Measurement in Quantitative Research

Relationship between variables

● Correlational relationships exist when one variable may be associated with some degree
of change in the other variable

Positive and negative correlation

● Positive correlation is a direct relationship where as the amount of one variable increases,
the amount of a second variable also increases
● In a negative correlation, as the amount of one variable goes up, the levels of another
variable go down

Causal relationship - v important

● Exists when one variable is causing a change in the other
● Correlation does not imply causality

THREE CONDITIONS MUST BE MET FOR CAUSALITY

1. IV must come before DV
2. The IV and DV must be correlated
3. The impact of another variable cannot explain the relationship between IV and DV

Designing the study

● Deciding on the paradigm
● Decision on the type of design to be adopted
○ Purpose and time dimension
● Decision on planning the study
○ Methodology to be used
○ source/s from where data would be collected
○ Recruitment and sampling
○ Procedures for collecting data and measurement issues
○ Data analysis plans
● The research question and purpose inform your research design

What is a measure?
● A tool or instrument that is used to gather data/measure a variable
● A measure has two parts: the item and the response.
○ Ex. the variable, income can be measured as follows:
○ Item:
■ Item Response
● Less than $40,000 - ___________
● $40,001 - 50,000 - ______________
Measurement of Variables
● Non-standardized (researcher created)
○ Survey
■ Are capable of gather incredibly specific and descriptive data
○ Questionnaire
○ Scale index
● Standardizerd (jnstrument tested and normed)
○ Scale
■ Measure intensity - will be on quiz
■ Scale is much bigger than an index
■ Multiple statements measuring the same phenomenon
○ Index
■ Much less specific than scales
■ Less details

Example of comprehensive scale

● https://nbminnesota.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/drinking-problem-test.pdf

Measurement of variables using stanbdardized instruments

● A standardized measure is one that has been given to enough people that we can compare one
person’s scores to those of other test takers F&F, p91

● A standardized measure can have limitations and, hence, might not be applicable in all
situations

Levels of measurement
● discreet/categorical variables (non-continous)
○ Nominal level measurement
■ Variables that are measured in such a way that items are mutually exclusive
and exhaustive
1. Ex. fruit type: apple, pear, orange, banana, etc.
■ Dichotomous variable - a type of nominal-level variable with only two
responses to choose from, such as yes or no. Lowest level of measurement.
1. Ex. do you smoke? yes/no
○ Ordinal level measurement
■ Variables that are measured in such a way that items must be mutually
exclusive, exhaustive, and rank-ordered
1. Very favourable
2. Somewhat favourable
3. Somewhat unfavourable
4. Very unfavourable
 ● Continuous variables
○ Interval level measurement
■ Variables that measure the specific distance between the categories. Time
items are rank ordered, each item is mutually exclusive and exhaustive
1. Ex. intelligence test (IQ score) - 80, 100, 120
2. Temperature in Celsius or Farenheit
○ WILL ALWAYS BE INTERVAL LEVEL
○ Ratio level measurement
■ Variables that are measured in such a way that items are mutually exclusive
and exhaustive, they are rank ordered, can measure the specific distances
between the categories, and there is an absolute zero (a point where none
of the quality being measured exists and/or allows calculation of a
ratio)
1. Ex. number of children in the family - no children
2. Income in the past year - nil
■ HIGHEST LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT, INCORPORATES ALL QUALITIES OF
OTHER MEASURES.

Selecting level of measurement

● Many variables can be measured at multiple levels, but it is preferred to gather information
at the highest level of measurement. When information is collected at the highest level it can
be reduced to lower level of measurement but not vice versa

Variables and their measurement: burnout study (IMPORTANT CHART)

Type of variable Conceptualized (how Operationaliztion Level of measurement

was it defined) (how was it
measured)

DV - Burnout Emotional exhaustion, Maslach Burnout No Information

personal Inventory Available
accomplishment &
depersonalization

IV - Work 1. Peer cohesion Each dimension was Nominal

Environment 2. Supervisor measured using a
support scale that had
3. Autonomy True/False response
4. Task
orientation
5. Work pressure
6. Control
7. Innovation
 IV - Cultural Work 1. Individualism- ??? ???
Value collectivism
2. ???

Reliability and Validity

Reliability
● The stability and consistency of a measurement

Validity
● How much a measurement tool measures what it is meant to measure

Types of Reliability
● Test-Retest reliability
○ A method of examining the consistency of your measure from one time to the next to
establish reliability
■ Ex. administer a test/tool, collect data. Administer the same test/tool again.
If you have test-retest reliability, the results should not vary much between
Test 1 and Test 2.
● Equivalent form reliability
○ A measure of consistency between two versions of a measure
■ Ex. you administer a newly developed tool to measure life satisfaction with
caregivers of senior adults and it yields the same results when a pre-
existing tool that measures life satisfaction is administered with the same
group
● Internal consistency reliability
○ The consistency among the responses to the items in a measure
■ For ex: are all the items on this scale measuring the concept “sense of
control”?
● I have little control over the things that happen to them;
● There is really no way i can solve some of the problems i have;
● There is little i can do to change many of the important things in my
life
● I often fell helpless in dealing with problems of life;
● Sometimes i feel like i am being pushed around in life;
● What happens to me in the future mostly depends on me
● I can do just about anything i really set my mind to
How to find the paradigm of a study
● Observe any obvious characteristics of the study
● Which way are the issues leaning primarily?
○ Gender issues, race, ability, etc
● Critically analyze the study to understand its dimensions
● It will be positivist paradigm IF THE RESEARCHER FAILS TO MOBILIZE THE COMMUNITY,
REGARDLESS OF HOW RADICAL THE RESEARCH WAS
● If the problem has been decontextualized, its a sign of positivist paradigm
● Research that focuses on pathologizing individuals fits into a positivist paradigm