recycling So Important? 455
Core Case Study Melting Ice in Greenland 406
Individuals Matter 16.1 William McDonough 456
15.1 What Is the Nature of the Atmosphere? 407
15.2 What Are the Major Air Pollution Problems? 407 Science Focus 16.1 Bioplastics 458
15.3 How Should We Deal With Air Pollution? 417
16.4 W
15.4 H
ow and Why Is the Earth’s Climate of Burning or Burying Solid Waste? 459
Changing? 420 16.5 How Should We Deal with Hazardous Waste? 461
Science Focus 15.1 Using Models to Project Future CASE STUDY Recycling E-Waste 462
Changes in Atmospheric Temperatures 426
CASE STUDY Hazardous Waste Regulation
15.5 W
hat Are the Likely Effects of Climate
Change? 427 in the United States 464
Contents xiii
16.6 How Can We Shift to A Low-Waste Economy? 465 CASE STUDY U.S. Environmental Laws 486
CASE STUDY Biomimicry and Industrial Ecosystems: CASE STUDY Managing Public Lands in the United
Copying Nature 466 States—Politics in Action 487
Tying It ALL Together The Cradle-to-Cradle Approach

Individuals Matter 17.1 Xiuhtezcatl Roske-Martinez 492
17.4 W
hat Are Some Major Environmental
Chapter Review 469
Worldviews? 494
Critical Thinking 470 Science Focus 17.1 Biosphere 2: A Lesson in
Humility 495
17.5 How Can We Live More Sustainably? 496
Individuals Matter 17.2 Juan Martinez—Reconnecting People
Ecological Footprint Analysis 471 with Nature 498
Tying It All Together Greening College Campuses and
Sustaining Human Societies Sustainability 501
Chapter Review 501

17 Environmental Economics, Politics,
and Worldviews 472 Critical Thinking 503
Key Questions 473
Core Case Study The Greening of American
Campuses 474 Global Environment Watch Exercise 504
17.1 H
ow Are Economic Systems Related
to the Biosphere? 475 Ecological Footprint Analysis 505
17.2 H
ow Can We Use Economic Tools to Deal with Glossary G1
Environmental Problems? 478
Index I1
CASE STUDY Microlending 483
17.3 H
ow Can We Implement More Sustainable and Just
Environmental Policies? 484
xiv Contents
Preface
We wrote this book to help you achieve three important ■■ New Core Case Studies for 8 of the book’s 17 chapters
goals: first, to explain to your students the basics of envi- bring important real-world stories to the forefront for
ronmental science; second, to help your students in using use in applying those chapters’ concepts and principles.
this scientific foundation to understand the environmental ■■ A heavier emphasis on data analysis, with new questions
problems that we face and to evaluate possible solutions added to the captions of all figures that involve data
to them; and third, to inspire them to make a difference graphs, designed to get students to analyze the data
in how we treat the earth on which our lives and econo- represented in the figure. These complement the exer-
mies depend, and thus in how we treat ourselves and our cises we provide at the ends of chapters.
descendants.
■■ A new feature called Econumbers, which highlight key
We view environmental problems and possible solu-
statistics that will be helpful for students to remember.
tions to them through the lens of sustainability—the inte-
grating theme of this book. We believe that most people ■■ New treatment of the history of environmental conserva-
can live comfortable and fulfilling lives and that societies tion and protection in the United States.
will be more prosperous when sustainability becomes one
Sustainability Is the Integrating Theme of This Book
of the chief measures by which personal choices and pub-
lic policies are made. Our belief in a sustainable future is Sustainability, a watchword of the 21st century for those
foundational to this textbook, and we consistently chal- concerned about the environment, is the overarching
lenge students to work toward attaining it. theme of this textbook. You can see the sustainability em-
For this reason, we are happy to be continuing our phasis by looking at the Brief Contents (p. v).
partnership with National Geographic Learning. One result Six principles of sustainability play a major role in
has been the addition of many stunning and informa- carrying out this book’s sustainability theme. These princi-
tive photographs, numerous maps, and several sto- ples are introduced in Chapter 1. They are depicted in
ries of National Geographic Explorers—people who are Figure 1.2 (p. 6), Figure 1.7 (p. 9), and on the inside back
making a positive difference in the world. With these cover of the book and are used throughout the book,
tools, we continue to tell of the good news from various with each reference marked in the margin by (see
fields of environmental science, hoping to inspire young pp. 47 and 314).
people to commit themselves to making our world a We use the following five major subthemes to inte-
more sustainable place to live for their own and future grate material throughout this book:
generations. ■■ Natural Capital. Sustainability depends on the natural
resources and ecosystem services that support all life
What’s New in This Edition? and economies. See Figures 1.3, p. 7, and 7.16, p. 152.
■■ An emphasis on learning from nature: We establish this in ■■ Natural Capital Degradation. We describe how
the Core Case Study for Chapter 1, Learning from the human activities can degrade natural capital. See
Earth, which introduces the principles of biomimicry. Figures 6.3, p. 111, and 10.11, p. 236.
We further explore the principles and applications of ■■ Solutions. We present existing and proposed solutions
biomimicry in a Science Focus box and a feature arti- to environmental problems in a balanced manner and
cle on biomimicry pioneer Janine Benyus later in the challenge students to use critical thinking to evaluate
chapter. In our research, we have found that biomim- them. See Figures 9.12, p. 202, and 13.23, p. 346.
icry presents a growing number of opportunities for ■■ Trade-Offs. The search for solutions involves trade-
using nature’s genius, as Benyus puts it, to make our offs, because any solution requires weighing advan-
own economies and lifestyles more sustainable. tages against disadvantages. Our Trade-Offs diagrams
■■ A new feature called Learning from Nature—a set of located in several chapters present the benefits and
brief summaries of specific applications of biomimicry drawbacks of various environmental technolo-
in various industries and fields of research—appearing gies and solutions to environmental problems. See
in most chapters. Figures 10.18, p. 242, and 16.10, p. 458.
■■ An attractive and efficient new design with visual ele- ■■ Individuals Matter. Throughout the book, Individ-
ments inspired by National Geographic Learning to uals Matter boxes and some of the Case Studies de-
capture and hold students’ attention. scribe what various scientists and concerned citizens
xv
(including several National Geographic Explorers) science topics are explored in depth in Science Focus
have done to help us work toward sustainability (see boxes distributed among the chapters throughout the
pp. IM 1.1, p. 9, IM 7.1, p. 147, and IM 15.1, p. 430). book (see pp. 19 and 76) and integrated throughout the
Also, a number of What Can You Do? diagrams book in various Case Studies (see pp. 76 and 83) and in
describe how readers can deal with the problems we numerous figures.
face (see Figures 8.11, p. 178, and 11.20, p. 279). ■■ Global Coverage. This book also provides a global
Eight especially important ways in which individuals perspective, first on the ecological level, revealing
can live more lightly on the earth are summarized in how all the world’s life is connected and sustained
Figure 17.24 (p. 499). within the biosphere, and second, through the use
of information and images from around the world.
Other Successful Features of This Textbook
This includes more than 30 maps in the basic text and
■■ Up-to-Date Coverage. Our textbooks have been available on the Learning Path. At the end of each
widely praised for keeping users up to date in the chapter is a Global Environment Watch exercise that
rapidly changing field of environmental science. Since applies this global perspective.
the last edition, we have updated the information ■■ Core Case Studies. Each chapter opens with a Core
and concepts in this book using thousands of articles Case Study (see pp. 28 and 90), which is applied
and reports published between 2013 and 2017. throughout the chapter. These applications are in-
Major new or updated topics include biomimicry, dicated by the notation (Core Case Study) wherever
fracking, the growing problem of lead poisoning in they occur (see pp. 9 and 74). Each chapter ends with
public water supplies, ocean acidification, and a Tying It All Together box (see pp. 64 and 163), which
developments in battery technology. Other such connects the Core Case Study and other material in the
topics include synthetic biology; threats to the chapter to some or all of the principles of sustainability.
Monarch butterfly; Chinese, Indian, and U.S. popula-
■■ Case Studies. In addition to the 17 Core Case Studies,
tion trends; African Savanna; elephants as keystone
more than 40 additional Case Studies (see pp. 76, 83,
species; climate change and species extinction;
and 110) appear throughout the book (and are listed
wildfires in the western United States; jellyfish popu-
in the Detailed Contents, pp. vi – xiv). Each of these
lations explosion; marine protected areas and marine
provides an in-depth look at specific environmental
reserves; effects of overfertilization; aquaculture
problems and their possible solutions.
effects on mangroves; organic no-till farming; deep-
sea mining; costs of producing heavy oil from tar ■■ Critical Thinking. The Learning Skills section (p. xxiv)
sands; increased natural gas production in the United describes critical thinking skills, and specific critical
States; methane leaks from natural gas production; thinking exercises are used throughout the book in
coal burning and air pollution in China; shared several ways:
(community) solar power; C. diff superbug; Ebola virus; ■■ In dozens of Thinking About exercises that ask stu-
effects of smoking and e-cigarette use; deaths from air dents to analyze material immediately after it is
pollution in China and India; case study on climate presented (see pp. 31 and 121).
change in Alaska; and the overall drop in coal use. ■■ In all Science Focus boxes.
■■ Concept-Centered Approach. To help students focus ■■ In dozens of Connections boxes that stimulate critical
on the main ideas, we built each major chapter section thinking by exploring often surprising connections re-
around a key question and one to three key concepts, lated to environmental problems (see pp. 53 and 122).
which state the section’s most important take-away
■■ In the captions of many of the book’s figures (see
messages. In each chapter, all key questions are listed
Figures 1.11, p. 14, and 3.10, p. 53).
at the front of the chapter, and each chapter section
begins with its key question and concepts (see pp. 3 ■■ In end-of-chapter Critical Thinking questions (see
and 89). Also, the concept applications are highlighted pp. 41 and 164).
and referenced throughout each chapter. ■■ Visual Learning. With a new design heavily
■■ Science-Based. Chapters 2–7 cover scientific principles influenced by material from National Geographic
important to the course and discuss how scientists work and new photographs, many of them from the
(see Brief Contents, p. v). Important environmental archives of National Geographic, this is the most
xvi Preface
visually interesting environmental science textbook biomimicry applications (see pp. 53 and 77). The text of
available (see Figure 1.6, p. 8; chapter-opening photo, each chapter concludes with three Big Ideas (see pp. 39
pp. 26-27; and Figure 5.10, p. 98). Add in the more and 129), which summarize and reinforce three of the
than 130 diagrams, each designed to present complex major take-away messages from each chapter. Finally, a
ideas in understandable ways relating to the real world Tying It All Together section relates the Core Case Study
(see Figures 3.12, p. 54, and 7.8, p. 141), and you also and other chapter content to the principles of sustain-
have one of the most visually informative textbooks ability (see pp. 22 and 85). These concluding features
available. reinforce the main messages of the chapter along with
■■ Flexibility. To meet these diverse needs of hundreds of the themes of sustainability to give students a stronger
widely varying environmental science courses, we have understanding of how they all tie together.
designed a highly flexible book that allows instructors to Each chapter ends with a Chapter Review section con-
vary the order of chapters and sections within chapters taining a detailed set of review questions that include all the
without exposing students to terms and concepts that chapter’s key terms in bold type; Critical Thinking questions
could confuse them. We recommend that instructors that encourage students to think about and apply what they
start with Chapter 1, which defines basic terms and have learned to their lives; Doing Environmental Science—an
gives an overview of sustainability, population, pol- exercise that will help students experience the work of var-
lution, resources, and economic development issues ious environmental scientists; a Global Environment Watch
that are discussed throughout the book. This provides exercise taking student to Cengage’s GREENR site where
a springboard for instructors to use other chapters in they can use this tool for interesting research related to chap-
almost any order. One often-used strategy is to follow ter content; and a Data Analysis or Ecological Footprint Analysis
Chapter 1 with Chapters 2–7, which introduce basic problem built around ecological footprint data or some other
science and ecological concepts. Instructors can then environmental data set (see pp. 102–105 and 256–259).
use the remaining chapters in any order desired. Some
instructors follow Chapter 1 with Chapter 17 on envi- Supplements for Instructors
ronmental economics, politics, and worldviews, before
■■ MindTap. MindTap is a new approach to highly per-
proceeding to the chapters on basic science and ecolog-
son-alized online learning. Beyond an eBook, home-
ical concepts. Instructors whose students have access to
work solution, digital supplement, or premium website,
MindTap have a second level of flexibility in the supple-
MindTap is a digital learning platform that works along-
mental information, maps, and graphs provided there.
side your campus Learning Management System (LMS)
Examples include basic chemistry (Supplement 3), maps
to deliver course curriculum across the range of elec-
and map analysis (Supplement 4), and environmental
tronic devices in your life. MindTap is built on an “app”
data and data analysis (Supplement 5).
model allowing enhanced digital collaboration and de-
■■ In-Text Study Aids. Each chapter begins with a list of livery of engaging content across a spectrum of Cengage
Key Questions showing how the chapter is organized (see and non-Cengage resources. Visit the Instructor’s Com-
p. 107). Wherever a new key term is introduced and panion Site for tips on maximizing your MindTap course.
defined, it appears in boldface type and all such terms
are summarized in the glossary at the end of the book. ■■ Instructor’s Companion Site. Everything you need for
In most chapters, Thinking About exercises reinforce your course in one place! This collection of book-specific
learning by asking students to think critically about the lecture and class tools is available online via www.cen-
implications of various environmental issues and solu- gage.com/login. Access and download PowerPoint pre-
tions immediately after they are discussed in the text sentations, images, instructor’s manual, videos, and more.
(see pp. 13 and 121). The captions of many figures con- ■■ Cognero Test Bank. Available to adopters. Cengage
tain similar questions that get students to think about Learning Testing Powered by Cognero is a flexible,
the figure content (see pp. 14 and 53). In their read- online system that allows you to:
ing, students also encounter Connections boxes, which
briefly describe connections between human activities ■■ author, edit, and manage test bank content from
and environmental consequences, environmental and multiple Cengage Learning solutions;
social issues, and environmental issues and solutions ■■ create multiple test versions in an instant; and
(see pp. 53 and 122). New to this edition is a set of deliver tests from your LMS, your classroom, or
Learning from Nature boxes that give quick summaries of wherever you want.
Preface xvii
Help Us Improve This Book or Its Supplements Allen-Gil, Ithaca College; James R. Anderson, U.S.
Let us know how you think this book can be improved. If Geological Survey; Mark W. Anderson, University of

you find any errors, bias, or confusing explanations, please Maine; Kenneth B. Armitage, University of Kansas; Samuel
e-mail us about them at: Arthur, Bowling Green State University; Gary J. Atchison,
Iowa State University; Thomas W. H. Backman, Lewis-
mtg89@hotmail.com
Clark State College; Marvin W. Baker, Jr., University of
spoolman@tds.net
Oklahoma; Virgil R. Baker, Arizona State University;
Most errors can be corrected in subsequent printings Stephen W. Banks, Louisiana State University in
of this edition, as well as in future editions. Shreveport; Ian G. Barbour, Carleton College; Albert J.
Beck, California State University, Chico; Marilynn Bartels,
Acknowledgments Black Hawk College; Eugene C. Beckham, Northwood
University; Diane B. Beechinor, Northeast Lakeview
We wish to thank the many students and teachers who have
College; W. Behan, Northern Arizona University; David
responded so favorably to the 15 previous editions of Envi-
Belt, Johnson County Community College; Keith L.
ronmental Science, the 19 editions of Living in the Environment,
Bildstein, Winthrop College; Andrea Bixler, Clarke College;
the 11 editions of Sustaining the Earth, and the 8 editions
Jeff Bland, University of Puget Sound; Roger G. Bland,
of Essentials of Ecology, and who have corrected errors and
Central Michigan University; Grady Blount II, Texas A&M
offered many helpful suggestions for improvement. We are
University, Corpus Christi; Barbara I. Bonder, Flagler
also deeply indebted to the more than 300 reviewers, who
College; Lisa K. Bonneau, University of Missouri–Kansas
pointed out errors and suggested many important improve-
City; Georg Borgstrom, Michigan State University; Arthur
ments in the various editions of these three books.
C. Borror, University of New Hampshire; John H. Bounds,
It takes a village to produce a textbook, and the
Sam Houston State University; Leon F. Bouvier, Population
members of the talented production team, listed on the
Reference Bureau; Daniel J. Bovin, Université Laval; Jan
copyright page, have made vital contributions. Our spe-
Boyle, University of Great Falls; James A. Brenneman,
cial thanks go to content developer Oden Connolly;
University of Evansville; Michael F. Brewer, Resources for
production managers Hal Humphrey and Valarmathy
the Future, Inc.; Mark M. Brinson, East Carolina Univer-
Munuswamy; the copy editors of Editorial Services,
sity; Dale Brown, University of Hartford; Patrick E.
Lumina Datamatics; compositor Lumina Datamatics;
Brunelle, Contra Costa College; Terrence J. Burgess, Sad-
photo researcher Venkat Narayanan; artist Patrick Lane;
dleback College North; David Byman, Pennsylvania State
development manager Lauren Oliveira; and Cengage
University Worthington Scranton; Michael L. Cain, Bow-
Learning’s hard-working sales staff. Finally, we are very
doin College; Lynton K. Caldwell, Indiana University;
fortunate to have the guidance, inspiration, and unfail-
Faith Thompson Campbell, Natural Resources Defense
ing support of our Project Manager April Cognato and her
Council, Inc.; John S. Campbell, Northwest College; Ray
dedicated team of highly talented people who have made
Canterbery, Florida State University; Deborah L. Carr,
this and other book projects such a pleasure to work on.
Texas Tech University; Ted J. Case, University of San
G. Tyler Miller Diego; Ann Causey, Auburn University; Richard A.

Scott E. Spoolman Cellarius, Evergreen State University; William U. Chan-
dler, Worldwatch Institute; F. Christman, University of
Pedagogy Contributors North Carolina, Chapel Hill; Peter Chen, College of
Dr. Dean Goodwin and his colleagues, Berry Cobb, Deborah DuPage; Lu Anne Clark, Lansing Community College;

Stevens, Jeannette Adkins, Jim Lehner, Judy Treharne, Lon- Preston Cloud, University of California, Santa Barbara;
nie Miller, and Tom Mowbray provided excellent contribu- Bernard C. Cohen, University of Pittsburgh; Richard A.
tions to the Data Analysis and Ecological Footprint Analysis Cooley, University of California, Santa Cruz; Dennis J.
exercises. Mary Jo Burchart of Oakland Community College Corrigan; George Cox, San Diego State University; John D.
wrote the in-text Global Environment Watch exercises. Cunningham, Keene State College; Herman E. Daly,
University of Maryland; Raymond F. Dasmann, University
of California, Santa Cruz; Kingsley Davis, Hoover
Cumulative List of Reviewers Institution; Edward E. DeMartini, University of California,
Barbara J. Abraham, Hampton College; Donald D. Adams, Santa Barbara; James Demastes, University of Northern
State University of New York at Plattsburgh; Larry G. Iowa; Robert L. D
ennison, Heartland Community College;
Allen, California State University, Northridge; Susan
Charles E. DePoe, Northeast Louisiana University; Thomas
xviii Preface
R. Detwyler, University of Wisconsin; Bruce DeVantier, Donald Holtgrieve, California State University, Hayward;
Southern Illinois University at Carbondale; Peter H. Diage, Michelle Homan, Gannon University; Michael H. Horn,
University of California, Riverside; Stephanie Dockstader, California State University, Fullerton; Mark A. Hornberger,
Monroe Community College; Lon D. Drake, University of Bloomsberg University; Marilyn Houck, Pennsylvania
Iowa; Michael Draney, University of Wisconsin–Green State University; Richard D. Houk, Winthrop College;
Bay; David DuBose, Shasta College; Dietrich Earnhart, Robert J. Huggett, College of William and Mary; Donald
University of Kansas; Robert East, Washington & Jefferson Huisingh, North Carolina State University; Catherine
College; T. Edmonson, University of Washington; Thomas Hurlbut, Florida Community College at Jacksonville;
Eisner, Cornell University; Michael Esler, Southern Illinois Marlene K. Hutt, IBM; David R. Inglis, University of
University; David E. Fairbrothers, Rutgers University; Paul Massachusetts; Robert Janiskee, University of South
P. Feeny, Cornell University; Richard S. Feldman, Marist Carolina; Hugo H. John, University of Connecticut; Brian
College; Vicki Fella-Pleier, La Salle University; Nancy A. Johnson, University of Pennsylvania, Bloomsburg;
Field, Bellevue Community College; Allan Fitzsimmons, David I. Johnson, Michigan State University; Mark
University of Kentucky; Andrew J. Friedland, Dartmouth Jonasson, Crafton Hills College; Zoghlul Kabir, Rutgers,
College; Kenneth O. Fulgham, Humboldt State University; New Bruns-wick; Agnes Kadar, Nassau Community
Lowell L. Getz, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; College; Thomas L. Keefe, Eastern Kentucky University;
Frederick F. Gilbert, Washington State University; Jay David Kelley, University of St. Thomas; William E. Kelso,
Glassman, Los Angeles Valley College; Harold Goetz, North Louisiana State University; Nathan Keyfitz, Harvard
Dakota State University; Srikanth Gogineni, Axia College University; David Kidd, University of New Mexico; Pamela
of University of Phoenix; Jeffery J. Gordon, Bowling S. Kimbrough; Jesse Klingebiel, Kent School; Edward J.
Green State University; Eville Gorham, University of Kormondy, University of Hawaii–Hilo/West Oahu College;
Minnesota; Michael Gough, Resources for the Future; John V. Krutilla, Resources for the Future, Inc.; Judith
Ernest M. Gould, Jr., Harvard University; Peter Green, Kunofsky, Sierra Club; E. Kurtz; Theodore Kury, State
Golden West College; Katharine B. Gregg, West Virginia University of New York at Buffalo; Troy A. Ladine, East
Wesleyan College; Stelian Grigoras, Northwood University; Texas Baptist University; Steve Ladochy, University of
Paul K. Grogger, University of Colorado at Colorado Winnipeg; Anna J. Lang, Weber State University; Mark B.
Springs; L. Guernsey, Indiana State University; Ralph Lapping, Kansas State University; Michael L. Larsen,
Guzman, University of California, Santa Cruz; Raymond Campbell University; Linda Lee, University of Connecticut;
Hames, University of Nebraska, Lincoln; Robert Hamilton Tom Leege, Idaho Department of Fish and Game; Maureen
IV, Kent State University, Stark Campus; Raymond E. Leupold, Genesee Community College; William S. Lindsay,
Hampton, Central Michigan University; Ted L. Hanes, Monterey Peninsula College; E. S. Lindstrom, Pennsylvania
California State University, Fullerton; William S. State University; M. Lippiman, New York University
Hardenbergh, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale; Medical Center; Valerie A. Liston, University of Minnesota;
John P. Harley, Eastern Kentucky University; Cindy Dennis Livingston, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute; James
Harmon, State Fair Community College; Neil A. Harriman, P. Lodge, air pollution consultant; Raymond C. Loehr,
University of Wisconsin, Oshkosh; Grant A. Harris, University of Texas at Austin; Ruth Logan, Santa Monica
Washington State University; Harry S. Hass, San Jose City City College; Robert D. Loring, DePauw University; Paul F.
College; Arthur N. Haupt, Population Reference Bureau; Love, Angelo State University; Thomas Lovering, University
Denis A. Hayes, environmental consultant; Stephen Heard, of California, Santa Barbara; Amory B. Lovins, Rocky
University of Iowa; Gene Heinze-Fry, Department of Utili- Mountain Institute; Hunter Lovins, Rocky Mountain
ties, Commonwealth of Massachusetts; Jane Heinze-Fry, Institute; Gene A. Lucas, Drake University; Claudia Luke,
environmental educator; Keith R. Hench, Kirkwood Com- University of California, Berkeley; David Lynn; Timothy F.
munity College; John G. Hewston, Humboldt State Lyon, Ball State University; Stephen Malcolm, Western
University; David L. Hicks, Whitworth College; Kenneth Michigan University; Melvin G. Marcus, Arizona State
M. Hinkel, University of Cincinnati; Eric Hirst, Oak Ridge University; Gordon E. Matzke, Oregon State University;
National Laboratory; Doug Hix, University of Hartford; Parker Mauldin, Rockefeller Foundation; Marie McClune,
Kelley Hodges, Gulf Coast State College; S. Holling, The Agnes Irwin School (Rosemont, Pennsylvania);
University of British Columbia; Sue Holt, Cabrillo College; Theodore R. McDowell, California State University;
Preface xix
Vincent E. McKelvey, U.S. Geological Survey; Robert T. West Valley College; Stephen T. Ross, University of
McMaster, Smith College; John G. Merriam, Bowling Southern Mississippi; Robert E. Roth, Ohio State University;
Green State University; A. Steven Messenger, Northern Dorna Sakurai, Santa Monica College; Arthur N. Samel,
Illinois University; John Meyers, Middlesex Community Bowling Green State University; Shamili Sandiford,
College; Raymond W. Miller, Utah State University; Arthur College of DuPage; Floyd Sanford, Coe College; David
B. Millman, University of Massachusetts, Boston; Sheila Satterthwaite, I.E.E.D., London; Stephen W. Sawyer,
Miracle, Southeast Kentucky Community & Technical University of Maryland; Arnold Schecter, State University
College; Fred Montague, University of Utah; Rolf Monteen, of New York; Frank Schiavo, San Jose State University;
California Polytechnic State University; Debbie Moore, William H. Schlesinger, Ecological Society of America;
Troy University Dothan Campus; Michael K. Moore, Stephen H. Schneider, National Center for Atmospheric
Mercer University; Ralph Morris, Brock University, St. Research; Clarence A. Schoenfeld, University of Wisconsin,
Catherine’s, Ontario, Canada; Angela Morrow, Auburn Madison; Madeline Schreiber, Virginia Polytechnic
University; William W. Murdoch, University of California, Institute; Henry A. Schroeder, Dartmouth Medical School;
Santa Barbara; Norman Myers, environmental consultant; Lauren A. Schroeder, Youngstown State University;
Brian C. Myres, Cypress College; A. Neale, Illinois State Norman B. Schwartz, University of Delaware; George
University; Duane Nellis, Kansas State University; Jan Sessions, Sierra College; David J. Severn, Clement Associ-
Newhouse, University of Hawaii, Manoa; Jim Norwine, ates; Don Sheets, Gardner-Webb University; Paul Shepard,
Texas A&M University, Kingsville; John E. Oliver, Indiana Pitzer College and Claremont Graduate School; Michael P.
State University; Mark Olsen, University of Notre Dame; Shields, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale;
Bruce Olszewski, San Jose State University; Carol Page, Kenneth Shiovitz; F. Siewert, Ball State University; E. K.
copy editor; Bill Paletski, Penn State University; Eric Silbergold, Environmental Defense Fund; Joseph L.
Pallant, Allegheny College; Charles F. Park, Stanford Simon, University of South Florida; William E. Sloey,
University; Richard J. Pedersen, U.S. Department of University of Wisconsin, Oshkosh; Michelle Smith, Wind-
Agricul-ture, Forest Service; David Pelliam, Bureau of ward Community College; Robert L. Smith, West Virginia
Land Management, U.S. Department of the Interior; Barry University; Val Smith, University of Kansas; Howard M.
Perlmutter, College of Southern Nevada; Murray Paton Smolkin, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; Patricia
Pendarvis, Southeastern Louisiana University; Dave M. Sparks, Glassboro State College; John E. Stanley,
Perault, Lynchburg College; Carolyn J. Peters, Spoon River University of Virginia; Mel Stanley, California State
College; Rodney Peterson, Colorado State University; Julie Polytechnic University, Pomona; Richard Stevens, Monroe
Phillips, De Anza College; John Pichtel, Ball State Univer- Commu-nity College; Norman R. Stewart, University of
sity; William S. Pierce, Case Western Reserve University; Wisconsin, Milwaukee; Frank E. Studnicka, University of
David Pimentel, Cornell University; Peter Pizor, Northwest Wisconsin, Platteville; Chris Tarp, Contra Costa College;
Community College; Mark D. Plunkett, Bellevue Commu- Roger E. Thibault, Bowling Green State University; Nathan
nity College; Grace L. Powell, University of Akron; James E. Thomas, University of South Dakota; William L. Thomas,
H. Price, Oklahoma College; Alan D. Redmond, East California State University, Hayward; Jamey Thompson,
Tennessee State University; Marian E. Reeve, Merritt Hudson Valley Community College; Kip R. Thompson,
College; Carl H. Reidel, University of Vermont; Charles C. Ozarks Technical Community College; Shari Turney, copy
Reith, Tulane University; Erin C. Rempala, San Diego City editor; John D. Usis, Youngstown State University; Tinco
College; Roger Revelle, California State University, San E. A. van Hylckama, Texas Tech University; Robert R. Van
Diego; L. Reynolds, University of Central Arkansas; Ronald Kirk, Humboldt State University; Donald E. Van Meter,
R. Rhein, Kutztown University of Pennsylvania; Charles Ball State University; Rick Van Schoik, San Diego State
Rhyne, Jackson State University; Robert A. Richardson, University; Gary Varner, Texas A&M University; John D.
University of Wisconsin; Benjamin F. Richason III, St. Vitek, Oklahoma State University; Harry A. Wagner,
Cloud State University; Jennifer Rivers, Northeastern Victoria College; Lee B. Waian, Saddleback College; War-
University; Ronald Robberecht, University of Idaho; ren C. Walker, Stephen F. Austin State University; Thomas
William Van B. Robertson, School of Medicine, Stanford D. Warner, South Dakota State University; Kenneth E. F.
University; C. Lee Rockett, Bowling Green State University; Watt, University of California, Davis; Alvin M. Weinberg,
Terry D. Roelofs, Humboldt State University; Daniel Ropek, Institute of Energy Analysis, Oak Ridge Associated Univer-
Columbia George Community College; Christopher Rose, sities; John F. Weishampel, University of Central Florida;
California Polytechnic State University; Richard G. Rose, Brian Weiss; Margery Weitkamp, James Monroe High
xx Preface
School (Granada Hills, California); Anthony Weston, State Pennsylvania State University; Fred Witzig, University of
University of New York at Stony Brook; Raymond White, Minnesota at Duluth; Martha Wolfe, Elizabethtown
San Francisco City College; Douglas Wickum, University of Community and Technical College; George M. Woodwell,
Wisconsin, Stout; Charles G. Wilber, Colorado State Woods Hole Research Center; Peggy J. Wright, Columbia
University; Nancy Lee Wilkinson, San Francisco State College; Todd Yetter, University of the Cumberlands;
Univer-sity; John C. Williams, College of San Mateo; Ray Robert Yoerg, Belmont Hills Hospital; Hideo Yonenaka,
Williams, Rio Hondo College; Roberta Williams, University San Francisco State University; Brenda Young, Daemen
of Nevada, Las Vegas; Samuel J. Williamson, New York College; Anita Závodská, Barry University; Malcolm J.
University; Dwina Willis, Freed-Hardeman University; Ted Zwolinski, University of Arizona.
L. Willrich, Oregon State University; James Winsor,
Preface xxi
About the Authors
G. Tyler Miller
G. Tyler Miller has written 64 textbooks for introductory Earth Education and Research, devoted to improving
courses in environmental science, basic ecology, energy, environmental education.
and environmental chemistry. Since 1975, Miller’s books He describes his hopes for the future as follows:
have been the most widely used textbooks for environ-
If I had to pick a time to be alive, it would be the next 75 years.
mental science in the United States and throughout the
Why? First, there is overwhelming scientific evidence that we are in
world. They have been used by almost 3 million students
the process of seriously degrading our own life-support system. In
and have been translated into eight languages.
other words, we are living unsustainably. Second, within your life-
Miller has a professional background in chemistry,
time we have the opportunity to learn how to live more sustainably
physics, and ecology. He has a PhD from the University of
by working with the rest of nature, as described in this book.
Virginia and has received two honorary doctoral degrees
I am fortunate to have three smart, talented, and wonderful
for his contributions to environmental education. He
sons—Greg, David, and Bill. I am especially privileged to have Kath-
taught college for 20 years, developed one of the nation’s
leen as my wife, best friend, and research associate. It is inspiring to
first environmental studies programs, and developed an
have a brilliant, beautiful (inside and out), and strong woman who
innovative interdisciplinary undergraduate science pro-
cares deeply about nature as a lifemate. She is my hero. I dedicate
gram before deciding to write environmental science text-
this book to her and to the earth.
books full time in 1975. Currently, he is the president of
Scott E. Spoolman
Scott Spoolman is a writer with more than 30 years of Spoolman has the following to say about his collabora-
experience in educational publishing. He has worked with tion with Tyler Miller:
Tyler Miller since 2003 as a contributing editor and lately
I am honored to be working with Tyler Miller as a coauthor to con-
as coauthor of Living in the Environment, Environmental
tinue the Miller tradition of thorough, clear, and engaging writing
Science, and Sustaining the Earth. With Norman Myers, he
about the vast and complex field of environmental science. I share
coauthored Environmental Issues and Solutions: A Modular
Tyler Miller’s passion for ensuring that these textbooks and their
Approach.
multimedia supplements will be valuable tools for students and
Spoolman holds a master’s degree in science journal-
instructors. To that end, we strive to introduce this interdisciplinary
ism from the University of Minnesota. He has authored
field in ways that will be not only informative and sobering but also
numerous articles in the fields of science, environmental
tantalizing and motivational.
engineering, politics, and business. He has also worked as
If the flip side of any problem is an opportunity, then this truly
a consulting editor in the development of over 70 college
is one of the most exciting times in history for students to start an
and high school textbooks in the fields of the natural and
environmental career. Environmental problems are numerous, seri-
social sciences.
ous, and daunting, but their possible solutions generate exciting new
In his free time, he enjoys exploring the forests and
career opportunities. We place high priorities on inspiring students
waters of his native Wisconsin along with his family—
with these possibilities, challenging them to maintain a scientific
his wife, environmental educator Gail Martinelli, and his
focus, pointing them toward rewarding and fulfilling careers, and in
children, Will and Katie.
doing so, working to help sustain life on Earth.
xxii
From the Authors
My Environmental Journey— G. Tyler Miller

My environmental journey began in 1966 when I heard toilet; employed biological pest control; composted food
a lecture on population and pollution problems by Dean wastes; used natural planting (no grass or lawnmowers);
Cowie, a biophysicist with the U.S. Geological Survey. It gardened organically; and experimented with a host of
changed my life. I told him that if even half of what he said other potential solutions to major environmental prob-
was valid, I would feel ethically obligated to spend the rest lems that we face.
of my career teaching and writing to help students learn I also used this time to learn and think about how
about the basics of environmental science. After spending nature works by studying the plants and animals around
six months studying the environmental literature, I con- me. My experience from living in nature is reflected
cluded that he had greatly underestimated the seriousness in much of the material in this book. It also helped me
of these problems. develop the six simple principles of sustainability that
I developed an undergraduate environmental stud- serve as the integrating theme for this textbook and to
ies program and in 1971 published my first introductory apply these principles to living my life more sustainably.
environmental science book, an interdisciplinary study of I came out of the woods in 1995 to learn about how
the connections between energy laws (thermodynamics), to live more sustainably in an urban setting where most
chemistry, and ecology. In 1975, I published the first edi- people live. Since then, I have lived in two urban villages,
tion of Living in the Environment. Since then, I have com- one in a small town and one within a large metropolitan
pleted multiple editions of this textbook, and of three, area.
others derived from it, along with other books. Since 1970, my goal has been to use a car as little
Beginning in 1985, I spent 10 years in the deep woods as possible. Since I work at home, I have a “low-pollute
living in an adapted school bus that I used as an environ- commute” from my bedroom to a chair and a laptop com-
mental science laboratory and writing environmental sci- puter. I usually take one or two airplane trips a year to
ence textbooks. I evaluated the use of passive solar energy visit my sister and my publisher.
design to heat the structure; buried earth tubes to bring in As you will learn in this book, life involves a series of
air cooled by the earth (geothermal cooling) at a cost of environmental trade-offs. Like most people, I still have a
about $1 per summer; set up active and passive systems to large environmental impact, but I continue to struggle to
provide hot water; installed an energy-efficient instant hot reduce it. I hope you will join me in striving to live more
water heater powered by LPG; installed energy-efficient sustainably and sharing what you learn with others. It is
windows and appliances and a composting (waterless) not always easy, but it sure is fun.
Cengage Learning’s Commitment to Sustainable Practices

We the authors of this textbook and Cengage Learning, materials that go into each sheet of paper used. New, spe-
the publisher, are committed to making the publishing cially designed printing presses also reduce the amount of
process as sustainable as possible. This involves four ba- scrap paper produced per book. ■ Recycling. Printers recycle
sic strategies: ■ Using sustainably produced paper. The book the scrap paper that is produced as part of the printing
publishing industry is committed to increasing the use of process. Cengage Learning also recycles waste cardboard
recycled fibers, and Cengage Learning is always looking from shipping cartons, along with other materials used
for ways to increase this content. Cengage Learning works in the publishing process. ■ Process improvements. In years
with paper suppliers to maximize the use of paper that past, publishing has involved using a great deal of paper
contains only wood fibers that are certified as sustaina- and ink for the writing and editing of manuscripts, copy-
bly produced, from the growing and cutting of trees all editing, reviewing page proofs, and creating illustrations.
the way through paper production. ■ Reducing resources Almost all of these materials are now saved through use of
used per book. The publisher has an ongoing program to electronic files. Very little paper and ink were used in the
reduce the amount of wood pulp, virgin fibers, and other preparation of this textbook.
xxiii
Learning Skills
Students who can begin early in their lives to think Avoid procrastination. Do not fall behind on your read-
of things as connected, even if they revise their ing and other assignments. Set aside a particular time for
studying each day and make it a part of your daily routine.
views every year, have begun the life of learning.
Mark Van Doren Make hills out of mountains. It can be difficult to read
an entire chapter or book, write a paper, or cram for a test
within a short period of time. Instead, break these large
Why Is It Important to Study tasks (mountains) down into a series of small tasks (hills).
Environmental Science? Each day, read a few pages of the assigned book or chapter,
write a few paragraphs of the paper, and review what you
Welcome to environmental science—an interdisciplinary have studied and learned.
study of how the earth works, how we interact with the
earth, and how we can deal with the environmental prob- Ask and answer questions as you read. For example,
lems we face. Because environmental issues affect every “What is the main point of a particular subsection or para-
part of your life, the concepts, information, and issues graph?” Relate your own questions to the key questions
discussed in this book and the course you are taking will and key concepts addressed in each major chapter section
be useful to you now and throughout your life. and listed in the review section at the end of each chapter.
Understandably, we are biased, but we strongly believe Focus on key terms. Use the glossary in your textbook to
that environmental science is the single most important course look up the meaning of terms or words you do not under-
that you could take. What could be more important than stand. This book shows all key terms in bold type and
learning about the earth’s life-support system, how our lesser, but still important, terms in italicized type. The Chapter
choices and activities affect it, and how we can reduce Review questions at the end of each chapter also include
our growing environmental impact? Evidence indicates the chapter’s key terms in bold. Flash cards for testing your
strongly that we will have to learn to live more sustain- mastery of key terms for each chapter are available on the
ably by reducing our degradation of the planet’s life-sup- website for this book, or you can make your own.
port system. We hope this book will inspire you to become
involved in this change in the way we view and treat the Interact with what you read. You could mark key sen-
earth, which sustains us, our economies, and all other liv- tences and paragraphs with a highlighter or pen or with
ing things. asterisks and notes in the margin. You might also mark
important pages that you want to return to by adding notes
or highlighting material or by folding down page corners.
You Can Improve Your Study and
Review to reinforce learning. Before each class session,
Learning Skills
review the material you learned in the previous session
Maximizing your ability to learn involves trying to improve and read the assigned material.
your study and learning skills. Here are some suggestions for
doing so: Become a good note taker. Learn to write down the main
points and key information from any lecture. Review, fill
Develop a passion for learning. This is a key to success.
in, and organize your notes as soon as possible after each
Get organized. Planning is a key life skill. class.
Make daily to-do lists in writing. Put items in order of Check what you have learned. At the end of each chap-
importance, focus on the most important tasks, and assign ter, you will find review questions that cover all of the
a time to work on these items. Shift your schedule as key material in each chapter section. We suggest that you
needed to accomplish the most important items. try to answer each of these questions after studying each
chapter section. Waiting to do this for the entire chapter
Set up a study routine in a distraction-free environ-
after you complete it can be overwhelming.
ment. Develop a written daily study schedule and stick
to it. Study in a quiet, well-lit space. Take breaks every Write out answers to questions to focus and reinforce
hour or so. During each break, take several deep breaths learning. Write down your answers to the critical think-
and move around; this will help you stay more alert and ing questions found in the Thinking About boxes through-
focused. out the chapters, in many figure captions, and at the end
xxiv Learning Skills
of each chapter. These questions are designed to inspire knowledge to dealing with various problems and deci-
you to think critically about key ideas and connect them sions. Here are some basic skills for learning how to think
to other ideas and to your own life. Also, write down more critically.
your answers to all chapter-ending review questions. The Question everything and everybody. Be skeptical, as
website for each chapter has an additional detailed list of any good scientist is. Do not believe everything you hear
review questions for that chapter. Save your answers for and read, including the content of this textbook, without
review and test preparation. evaluating the information you receive. Seek other sources
Use the buddy system. Study with a friend or become a and opinions.
member of a study group to compare notes, review mate- Identify and evaluate your personal biases and beliefs.
rial, and prepare for tests. Explaining something to some- Each of us has biases and beliefs taught to us by our par-
one else is a great way to focus your thoughts and rein- ents, teachers, friends, role models, and our own expe-
force your learning. Attend any review sessions offered by rience. What are your basic beliefs, values, and biases?
instructors or teaching assistants. Where did they come from? What assumptions are they
Learn your instructor’s test style. Does your instruc- based on? How sure are you that your beliefs, values, and
tor emphasize multiple-choice, fill-in-the-blank, true-or- assumptions are right and why? According to the Amer-
false, factual, or essay questions? How much of the test ican psychologist and philosopher William James, “A
will come from the textbook and how much from lecture great many people think they are thinking when they are
material? Adapt your learning and studying methods to merely rearranging their prejudices.”
this style. Be open-minded and flexible. Be open to considering dif-
Become a good test taker. Avoid cramming. Eat well and ferent points of view. Suspend judgment until you gather
get plenty of sleep before a test. Arrive on time or early. more evidence, and be willing to change your mind. Rec-
Calm yourself and increase your oxygen intake by tak- ognize that there may be a number of useful and accept-
ing several deep breaths. (Do this also about every 10–15 able solutions to a problem, and that very few issues are
minutes while taking the test.) Look over the test and either black or white. Try to take the viewpoints of those
answer the questions you know well first. Then work on you disagree with to better understand their thinking.
the harder ones. Use the process of elimination to narrow There are trade-offs involved in dealing with any environ-
down the choices for multiple-choice questions. For essay mental issue, as you will learn in this book.
questions, organize your thoughts before you start writing. Be humble about what you know. Some people are so
If you don’t understand what a question means, make an confident in what they know that they stop thinking and
educated guess. You might earn some partial credit and questioning. To paraphrase American writer Mark Twain,
avoid getting a zero. Another strategy for getting some “It’s what we know is true, but just ain’t so, that hurts us.”
credit is to show your knowledge and reasoning by writing
something like this: “If this question means so and so, then Find out how the information related to an issue was
my answer is ________.” obtained. Are the statements you heard or read based
on firsthand knowledge and research or on hearsay? Are
Develop an optimistic but realistic outlook. Try to be a unnamed sources used? Is the information based on repro-
“glass is half-full” rather than a “glass is half-empty” per- ducible and widely accepted scientific studies or on prelim-
son. Pessimism, fear, anxiety, and excessive worrying inary scientific results that may be valid but need further
(especially over things you cannot control) are destructive testing? Is the information based on a few isolated stories
and lead to inaction. or experiences or on carefully controlled studies that have
Take time to enjoy life. Every day, take time to laugh and been reviewed by experts in the field involved? Is it based on
enjoy nature, beauty, and friendship. unsubstantiated and dubious scientific information or beliefs?
Question the evidence and conclusions presented.
You Can Improve Your Critical What are the conclusions or claims based on the informa-
Thinking Skills tion you’re considering? What evidence is presented to
support them? Does the evidence support them? Is there a
Critical thinking involves developing skills to analyze infor-
need to gather more evidence to test the conclusions? Are
mation and ideas, judge their validity, and make decisions.
there other, more reasonable conclusions?
Critical thinking helps you distinguish between facts and
opinions, evaluate evidence and arguments, and take and Try to uncover differences in basic beliefs and assump-
defend informed positions on issues. It also helps you tions. On the surface, most arguments or disagreements
integrate information, see relationships, and apply your involve differences of opinion about the validity or mean-
Learning Skills xxv
ing of certain facts or conclusions. Scratch a little deeper for evaluating evidence and claims. Continually evaluate
and you will find that many disagreements are based on and modify this list on the basis of your experience.
different (and often hidden) basic assumptions concerning
Become a seeker of wisdom, not a vessel of informa-
how we look at and interpret the world around us. Uncov-
tion. Many people believe that the main goal of their edu-
ering these basic differences can allow the parties involved
cation is to learn as much as they can by gathering more
to understand one another’s viewpoints and to agree or dis-
and more information. We believe that the primary goal is
agree about their basic assumptions, beliefs, or principles.
to learn how to sift through mountains of facts and ideas
Try to identify and assess any motives on the part of to find the few nuggets of wisdom that are the most useful
those presenting evidence and drawing conclusions. for understanding the world and for making decisions.
What is their expertise in this area? Do they have any This book is full of facts and numbers, but they are use-
unstated assumptions, beliefs, biases, or values? Do they have ful only to the extent that they lead to an understanding
a personal agenda? Can they benefit financially or politically of key ideas, concepts, connections, and scientific laws and
from acceptance of their evidence and conclusions? Would theories. The major goals of the study of environmental
investigators with different basic assumptions or beliefs take science are to find out how nature works and sustains itself
the same data and come to different conclusions? (environmental wisdom) and to use principles of environmental
wisdom to help make human societies and economies more
Expect and tolerate uncertainty. Recognize that scientists
sustainable, more just, and more beneficial and enjoyable
cannot establish absolute proof or certainty about any-
for all. As writer Sandra Carey observed, “Never mistake
thing. However, the goal of science is to provide a high
knowledge for wisdom. One helps you make a living; the
degree of certainty (at least 90%) about its data and the
other helps you make a life.”
scientific theories used to explain the data.
To help you practice critical thinking, we have sup-
Check the arguments you hear and read for logical fal- plied questions throughout this book, found within each
lacies and debating tricks. Here are six of many exam- chapter in brief boxes labeled Thinking About, in the cap-
ples of such debating tricks. First, attack the presenter of an tions of many figures, and at the end of each chapter.
argument rather than the argument itself. Second, appeal to There are no right or wrong answers to many of these
emotion rather than facts and logic. Third, claim that if one questions. A good way to improve your critical thinking
piece of evidence or one conclusion is false, then all other skills is to compare your answers with those of your class-
related pieces of evidence and conclusions are false. Fourth, mates and to discuss how you arrived at your answers.
say that a conclusion is false because it has not been scien-
tifically proven. Scientists never prove anything absolutely, Use the Learning Tools We Offer
but they strive to establish a high degree of certainty (at in This Book
least 90%) about their results and theories. Fifth, inject We have included a number of tools throughout this text-
irrelevant or misleading information to divert attention book that are intended to help you improve your learning
from important points. Sixth, present only either/or alter- skills and apply them. First, consider the Key Concepts list at
natives when there may be a number of options. the beginning of each chapter section. You can use these to
Do not believe everything you read on the Internet. preview a chapter and to review the material after you’ve
The Internet is a wonderful and easily accessible source read it.
of information that includes alternative explanations and Next, note that we use three different special notations
opinions on almost any subject or issue—much of it not throughout the text. Each chapter opens with a Core Case
available in the mainstream media and scholarly articles. Study, and each time we tie material within the chapter
Blogs of all sorts have become a major source of informa- back to this core case, we note it in bold, colored type
tion, more important than standard news media for some as we did in this sentence. You will also see two icons
people. However, because the Internet is so open, anyone appearing regularly in the text margins. When you see
can post anything they want to some blogs and other web- the sustainability icon , you will know that you have
sites with no editorial control or review by experts. As a
just read something that relates directly to the overarch-
result, evaluating information on the Internet is one of
ing theme of this text, summarized by our six principles
the best ways to put into practice the principles of critical
of sustainability, which are introduced in Figures 1.2,
thinking discussed here. Use and enjoy the Internet, but
p. 6, and 1.7, p. 9, and summarized on the inside back
think critically and proceed with caution.
cover of this book. The Good News icon GOOD
NEWS appears near
Develop principles or rules for evaluating evidence. each of many examples of successes that people have had
Develop a written list of principles to serve as guidelines in dealing with the environmental challenges we face.
xxvi Learning Skills
We also include several brief Connections boxes to show selected to illustrate important ideas, concepts, and pro-
you some of the often surprising connections between cesses. Auditory learners can make use of our ReadSpeaker
environmental problems or processes and some of the app in MindTap, which can read the chapter aloud in
products and services we use every day or some of the various voices and speeds. For logical learners, the book
activities we partake in. These, along with the Thinking is organized by key concepts that are revisited through-
About boxes scattered throughout the text (both desig- out any chapter and related carefully to other concepts,
nated by the Consider This heading), are intended to get major principles, and case studies and other examples. We
you to think carefully about the activities and choices urge you to become aware of your own learning style and
we take for granted and about how they might affect the make the most of these various tools.
environment.
New to this edition is a third Consider This feature This Book Presents a Positive, Realistic
called Learning from Nature. Most chapters contain one or Environmental Vision of the Future
more of these, each of which gives an example of how Our goal is to present a positive vision of our environ-
scientists and engineers are applying nature’s lessons mental future based on realistic optimism. To do so, we
through biomimicry (a major new theme of this edition) strive not only to present the facts about environmental
to solve a problem or to improve a technology. issues but also to give a balanced presentation of different
At the end of the chapter, we list what we consider viewpoints. We consider the advantages and disadvan-
to be the three big ideas that you should take away from tages of various technologies and proposed solutions to
each chapter. Following that list in each chapter is a Tying environmental problems. We argue that environmental
It All Together box. This feature quickly reviews the Core solutions usually require trade-offs among opposing par-
Case Study and how key chapter material relates to it, ties, and that the best solutions are win-win solutions
and it explains how the principles of sustainability can be where everyone benefits. We also present the good news
applied to deal with challenges discussed in the core case as well as the bad news about efforts to deal with envi-
study and throughout the chapter. ronmental problems.
Finally, we have included a Chapter Review section at One cannot study a subject as important and complex
the end of each chapter, with questions listed for each as environmental science without forming conclusions,
chapter section. These questions cover all of the key opinions, and beliefs. However, we argue that any such
material and key terms in each chapter. In each chap- results should be based on use of critical thinking to eval-
ter, they are followed by Critical Thinking questions that uate conflicting positions and to understand the trade-offs
help you apply chapter material to the real world and involved in most environmental solutions. To that end,
to your own life; a Doing Environmental Science exercise we emphasize critical thinking throughout this textbook,
to help you experience the work of scientists; a Global and we encourage you to develop a practice of thinking
Environment Watch exercise, in which you can use the critically about everything you read and hear, both in
GREENR online global environmental database; and school and throughout your life.
a Data Analysis or Ecological Footprint Analysis exercise
to help you learn how to interpret and use scientific Help Us Improve This Book
research data. Researching and writing a book that covers and connects
the numerous major concepts from the wide variety of
Know Your Own Learning Style environmental science disciplines is a challenging and
People have different ways of learning and it can be help- exciting task. Almost every day, we learn about some new
ful to know your own learning style. Visual learners learn connection in nature. However, in a book this complex,
best from reading and viewing illustrations and diagrams. there are bound to be some errors—some typographical
Auditory learners learn best by listening and discussing. mistakes that slip through and some statements that you
They might benefit from reading aloud while studying might question, based on your knowledge and research.
and using a tape recorder in lectures for study and review. We invite you to contact us to correct any errors you find,
Logical learners learn best by using concepts and logic to point out any bias you see, and suggest ways to improve
uncover and understand a subject rather than relying this book. Please e-mail your suggestions to Tyler Miller
mostly on memory. at mtg89@hotmail.com or Scott Spoolman at spoolman@
This book and its supporting website material contain tds.net.
plenty of tools for all types of learners. Visual learners can Now start your journey into this fascinating and
benefit from using flash cards (available on the website) important study of how the earth’s life-support system
to memorize key terms and ideas. This is a highly visual works and how we can leave the planet in a condition at
book with many photographs and diagrams carefully least as good as what we now enjoy. Have fun.
Learning Skills xxvii
Supplements for Students news on the environment. Users get access to infor-
You have a large variety of electronic and other supple- mation from trusted academic journals, news outlets,
mental materials available to you to help you take your and magazines, as well as statistics, an interactive
learning experience beyond this textbook: world map, videos, primary sources, case studies, pod-
casts, and much more.
■■ Environmental Science MindTap. MindTap provides
you with the tools you need to better manage your Other student learning tools include:
limited time. You can complete assignments when- ■■ Essential Study Skills for Science Students by Daniel
ever and wherever you are ready to learn with course D. Chiras. This book includes chapters on developing
material specifically customized for you by your good study habits; sharpening memory; getting the
instructor and streamlined in one proven, easy-to- most out of lectures, labs, and reading assignments;
use interface. MindTap includes an online homework improving test-taking abilities; and becoming a critical
solution that helps you learn and understand key con- thinker. Available for students on instructor’s request.
cepts through focused assignments, exceptional text- ■■ Lab Manual. Edited by Edward Wells, this lab man-
art integration, and immediate feedback. With these ual includes both hands-on and data analysis labs to
resources and an array of tools and apps—from note help your students develop a range of skills. Create a
taking to flashcards—you’ll get a true understanding custom version of this Lab Manual by adding labs you
of course concepts, helping you achieve better grades have written or ones from our collection with Cen-
and setting the groundwork for your future courses. gage Custom Publishing. An Instructor’s Manual for
■■ Global Environment Watch. Integrated within Mind- the labs will be available to adopters.
Tap and updated several times a day, the Global Envi-
ronment Watch is a focused portal into GREENR—the ■■ What Can You Do? This guide presents students with
Global Reference on the Environment, Energy, and a variety of ways that they can affect the environment
Natural Resources—an ideal one-stop site for class- and shows them how to track the effect their actions
room discussion and research projects. This resource have on their carbon footprint. Available for students
center keeps courses up to date with the most current on instructor’s request.
xxviii Learning Skills
Environmental
Science 16e
CHAPTER 1
The Environment and

Sustainability
No civilization has survived
the ongoing destruction of its
natural support system. Nor will
ours.
LESTER R. BROWN
Key Questions 1.3 Why do we have environmental Forests such as this one in California’s
Sequoia National Park help to sustain
problems?
all life and economies.
1.1 What are some key principles of
sustainability? 1.4 What is an environmentally robertharding/Alamy Stock Photo
sustainable society?
1.2 How are we affecting the earth?
Core Case Study
Learning from the Earth
Sustainability is the capacity of the for survival. Organisms also developed How do geckos (Figure 1.1, left) cling
earth’s natural systems that support life a variety of abilities to find food and to and walk on windows, walls, and
and human economic systems to survive or survive. For example, spiders create ceilings? Scientists have learned that these
adapt to changing environmental conditions webs that are strong enough to capture little lizards have many thousands of tiny
indefinitely. Sustainability is the big idea and fast-moving flying insects. Bats have a hairs growing in ridges on the toes of
the integrating theme of this book. radar system for finding prey and avoid- their feet and that each hair is divided
The earth is a remarkable example of a ing collisions. These and many other into a number of segments that they use
sustainable system. Life has existed on the abilities and materials were developed to grasp the tiniest ridges and cracks on
earth for about 3.8 billion years. During without the use of the high-temperature a surface (Figure 1.1, right). They release
this time, the planet has experienced sev- or high-pressure processes or the their iron grip by tipping their foot until
eral catastrophic environmental changes. harmful chemicals that we employ in the hairs let go.
They include gigantic meteorite impacts, manufacturing. This discovery led to the development of
ice ages lasting millions of years, long This explains why many scientists a sticky, toxin-free “gecko tape” that could
warming periods that melted land-based urge us to focus on learning from the replace toxin-containing glues and tapes.
ice and raised sea levels by hundreds of earth about how to live more sustainably. It is an excellent example of biomimicry, or
feet, and five mass extinctions—each Biologist Janine Benyus is a pioneer in earth wisdom, and you will see many more
wiping out more than half of the world’s this area. In 1997, she coined the term of such examples throughout this book.
species. Despite these dramatic environ- biomimicry to describe the rapidly grow- Nature can teach us how to live more
mental changes, an astonishing variety of ing scientific effort to understand, mimic, sustainably on the amazing planet that is
life has survived. and catalog the ingenious ways in which our only home. As Benyus puts it, after
How has life survived such chal- nature has sustained life on the earth for billions of years of trial-and-error research
lenges? Long before humans arrived, 3.8 billion years. She views the earth’s and development: “Nature knows what
organisms had developed abilities to life-support system as the world’s longest works, what is appropriate, and what
use sunlight to make their food and to and most successful research and devel- lasts here on Earth.” ●
recycle all of the nutrients they needed opment laboratory.
nico99/Shutterstock.com
nico99/Shutterstock.com
FIGURE 1.1 The gecko (left) has an amazing ability to cling to surfaces because of projections from many thousands of tiny hairs on
its toes (right).
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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Environmental Science 16th Edition,

Ecology and Sustainability

6 The Human Population and Urbanization 106

Sustaining Resources and Environmental Quality

16 Solid and Hazardous Waste 448

Preface xv Tying It All Together The Hubbard Brook

Learning Skills xxiv Critical Thinking 41

Doing Environmental Science 42

Core Case Study Learning from the Earth 4

1.3 What Causes ­Environmental Problems? 14 3.1 H

Chapter Review 22 3.3 What Happens to Energy in an Ecosystem? 53

Science Focus 3.2 Water’s Unique Properties 57

Science Focus 3.3 Planetary Boundaries 63

Key Questions 27 Chapter Review 64

Core Case Study How Do Scientists Learn about Critical Thinking 65

Core Case Study Why Are Amphibians Vanishing? 70

Individuals Matter 4.1 Edward O. Wilson: A Champion

CASE STUDY The American Alligator—A Keystone Species

CASE STUDY Sharks as Keystone Species 76

4.3 How Does the Earth’s Life Change Over Time? 77

Science Focus 4.2 Causes of Amphibian Declines 78

4.4 What Factors Affect Biodiversity? 80

Science Focus 4.3 Geological Processes Affect

CASE STUDY The Threatened Monarch Butterfly 83

Tying It All Together Amphibians and

Doing Environmental Science 86

Global Environment Watch Exercise 87

5 Species Interactions, Ecological Succession,

Core Case Study The Southern Sea Otter:

Science Focus 5.1 Threats to Kelp Forests 92

5.2 How Do Communities and Ecosystems Respond to

Science Focus 5.2 The Future of California’s

Tying It All Together Southern Sea Otters

Chapter Review 102

Critical Thinking 103

Global Environment Watch Exercise 104

Data Analysis 105

6 The Human Population and Urbanization 106

Key Questions 107

Core Case Study Planet Earth: Population

6.1 How Many People Can the Earth Support? 109

CASE STUDY The U.S. Population—Third Largest

6.4 How Can We Slow Human Population Growth? 115

CASE STUDY Population Growth in India 116

CASE STUDY Slowing Population Growth in China 118

CASE STUDY Mexico City 124

Tying It All Together Population Growth,

Chapter Review 130

Critical Thinking 131

Doing Environmental Science 132

Global Environment Watch Exercise 132

Data Analysis 133

Science Focus 7.2 Staying Alive in the Desert 144

and Sustainability 163

Science Focus 8.1 Estimating Extinction Rates 170

CASE STUDY Upsetting Marine Ecosystems: ­Jellyfish Chapter Review 256

Individuals Matter 9.1 Sylvia Earle—Advocate for the

11 Water Resources and Water Pollution 260

Critical Thinking 297

Doing Environmental Science 298

Global Environment Watch Exercise 298

Data Analysis 299

12 Geology and Nonrenewable

1.3 What Causes Environmental Problems? 14 3.1 H

5.2 How Do Communities and Ecosystems Respond to

6.1 How Many People Can the Earth Support? 109

6.4 How Can We Slow Human Population Growth? 115

CASE STUDY Upsetting Marine Ecosystems: Jellyfish Chapter Review 256

14.1 What Major Health Hazards Do We Face? 379