Assessment in Special Education A Practical Approach Whats New in Special Education

Assessment in Special Education: A
Practical Approach (What’s New in

Special Education)
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Prefacevii
• An emphasis on the application of information to meet the individual, often unique,

requirements of students with special needs
• Coverage of assessment that spans infancy and preschool age through high school and
into adulthood
• An overall practical focus to balance out the strong grounding in theory so necessary
for understanding exceptionality
• Information about assessment vehicles, both formal and informal, to help you make
informed decisions about which technique or tool is best with which students
• Numerous teaching–learning aids
• Samples of actual assessment, evaluation, and procedure forms utilized in school
systems
After reading this textbook, you should have a thorough understanding of the assess-
ment process in special education from start to finish. Assessment in special education is
a step-by-step approach, and the goal of this text is to give you all the tools necessary to
understand what really happens in the assessment process.
New to This Edition

Besides the features addressed above, Assessment in Special Education: A Practical
Approach, Fifth Edition, has many new features. These include:
• Latest updated information regarding the major principles of assessment under IDEIA
• A new chapter specifically covering parental consent and evaluation principles under
IDEIA
• Numerous videos reflecting the content of the topics being covered
• New appendices addressing independent educational evaluations, mediation, and due
process hearings as they are related to assessment in special education
• Greater coverage of curriculum-based assessment (CBA) and curriculum-based
measurement (CBM)
• New and updated information on cultural competency and its impact on the assessment
process.
• Updated references in all chapters covering the most current research in the field of
assessment
• Comprehensive coverage of how RTI plays a significant role in the assessment of a
child for a suspected disability
• Analysis of the most current, valid, reliable, and popular intelligence, academic
achievement, behavioral, perceptual, speech and language, early childhood, hearing,
and physical and occupational therapy assessment measures
• Comprehensive coverage of functional behavioral assessments (FBA) and behavioral
intervention plans (BIP)
• Latest information of eligibility in special education on all areas of classification and
how the assessment process dictates classification
• Updated academic evaluation report writing section, with more samples to review
• Detailed information on IEP development and requirements under IDEIA
Acknowledgments
Contents
Dr. Roger Pierangelo extends thanks to the following: the faculty, administration, and staff
in the Department of Graduate Special Education and Literacy at Long Island University;
the late Bill Smyth, a truly gifted and “extraordinary ordinary” man; Helen Firestone, for
her influence on his career and tireless support of him; and Ollie Simmons, for her friend-
ship, loyalty, and great personality.
Dr. George Giuliani extends sincere thanks to all of his colleagues at Hofstra Univer-
sity in the School of Education. Dr. Giuliani would also like to thank the following: his
brother, Roger, and sister, Claudia; mother-in-law, Ursula Jenkeleit; sisters-in-law Karin
and Cindy; brothers-in-law Robert and Bob—all of whom have provided encouragement
and reinforcement in all of his personal and professional endeavors.
We would like to thank Ann Davis, our editor, whose outstanding guidance, support,
and words of encouragement made writing this book a very worthwhile and enjoyable
experience.
We would also like to thank the following reviewers: Jenna Brendle, Texas Tech Uni-
versity; Evelyn Johnson, Boise State University; and Jade Wexler, University of Maryland.
viii
BriefContents
Contents
Part I Foundational Concepts in Assessment in Special Education 1

Chapter 1 Introduction to Assessment 3
Chapter 2 Methods of Assessment and Testing Considerations 17
Chapter 3 Basic Statistical Concepts 31
Chapter 4 Scoring Terminology Used in Assessment 41
Part II The Special Education Process 51

Chapter 5 Response to Intervention 53
Chapter 6 The Child Study Team and Pre-referral Strategies 67
Chapter 7 The Multidisciplinary Team and Parental Participation in the
Assessment Process 79
Chapter 8 Parental Consent and Evaluation Standards Under IDEIA 95
Chapter 9 Assessment of Academic Achievement 107
Chapter 10 Assessment of Intelligence 135
Chapter 11 Assessment of Behavior 147
Chapter 12 Assessment of Perceptual Abilities 165
Chapter 13 Assessment of Speech and Language 179
Chapter 14 Early Intervention and Preschool Assessment 191
Chapter 15 Other Areas of Assessment 207
Chapter 16 Determining Whether a Disability Exists: Eligibility Criteria 221
Chapter 17 Writing a Comprehensive Report in Special Education 241
Chapter 18 Eligibility Procedures for Special Education Services 261
Chapter 19 Development of the IEP 277
Appendix A: Questions and Answers About Independent Educational

Evaluations 299
Appendix B: Questions and Answers About Mediation and Due Process
Hearings 301
Glossary 309
References 326
Name Index 331
Subject Index 333
Test Name Index 337
ix
Contents
Contents
Part I Foundational Concepts in Assessment in Special

Education 1
Chapter 1 Introduction to Assessment 3
Overview of Assessment 4
Purpose of Assessment 5
Federal Legislation and Landmark Court Cases in Special Education 6
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) 9
Overview of the Assessment Process 12
Conclusion 14
Chapter 2 Methods of Assessment and Testing

Considerations 17
Assessment and Testing Considerations 18
Formal Assessments 18
Informal Assessment 22
Testing Considerations 28
Conclusion 30
Chapter 3 Basic Statistical Concepts 31

Scales of Measurement 32
Measures of Central Tendency 33
Frequency Distribution 34
Range 35
Standard Deviation 35
Normal Curve 36
Conclusion 39
Chapter 4 Scoring Terminology Used in Assessment 41

Calculation of Age 41
Raw Scores 44
Percentile Ranks (Percentiles) 44
Standard Scores 45
x
Contentsxi
Scaled Scores 46
Z Scores 47
T Scores 47
Stanines 47
Comparing Z Scores, T Scores, and Stanines 47
Age Equivalent Scores 48
Grade Equivalent Scores 48
Conclusion 48
Part II The Special Education Process 51

Chapter 5 Response to Intervention 53
Overview of Response to Intervention 54
Purpose of RTI 54
Importance of RTI 55
RTI and the Assessment Process 58
The Role RTI Should Play in Identifying Children with Specific Learning
Disabilities 60
Multitiered Service Delivery Model 62
Fidelity 65
Conclusion 66
Chapter 6 The Child Study Team and Pre-referral Strategies 67

The Child Study Team 67
Recommendations by the Child Study Team—Pre-referral Strategies 73
Conclusion 77
Chapter 7 The Multidisciplinary Team and Parental Participation

in the Assessment Process 79
Purpose of the Multidisciplinary Team 79
Membership of the Multidisciplinary Team 81
Formal Referral for a Suspected Disability 82
Assessment Plans—Consent for Evaluation 85
Assessment Options of the Multidisciplinary Team 86
Parental Participation in the Assessment Process 89
Confidentiality 92
Conclusion 92
xii Contents
Chapter 8 Parental Consent and Evaluation Standards

Under IDEIA 95
Parental Consent 95
Timeframe for Initial Evaluations 96
The Six Evaluation Standards Under IDEIA 97
Validity 98
Reliability 101
Conclusion 105
Chapter 9 Assessment of Academic Achievement 107

Achievement Tests 108
Reading 108
Reading Assessment Measures 111
Tests of Written Language 120
Math 122
Assessment of Mathematical Abilities 124
Comprehensive Tests of Academic Achievement 126
Conclusion 133
Chapter 10 Assessment of Intelligence 135

Intelligence 135
Measures of Intellectual Ability 138
Other Measures of Intelligence 142
Conclusion 146
Chapter 11 Assessment of Behavior 147

Assessing Problem Behavior 147
Understanding a Student’s Behavior During Assessment 149
Assessing Emotional and Social Development 151
Assessment of Adaptive Behavior 156
Functional Behavioral Assessment and Behavioral Intervention Plans 158
Conclusion 163
Chapter 12 Assessment of Perceptual Abilities 165

The Learning Process 165
The Purpose of Perceptual Evaluations 166
Visual Perception 167
Auditory Perception 170
Comprehensive Measures of Perceptual Abilities 174
Conclusion 178
Contentsxiii
Chapter 13 Assessment of Speech and Language 179

Speech and Language 179
Types of Speech and Language Disorders 182
Assessment Measures of Speech and Language 187
Conclusion 190
Chapter 14 Early Intervention and Preschool Assessment 191

Early Intervention 191
Individualized Family Service Plans (IFSP) 193
Preschool Assessment 197
Working with Families in Early Intervention and Early Childhood
Assessment 199
Early Intervention and Early Childhood Assessment Measures 200
Conclusion 205
Chapter 15 Other Areas of Assessment 207

Assessment of Hearing 207
Assessment Measures of Hearing 209
Physical and Occupational Therapy Assessment 212
Cultural Competency 216
Conclusion 219
Chapter 16 Determining Whether a Disability Exists: Eligibility

Criteria 221
Diagnosing a Disability 221
Overview of Special Education Eligibility 223
Eligibility Criteria for Autism 224
Eligibility Criteria for Deaf-Blindness 225
Eligibility Criteria for Developmental Delay 225
Eligibility Criteria for Emotional Disturbance 226
Eligibility Criteria for Hearing Impairment 228
Eligibility Criteria for Intellectual Disability 229
Eligibility Criteria for Learning Disability (Specific Learning Disability) 230
Eligibility Criteria for Multiple Disabilities 232
Eligibility Criteria for Orthopedic Impairment 233
Eligibility Criteria for Other Health Impairment 234
Eligibility Criteria for Speech and Language Impairment 235
Eligibility Criteria for Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) 237
Eligibility Criteria for Visual Impairment 238
Conclusion 239
xiv Contents
Chapter 17 Writing a Comprehensive Report in Special

Education 241
Report Writing 241
Practical Guidelines for Report Writing 242
Criteria for Writing a Comprehensive Report 243
Writing Test Results 247
Model Report 250
Conclusion 259
Chapter 18 Eligibility Procedures for Special Education

Services 261
The Eligibility Committee 262
IDEIA and Eligibility Committee Meetings 263
Developing the Information Packet for the Eligibility Committee 264
Presentation to the EC by the Special Education Teacher as Educational
Evaluator 267
Classification Recommendations of the EC 268
LRE Placement Considerations According to IDEIA 268
Developing the IEP 272
Presentation to the EC: The Special Education Teacher as Classroom
Teacher 272
The Annual Review 273
The Triennial Review 274
Declassifying a Child in Special Education 274
Conclusion 275
Chapter 19 Development of the IEP 277

IEP Development 277
The Only Students allowed to have Modifications 292
Conclusion 298
Appendix A: Questions and Answers about Independent

Educational Evaluations 299
Appendix B: Questions and Answers about Mediation and Due

Process Hearings 301
Glossary 309
References 326
Name Index 331
Subject Index 333
Test Name Index 337
Pa r t Foundational Concepts
I in Assessment in Special
Education
W
elcome to the world of assessment in special education. We hope that you en-
joy this book and find it very practical and user friendly. This book is divided into
two parts. Part I (Chapters 1 through 4) presents an overview of the most im-
portant concepts, laws, statistics, and terms you need to know to understand the as-
sessment process. Part II (Chapters 5 through 19) then takes you step by step through
the assessment process as it happens every day in schools.
Chapter 1 presents you with an overview of key terms and definitions used in as-
sessment in special education. We begin by discussing what defines assessment
and its purposes. Then, a historical overview of federal legislation and landmark
court cases in special education are presented. Following these laws and cases,
we then discuss current federal legislation (Individuals with Disabilities Education
Improvement Act) and how it influences children, parents, and special educators
involved in the assessment process.
The chapter then continues with addressing the various classifications of chil-
dren with disabilities and their prevalence rates. Finally, you will learn the basic
steps involved in the assessment process that will be discussed in further detail
in later chapters.
Chapter 2 focuses on various methods of assessment used in special education. This
chapter presents an overview of both formal (norm-referenced tests) and informal
assessment (criterion referenced tests, portfolios, curriculum-based assessment,
dynamic assessment, and many others). Following a discussion of these meth-
ods, you will learn about the decision-making process involved in selecting the
appropriate instrument for evaluating students.
Chapter 3 is an overview of the most basic statistical concepts you need to survive
the special education process. To fully understand assessment, you must first
become familiar with statistics. Statistics are very important in special education
and we will guide you down a very methodical and comfortable road to teach you
these concepts.
Finally, in Chapter 4 we present basic scoring terminology used every day in assess-
ment. These terms are very important in scoring and analyzing the results of the
various measures you will use in the assessment process.
After reading the first four chapters, you will be ready for Part II of this text,
which will lead you through a practical, step-by-step process involved in assessing
children with special needs.
1
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1
Introduction to Assessment
Key Terms
Analysis Educational placement decisions Multidisciplinary team
Annual review Eligibility committee Multiple disabilities
Assessment Eligibility and diagnosis Native language
Autism Emotional disturbance Orthopedic impairment
Child find Evaluation Other health impairment
Collection Fourteenth Amendment Prevalence
Committee on special education Hearing impairment Reauthorization
CSE IEP Recommendation
Deaf–blindness Independent educational Section 504 of the Rehabilitation
Deafness evaluation (IEE) Act of 1973
Determination Individualized education program Special education
Developmental delay (IEP) Specific learning disabilities
Disability Individuals with Disabilities Speech or language impairments
Education Improvement Act Traumatic brain injury
Due process
(IDEIA)
Education for All Handicapped Triennial review
Instructional planning
Children Act (EHA) Visual impairment
Intellectual disability
Education of the Handicapped Act
Amendments Least restrictive environment (LRE)
Chapter Objectives
This chapter presents a general overview of assessment. After reading this
chapter, you should be able to do the following:
■■ Define assessment
■■ Understand the purpose of assessment
■■ Understand the landmark court cases in special education
■■ Know the various federal legislation pertaining to special education and
individuals with disabilities:
Section 504 of the Vocational Rehabilitation Act
P.L. 94-142: The Education of All Handicapped Children Act
P.L. 99-457: Education of the Handicapped Act Amendments of 1986
P.L. 101-476: The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
P.L. 105-17: The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1997
P.L. 108-446: The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement
Act (IDEIA) of 2004
■■ Understand the purposes of IDEIA
3
4 Part I • Foundational Concepts in Assessment in Special Education
■■ Understand how to read IDEIA citations under the U.S.C. and C.F.R.
■■ Know the classifications under IDEIA
■■ Know the prevalence of children receiving special education services
under IDEIA
■■ Understand the steps involved in the assessment process in special
education
Overview of Assessment
Denise is in serious danger of failing fourth grade again. She appears to have
difficulty following directions, completing assignments on time, progressing in
reading and spelling, and interacting with her peers. Her teacher believes that
Denise may have a learning disability and has made a referral to the district’s
Committee on Special Education.
Robert has cerebral palsy and uses a wheelchair. He has recently moved into the
community and enrolled in the local high school. His parents are concerned that
Robert is not developing the mobility and daily living skills that he needs now
and in the future. They request that the new school system evaluate Robert to
identify his special needs.
Juan has become severely withdrawn in the last year. His grades have been
declining steadily, he is starting to skip school, and when the teacher calls on
him in class, he responds rudely or not at all. The teacher is worried that Juan
may have an emotional disorder. She makes a referral to the special education
department.
Although these children are different from each other in very many ways, they may also
share something in common. Each may be a student who has a disability that will re-
quire special education services in the school setting. Before decisions may be made about
what those special education services will be, each child requires an evaluation conducted
by specially trained educational personnel, which may include a school psychologist, a
speech–language pathologist, special education and regular education teachers, social
workers, and, when appropriate, medical personnel. This is true for any child suspected of
having a disability.
Assessment in special education is a process that involves collecting information
As you watch the video
about a student for the purpose of making decisions. It involves gathering information
titled “What is special
education?,” focus on about a student’s strengths and needs in all areas of concern. Assessment includes many
the many services available formal and informal methods of evaluating student progress and behavior. Clearly, gath-
to help children with special ering information about a student using a variety of techniques and information sources
needs. This video presents a should shed considerable light on strengths and needs, the nature of a suspected disability
quick guide on the services
and its effect on educational performance, and realistic and appropriate instructional goals
and how parents can get
them for their children. and objectives.
https://www.youtube.com/ The professional involved in special education in today’s schools plays a very critical
watch?v=9DktV772njY role in the overall education of students with all types of disabilities. A comprehensive
assessment completed by school professionals may address any aspect of a student’s ed-
ucational functioning (Pierangelo & Giuliani, 2012). The special educator’s position is
unique, in that he or she can play many different roles in the educational environment.
Whatever their role, special educators encounter a variety of situations that require practi-
cal decisions and relevant suggestions. No matter which type of professional you become
in the field of special education, it is always necessary to fully understand the assessment
process and to be able to clearly communicate vital information to professionals, parents,
and students.
The importance of assessment should never be underestimated. In special education,
you will work with many professionals from different fields. You are part of a team, often
Chapter 1 • Introduction to Assessment 5
referred to as a multidisciplinary team (see Chapters 7 and 8), that tries to determine
whether a disability is present in a student. The team’s role is crucial because it helps
determine the extent and direction of a child’s personal journey through the special edu-
cation experience. Consequently, the skills needed to offer a child the most global, accu-
rate, and practical evaluation should be fully understood. The development of these skills
should include a good working knowledge of the following components of the assessment
process in order to determine the presence of a suspected disability:
• Collection: The process of tracing and gathering information from the many sources
of background information on a child, such as school records, observation, parent
intakes, and teacher reports
• Analysis: The processing and understanding of patterns in a child’s educational, so-
cial, developmental, environmental, medical, and emotional history
• Evaluation: The determination of a child’s strengths and limitations in specific areas,
including academic, intellectual, psychological, emotional, perceptual, language, cog-
nitive, and medical development
• Determination: The process of deciding that the presence of a suspected disability
does or does not exist using knowledge of the criteria that constitute each category
• Recommendation: The professional suggestions and proposals concerning edu-
cational placement and program that need to be made to the school, teachers, and
parents
Purpose of Assessment
Assessment takes place when students experience difficulty meeting the demands of the
general education curriculum and are referred for consideration for special education ser-
vices. As will be discussed in great detail throughout this book, following a referral for
a suspected disability of a child and with written parental or guardian permission, an in-
dividual multidisciplinary and comprehensive assessment is conducted. This means that
formal tests, observations, and numerous assessments will be given. The results help to
determine if special education is needed and whether factors unrelated to disabilities are
affecting a child’s school performance.
Assessment should be an active, ongoing process that has a clearly specified purpose.
Assessment results provide information useful for determining or modifying a child’s pro-
gram, if necessary. The decisions that use assessment information are varied and complex,
and they occur in and out of classrooms. Assessment plays a critical role in the determina-
tion of six important decisions (National Information Center for Children and Youths with
Disabilities, 2000):
• Evaluation decisions: Information collected in the assessment process can provide de-
tailed information of a student’s strengths, weaknesses, and overall progress.
• Diagnostic decisions: Information collected in the assessment process can provide de-
tailed information of the specific nature of the student’s problems or disability.
• Eligibility and diagnosis decisions: Information collected in the assessment process
can provide detailed information on whether a child is eligible for special education
services.
• IEP development decisions: Information collected in the assessment process can pro-
vide detailed information so that an individualized education program (IEP) may be
developed.
• Educational placement decisions: Information collected in the assessment process
can provide detailed information so that appropriate decisions may be made about the
child’s educational placement.
• Instructional planning decisions: Information collected in the assessment process
is critical in planning instruction appropriate to the child’s special social, academic,
physical, and management needs.
Federal Legislation and Landmark Court

Cases in Special Education
Generally, over the years, special education has been restructured and transformed by leg-
islation. If we examine the history of special education and services for children with dis-
abilities after World War II in the United States, the picture becomes clear as to why our
nation needed a federal special education law (Giuliani, 2012).
Children with disabilities were, for the most part, unprotected and not given much of
a chance in education. In 1948, only 12 percent of all children with disabilities received
some form of special education (which also means that 88% of children with disabilities
were receiving virtually nothing in terms of an appropriate education).
By the early 1950s, things were not much better for students with disabilities. During
this time, state law either permitted or explicitly required the exclusion of the “weak
minded” or individuals with physical disabilities. Many states that did educate such chil-
dren provided separate facilities that isolated them from their peers. Special education ser-
vices and programs were available in some school districts, but often, undesirable results
occurred. For example, students in special classes were very often considered unable to
perform academic tasks. Consequently, students with disabilities went to special schools
or classes that focused on learning manual skills, such as weaving and bead stringing.
Although programs existed, it was clear that discrimination was still as strong as ever for
“Brown v. Board of those with disabilities in schools.
Education in PBS’ The Legislation and court cases to prevent discrimination in education first came to notice
Supreme Court,” take a step in 1954 with the famous case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. Brown
back in time to review the was not a special education case, but it played a significant role in the development of
Supreme Court’s historical
special education laws to come.
rejection of the segregation
in Southern schools through For much of the ninety years preceding the Brown case, race relations in the United
the Fourteenth Amendment States had been dominated by racial segregation. This policy had been endorsed in 1896
of the U.S. Constitution in by the U.S. Supreme Court case of Plessy versus Ferguson. In Plessy, the Court held that
the case Brown v. Board of that as long as the separate facilities for the separate races were “equal,” the segregation
Education of Topeka,
did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution (“no state shall …
Kansas.
deny to any person … the equal protection of the laws.”). The concept of “separate but
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=TTGHLdr-iak equal” was challenged in Brown as being unconstitutional.
On May 17, 1954, Chief Justice Earl Warren read the decision of the unanimous
Court: “We come then to the question presented: Does segregation of children in public
schools solely on the basis of race, even though the physical facilities and other “tangi-
titled “What is the
ble” factors may be equal, deprive the children of the minority group of equal educational
14th Amendment?,” opportunities? We believe that it does.…” “We conclude that in the field of public edu-
focus on understanding the cation the doctrine of ‘separate but equal’ has no place. Separate educational facilities
Fourteenth Amendment, are inherently unequal. Therefore, we hold that the plaintiffs and others similarly situated
its meaning and why it is for whom the actions have been brought are, by reason of the segregation complained of,
called the “Equal Protection
Clause.”.
deprived of the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment.”
The Supreme Court struck down the “separate but equal” doctrine of Plessy for public
watch?v=ZL3p-votUTA education, ruled in favor of the plaintiffs, and required the desegregation of schools across
America.
The Court in Brown stated that segregation based on unalterable characteristics with
the result being inequitable opportunities could not be upheld in the United States and de-
manded that such segregation end with all deliberate speed.
Brown set the precedent for future discrimination cases in education. People with dis-
abilities were recognized as another group whose rights had been violated because of ar-
bitrary discrimination. For children, the discrimination occurred because they were denied
access to schools because of their disabilities.
Using Brown as their legal precedent, parents of students with disabilities claimed
that their children’s segregation and exclusion from school violated their opportunity for
an equal education under the Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution—The
Equal Protection Clause. If Brown could not segregate by race, then schools should not be
able to segregate or otherwise discriminate by ability and disability.
During the early 1960s, there was a pervasive national concern with the rights of the
individual, especially the rights of persons who had previously been discriminated against
by the government. In fact, the rights of people with disabilities became a significant part
of the larger social issue at the time. In the 1960s, parents began to become advocates
for better educational opportunities for their children with disabilities. Parents started to
speak out about how segregated special schools and classes were not the most appropriate
educational setting for many students with disabilities. Consequently, some parents began
to take legal action against their respective school districts when they felt their children’s
rights were being violated.
President John F. Kennedy also raised public awareness of individuals with mental
and physical disabilities. President Kennedy, whose sister Rosemary was born with a cog-
titled “President John
nitive disability, was a major champion of education for kids with disabilities. In 1961, F. Kennedy’s 51st News
he initiated a Presidential Panel on Mental Retardation. President Kennedy expressed his Conference, March 6, 1963,”
concern about the issues: think about the important
The manner in which our Nation cares for its citizens and conserves its manpower first steps taken by Presi-
dent Kennedy in making the
resources is more than an index to its concern for the less fortunate. It is a key to its fu-
country aware of the needs
ture. Both wisdom and humanity dictate a deep interest in the physically handicapped, the of those with cognitive
mentally ill, and the mentally retarded. Yet, although we have made considerable prog- disabilities.
ress in the treatment of physical handicaps, although we have attacked on a broad front https://www.youtube.com/
the problems of mental illness, although we have made great strides in the battle against watch?v=4yhSzjmNjjI
disease, we as a nation have for too long postponed an intensive search for solutions to
the problems of the mentally retarded. That failure should be corrected (President’s Panel
on Mental Retardation, 1962).
In the early 1970s, two significant court cases paved the way toward future federal As you watch the video
legislation protecting the rights of children with disabilities and their parents: titled “Digital Storytell-
ing: PARC vs. Common-
• PARC v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania wealth of Pennsylvania,”
• Mills v. Board of Education of District of Columbia think about how PARC v.
Commonwealth of Pennsyl-
In PARC, the Court ruled that schools may not exclude students who have been clas- vania played a significant
sified with mental retardation. Also, the Court mandated that all students must be provided role in future federal legis-
with a free appropriate public education (PARC v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, 343 F. lation, especially as it set the
Supp. 279, E.D. PA, 1972). Both of these holdings would play a fundamental role in the stage for the new concept
enactment of future federal special education laws. of a Free Appropriate Public
Education (FAPE) for individ-
Mills involved the practice of suspending, expelling and excluding “exceptional chil- uals with disabilities.
dren” from the D.C. public schools. In Mills, the Court held that: “No child eligible for
a publicly supported education in the District of Columbia public schools shall be ex- watch?v=QtFmp3XduaQ
cluded from a regular public school assignment.… The District of Columbia shall provide
to each child of school age a free and suitable publicly supported education regardless of
the degree of the child’s mental, physical or emotional disability or impairment” (Mills v.
Board of Education of District of Columbia, 348 Supp. 866, CD. DC 1972). As you watch the video
titled “Mills versus
Mills set forth future guidelines for federal legislation by rejecting the District’s argu-
Board of Education
ment that funds were insufficient to educate students with disabilities. The court in Mills District of Columbia 1972,”
mandated that students with disabilities receive special education services regardless of think about how Mills v.
the school district’s financial capability, stating that: “Insufficient resources may not be Board of Education District
the basis for exclusion” (Mills v. Board of Education of District of Columbia, 348 Supp. of Columbia played a signif-
icant role in future federal
866, CD. DC 1972).
legislation, especially as it
PARC and Mills set the stage for enactment of federal laws to protect the rights of set the stage for the new
children with disabilities and their parents. As a result of these cases and other historical concepts of Zero Reject and
court cases at the time, federal legislation for all individuals with disabilities began to de- a Free Appropriate Public
velop in the early 1970s. Education (FAPE) for individ-
uals with disabilities.
The Rehabilitation Act of 1973, 29 U.S.C. 701 et seq, is a civil rights law that made
discrimination against individuals illegal to those receiving federal funding or grants. All https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=M7vyKkyQkTM
public elementary and secondary schools and most postsecondary institutions receive
federal subsidies and grants and therefore must comply with the Rehabilitation Act of
1973. Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 ensures students of equal opportu-
nity to all school activities. The law prohibits discrimination against students with disabil-
ities in federally funded programs: “Individuals with disabilities cannot be excluded from
participation in, denied benefits of, or subjected to discrimination under any program or
activity receiving federal financial assistance.”
Because of the victories that were being won for students with disabilities in the 1960s
titled “FAQ Friday:
and early 1970s, as well as the enactment of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, parents and
What is the difference student advocates began to lobby Congress for federal laws and money that would ensure
between a Section 504 and students with disabilities got an education that would meet their needs. Years of exclusion,
IDEA?,” Janice Meyer shares segregation, and denial of basic educational opportunities to students with disabilities and
the key differences between their families set an imperative for a civil rights law guaranteeing these students access to
504 and IDEA. In the video,
learn about the importance
the education system.
of Section 504 for those stu- In 1975, a Congressional investigation revealed that:
dents with disabilities who
are not eligible for special
• Over 4 million children with disabilities in the United States were not receiving ap-
education and what rights propriate educational services
they are afforded. • Because of the lack of adequate services in the public school system, families were
https://www.youtube.com/ often forced to find services outside the public school system, often at a great distance
watch?v=hlzix3fn02g from their homes at their own expense
Congress determined that it is in the national interest that the federal government as-
sists state and local efforts to provide programs to meet the educational needs of children
with disabilities. Congress recognized the necessity of special education for children with
disabilities and was concerned about the widespread discrimination.
On November 29, 1975, President Gerald Ford signed into law the Education for All
Handicapped Children Act (EHA), Public Law 94-142.
The passage of Public Law 94-142 was the end result of many years of litigation and
state legislation to protect and promote the civil rights of all students with disabilities.
This federal law required states to provide a free appropriate public education for students
with disabilities no matter how serious the disability. P.L. 94-142 was the first law to
clearly define the rights of students with disabilities. Some of the key provisions of P.L.
94-142 were:
• Was the first law to clearly define the rights of students with disabilities to free appro-
priate public education (FAPE)
• Required the school systems to include the parents and guardians when meeting about
the student or making decisions about his or her education
• Mandated an individualized education program (IEP) for every student with a disabil-
ity (The IEP must include short and long-term goals for the student, as well as ensure
that the necessary services and products are available to the student.)
• Required that students be placed in the least restrictive environment (LRE)
• Ensured that students with disabilities be given nondiscriminatory tests (tests that take
into consideration the native language of the student and the effects of the disability)
• Required due process procedures to be in place (to protect families and students)
In 1986, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act was amended by Public
Law 99-457, the Education of the Handicapped Act Amendments (The act of amend-
ing and renewing a law is known as reauthorization). These amendments, which are also
known as the Early Intervention Amendments to Public Law 94-142, extended FAPE to
all students aged 3 to 5 by October 1991 in all states that wanted to participate (all 50
wanted to and did, even states that did not have public schooling for students at those
ages). Provisions were also included to help states develop early intervention programs
for infants and toddlers with disabilities; this part of the legislation became known as the
Part H Program (Note: In 1997, the section of the law that applies to infants and toddlers
changed to Part C).
In 1990, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act was once again reautho-
rized by Public Law 101-476. Most obvious was the legislation’s change of name to
IDEA—The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. IDEA continued to uphold the
provisions set forth in P.L. 94-142. Notice IDEA changed the terms in the previous law
as follows:
• from “children” to “individuals”
• from “handicapped” to “with disabilities”
IDEA reaffirmed P.L. 94-142’s requirements of a free appropriate public education
through an individualized education program with related services and due process pro-
cedures. This act also supported the amendments to P.L. 94-142 that expanded the enti-
tlement in all states to ages 3 to 21, designated assistive technology as a related service
in IEPs, strengthened the law’s commitment to greater inclusion in community schools
(least restrictive placement), provided funding for infant and toddler early intervention
programs, and required that by age 16 every student have explicitly written in the IEP a
plan for transition to employment or postsecondary education.
The newest amendments of IDEA were the Individuals with Disabilities Education
Act Amendments of 1997 (P.L. 105-17). These amendments restructured IDEA into four
parts: Part A addressed general provisions; Part B covered assistance for education of all
students with disabilities; Part C covered infants and toddlers with disabilities; and Part D
addressed national activities to improve the education of students with disabilities.
On December 3, 2004, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement
Act was enacted into law as Public Law 108–446. The statute, as passed by Congress and
signed by President George W. Bush, reauthorized and made significant changes to the In-
dividuals with Disabilities Education Act. It is now Public Law 108-446 and can be found
in 20 U.S.C. 1400-1482.
Individuals with Disabilities Education

Improvement Act (IDEIA)
IDEIA is an acronym for the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act,
our nation’s special education law. Originally passed in 1975 under the title, Education for
All Handicapped Children’s Act (Public Law 94-142), IDEIA is the U.S. federal law that
governs how states must provide special education to children with disabilities. IDEIA re-
quires school districts to provide a “free appropriate public education” (FAPE) to eligible
children with disabilities [34 C.F.R. 300.8; 20 U.S.C. 1401(3); 1401(30)]. A FAPE means
that special education and related services are to be provided as described in an individ- As you watch the video
ualized education program (IEP) and under public supervision to a child at no cost to the titled “Celebrating 35
parents [34 C.F.R. 300.17; 20 U.S.C. 1401(9)]. Years of IDEA,” remem-
The law has been amended and renewed several times, a process called reauthoriza- ber that the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act is
tion. Today, IDEIA is Public Law 108-446 and is often referred to as IDEA 2004 or sim- the legislative foundation
ply IDEA. Throughout this book, we will be using “IDEIA” to represent the Individuals for all services that students
with Disabilities Education Improvement Act. with disabilities receive in
schools today. At the 35th
anniversary of its passage,
Purpose of IDEIA this video takes a look back
IDEIA states that its purposes are: to what the conditions were
like before IDEA, and how
• To ensure that all students with disabilities have available to them a free appropriate its passage has changed the
public education that emphasizes special education and related services designed to educational landscape for
meet their unique needs and prepare them for further education, employment, and students with disabilities
independent living today.
• To ensure that the rights of students with disabilities and their parents or guardians are http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=DUn6luZQaXE
protected
• To assist states, localities, educational service agencies, and federal agencies to pro-
vide for the education of all students with disabilities
To assess and ensure the effectiveness of efforts to educate students with disabilities
[34 C.F.R. 300.1; 20 U.S.C. 1400(d)].
Understanding IDEIA Citations

Throughout this textbook, you will see citations for IDEIA. If you wanted to read IDEIA,
you could find it in one of two places, the U.S. Code (U.S.C.) and the Code of Federal
Regulations (C.F.R.):
1. U.S. Code (U.S.C.): The U.S. Code (U.S.C.) has 50 subject classifications called “Ti-
titled “United States
tles.” For example, Title 17 is Copyright; Title 26 is the Internal Revenue Code; Title
Code,” take the time to 42 is about Public Health and Welfare. Title 20 represents the laws in Education.
learn how the U.S. Code cat- When you see “20 U.S.C.,” you know it’s an education law.
egorizes federal statutes by
In each Title, laws are indexed and assigned Section Numbers. IDEIA is cited as 20
subject under specific Titles.
U.S.C. 1400–1482. So, any time you see 20 U.S.C. with index numbers that follow
watch?v=UnHA2G1eaGE that are between 1400 and 1482, you know it’s a special education law (IDEIA).
For example, the definition of Special Education in the U.S. Code is 20 U.S.C.
1401(29).
2. Code of Federal Regulations (C.F.R.): You can also find IDEIA in the Code of Fed-
eral Regulations (C.F.R.). Volume 34 of the C.F.R. is the section on Education. Part
300 is the information on IDEIA. The special education regulations are published
in Volume 34, Part 300 of the Code of Federal Regulations. The legal citation is 34
C.F.R. 300. For example, the definition of Special Education in the C.F.R. can be
found in 34 C.F.R. 300.39(b)(3).
As you watch the Classifications Under IDEIA

video titled “Code of
Federal Regulations IDEIA lists separate categories of disabilities under which children may be eligible for
(2014),” focus on how the special education and related services. Children are eligible to receive special education
C.F.R. works and its purposes services and supports if they meet the eligibility requirements for at least one disability
for classification of federal listed in IDEIA and it is determined that they are in need of special education services
regulations.
(Giuliani, 2012).
https://www.youtube.com/ The definitions of the 13 classifications of disabilities under IDEIA are listed below:
watch?v=A9ED5ZWyvf8
Autism: A developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal com-
munication and social interaction, generally evident before age 3 that adversely af-
fects a child’s educational performance. Other characteristics often associated with
autism are engagement in repetitive activities and stereotyped movements, resistance
to environmental change or change in daily routines, and unusual responses to sen-
sory experiences. The term does not apply if a child’s educational performance is ad-
versely affected because the child has an emotional disturbance.
Deaf–Blindness: Concomitant hearing and visual impairments, the combination of
which causes such severe communication and other developmental and educational
problems that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for
children with deafness or children with blindness.
Developmental Delay: For children ages 3 through 9, a state and local education
agency (LEA) may choose to include as an eligible “child with a disability” a child
who is experiencing developmental delays in one or more of the following areas:
• physical development
• cognitive development
• communication development
• social or emotional development
• adaptive development
It must also be determined that, because of the developmental delays, the child needs
special education and related services. Developmental delays are defined by the state and
must be measured by appropriate diagnostic instruments and procedures.
Emotional Disturbance: A condition exhibiting one or more of the following char-
acteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a
child’s educational performance:
• An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health
factors
• An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers
and teachers
• Inappropriate types of behaviors or feelings under normal circumstances
• A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression
• A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or
school problems
The term includes schizophrenia. The term does not apply to children who are so-
cially maladjusted, unless it is determined that they have an emotional disturbance.
Hearing Impairment: An impairment in hearing, whether permanent or fluctuating,
that adversely affects a child’s performance but that is not included under the defini-
tion of deafness in this section. (Deafness: A hearing impairment so severe that the
child is impaired in processing linguistic information through hearing, with or with-
out amplification, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance.)
Intellectual Disability: Significantly subaverage general intellectual functioning, ex-
isting concurrently with deficits in adaptive behavior and manifested during the devel-
opmental period, that adversely affects a child’s performance.
Multiple Disabilities: Concomitant impairments (such as intellectual disability–
orthopedic impairment) the combination of which causes such severe educational
problems that the problems cannot be accommodated in special education programs
solely for one of the impairments. The term does not include deaf–blindness.
Orthopedic Impairment: A severe orthopedic impairment that adversely affects a
child’s educational performance. The term includes impairments caused by congenital
anomaly (e.g., clubfoot, absence of some member), impairments caused by disease
(e.g., poliomyelitis, bone tuberculosis), and impairments from other causes (e.g., cere-
bral palsy, amputations, and fractures or burns that cause contractures).
Other Health Impairment: Having limited strength, vitality, or alertness due to
chronic or acute health problems, such as a heart condition, tuberculosis, rheumatic
fever, nephritis, asthma, sickle cell anemia, hemophilia, epilepsy, lead poisoning, leu-
kemia, or diabetes, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance.
Specific Learning Disability: A disorder in one or more of the basic psychological
processes involved in understanding or using language, spoken or written, which may
manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do
mathematical calculations. The term includes conditions such as perceptual disabil-
ities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia;
it does not include a learning problem that is primarily the result of visual, hearing,
or motor disabilities; of intellectual disabilities; of emotional disturbance; or of envi-
ronmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage. Under IDEA 2004, when determining
whether a child has a specific disability, a local education agency shall not be required
to take into consideration whether a child has a severe discrepancy between achieve-
ment and intellectual ability.
Speech or Language Impairment: A communication disorder, such as stuttering,
impaired articulation, a language impairment, or a voice impairment that adversely
affects a child’s educational performance.
Traumatic Brain Injury: An acquired injury to the brain caused by an external phys-
ical force, resulting in total or partial functional disability or psychosocial impairment
or both, and that adversely affects a child’s educational performance. The term applies
to open or closed head injuries resulting in impairments in one or more areas, such
as cognition; language; memory; attention; reasoning; abstract thinking; judgment;
problem solving; sensory, perceptual, and motor abilities; psychosocial behavior;
physical functions; information processing; and speech. The term does not apply to
brain injuries that are congenital or degenerative or to brain injuries induced by birth
trauma.
Visual Impairment: An impairment in vision that, even with correction, adversely
affects a child’s educational performance. The term includes both partial and total
sight blindness.
Prevalence of Children Receiving Special

Education Services Under IDEIA
According to the U.S. Department of Education’s latest data on prevalence of students
in special education, more than 6 million U.S. children between 6 and 21 years of age
receive special education services (U.S. Department of Education, 2014). Broken down by
classification (in alphabetical order):
• Autism 7.0%
• Deaf-Blindness 0.1%
• Developmental Delay 6.0%
• Emotional Disturbance 6.0%
• Hearing Impairments 1.0%
• Learning Disabilities 36.0%
• Intellectual Disabilities 7.0%
• Multiple Disabilities 2.0%
• Orthopedic Impairments 1.0%
• Other Health Impairments 12%
• Speech & Language Impairments 21%
• Traumatic Brain Injury 0.4%
• Visual Impairment 0.4%
Today, the number of children served under IDEIA represent approximately 13.0 per-
cent of all children in school.
Overview of The Assessment Process

The process of identifying, evaluating, determining eligibility, and educational placement
of children in special education is a step-by-step process. IDEIA mandates that certain
procedural steps occur to ensure that students with disabilities are afforded the right to a
free appropriate public education, as well as have substantive and procedural due process
rights. All of these steps will be addressed in much more detail in the upcoming chapters.
Step 1. Identification of Children

Generally, the two ways in which children are identified as possibly needing special edu-
As you watch the video cation and related services are: Child Find (which operates in each state) and by referral of
titled “Eligibility for a parent or school personnel.
Special Education,” fo-
cus on the rights of parents
in the special education CHILD FIND. IDEIA mandates that all states identify, locate, and evaluate all children
process and how children go with disabilities in the state who need special education and related services. To do so,
through the process being states conduct what are known as Child Find activities. When a child is identified by Child
special education eligible. Find as possibly having a disability and as needing special education, parents may be
https://www.youtube.com/ asked for permission to evaluate their child. Parents can also call the Child Find office and
watch?v=XncgzTGEzZY
ask that their child be evaluated.
Referral or Request For Evaluation. A school professional may ask that a

child be evaluated to see if he or she has a disability. Parents may also contact the child’s
teacher or other school professional to ask that their child be evaluated. Parental consent is
needed before a child may be evaluated. Under the federal IDEIA regulations, evaluation
needs to be completed within 60 days after the parent gives consent. However, if a State’s
IDEIA regulations give a different timeline for completion of the evaluation, the State’s
timeline is applied.
Step 2. Full and Individual Evaluation of the

Child by a Multidisciplinary Team
A comprehensive evaluation done by a multidisciplinary team is an essential early step in
the special education process for a child. It’s intended to answer these questions:
• Does the child have a disability that requires the provision of special education and
related services?
• What are the child’s specific educational needs?
• What special education services and related services, then, are appropriate for ad-
dressing those needs?
By law, the initial evaluation of the child must be “full and individual”—which is to
say, focused on that child and that child alone. The evaluation must assess the child in all
areas related to the child’s suspected disability.
The evaluation results will be used to decide the child’s eligibility for special educa-
tion and related services and to make decisions about an appropriate educational program
for the child.
If the parents disagree with the evaluation, they have the right to take their child for
an Independent Educational Evaluation (IEE) and can ask that the school system pay
for this IEE (see Appendix A).
Step 3. Determination of Eligibility for Special Education

Once the comprehensive assessment of the child is completed, an Eligibility committee
meeting is formed (in some states referred to as the Committee on Special Education
or (CSE), where professionals and the parents look at the child’s evaluation results. To-
gether, a determination is made as to whether the child meets the criteria for a “child with
a disability,” as defined by IDEIA. If the parents do not agree with the eligibility decision,
they may ask for a hearing to challenge the decision.
If the child is found to be a child with a disability (as defined by IDEIA), he or she is
eligible for special education and related services. titled “Special Edu-
cation Process,” think
Step 4. Scheduling an IEP Meeting about all of the steps in-
volved in the special educa-
A team of school professionals and the parents must meet to write an individualized ed- tion process. What steps did
ucation program (IEP) for the child within 30 calendar days after a child is determined you know of already? Which
eligible. The school system schedules and conducts the IEP meeting. School staff must: ones were new to you?
• Contact the participants, including the parents watch?v=I9R0Rd6Zzg8
• Notify parents early enough to make sure they have an opportunity to attend
• Schedule the meeting at a time and place agreeable to parents and the school
• Tell the parents the purpose, time, and location of the meeting
• Tell the parents who will be attending
• Tell the parents that they may invite people with knowledge or special expertise about
the child to the meeting
Step 5. Holding the IEP Meeting and Then Writing the IEP
The IEP team gathers to talk about the child’s needs and write the student’s Individualized
Education Program (IEP). Parents and the student (when appropriate) are full participating
members of the team. If the child’s placement (meaning, where the child will receive his or
her special education and related services) is decided by a different group, the parents must
be part of that group as well.
Before the school system may provide special education and related services to the
child for the first time, the parents must give consent. The child begins to receive services
as soon as possible after the IEP is written and this consent is given.
If the parents do not agree with the IEP and placement, they may discuss their con-
cerns with other members of the IEP team and try to work out an agreement. If they still
disagree, parents can ask for mediation, or the school may offer mediation. Parents may
file a state complaint with the state education agency or a due process complaint, which
is the first step in requesting a due process hearing, at which time mediation must be
available.

Step 6. Providing Special Education and Related
titled “What is an Services to the Student
IEP?,” listen to Laura The school makes sure that the child’s IEP is carried out as it was written. Parents are
Kaloi, Public Policy Director
given a copy of the IEP. Each of the child’s teachers and service providers has access
at the National Center for
Learning Disabilities, explain to the IEP and knows his or her specific responsibilities for carrying out the IEP. This
the ins and outs of Individ- includes the accommodations, modifications, and supports that must be provided to the
ualized Education Programs child, in keeping with the IEP.
(IEPs), including who devel-
ops them and how to put
together a good one.
Step 7. Progress Monitoring
https://www.youtube.com/ The child’s progress toward the annual goals is measured, as stated in the IEP. His or
watch?v=q2XlAWcMAUk her parents are regularly informed of their child’s progress and whether that progress is
enough for the child to achieve the goals by the end of the year. These progress reports
must be given to parents at least as often as parents are informed of their nondisabled chil-
dren’s progress.
Step 8. IEP Is Reviewed

The child’s IEP is reviewed by the IEP team at least once a year, or more often if the
parents or school ask for a review. This is known as the annual review. If necessary, the
titled “IDEA Basics: Tri- IEP is revised. Parents, as team members, must be invited to participate in these meetings.
ennial Evaluations,” un- Parents can make suggestions for changes, can agree or disagree with the IEP, and agree
derstand the importance of or disagree with the placement.
evaluation in special educa- If parents do not agree with the IEP and placement, they may discuss their concerns
tion and the legal mandate
that all children in special
with other members of the IEP team and try to work out an agreement. There are several
education get reevaluated options, including additional testing, an independent evaluation or asking for mediation
every 3 years. This is known or a due process hearing. They may also file a complaint with the state education agency.
as the triennial review. Do
you agree with triennial
Step 9. Child Is Reevaluated
reviews? If yes, why? If not,
how often do you believe At least every 3 years the child must be reevaluated. This evaluation is often referred to
children with disabilities as a triennial review. Its purpose is to find out if the child continues to be a child with a
should be evaluated? disability, as defined by IDEIA, and to determine the child’s educational needs. However,
https://www.youtube.com/ the child must be reevaluated more often if conditions warrant or if the child’s parent or
watch?v=Ces1vZbwcjM
teacher asks for a new evaluation.
Conclusion
Assessment is a complex process that needs to be conducted by a multidisciplinary team of
trained professionals and involves both formal and informal methods of collecting informa-
tion about the student. Although the team may choose to administer a series of tests to the
student, by law assessment must involve much more than standardized tests. Interviews of
all key participants in the student’s education and observations of student behaviors in the
classroom or in other sites should be included as well. To develop a comprehensive picture
of the student and to develop practical intervention strategies to address that student’s special
needs, the team must ask questions and use assessment techniques that will help them deter-
mine the factors that are facilitating—and interfering with—the child’s learning.
It is also important that assessment be an ongoing process. As you will see as you read
through this book, the process begins even before the student is referred for formal evalu-
ation; his or her teacher or parent may have noticed that some aspect of the student’s per-
formance or behavior is below expectations and, so, requests an official assessment. After
eligibility has been established and the IEP developed for the student, assessment should
continue, through teacher-made tests, through ongoing behavioral assessment, or through
other methods. This allows teachers and parents to monitor the student’s progress toward
the goals and objectives stated in his or her IEP. Thus, assessment should not end when the
eligibility decision is made or the IEP is developed; it has continuing value in contributing
to the daily, weekly, and monthly instructional decision making that accompanies the pro-
vision of special education and related services.
A thorough and comprehensive assessment can greatly enhance a child’s educational
experience. The assessment process has many steps and needs to be appropriately done.
Furthermore, no one individual makes all of the decisions for a child’s classification; it
is done by a multidisciplinary team. As future special educators, it is your professional
responsibility to understand the laws, steps, and various assessment measures and pro-
cedures used in the special education process so that when you enter the school systems,
CHECK YOUR
you can have a significant and positive impact on all those with whom you are involved in
UNDERSTANDING QUIZ
special education.
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2
Methods of Assessment
and Testing Considerations
KEY TERMS
Authentic/naturalistic/ Dynamic assessment Portfolio assessment
performance-based assessment Ecological assessment Showcase portfolio
Basal Formal assessments Standardization
Ceiling Informal reading inventory (IRI) Standardized tests
Content-referenced tests Informal assessments Standards-referenced tests
Criterion Learning styles assessment Task analysis
Criterion-referenced tests (CRTs) Limitations of testing Teacher portfolio or record keeping
Curriculum-based assessment Norm group The Mental Measurements
(CBA) Norm-referenced tests (NRT) Yearbook (MMY)
Curriculum-based measurement Outcome-based assessment Working portfolio
(CBM)
Portfolio
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
The focus of this chapter is to discuss various formal versus informal
methods of assessment. After reading this chapter, you should understand
the following:
■■ Norm-referenced tests
■■ Intended purposes of norm-referenced tests
■■ Standardization
■■ Concerns with standardized testing
■■ Criterion-referenced tests
■■ Standards-referenced tests
■■ Ecological assessment
■■ Curriculum-based assessment (CBA)
■■ Curriculum-based measurement (CBM)
■■ Dynamic assessment
■■ Portfolio assessment
■■ Authentic/naturalistic/performance-based assessment
■■ Task analysis
■■ Outcome-based assessment
■■ Learning styles assessment
■■ Selecting an appropriate instrument
■■ Selection of test content
■■ Test interpretation
■■ Limitations of testing
17
ASSESSMENT AND TESTING CONSIDERATIONS

The ways that children and adolescents can be evaluated for special education vary from
individual to individual. The assessment method needs to be determined on a case-by-case
basis. However, to obtain the most valid and accurate picture of a student’s strengths and
weaknesses, a comprehensive measure of assessment involves using both formal and in-
formal methods of assessment.
Formal and informal are not technical psychometric terms; therefore, there are no
uniformly accepted definitions. Formal assessments assume a single set of expectations
for all students and come with prescribed criteria for scoring and interpretation. Formal
assessments are formal ways of finding out how much a student has learnt or improved
during the instructional period. These include exams, diagnostic tests, achievement tests,
screening and intelligence tests, and so on. All formal assessments have standardized
methods of administering the tests. The data are mathematically computed and summa-
rized. Scores such as percentiles, stanines, or standard scores are mostly commonly given
from this type of assessment (see Chapter 4).
Informal assessments can judge and evaluate students’ performance and skill levels
titled “Formal Assess- without making use of standardized tests and scoring patterns. There are no standardized
ments,” take the time to tools to measure or evaluate the performances in these assessment tools. The best exam-
get a good understanding ples of informal assessments are projects, experiments, and presentations given by stu-
of what formal assessments dents in classrooms and other platforms. Unlike standardized tests, they are not intended
are, the importance of for-
to provide a comparison to a broader group beyond the students in the local project or to
mal assessments, and issues
pertaining to what the predict future performance. Informal assessments are not data driven but rather content
strengths and limitations are and performance driven. For example, running records are informal assessments because
of formal assessments. they indicate how well a student is reading a specific book. Scores such as 10 correct out
https://www.youtube.com/ of 15, percent of words read correctly, and most rubric scores are given from this type of
watch?v=0YprPyI1XhQ assessment (Weaver, 2015a).
This is not to say that informal assessment is casual or lacking in rigor. Informal
assessment requires a clear understanding of the levels of ability the students bring with
them. Only then may assessment activities be selected that students can attempt reason-
ably. Informal assessment seeks to identify the strengths and needs of individual students
without regard to grade or age norms.
FORMAL ASSESSMENTS
Norm-Referenced Tests
Norm-referenced tests allow us to compare a student’s skills to others in his age group.
Norm-referenced tests are developed by creating the test items and then administering the
test to a group of students that will be used as the basis of comparison (Logsdon, 2014b).
Scores on norm-referenced tests (NRT) are not interpreted according to an absolute stan-
dard or criterion (e.g., 16 out of 20 correct) but rather according to how the student’s
performance compares with that of a particular group of individuals. For this comparison
to be meaningful, a valid comparison group—called a norm group—must be defined. A
norm group is a large number of children who are representative of all the children in that
age group. Such a group can be obtained by selecting a group of children who have the
characteristics of children across the United States—that is, a certain percentage must be
from each gender, from various ethnic backgrounds (e.g., Caucasian, African American,
American Indian, Asian, Hispanic), from each geographic area (e.g., Southeast, Midwest),
and from each socioeconomic class.
By having all types of children take the test, the test publisher can provide informa-
tion about how various types of children perform on the test. (This information—the types
of students comprising the norm group and how each type performed on the test—is
generally given in the manuals that accompany the test.)
Chapter 2 • Methods of Assessment and Testing Considerations 19
Thus, before making assumptions about a child’s abilities based on test results, it
is important to know something about the group to which the child is being compared
—particularly whether the student is being compared to children who are similar in ethnic-
ity, socioeconomic status, and so on. The more unlike the child the norm group is, the less
valuable the results of testing will generally be. This is an area in which standardized testing
has fallen under considerable criticism. Often, test administrators do not use the norm-group
information appropriately, or there may not be children in the norm group similar to the child
being tested. Furthermore, many tests were originally developed some time ago, and the norm
groups reported in the test manual are not similar at all to the children being tested today.
Norm-referenced tests include basal and ceiling levels, which are used to prevent the
examiner from having to administer all of the items with each test. A basal is the “starting
point.” It represents the level of mastery of a task below which the student would correctly
answer all items on a test. All of the items prior to the basal are not given to the student.
These items are considered already correct. For example, on an IQ test, the examiner may
start with question 24 because of the age of the child. That is the basal. Here, the student
starts with credit given for the first 23 questions.
Once the basal is determined, the examiner will administer all items until the student
reaches a ceiling. The ceiling is the point at which the student has reached the predeter-
mined number of errors, and therefore, testing is stopped because it is assumed that the
student will continue to get the answers wrong. The ceiling is the “ending point.” It rep-
resents the level of mastery of a task above which the student would incorrectly answer
all future items on a test. For example, if on a spelling test a child got numbers 25 to 34
wrong, and the ceiling is 10 incorrect in a row, this means that the examiner would stop
administering spelling words to the child because the ceiling has been obtained.
Intended Purposes of Norm-Referenced Tests

When you see scores in the paper that report a school’s scores as a percentage—“the ABC
school ranked at the 37th percentile”—or when you see your child’s score reported that
way—“Coryn scored at the 23rd percentile”—the test is usually a norm-referenced test.
Norm-referenced tests are designed to “rank order” test takers—that is, to compare stu-
dents’ scores. A commercial norm-referenced test does not compare all the students who
take the test in a given year. Instead, test makers select a sample from the target student
population (say, ninth graders). The test is “normed” on this sample, which is supposed
to fairly represent the entire target population (all ninth graders in the nation). Students’
scores are then reported in relation to the scores of this norming group. To make compar-
ing easier, test makers create exams in which the results end up looking at least somewhat
like a bell-shaped curve (the normal curve; see Chapter 3). Test makers make the test so
that most students will score near the middle, and only a few will score low (the left side
of the curve) or high (the right side of the curve).
An important reason for using norm-referenced tests is to classify students. NRTs are
designed to highlight achievement differences between and among students to produce a de-
pendable rank order of students across a continuum of achievement from high achievers to
low achievers. School systems might want to classify students in this way so that they can
be properly placed in remedial or gifted programs. These types of tests are also used to help
teachers select students for different ability level reading or mathematics instructional groups.
Tests are normed using a national sample of students. Because norming a test is such
an elaborate and expensive process, the norms are typically used by test publishers for
7 years. All students who take the test during that 7-year period have their scores com-
pared to the original norm group.
Standardization
All norm-referenced tests include standardized procedures. Standardized Tests are those
tests with carefully designed procedure, questions, and administration. Often in achieve-
ment tests, the tests measure the performance of large numbers of individuals to collect
information about individual children or adults, or to assess the success of schoolwide

educational programs. Standardization refers to structuring test materials, administration
procedures, scoring methods, and techniques for interpreting results. Standardized tests
have detailed procedures for administration, timing, scoring, and interpretation procedures
that must be followed precisely to obtain valid and reliable results. When developing stan-
dardized tests, the test creators administer the test to large groups of children (subjects)
across age groups. They evaluate individual items, they will also compare scores across
age groups, across geographic areas, sometimes even across racial or socioeconomic
groups. This information is used to create the norms that will be used to evaluate individ-
ual students’ performance on the same items (Webster, 2015b).
Concerns with Standardized Testing

Criticisms of standardized tests seem to have grown in proportion to the frequency with
which, and the purposes for which, they are used (Pierangelo & Giuliani, 2012). Districts
now administer such tests at every grade level, define success or failure of programs in
terms of test scores, and even link teacher and administrator salaries and job security to
student performance on standardized tests.
Three areas of criticism in regard to standardized tests are content, item format, and
item bias. Standardized tests are designed to provide the best match possible to the perceived
“typical” curriculum at a specific grade level. However, for programs such as a bilingual
education that are built on objectives unique to the needs of their students, many of the items
on a standardized test may not measure the objectives or content of that program. Thus a
standardized test may have low-content validity (see Chapter 7) for specific bilingual educa-
tion programs. In such a situation, the test might not be sensitive to actual student progress.
Consequently, the program, as measured by this test, would appear to be ineffective.
Standardized achievement tests generally rely heavily on multiple-choice items. This
item format allows for greater content coverage as well as objective and efficient scoring.
However, the response required by the format is recognition of the correct answer. This
type of response does not necessarily match the type of responses students regularly make
in the classroom, for example, the production or synthesis of information. If students are
not used to responding within the structure imposed by the item format, their test perfor-
mance may suffer. On the other hand, students may recognize the correct form when it
is presented as a discrete item in a test format, but fail to use that form correctly in com-
munication contexts. In this case, a standardized test may make the student appear more
proficient than performance would suggest.
Further, some tests have been criticized for including items that are biased against cer-
tain kinds of students (e.g., ethnic minority, limited English proficient, rural, inner-city).
The basis for this criticism is that the items reflect the language, culture, and/or learning
style of the middle-class majority.
Thus, there are strong arguments in favor of educators considering the use of alter-
native forms of assessment to supplement standardized test information. These alternate
assessments should be timely, not time-consuming, truly representative of the curriculum,
and tangibly meaningful to the teacher and student. Techniques of informal assessment
have the potential to meet these criteria as well as programmatic requirements for formative
and summative evaluations. Validity and reliability are not exclusive properties of formal,
norm-referenced tests. Informal techniques are valid if they measure the skills and knowl-
edge imparted by the project; they are reliable if they measure consistently and accurately.
Research suggests that there are many positive and negative aspects to standardized
testing (Columbia University, 2013; Forsyth, 2014; Meader, 2015b).
Positive Aspects of Standardized Testing

• Gives teachers guidance. This helps them determine what to teach students and
when to teach it. The net result is less-wasted instructional time and a simplified way
of timeline management.
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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Assessment in Special Education: A

Practical Approach (What’s New in

• An emphasis on the application of information to meet the individual, often unique,

New to This Edition

Part I Foundational Concepts in Assessment in Special Education 1

Part II The Special Education Process 51

Appendix A: Questions and Answers About Independent Educational

Part I Foundational Concepts in Assessment in Special

Chapter 2 Methods of Assessment and Testing

Chapter 3 Basic Statistical Concepts 31

Chapter 4 Scoring Terminology Used in Assessment 41

Part II The Special Education Process 51

Chapter 6 The Child Study Team and Pre-referral Strategies 67

Chapter 7 The Multidisciplinary Team and Parental Participation

Chapter 8 Parental Consent and Evaluation Standards

Chapter 9 Assessment of Academic Achievement 107

Chapter 10 Assessment of Intelligence 135

Chapter 11 Assessment of Behavior 147

Chapter 12 Assessment of Perceptual Abilities 165

Chapter 13 Assessment of Speech and Language 179

Chapter 14 Early Intervention and Preschool Assessment 191

Chapter 15 Other Areas of Assessment 207

Chapter 16 Determining Whether a Disability Exists: Eligibility

Chapter 17 Writing a Comprehensive Report in Special

Chapter 18 Eligibility Procedures for Special Education

Chapter 19 Development of the IEP 277

Appendix A: Questions and Answers about Independent

Appendix B: Questions and Answers about Mediation and Due

Federal Legislation and Landmark Court

Individuals with Disabilities Education

Understanding IDEIA Citations

As you watch the Classifications Under IDEIA

Prevalence of Children Receiving Special

Overview of The Assessment Process

Step 1. Identification of Children

Referral or Request For Evaluation. A school professional may ask that a

Step 2. Full and Individual Evaluation of the

Step 3. Determination of Eligibility for Special Education

As you watch the video

Step 8. IEP Is Reviewed

ASSESSMENT AND TESTING CONSIDERATIONS

Intended Purposes of Norm-Referenced Tests

information about individual children or adults, or to assess the success of schoolwide

Concerns with Standardized Testing

Positive Aspects of Standardized Testing

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

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Part I Foundational Concepts in Assessment in Special