CH:3/ Chemical bonding Muh.

Ramzan Qureshi (03004267073)

Chemical Bonding: A type of binding force which develops when atoms join
together to produce a structure and the purpose is to get the noble gas electronic
configuration.

Ionic Bonding: It is a type of bonding developed between ions. The ions which are
formed by the transfer of electrons, are held together by strong electrostatic forces of
attraction, called as ionic bonding.

Examples: Ionic bonding in magnesium oxide:

Ionic bonding in calcium chloride:

Ionic bonding in aluminium oxide, Al 2O3:

Covalent Bonding: A type of bonding developed by mutual sharing of electrons by

atoms of elements. The purpose is to develop a structure of noble gas electronic
configuration.

Types of covalent bonding: Single covalent bonding: A covalent bond develops

by mutual sharing of two electrons (one pair) from atoms of elements. /1
Example: Methane, CH4

Double covalent Bonding:

It is a type of covalent bonding formed by mutual sharing of four electrons (two pair)
from atoms of elements.
Example:
Carbondioxide, CO2

Triple covalent Bonding:

It is a type of covalent bonding formed by mutual sharing of six electrons (Three pair)
Example:

Nitrogen, N2 Ethyne, C2H2

Others examples: tetra fluoro-methane, CF4

propyne, C3H4

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Dative covalent bonding or co-ordinate bonding: It develops when one of the
atoms participates both of its electrons to electron-deficient atom/ion in developing a
covalent bond, while the other one doesn’t contribute any electrons. Once the
covalent bond is formed it behaves just like an ordinary covalent bond. [Note: the
electrons which are participated are lone pair of electrons].

Example: ammonia molecule reacts with ‘H+’ from an acid/water

Ammonium ions

In displayed formula the co-ordinate bond is shown by an arrow directing towards an

electron-deficient atom.

Example: Hydrogen ion in water

hydronium ions/ Oxonium ion/ Hydroxonium ion

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Example: Al2Cl6

AlCl3 exists as a dimer (two molecules). It means two small units merged together to
form a single unit by dative covalent bond. It happens because the octet of ‘Al’ is not
complete. Each ‘Cl’ donates one lone pair of electrons.
Very important:
 Two dative covalent bonds
 Six single covalent bonds
 Sixteen lone pair of electrons, containing 32 electrons

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR theory): Theory helps us
to find geometry of covalent molecules/molecular ions. A number of points help us in
this respect.
 Identify the lone pair of electrons and bonding pair of electrons around the
central atom
 Lone pair of electrons and bonding pair of electrons around the central atom
repel one another. The repulsion is stronger exerted by lone-pair of electrons.
This factor determines the geometry of the molecules.
Following are the cases on the basis of lone pair of electrons and bonding pair of
electrons around the central atom in a molecule.

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Shape of ions:

 Calculate oxidation number of the central atom in the ion, which gives the
indication how many electrons are participating.
 Incoming electron(s) are settled on to the surrounding atom in the molecule.

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Further examples: nitrate ion and nitrite ion

Bond polarity: A covalent bond may show a certain degree of polarity (ionic
character) due to un-even distribution of bonding pair of electrons between
covalently bonding atoms of elements. It occurs due to the difference in electro-
negativity values between covalently bonding atoms.
Electronegativity is defined as ‘ the power of an atom to pull bonding pair of electrons
towards itself in a covalent bond’. E.N values of elements increase across the period
and decrease down the group.
Pauling found the E.N values of elements in comparison with fluorine. So E.N values
are relative values. Fluorine has maximum E.N value and is assigned the value 4.0.
E.N values of certain elements:
 O = 3.5
 N = 3.0
 Cl = 3.0
 C = 2.5 /10
  H = 2.0

As E.N difference of the bonding atoms increases the dipoles become stronger and
the polarity of the bond increases.

 Dipoles is shown by putting ‘delta +’ and ‘delta –‘ on the respective atoms. An

arrow is drawn from partial positive atom to the partial negative atom.

Polyatomic molecules and bond polarity: Polyatomic molecules contain more than
two atoms of different elements join chemically.
 The degree of polarity of covalent molecule is measured in ‘dipole moment’.

 In BF3 each ‘B-F’ bond is polar having dipoles. Three ‘B-F’ bonds are aligned
around the central atom in a way, would cancel out one another polar effect.
So the molecule is non-polar despite having polar bond. Dipole moment of
‘BF3’ is zero.

 In NH3, there are also three polar ‘–N-H’ bonds but one lone pair electrons on
‘N’ in NH3 would repel three polar polar bonds in a way, cannot cancel out
their polarity. So the molecule becomes polar and has dipole moment. /11
 If the same polar bonds are symmetrically located around the central atom (no
lone pair of electrons on the central atom). Each polar bond would cancel out
each other polar effect and the molecule becomes non-polar.
Examples: BF3, CCl4

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Very important:
 the E.N difference of the bonding atoms is less than 0.5 the bond is
considered to be non- polar.
 As the E.N difference increases above 0.5 the bond polarity also increases. At
E.N difference above 2.1 the bond becomes ionic.

Intermolecular forces: Forces (bonding) which operate among molecules called as

intermolecular forces.

Types of intermolecular forces: Three types

1). Dipole-dipole forces (dp-dp forces): These forces operate in polar molecules.
Partially positive end of one polar molecule develops attraction with partially negative
end of another molecule. The strength of these forces depends on E.N difference.
More difference in E.N values develops stronger dipole-dipole forces. These forces
affect physical properties of covalent molecules. Examples: melting point, boiling
point, vaporization.
Examples:
ᵟ+ ᵟ- ᵟ+ ᵟ-
C O Si O
E.N values: 2.5/3.5 1.8/3.5
E.N difference: 3.5 – 2.5 = 1.0 3.5 – 1.8 =1.7
Silicon monoxide is more polar due to higher E.N difference so develops stronger
dipoles which interact strongly with opposite ends of another molecule. As a result
stronger ‘dp-dp’ forces develop than that of CO. So ‘SiO’ is solid and has high
melting point while CO is gas.
ᵟ+ ᵟ- -----------------ᵟ+ ᵟ-
Si O Si O

Dipole-dipole forces

2. Hydrogen bonding: A type of intermolecular forces in which partially positive

hydrogen atom of one molecule develops attraction with lone pair of electrons on
partial negative atom of another molecule.
Example: hydrogen bonding in water molecules

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Partially positive hydrogen develops when ‘H’ is bonded to more electronegative
atom which includes ‘N’, O, and ‘F’.

3. Instantaneous dipole-induced dipole (id-id forces)/Van der Waals forces:

A type of intermolecular forces develops in non-polar molecules. It develops between
partially positive end of instantaneous dipole molecule and partially negative end of
induced dipole molecule. Instantaneous dipoles develop when more electron drift to
one side and these dipoles keep on changing.
The strength of these forces depends on the molecular size/electronic cloud. Larger
molecule with more number of electrons is capable to develop more effective Van
der Waals forces.
Example: both ‘Cl2’ and ‘Br2’ are non-polar molecules but ‘Br2’ is liquid due to lager
molecular size having more number of electrons so capable to develop more
effective ‘id-id forces’ while ‘Cl2’ is gas because its molecular size is smaller and its
electronic cloud is incapable to develop effective ‘id-id forces’
Example: In Noble gases boiling point increases down the group due to increasing
strength of Van der Waals forces. It is due to more number of electrons down the
group.

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Intra-molecular forces: The forces (bonding) which operate within the molecule.
Example: single covalent bond, double covalent bond, and triple covalent bond.

Overlapping: Some region of two orbitals merge in a way that the bonding electrons
lie within two nuclei of the atoms. Bonding electrons act as a bridge to develop
attraction with two nuclei of the atoms.

As ‘s’ is spherical so the chance of an electron to be involved in bonding is equal

around the nucleus while in case of ‘p’ orbital is 50% because an electron spends
50% into each lobe.
In order to enhance the possibility of bond formation orbitals undergo hybridization.

Hybridisation: A number of orbitals with almost similar energy level merge together
to form same number of orbitals called as hybridized orbitals. These orbitals have
greater chance of bond formation.
Types of Hybridisation: Three types: 1). Sp3 hybridisation

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In case of ethane, all are single covalent bonds. Single covalent bond is also called
as sigma bond.
Sigma bond: It develops due to over-lapping when atomic orbitals share their region
in a head-way; most of the regions is shared in a way that their electrons are
embedded/sand-wiched between two nuclei. It develops strong attraction between
the atoms. It allows free rotation of the bond in space.

2). Sp2 hybridisation: A type of hybridisation in which one ‘2s’ and two ‘2p’ orbitals
merge together to form three ‘sp 2’ hybridized orbitals. One un-hybridised ‘p’ orbital
remains isolated and involves in ‘pi’ bond/double covalent bond.

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3). Sp hybridisation: A type of hybridisation in which one ‘2s’ and one ‘2p’ orbitals
merge together to form two ‘sp’ hybridized orbitals. Two un-hybridised ‘p’ orbitals
remains isolated and involves in two ‘pi’ bonds/triple covalent bond.

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Pi bond: It develops when un-hybridised ‘p’ orbitals overlap in a side-way, very small
region is merged. Electron density is concentrated on either side of the line between
the two nuclei of the atoms joined by the bond (electronic cloud is spread but not
condensed). Pi bond prevents rotation of the double bond and give rise to
isomerism. Double and triple bond develop due to pi bond.

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Metallic bonding: In metallic lattice, valence shell of each atom overlaps with many
neighbouring atoms (which results in multiple overlapping) so valence electrons in
the valence shell come under the influence of many neighbouring atoms which
results in delocalization of electrons. An electrostatic force of attraction develops
between positively charged nuclei and delocalized electrons called as metallic
bonding. It acts as glue and connects the layers together.
Properties: 1). Electrical conductivity: Metals are electrical conductors due to
availability of delocalized electrons.
2). Heat conductivity: They are heat conductors due randomly moving delocalized
electrons and through vibration of atoms (cations).
3). Malleability: Metals can be moulded into shapes or drawn into shapes due to
sliding over of layers.
4). Ductility: Metal can be moulded into wires.

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