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Stylistics

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 Stylistics

Mohammed Jasim Betti

Department of English, College of Education for Humanities,

University of Thi-Qar

1. Definitions

Stylistics, a branch of applied linguistics, is the study and interpretation

of texts of all types and/or spoken language in regard to their linguistic
and tonal style, where style is the particular variety of language used by
different individuals and/or in different situations or settings. For
example, the vernacular, or everyday language may be used among casual
friends, whereas more formal language, with respect to grammar,
pronunciation or accent, and lexicon or choice of words, is often used in a
cover letter and résumé and while speaking during a job interview
Widdowson, 1975; Simpson, 2004: 2 and Attenborough, 2014: 183-203;
(Algburi, and Igaab, 2021: 31; and Betti, 2021s: 5).

Broadly speaking, stylistics is the study of style in language (e.g.

Verdonk, 2002: 3–4). Its focus is the way in which language varies
under the influence of factors such as context, purpose, author and
period. It is also defined as the linguistic study of literature (e.g.
Freeman 1981: 3; Simpson 1993: 3; (Al-Sheikh, 2006a: 12; and Betti
(2021t: 3).

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(PDF) Stylistics. Available from:
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2. Types of Stylistics

according to Leech (1985), there re literary stylistics and general

stylistics (Semino & Culpeper, 2011: 1; Betti (2021u: 2).
(Igaab, 2010a: 18).

2.1 Literary Stylistics

In The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, Crystal observes that,

in practice, most stylistic analysis has attempted to deal with the complex
and 'valued' language within literature, i.e. 'literary stylistics' (Betti,
2021i: 19). He goes on to say that in such examination the scope is
sometimes narrowed to concentrate on the more striking features of
literary language, for instance, its 'deviant' and abnormal features, rather
than the broader structures that are found in whole texts or discourses.
For example, the compact language of poetry is more likely to reveal the
secrets of its construction to the stylistician than is the language of plays
and novels (Crystal, 1987, 71; Betti, and Hashim, (2021: 41; Igaab,
2010b: 150).

Literary stylistics rests on the assumption that the theories and

methods developed within linguistics can be appropriately and fruitfully
applied to the study of literature. Stylisticians maintain that detailed
attention to the language of texts can explain how effects are achieved
and interpretations constructed, as well as provide further insights into
the meanings of literary works (Betti, 2002d: 89) (Betti, 2021a: 88).
Stylisticians attribute the strength of their approach to the

2
explicitness, systematicity and verifiability of their analytical
procedures. Stylistic analysis is therefore presented as a necessary
complement to what many stylisticians regard as the impressionistic
and implicit nature of much work within literary criticism (Betti,
2021h: 5).
. The scope of literary stylistics ranges from the analysis of the
language of individual texts, authors and genres to the study of textual
phenomena such as metaphor, speech presentation and point of
view. Stylisticians are also concerned with issues such as the
relationship between literary and non-literary language and the role
of linguistic analysis in the teaching of language and literature
(Semino & Culpeper, 2011: 1; Betti, 2013: 9).

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Literary stylistics is established methods of close reading or practical

criticism of texts, the procedures of literary stylistics remain traditional in
character in spite of development in literary theory (e.g. post -
structuralism) which challenge assumptions about the role of language
in depicting literary realities (Betti, 2021j: 9).

2.2 General Stylistics

Three factors distinguish general (or non-literary) stylistics from

literary stylistics. First, and most obviously, it involves the analysis
of non-literary texts. Texts have been drawn from such diverse areas
as advertising, newspaper reporting, politics, academia, bureaucracy,
religion, and everyday conversation (Betti, 2021e: 76): (Betti, 2021f:

3
73). Second, it has not been geared towards the interpretation and
appreciation of texts, as is the case with literary stylistics, but rather
towards the characterization of different styles within a
framework of general linguistic variation. Third, much attention has been
paid to the role played by the context in giving rise to a particular style
(Betti, 2021k: 6).
Crystal & Davy, and Enkvist were instrumental in establishing general
stylistics in the 1960s (Betti, 2021l: 2).
Crystal & Davy 1969; Enkvist 1964, 1973 ; and Al-Sheikh, 2006b:
30).

Although they differ in focus — Crystal & Davy being more

concerned with practical matters of analysis than theoretical exposition
— they are united in seeing styles as varieties of language that correlate
with particular contexts (Betti, and Yaseen, 2020: 39). They exploit
Hallidayan models from within systematic linguistics (Betti, 2007: 11;.
Crystal & Davy view the aim of stylistics as being the description of
formal linguistic features which are restricted by certain social
contexts, the explanation of why those features are used instead of
alternatives, and the classification of those features according to
their contextual function. The more restricted a linguistic feature is
to a limited number of social contexts, and thus the more
frequently it occurs within one particular variety, the more
stylistically significant it is (Semino, p. 5).
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3. Models and Sources of Stylistics

3.1 Models

The analysis of literary style goes back to the study of classical

rhetoric, though modern stylistics has its roots in Russian Formalism
(Carter, and Nash, 1990: 10; Betti, 2003: 9; Al-Seady, 2002a: 1 ) and the
related Prague School of the early twentieth century.

In 1909, Charles Bally proposed stylistics as a distinct academic

discipline to complement Saussurean linguistics. For Bally, Saussure's
linguistics by itself couldn't fully describe the language of personal
expression (Jeffries, and McIntyre, 2010, p 1; Betti, 2021c: 6; Al-Seady,
1995: 71).

Bally's programme fits well with the aims of the Prague School. (Talbot
and Taylor, 1992, p 91; Betti and Khalaf , 2021 13).

Taking forward the ideas of the Russian Formalists, the Prague

School built on the concept of foregrounding, where it is assumed that
poetic language is considered to stand apart from non-literary background
language, by means of deviation (from the norms of everyday language)
or parallelism. (Ulrich , 1989, p 518; Betti, 2015a: 41; and Al-Seady,
2002b: 42).

According to the Prague School, however, this background language

isn't constant, and the relationship between poetic and everyday language
is therefore always shifting. (Wales, 2001, p 315; Betti, 2020c: 11; Al-
Sheikh, 2006a: 80).

Roman Jakobson had been an active member of the Russian

Formalists and the Prague School, before emigrating to America in the
1940s. He brought together Russian Formalism and American New

5
Criticism in his Closing Statement at a conference on stylistics at Indiana
University in 1958. (Pope, 2002, p 88; Betti, 2021l: 7; Igaab, 2010b:
145).

Published as Linguistics and Poetics in 1960, Jakobson's lecture is

often credited with being the first coherent formulation of stylistics, and
his argument was that the study of poetic language should be a sub-
branch of linguistics. (Bradford, 1993, p 8; Betti, 2013: 7; Igaab, 2015b:
17 ).
The poetic function was one of six general functions of language he
described in the lecture. Michael Halliday is an important figure in the
development of British stylistics. (Selden, 1989, p83; Betti, and Mahdi,
2021: 45; Al-Sheikh, 2006b: 69).
His 1971 study Linguistic Function and Literary Style: An Inquiry into
the Language of William Golding's The Inheritors is a key
essay(Coupland, 2007, p 10; Betti and Igaab, 2018: 31; Igaab, 2010: 19).
One of Halliday's contributions has been the use of the term register to
explain the connections between language and its context. (Simpson,
2004, p75; (Betti, 2002a: 17; Igaab, 2015a: 13). For Halliday register is
distinct from dialect. Dialect refers to the habitual language of a particular
user in a specific geographical or social context. Register describes the
choices made by the user ( Leckie, 1995, p6; Betti, 2021m: 1; (Betti,
2021y: 20).
Choices which depend on three variables: field ("what the
participants... are actually engaged in doing", for instance, discussing a
specific subject or topic) (Coupland, 2007, p 12; Betti, 2020d: 10).
Tenor (who is taking part in the exchange) and mode (the use to which
the language is being put) (Betti, 2021n: 5).

6
 Fowler comments that different fields produce different language,
most obviously at the level of vocabulary (Fowler. 1996, 192; Betti,
1990: 92; and Igaab, and Al-Manhalawey, 2010c: 49).

Crystal points out that Halliday's 'tenor' stands as a roughly

equivalent term for 'style', which is a more specific alternative used by
linguists to avoid ambiguity (Crystal. 1985, 292; Betti, 1998: 1; Igaab,
2010b: 159).

Halliday's third category, mode, is what he refers to as the symbolic

organisation of the situation. Downes recognises two distinct aspects
within the category of mode and suggests that not only does it describe
the relation to the medium: written, spoken, and so on, but also describes
the genre of the text (Downes. 1998, 316; Betti, and Mahdi, 2020: 89; and
Betti, 2020b: 10).

Halliday refers to genre as pre-coded language, language that has not

simply been used before, but that predetermines the selection of textual
meanings (Betti, 2021o: 23). (Betti, 2021q: 1).
The linguist William Downes makes the point that the principal
characteristic of register, no matter how peculiar or diverse, is that it is
obvious and immediately recognisable (Downes. 1998, 309; Betti,
2021m: 8; and Betti, and Igaab , 2019: 239).

The most recent studies in linguistic stylistics have tended to focus on

applications of studies in discourse analysis and narrative organization
to literary text study (Betti, 2021r: 2). (Hashim, and Betti, 2020: 309) .
Burton (1980,1982) employs models for spoken discourse analysis
based on Sinclair and Coulthard (1975)for the analysis of drama dialogue

7
Short (1981) use analysis based on Gricean and speech act theory. Carter
and Simpson (1982) use narrative models based on Labov (1972).
Fowler (1981; 1982; Betti, 1990: 96 and Al-Seady, 1998a: 19).

As a discipline, stylistics links literary criticism to linguistics. It

does not function as an autonomous domain on its own, (Betti, 2021w:
17). (Betti, 2021x: 22) and it can be applied to an understanding of
literature and journalism as well as linguistics. (Widdowson, 1975;
Simpson, 2004: 2 and Attenborough, 2014: 183-203; Betti , 2006: 74;
Betti, and AlFartoosy, 2019: 96). (Igaab, 2015: 81):

3.2 Sources of Study

Sources of study in stylistics may range from canonical works of

writing to popular texts, and from advertising copy to news, (Davies,
2007 ; Betti, 2002b: 41) . Betti, 1990: 80): non-fiction, and popular
culture, as well as to political and religious discourse. Simpson, 2004: 3).
Indeed, as recent work in critical stylistics, Jeffries, (2010) multimodal
stylistics (Montoro, 2006 48-59; Betti, 2021b: 7; and Betti and Al-
Jubouri, 2009: 39) and mediated stylistics (Attenborough, 2014: 137-
154; Betti, 2021o: 9) has made clear, non-literary texts may be of just as
much interest to stylisticians as literary ones. Literariness, in other words,
is here conceived as 'a point on a cline rather than as an absolute' (Jeffries
and McIntyre, 2010: 2 Carter, and Nash, 1990; Betti, 2021d: 13).

Stylistics as a conceptual discipline may attempt to establish principles

capable of explaining particular choices made by individuals and social
groups in their use of language (Betti, 2002e: 99; and Betti, and Al-
Jubouri, 2015c: 87):

8
, such as in the literary production and reception of genre, the study of
folk art, in the study of spoken dialects and registers, and can be applied
to areas such as discourse analysis as well as literary criticism (Betti,
1995: 59; and Igaab, 2010a: 36).
Plain language has different features. Common stylistic features are
using dialogue, regional accents and individual idioms (or idiolects).
Stylistically, also sentence length prevalence and language register use
(Betti, 1998: 12; Betti and Igaab (2015: 76).

4. Poetry

As well as conventional styles of language there are the unconventional –

the most obvious of which is poetry. In Practical Stylistics, HG
Widdowson examines the traditional form of the epitaph, as found on
headstones in a cemetery (Betti, 1993: 8; and Al-Seady, 1998a: 87).

For example:

His memory is dear today

As in the hour he passed away.

(Ernest C. Draper 'Ern'. Died 4.1.38)

(Widdowson. 1992, 6; Betti, 1990: 78; and Igaab, 2010b: 170).

Widdowson makes the point that such sentiments are usually not very
interesting and suggests that they may even be dismissed as 'crude verbal
carvings' and crude verbal disturbance (Widdowson, 3; Betti, 1996: 48):
Betti, 2021k: 8). Nevertheless, Widdowson recognises that they are a
very real attempt to convey feelings of human loss and preserve
affectionate recollections of a beloved friend or family member (Betti,
2021h: 7; and Betti and Igaab, 2016: 49). However, what may be seen as

9
poetic in this language is not so much in the formulaic phraseology but in
where it appears. The verse may be given undue reverence precisely
because of the sombre situation in which it is placed (Betti, 2021n: 2):
Widdowson suggests that, unlike words set in stone in a graveyard,
poetry is unorthodox language that vibrates with inter-textual
implications (Widdowson. 1992, 4; Betti, 2002a: 2; Dehham, Betti, and
Hussein, 2021: 6).
Two problems with a stylistic analysis of poetry are noted by
Wetherill (1974, 133; Betti, 2003: 35; and Igaab, 2010a: 14).
The first is that there may be an over-preoccupation with one
particular feature that may well minimise the significance of others that
are equally important (Betti, and Igaab, 2015: 20). (Betti, 2002c : 81).
The second is that any attempt to see a text as simply a collection of
stylistic elements will tend to ignore other ways whereby meaning is
produced (ibid; (Betti, and Igaab, 2019: 239;. Betti, 2002b: 8).

5. Implicature

In 'Poetic Effects' from Literary Pragmatics, the linguist Adrian

Pilkington analyses the idea of 'implicature', as instigated in the previous
work of Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson. Implicature may be divided
into two categories: 'strong' and 'weak' implicature, yet between the two
extremes there are a variety of other alternatives. The strongest
implicature is what is emphatically implied by the speaker or writer,
while weaker implicatures are the wider possibilities of meaning that the
hearer or reader may conclude (Betti, and Hasan, 2020: 71; and Betti,
2021g: 51).

Pilkington's 'poetic effects', as he terms the concept, are those that

achieve most relevance through a wide array of weak implicatures and

11
not those meanings that are simply 'read in' by the hearer or reader (Betti,
2020a: 8). (Betti, Igaab & Al-Ghizzi, 2018: 261). Yet the distinguishing
instant at which weak implicatures and the hearer or reader's conjecture
of meaning diverge remains highly subjective (Betti and Hashim, 2018:
289).

As Pilkington says: 'there is no clear cut-off point between

assumptions which the speaker certainly endorses and assumptions
derived purely on the hearer's responsibility.' (Pilkington. 1991, 53; Betti,
2020c: 12). (Betti, 2021f: 5). In addition, the stylistic qualities of poetry
can be seen as an accompaniment to Pilkington's poetic effects in
understanding a poem's meaning (Betti, 2020d: 3).

6. Tense

Widdowson points out that in Samuel Taylor Coleridge's poem "The

Rime of the Ancient Mariner" (1798), the mystery of the Mariner's abrupt
appearance is sustained by an idiosyncratic use of tense. (Widdowson.
1992, 40; Betti, 2021b: 12). (Betti, 2021c).
For instance, the Mariner 'holds' the wedding-guest with his 'skinny
hand' in the present tense, but releases it in the past tense ('...his hands
dropt he.'); only to hold him again, this time with his 'glittering eye', in
the present (Widdowson. 1992, 41; (Betti, 2021d: 4). (Betti, 2021e: 6).

7. The point of poetry

Widdowson notices that when the content of poetry is summarised, it

often refers to very general and unimpressive observations, such as
'nature is beautiful; love is great; life is lonely; time passes', and so on
(Widdowson. 1992, 9; Betti, 2021f: 7). (Betti, 2021s: 2).

11
But to say:

Like as the waves make towards the pebbled shore,

So do our minutes hasten to their end ...

William Shakespeare, '60'.

Or, indeed:

Love, all alike, no season knows nor clime,

Nor hours, days months, which are the rags of time ...

John Donne, 'The Sun Rising', Poems (1633)

This language gives the reader a new perspective on familiar themes and
allows us to look at them without the personal or social conditioning that
we unconsciously associate with them (Widdowson. 1992, 9; Betti,
2021t: 23). (Betti, 2021u: 1).
So, although the reader may still use the same exhausted words and
vague terms like 'love', 'heart' and 'soul' to refer to human experience, to
place these words in a new and refreshing context allows the poet the
ability to represent humanity and communicate honestly (Betti and
Ulaiwi, 2018: 87; Betti, and Ghadhab, 2020: 69). This, in part, is
stylistics, and this, according to Widdowson, is the point of poetry
(Widdowson. 1992, 76; Betti, 2021v: 13; Betti, 2021g 15).

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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349054695_An_Operational_Analysis_
of_the_Department_of_English_in_Iraq

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021e). An Input-Process-Output Analysis of

the Department of English in the Colleges of Education in Iraq.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349054602_An_Input-Process-
Output_Analysis_of_the_Department_of_English_in_the_Colleges_of_Education_i
n_Iraq

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021f). Applied Linguistics vs Theoretical

Linguistics.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349336695_Applied_Linguistics_vs_Th
eoretical_Linguistics

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021g). The English Used in the Department of

Arabic.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351229469_The_English_Used_in_the_
Department_of_Arabic

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021h). English for Literary Purposes: A Case

Study.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/350487483_English_for_Literary_Purp
oses_A_Case_Study

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021i). Sentence Patterns in English.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/350975244_Sentence_Patterns_in_Eng
lish

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021j). ESP and ELP.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351657343_ESP_and_ELP

17
Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021k). Language Alternation.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351938765_Language_Alternation

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021l). Stress in English with Pedagogical

Implications.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352248961_Stress_in_English_with_Pe
dagogical_Implications

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021m). Intonation in English with

Pedagogical Implications.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352313269_Intonation_in_English_wit
h_pedagogical_Implications#fullTextFileContent

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021n). Needs Analysis.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352780645_Needs_Analysis

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021o). Slips of the Tongue and Other Slips.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352837551_Slips_of_the_Tongue_and_Other_Sli
ps

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021p). Contrastive Linguistics and Other

Related Fields.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353052851_Contrastive_Linguistics_an
d_Other_Related_Fields

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021q). Types of Verbs.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353072360_Types_of_
Verbs#fullTextFileContent
Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021r). Aims and Objectives of Teaching
Language and Literature.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353143615_Aims_and_Objectives_of_
Teaching_Language_and_Literature

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021s). Complement and Complementation.

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021t). Politeness Principle.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353581192_Politeness_Principl
e

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021u). Semantics.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353719736_Semantics

18
Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021v). Semantics in Linguistics.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353719736_Semantics

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021w). Pragmatics in Linguistics.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/354471737_Pragmatics_in_Lin
guistics

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021x). Gender and Sex in Linguistics.

Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2021y). Grice's Maxims.

Betti, Mohammed Jasim and Khalaf , Noor Sattar (2021). A Pragma-

Stylistic Study of Implicature in Shakespeare's Hamlet and Twelfth

Night. International Linguistics Research, Vol. 4, No. 3, 12-31.

Betti, Mohammed Jasim and Hashim, Zainab Kadhim (2021). The Effect

of Gender on the Bilingual and Bicultural Identity of the Iraqi EFL

Learners' Recognition and Production of Request. International

Linguistics Research, Vol. 4, No. 3, 32-71.

Birch, David (1995). Context and Language: A Functional Linguistic

Theory of Register (London, New York: Pinter)

Bradford, Richard (1997). Stylistics (London and New York: Routledge)

Burke, Michael (2010). Literary Reading, Cognition and Emotion: An

Exploration of the Oceanic Mind (London and New York: Routledge)

Crystal, David (1998). Language Play (London: Penguin)

Crystal, David (1985). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, 2nd

edition (Oxford: Basil Blackwell).

Crystal, David (1997). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, 2nd

edition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).

Dehham, Sabeeha Hamza, Betti, Mohammed Jasim and Hussein, Nadia

Majeed (2021). The Effect of Using Estafet Writing Technique to

19
 Enhance Students’ Compositional Efficiency. Education, Language
and Sociology Research, 2, 1, 1-13.

Downes, William (1998). Language and Society, 2nd edition

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).

Fowler, Roger (1996). Linguistic Criticism, 2nd edition (Oxford: Oxford

University Press)

Fowler, Roger (1995). The Language of George Orwell (London:

Macmillan Press)

Halliday, MAK (1978). Language as Social Semiotic: The Social

Interpretation of Language and Meaning (London: Edward Arnold).

Hashim, Ahmed Mohammed and Betti, Mohammed Jasim (2020).

Language Performance and Impairment of Iraqi Patients with
Alzheimer’s: A Case Study. Glossa, 3, 8, 291-309 .

Hernández-Campoy, Juan M. (2016). Sociolinguistic Styles. Wiley-

Blackwell.

Igaab, Zainab Kadim (2010a) Reduplication in English and Arabic: A

Contrastive Study. Journals Education for Girls, 1, 1, 3-24.

Igaab, Zainab Kadim (2010b). A Contrastive Study of Metathesis in

English and Arabic. Wasit: Journal of College of Education, 1, 7,
152-172.
Igaab, Zainab Kadim and Al-Manhalawey, Manahil Salman Owaid.
(2010). Case in English and Arabic: A Contrastive Study. Journal
of University of Thi-Qar, College of Arts, 1, 1, 1-54.

Igaab, Zainab Kadim (2015a). Apposition in English and Arabic: A

Contrastive Study. University of Thi-Qar, College of Education
for Humanities, 5, 4, 110-143.

Igaab, Zainab Kadim (2015b). Modification in English and Arabic: A

Contrastive Study. Journal of University of Thi-Qar, College of
Arts, 2, 1, 1-23.

21
Igaab, Zainab Kadim and Al-Bdeary, D. R. T. (2016). Substitution in
English and Arabic: A Contrastive Study. An Unpublished MA
Thesis, College of Education, University of Thi-Qar.

Igaab, Zainab Kadim and Israa Kareem (2018). Affixation in English and
Arabic: A Contrastive Study. English Language and Literature
Studies, 8, 1, 92-103.

Igaab, Zainab Kadim and Hanan Abdulhasan (2018). Collocation in

English and Arabic: A Contrastive Study. English Language and
Literature Studies, 8, 4, 89-103.

Igaab, Zainab Kadim and Altai, Saja Mohammed Magrood.(2018).

Concord in English and Arabic: A Contrastive Study. International
Journal of English Linguistics, 8, 2, 288-297.

Igaab, Zainab Kadim and Tarrad, Intisar Raham (2019). Pronouns in

English and Arabic: A Contrastive Study. English Language and
Literature Studies, 9, 1, 53-69.

Igaab, Zainab Kadim (2010). The Iraqi Undergraduates' Ability to Use

and Find Correspondence between Lexical and Sentential
Relations. University of Thi-Qar: College of Arts Journal.

Igaab, Zainab Kadim (2015): A Contrastive Study of Acronymy in English

and Arabic. Diwaniya: Dar Nippur.

Salman, Hussien Salah and Mohammed Jasim Betti (2020). Politeness

and Face Threatening Acts in Iraqi EFL learners’ Conversations.
GLOSSA, 3, 8, 221-233.

Lamont, Brian (2005). First Impressions (Edinburgh: Penbury Press)

Leech, Geoffrey and Michael H. Short. (1981). Style in Fiction: A

Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose (London: Longman)

McIntosh, A and P Simpson. (1964). The Linguistic Science and

Language Teaching (London: Longman)

Orwell, George (1949). Nineteen Eighty-Four (London: Heinemann)

Orwell, George (1964). Inside the Whale and Other Essays (London:
Penguin Books)

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Pilkington, Adrian (1991). 'Poetic Effects', Literary Pragmatics, ed. Roger
Sell (London: Routledge)

Sebeok, Thomas A. (1960). Style in Language (Cambridge, MA: MIT

Press).

Semino, Elena and Jonathan Culpeper (2011) Stylistics. In: Jan-Ola

Östman and Jef Verschueren (eds.) Pragmatics in Practice. Handbooks of
Pragmatics Highlights 9. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 295-
305.
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Toolan, Michael (1998). Language in Literature: An Introduction to

Stylistics (London: Hodder Arnold)

Swift, Jonathan (1994). Gulliver's Travels (London: Penguin Popular

Classics)

Wales, Katie (2001). A Dictionary of Stylistics, 2nd edition, (Harlow:

Longman)

Weber, Jean Jacques (1996). The Stylistics Reader: From Roman

Jakobson to the Present (London: Arnold Hodder)

Wetherill, PM (1974). Literary Text: An Examination of Critical

Methods (Oxford: Basil Blackwell)

Widdowson, HG (1992). Practical Stylistics (Oxford: Oxford University

Press)

Williams, Joseph (2007). Style: Lessons in Clarity and Grace, 9th edition
(New York: Pearson Longman)

External links

Stylistics from Scratch: My 'Take' on Stylistics and How to Go About a

Stylistic Analysis Professor Mick Short

Checklist of American and British programs in stylistics and literary

linguistics

The Poetics and Linguistics Association

22
 http://www.brianlamont.com/ Archived 2019-07-19 at the Wayback
Machine

Stylistics – Theoretical issues of stylistics

A CC licensed introductory course to Stylistics from Lancaster

University: http://www.lancs.ac.uk/fass/projects/stylistics/start.htm

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