In organic chemistry, covalent bonds are much more common than ionic bonds.

A covalent bond consists of the simultaneous attraction of two atomic nuclei for one or
more pairs of electrons.

The electrons between two atomic nuclei are bonding electrons.

Covalent bonds occur between identical atoms or between different atoms where the
difference in electronegativity is insufficient to form an ion by transfer of electrons.

Let's look at the covalent bonds in hydrogen molecules.

A hydrogen molecule is formed from two hydrogen atoms, each of which has one
electron in the 1-s orbital.

Two hydrogen atoms are attracted to the same pair of electrons in a covalent bond.

Bonds are represented as a pair of "dots" or a solid line.

Each hydrogen atom has an electronic configuration similar to that of helium.

H • + H • → H •• H or H ─ H Energy is released when electrons bonded to two hydrogen

atoms form a covalent bond.

This process releases heat.

Therefore, it generates fever.

The heat released during the formation of molecules of a compound at 298 K is the
standard enthalpy change (ΔH°) of the process.

When 1 mole of hydrogen is produced from two hydrogen atoms, ΔH° is −435 kJ
mol−1.

A hydrogen molecule is more stable than two hydrogen atoms because energy is
released during the reaction.

The reverse process, in which two bonded hydrogen atoms are pulled apart, requires
435 kJ mol-1, an amount called the bond strength of the H-H bond.

Two hydrogen nuclei are separated by a distance called the bond length.

This distance is determined by the balance of attraction and repulsion.

Although there is an attractive force between the nucleus and the bonding electrons,
there are also repulsive forces between the two nuclei and between the two electrons.
Figure 1.

5 is a schematic diagram of these attractive and repulsive forces.

This is the starting point for a discussion about attachment.

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Figure 1.

5.

Bonding Forces in Hydrogen Molecules When a covalent bond is formed between two
hydrogen atoms, there are two sets of electrostatic repulsion (nucleus to nucleus and
electron to electron, red), but four sets of electrostatic attraction.

(green) exists.

The forces of attraction are equal but of opposite sign.

Each hydrogen nucleus attracts both electrons.

Ultimately, the energy of the system decreases as bonds form.

This simple capacitive bonding model does not adequately describe chemical
bonding.

To do this, we need to extend our analysis.

This will be explained in the next section.

Covalent bonding also occurs in Cl2.

In a chlorine molecule, two chlorine atoms are attracted to the same pair of electrons.

Each chlorine atom has seven valence electrons in the third energy level, and an
additional electron is required to form an electron nucleus with the electron
configuration of argon.

Each chlorine atom contributes one electron to the bond pair shared by the two atoms.

The remaining six valence electrons of each chlorine atom do not participate in
bonding.

They are also called nonbonding electrons, lone pairs, or lone pairs.
As already mentioned, covalent bonds in Lewis structures are represented by lines.

Nonbonding electron pairs are also represented as "dots" in Lewis structures.

The Lewis structures of four simple organic compounds, methane, aminomethane,

methanol, and chloromethane, are shown below, along with both bonding and
nonbonding electrons.