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Educational Psychology: Big Ideas To

Guide Effective Teaching 5th Edition
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 LOOSE-LEAF VERSION

Pearson MyLab
TM

Improving Results
A proven way to help individual students achieve the
goals that educators set for their course.

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and activate learning for each student.

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of the subject, excellent content, and an eye on the
future of education.

Before purchasing this text, please be sure this is the

correct book for your course. Once this package has www.pearsonhighered.com
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eText with MyEducationLab® is also available for students
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 Preface vii

• Chapter 9: Chapter title changed to “Strategies for Creating Effective Classroom and School
Environments” (to more accurately reflect the chapter’s content); introduction of school cli-
mate as a key term; new discussion regarding how poor teacher–student relationships can
adversely affect teachers’ as well as students’ sense of relatedness and overall well-being;
addition of “giving low grades” to the list of what not to use as a means of punishing stu-
dents’ misbehaviors; terms positive behavior support (PBS) and schoolwide positive behavior support
changed to positive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS) and schoolwide positive behavioral
interventions and supports (SWPBIS), respectively, in line with current usage; new hotlinked
Video Explanation that explains and illustrates the use of applied behavior analysis and
functional analysis; new Application Exercises related to classroom arrangement, class rules,
addressing behavior problems and student conflicts, and SWPBIS.
• Chapter 10: Increased emphasis on the use of a backward design; expanded discussion of
rubrics, with a new illustrative example; updated and expanded discussions of how teachers
might use technology in teacher assessments or student self-assessments; new discussion
of how combining criterion-specific scores into a single criterion-referenced score can be
problematic; expanded discussion of the downsides of basing final grades on improvement
rather than on students’ final achievement levels; new discussion of how computer technol-
ogy can be used in standardized testing (e.g., via adaptive assessment); new discussion of
the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), which replaced the No Child Left Behind Act in
late 2015; new section on the practice of using standardized achievement test results as pos-
sible indicators of teacher effectiveness (e.g., via value-added assessment); two new Video
Explanations that (a) clarify and illustrate the difference between summative and formative
assessments and (b) describe and illustrate formative assessment (e.g., via rubrics and check-
lists); new Application Exercises related to student feedback, good assessment practices, use
of portfolios, high-stakes testing, and analysis of computer-generated reports of students’
standardized achievement test results.

Our Rationale for This Book

The traditional approach to teaching and writing about educational psychology is to cover one
theory at a time, explaining its assumptions and principles and then identifying implications for
educational practice. But as we authors have gained increasing experience teaching educational
psychology to college students, we’ve started to teach our courses differently, focusing more on
commonalities than differences among theories. In fact, although researchers from different tradi-
tions have approached human cognition and behavior from many different angles, they sometimes
arrive at more or less the same conclusions. The language they use to describe their observations is
often different, to be sure, but beneath all the words are certain nuggets of truth that can be re-
markably similar.
In this book, we’ve tried to bring educational psychology to the real world of children,
teachers, and classrooms. We’ve also tried to integrate ideas from many theoretical perspectives
into what is, for us, a general set of principles and strategies that psychology as a whole can offer
beginning teachers. After a short introduction about the importance of research and study strate-
gies (Chapter 1), we proceed to a discussion of the very essence of human experience: cognition
(Chapter 2). From that foundation, we go in five different directions—to complex cognitive pro-
cesses (Chapter 3), learning in various contexts (Chapter 4), motivation (Chapter 5), cognitive
development (Chapter 6), and personal and social development (Chapter 7)—but always return-
ing to basic cognitive processes that underlie various universal human phenomena. The last three
chapters of the book build on the earlier ones to offer recommendations in instruction (Chapter 8),
classroom management (Chapter 9), and assessment (Chapter 10).
Some of our colleagues in the field may be surprised to see our use of footnotes rather than
APA style throughout the book. Our decision has been strictly a pedagogical one. Yes, students
need to know that the principles and recommendations in this book are research-based. But we’ve
found that APA style can be quite distracting for someone who is reading about psychology for
the first time and trying to sort out what things are and are not important to learn and remember.
Novice psychologists should be concerned more with the ideas themselves than with the people

A01_ORMR2098_05_SE_FM.indd 7 21/10/16 5:30 PM

 viii Preface

behind the ideas, and by putting most of the people in small print at the bottom of the page, we
can help novices better focus their attention on what things truly are most important to know and
understand.

MyEducationLab®
The most visible change in the fifth edition (and certainly one of the most significant changes)
is the expansion of the digital learning and assessment resources embedded in the etext.
Designed to bring you more directly into the world of K–12 classrooms and to help you see
the very real impact that educational psychology concepts have on learning and development,
these digital learning and assessment resources also
• Provide you with practice using educational psychology concepts in teaching situations,
• Help you and your instructor see how well you understand the concepts presented in
the book and the media resources,
• Help you more deeply think about and process educational psychology and how to use
it as a teacher (and as a learner).
The online resources in the Enhanced Etext with MyEducationLab include:
• Video Examples. In almost all chapters, embedded videos provide illustrations of edu-
cational psychology principles or concepts in action. These video examples most often
show students and teachers working in classrooms. Sometimes they show students or
teachers describing their thinking or experiences.
• Video Explanations. Throughout the text, one of us authors (Jeanne Ormrod) pro-
vides video explanations of essential concepts. Excerpted from her series of longer edu-
cational psychology Study Modules, these brief lectures include animated slides and
worked examples.
• Self-Checks. Throughout the chapters you will find MyEducationLab: Self-Check
quizzes. There are three to six of these quizzes in each chapter, with one at the end of
each Big Idea section. They are meant to help you assess how well you have mastered
the concepts covered in the section you just read. These self-checks are made up of self-
grading multiple-choice items that not only provide feedback on whether you answered
the questions correctly or incorrectly, but also provide you with rationales for both cor-
rect and incorrect answers.
• Application Exercises. Also at the end of each Big Idea section, you can find one or
two application exercises that can challenge you to use chapter content to reflect on
teaching and learning in real classrooms. The questions you answer in these exercises
are usually constructed-response items. Once you provide your own answers to the
questions, you receive feedback in the form of model answers written by experts. 8.4 General Instructional

In this chapter, you have learned about a wide variety of strategies for effectively plan-
ning and implementing instruction. In the hotlinked Self-Check quiz and Application
exercises that follow, you can check and apply your understandings related to Big
Idea 8.4:
Different instructional strategies are appropriate for different instructional
goals and objectives and for different students.

MyEdLab Self-Check 8.4

MyEdLab application Exercise 8.6. In this exercise, you can
observe and analyze a bilingual lesson in high school history.

MyEdLab application Exercise 8.7. In this exercise, you can apply what you have
learned about planning and instruction to analyze an actual lesson plan.

• Practice for Your Licensure Exam features. Every chapter ends with an exercise that
can give you an opportunity to apply the chapter’s content while reading a case study

8 SUMMARY
Two central roles of any teacher are planning and carrying out like all instruction, most effective when
instruction. The four Big Ideas presented at the beginning of the cognitive processes—for instance, when
A01_ORMR2098_05_SE_FM.indd 8
chapter can help us summarize basic principles that should guide attention and encourages students to ela
21/10/16 5:30 PM
 Preface ix

and then answering multiple-choice and constructed-response questions similar to those

that appear on many teacher licensure tests. By clicking on the MyEducationLab hotlink at
the end of a Practice for Your Licensure Exam exercise, you can complete the activity online
and get feedback about your answers.
2.5 Promoting Effective Cognitive Processes 61

PRACTICE FOR yOUR LICENSURE ExAM

Vision Unit
Ms. Kontos is teaching a unit on hu-
man vision to her fifth-grade class.
She shows her students a diagram of
the various parts of the human eye,
such as the lens, cornea, pupil, retina,
and optic nerve. She then explains
that people can see objects because
light from the sun or another light
source bounces off those objects and
into their eyes. To illustrate this idea,
she shows them Picture A.
“Do you all understand how
our eyes work?” she asks. Her stu-
dents nod that they do.
The next day Ms. Kontos
gives her students Picture B.
She asks students to draw one
or more arrows on the picture to
show how light enables the child to
see the tree. More than half of the
students draw arrows something
like the one shown in Picture C.
1. Constructed-response question
Obviously, most of Ms. Kontos’s students have not learned
what she thought she had taught them about human vision.
A. Explain why many students believe the opposite of what
Ms. Kontos has taught them. Base your response on con-
temporary principles and theories of learning and cognition.
B. Describe two different ways in which you might improve
A on this lesson to help students gain a more accurate under-
standing of human vision. Base your strategies on contem-
porary principles and theories of learning and cognition.
2. Multiple-choice question
Many elementary-age children think of human vision in the
way that Ms. Kontos’s fifth graders do—that is, as a process
that originates in the eye and goes outward toward objects
B
that are seen. When students revise their thinking to be more
consistent with commonly accepted scientific explanations,
they are said to be
a. acquiring a new script.
b. acquiring procedural knowledge.
c. undergoing conceptual change.
C d. revising their worldview.

MyEdLab Licensure exam 2.1

• Classroom Management Simulations. In Chapter 9 and in the left-hand navigation bar

of MyEducationLab, you will be able to access interactive simulations that engage you in
decision making about classroom management strategies. These interactive cases focus on
the classroom management issues teachers most frequently encounter on a daily basis. Each
simulation presents a challenge scenario at the beginning and then offers a series of choices
to solve each challenge. Along the way, you receive mentor feedback on your choices and
have the opportunity to make better choices if necessary.
• Study Modules. In the left-hand navigation bar of MyEducationLab, you will also find a
set of Study Modules. These interactive, application-oriented modules provide opportuni-
ties to learn foundational educational psychology concepts in ways other than reading about
them. The modules present content through screen-capture videos that include animations,
worked examples, and classroom videos. Each module consists of three parts. In the first part,
begin with the Learn section that presents several key concepts and strategies. Then work
through the problems in the Apply section. These will give you practice applying the concepts
and principles to actual teaching and learning scenarios. The third part of each module is a
multiple-choice test in the Assess section. This test includes higher-order questions that assess
not only what you can remember about the module’s content but also how well you can apply
the concepts and strategies you’ve learned to real-life classroom situations.

A01_ORMR2098_05_SE_FM.indd 9 21/10/16 5:30 PM

 x Preface

• Video Analysis Tool. Our widely anticipated Video Analysis Tool is also available in the
left-hand navigation bar of MyEducationLab. The Video Analysis Tool helps you build your
skills in analyzing teaching. Exercises provide classroom videos and rubrics to scaffold your
analysis. Timestamp and commenting tools allow you to easily annotate the video and con-
nect your observations to educational psychology concepts you have learned in7.3 Moral and Prosocial Deve
the text.

Other Book
Both guilt and shame,Features
although unpleasant emotions, are good signs that children are developing
a sense of right and wrong think about it
haveand will work hard to correct theirreaders
misdeeds. 146
The book’s 10 chapters a variety of features that can help better understand, remember, How do you feel w
Guilt
and apply andthey’re
what shamereading.
are theFirst,
result of chapter
each doing something
begins withperceived
three to sixtoBig
be wrong. In contrast,
Ideas—overarching inadvertently inco
empathy—experiencing the same feelings as someone in unfortunate circumstances—appears in
principles that provide a general organizational scheme for the chapter’s content, Self-Check quizzes, else? when you hu
the absence ofExercises,
Application personal and
wrongdoing. The ability
end-of-chapter to empathize
summary. emerges in
Then, boldfaced the preschool
Guiding years and
Principles and feelings? when a f
continues to develop throughout childhood and adolescence (e.g., see Figure
Key Strategies throughout the chapter highlight key principles and concrete recommendations7.2).147
Truly proso- loses a close fami
cial children—those who help decision
others even in the feelings as guilt, s
that can guide teachers in their making andabsence of their
classroom own wrongdoing—typically
practices. come to mind?
have aImmediately
considerable following
capacity forthe
perspective
list of Big Ideas presented at the beginningisofespecially
taking and empathy. 148
Empathy likelyistoa
each chapter
spur prosocial behavior when it leads to sympathy, whereby children not only assume another
case study that introduces some of the ideas and issues we address in149the chapter. Throughout
person’s
each feelings
chapter, we but also haverevisit
periodically concernsthe for
casethe
to individual’s well-being.
offer new insights and interpretations.
We often put readers themselves in the position of “learner” and ask them to engage in a
With age, reasoning about moral issues becomes increasingly
short learning or thinking activity. Many of these See for Yourself exercises are similar to ones FIguRe 7.2
abstract
we’ve used inand flexible.
our own educational psychology classes. Our students have found them to be quite poem about
To probeinpeople’s
helpful making reasoning
concepts andabout moral issues,
principles more researchers sometimes hence
“real” for them—and presentmore
moral under-,
dilemmas
vivid, holocaust, m
situations in
standable, which
and two or more
memorable. people’sofrights
An example such or
anneeds mayfollows.
exercise be at odds and for which there are no middle schoo
clear-cut right or wrong solutions. The following exercise
2.3 How is an example.
Human Memory Operates 31 expresses em
its victims.
see FoR youRselF
Young children’s attention often moves quickly from one thing to another and is easily drawn
MARTIN’S PLIGhT
to objects and events unrelated to the task at hand. As children grow older, they become better able to
focus their attention on a particular task and Imagine
keep it that
there,you’re
and in the ninth
they’re lessgrade. You’re
distracted bywalking
irrelevant quickly down the school corridor on your way to
your math class when you see three boys from the so-called “popular” crowd cornering a small, socially
thoughts and events. Yet even adult learners can’t keep their minds on a single task all the time. 28
awkward boy named Martin. The boys first make fun of Martin’s thick glasses and unfashionable clothing,
Even when learners are paying attention, then they can taunting
they start attend tohim only
witha offensive
very small amount
names such as of“fag” and “retard.” What do you do?
information at any one time because attention has a limited capacity. For example, if you’re reading
a. You look the other way, pretending you haven’t heard anything, and hurry on to class. If you
your textbook and watching your favorite TV show, you can attend to your book or the TV, but
were to stop to help, the boys might taunt you as well, and that will only make the situation
you can’t attend to both simultaneously. And if you’re worse. preoccupied in class with your instructor’s
ghastly taste in clothing and desperate need for ab.fashion
You shootmakeover,
Martin ayou’ll have a hard
sympathetic look time
and thenpaying head to class so that you won’t be late. Afterward,
attention to what your instructor is saying. Engaging in more thanreport
you anonymously one task at the same
the incident to thetime is
principal’s office, because you know that the boys’
sometimes called multitasking, although multitasking behaviors
can be have violated
difficult your school’s
and even impossible antibullying
in some policy.
situations because of the limited capacity of ourc.attention.
You stop and say, “Hey, you jerks, cut it out! Martin’s a really nice guy and doesn’t deserve your
insulting labels. Come on, Martin—let’s go. We might be late for math class, so we need to
Exactly how limited is the capacity of human attention? People can often perform two or
hurry.”
three well-learned, automatic tasks at once. For example, you can walk and chew gum at the same
time, and you can probably drink a cup of coffee while you’re driving a car. But when a stimulus
or event is detailed and complex (as is true for reading Looking for theormoral
a textbook) when higha taskground
requiresinconsid-
this situation, you might very well have chosen
An
Alternative additional
c. But if feature
you were comes
a ninth
erable thought and concentration (as is true for understanding a lecture in a college class or driv- in the form
grader—someone of who might still be working hard to fit in
Think
with About
your peer It questions
group—is thatin
ing a car on a busy city street), then people can usually attend to only one thing at a time. the
really margin
what youthat en-
29 would do? think about it
courage In readers
his to connect
groundbreaking chapter
early
Let’s return to a point made earlier: Learners must be selective about what they focus on and content
research on to their
moral development,
Using whatLawrence
you’ve just Kohlberg gave chil-
learned about
past
dren experiences
and adults or
a current
variety ofbeliefs
moral and in
dilemmas some and cases
asked attention,
them both explain
what why would
they texting doon and
a why
learn. Now we see the reason why: Attention has a limited capacity, allowing only a very small
also encourage readers to take concepts and princi- phone while driving is illegal in many
they would do it. Based on the hundreds
amount of information stored in the sensory register to move on to working memory. The vast majority of responses he obtained, Kohlberg proposed that as
places. (For an explanation, click here.)
ples in
children new growdirections.
older, they construct
of the sensory input that the body initially receives is quickly lost from the memory system. increasingly complex views of morality. In Kohlberg’s view,
If you quickly
the development flip through
of moral reasoning theisbook, you’ll seeby a sequence of six stages grouped into three
characterized
Working memory—where themany action
general is ofinartifacts—that
classroom
levels thinking
morality: and
is, examples
preconventional, learning—
of work
conventional, and postconventional (see Table 7.2).
has a short duration and limited capacity. created
Children bywithactual students
preconventional and teachers.
morality We
haven’t use
yet artifacts
adopted throughout the book
or internalized to help
society’s readers
conventions
connect
regarding concepts,
what thingsprinciples, andand
are right strategies
wrongtobut students’
insteadbehavior and to
focus largely onclassroom practices.
external consequences that
Working memory is the component of memory where attended-to information stays for a short
certainTo a considerable
actions might bring degree, we talk about
to themselves, concepts in
as illustrated and principlesathat
Alternative apply
in the to children
exercise. and
Kohlberg’s
time so that learners can make better sense of it. It “holds” what learners are conscious of at any
adolescents
second level,atconventional
all grade levels. Yet 1st
morality , isgraders often think
characterized and act very
by general, oftendifferently
unquestioning than 6th grad-
obedience
moment in time and is where much of their active cognitive processing occurs. It’s where they try
ers,
eitherandto6than graders
authority can, in turn,
figure’s be quite
dictates or different
to establishedfrom 11th rulesgraders.
and norms,Chapters
even 2when
through
there10are
each
no
to understand new concepts presented in a lecture, draw inferences from ideas encountered in a
have one or more
consequences Developmental
for disobedience. Trends tables
Alternative b in the that highlight
exercise is anand illustrate
example: Youdevelopmental dif-
report a violation
textbook passage, or solve a problem. Basically, this is the component that does most of the men-
ferences
of schoolthat rulesteachers
to schoolare apt to see in but
authorities, grades
youK–2,don’t3–5, want 6–8, andlate
to be 9–12.to class—that would violate
tal work of the memory system—hence its name working memory.
another school rule—and through your actions, you don’t jeopardize any good relationships you
Rather than being a single entity, working memory seems to have several components for
might have with the supposedly “popular” boys.
holding and working with different kinds of information, as shown in Figure 2.5.30 For example,
it appears to have a component specifically devoted to temporary storage of visual and spatial
information; some theorists have called this 146a visuospatial
N. Eisenberg,sketchpad. It probably
1995; Harter, 1999; Narváez also has a compo-
& Rest, 1995.
nent that enables very short-term retention of 147 sounds, including spoken language; some theorists
N. Eisenberg et al., 1995; Spinrad & Eisenberg, 2009.
refer to this as a phonological loop. There may148also be similar
Damon, working
1988; Decety and holding
& Cowell, 2014; N.areas for input
Eisenberg, Zhou, & Koller, 2001; Hoffman, 1991.
from the other senses, as well as a component149that integrates
Batson, multiple
1991; Decety kinds
& Cowell, of information.
2014 (who use the term empathic concern); N. Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998; Malti,
Working memory
A01_ORMR2098_05_SE_FM.indd 10 also seems to includeGummerum,
some sortKeller, & Buchman,
of supervisory 2009; Turiel, 1998. many
component—which 22/10/16 6:12 PM
 Preface xi

Chapters 2 through 10 also each have two or more Classroom Strategies boxes that offer
concrete suggestions and examples of how teachers might apply a particular concept or principle.
These features should provide yet another mechanism to help our readers apply educational psy-
chology to actual classroom practices. And beginning in Chapter 3, each chapter has a Cultural
Considerations feature that describes cultural differences in specific areas—for instance, in be-
havior, reasoning, or motivation.
Although our approach in this book is to integrate the concepts, principles, and educational
strategies that diverse theoretical perspectives offer, it’s also important for future teachers to have
some familiarity with specific psychological theories and with a few prominent theorists who have
had a significant influence on psychological thinking (e.g., Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, B. F.
Skinner). We occasionally mention these theories and theorists in the text discussion, but we also
highlight them in Theoretical Perspectives tables in Chapters 2, 5, and 6.

Supplementary Materials
Many supplements to the textbook are available to enhance readers’ learning and development as
teachers.

Online Instructor’s Manual. Available to instructors for download at www.pearsonhighered

.com/educator is an Instructor’s Manual with suggestions for learning activities, supplementary lectures,
group activities, and additional media resources. These have been carefully selected to provide
opportunities to support, enrich, and expand on what students read in the textbook.

Online PowerPoint® Slides. PowerPoint slides are available to instructors for download at
www.pearsonhighered.com/educator. These slides include key concept summarizations and other
graphic aids to help students understand, organize, and remember core concepts and ideas.

Online Test Bank. The Test Bank that accompanies this text contains both multiple-choice
and essay questions. Some items (lower-level questions) simply ask students to identify or
explain concepts and principles they have learned. But many others (higher-level questions)
ask students to apply those same concepts and principles to specific classroom situations—
that is, to actual student behaviors and teaching strategies. The lower-level questions assess
basic knowledge of educational psychology. But ultimately, it is the higher-level questions
that can best assess students’ ability to use principles of educational psychology in their own
teaching practice.

TestGen. TestGen is a powerful test generator available exclusively from Pearson Education
publishers. Instructors install TestGen on a personal computer (Windows or Macintosh) and cre-
ate their own tests for classroom testing and for other specialized delivery options, such as over a
local area network or on the web. A test bank, which is also called a Test Item File (TIF), typically
contains a large set of test items, organized by chapter and ready for your use in creating a test,
based on the associated textbook material. Assessments—including equations, graphs, and scien-
tific notation—can be created in either paper-and-pencil or online formats.
The tests can be downloaded in the following formats:
TestGen Testbank file—PC
TestGen Testbank file—MAC
TestGen Testbank—Blackboard 9 TIF
TestGen Testbank—Blackboard CE/Vista (WebCT) TIF
Angel Test Bank (zip)
D2L Test Bank (zip)
Moodle Test Bank
Sakai Test Bank (zip)

A01_ORMR2098_05_SE_FM.indd 11 21/10/16 5:30 PM

 xii Preface

Artifact Case Studies: Interpreting Children’s Work and Teachers’ Classroom

Strategies. One of us authors, Jeanne Ormrod, has written Artifact Case Studies (ISBN 0-13-
114671-8) as a supplement to the textbook. It’s especially useful for helping students learn to
apply psychological concepts and principles related to learning, motivation, development,
instruction, and assessment. The case studies, or artifact cases, within this text offer work samples
and instructional materials that cover a broad range of topics, including literacy, mathematics,
science, social studies, and art. Every artifact case includes background information and questions
to consider as readers examine and interpret the artifact. Instructors should contact their local
Pearson Education sales representative to order a copy of this book and its accompanying Instruc-
tor’s Manual.

Case Studies: Applying Educational Psychology. With the assistance of Linda Pallock
and Brian Harper, Jeanne Ormrod and Dinah Jackson McGuire have coauthored Case Studies: Apply-
ing Educational Psychology (2nd ed., ISBN 0-13-198046-7) to give students more in-depth practice
in applying educational psychology to real children, teachers, and classrooms. The 48 cases in the
book address many topics in educational psychology (learning and cognition, child and adolescent
development, student diversity, motivation, instruction, classroom management, and assessment)
across a variety of grade levels (preschool through high school). This book, too, is accompanied by
an Instructor’s Manual.

Acknowledgments
Although the title page lists us as the authors of this book, we’ve hardly written it alone. We’re
greatly indebted to the countless psychologists, educators, and other scholars whose insights and
research findings we have pulled together in these pages. We also owe more thanks than we can
possibly express to Kevin Davis, vice president and editor-in-chief at Pearson, who has guided our
journey (in Jeanne’s case, for more than 25 years) as we’ve tried to navigate through the myriad
new topics, controversies, and technological changes that have encompassed both the field of edu-
cational psychology and the publishing world. And we are incredibly appreciative of the collective
efforts of Alicia Reilly, Pam Bennett, Norine Strang, Lauren Carlson, and many others who have
attended to the gazillion (and sometimes mysterious) details of turning this book into both con-
crete and virtual realities.
On the home front have been the many students and teachers whose examples, artifacts, and
interviews illustrate some of the concepts, developmental trends, and classroom strategies we de-
scribe in the book: Aleph Altman-Mills, Andrew Belcher, Katie Belcher, Noah Davis, Shea Davis,
Barbara Dee, Tina Ormrod Fox, Amaryth Gass, Anthony Gass, Ben Geraud, Darcy Geraud, Macy
Gotthardt, Colin Hedges, Philip Hilbert, Erin Islo, Jesse Jensen, Sheila Johnson, Jack Jones, Mia
Jones, Shelly Lamb, Michele Minichiello, Susan O’Byrne, Alex Ormrod, Jeff Ormrod, Isabelle
Peters, Laura Riordan, Corey Ross, Ashton Russo, Alex Sheehan, Connor Sheehan, Matt Shump,
Melinda Shump, Grace Tober, Ashleigh Utzinger, Grant Valentine, Caroline Wilson, Hannah
Wilson, and Brian Zottoli.
Reviewers who helped shape this fifth edition were Vanessa Ewing, University of Northern
Colorado and Metropolitan State University of Denver; Leah Johnson, Indiana University and
Purdue University, Fort Wayne; Frank R. Lilly, California State University, Sacramento; and
Karthigeyan Subramaniam, University of North Texas. We are greatly indebted to all of these
individuals for their deep commitment to preparing future teachers and to getting the word out
about the many things that the field of educational psychology has to offer.
We must also acknowledge the contributions of our professional colleagues around the
country who’ve reviewed the first, second, third, and fourth editions of the book and offered many
invaluable insights and suggestions: Lynley H. Anderman, University of Kentucky; Heidi
Andrade, State University of New York at Albany; Bonnie Armbruster, University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign; Ty Binfet, Loyola Marymount University; Bryan Bolea, Grand Valley State
University; Kym Buchanan, University of Wisconsin–Stevens Point; Jessica Chittum, East
Carolina University; Rhoda Cummings, University of Nevada at Reno; Emily de la Cruz, Portland
State University; Karen A. Droms, Luzerne County Community College; Randi A. Engle,
University of California, Berkeley; Robert B. Faux, University of Pittsburgh; William M. Gray,

A01_ORMR2098_05_SE_FM.indd 12 21/10/16 5:30 PM

 Preface xiii

University of Toledo; Robert L. Hohn, University of Kansas; Donna Jurich, Knox College; Adria
Karle, Florida International University; Julita G. Lambating, California State University at
Sacramento; Frank R. Lilly, California State University at Sacramento; Jenny Martin, Bridgewater
College; Jeffrey Miller, California State University at Dominguez Hills; Anne Marie Rakip, South
Carolina State University; Marla Reese-Weber, Illinois State University; Michelle Riconscente,
University of Maryland at College Park; Cecil Robinson, University of Alabama; Analisa L. Smith,
Nova Southeastern University; Beverly Snyder, University of Colorado at Colorado Springs;
Karthigeyan Subramaniam, University of North Texas; Debi Switzer, Clemson University; Mark
Szymanski, Pacific University; Kimberlee Taylor, Utah State University; Tenisha Tevis, American
University; Michael P. Verdi, California State University at San Bernardino; Vickie Williams,
University of Maryland, Baltimore County; Steven R. Wininger, Western Kentucky University;
John Woods, Grand Valley State University; and Sharon Zumbrunn, Virginia Commonwealth
University.
Finally, of course, Jeanne must thank her husband, Richard; her children, Tina, Alex, and
Jeff; and her grandchildren, Olivia, Miles, and Jack. Meanwhile, Brett would like to thank his
wife, Rebecca; his children, Mia and Jack; his parents, Carole and Jack; and his stepfather, Larry.
Our families have shaped our lives—and so also this book—in ways too numerous to recall.

J. E. O.
B. D. J.

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 Brief Contents

1 Introduction to Educational
Psychology 2
2 Learning, Cognition, and Memory 20
3 Complex Cognitive Processes 62
4 Learning in Context 102
5 Motivation and Affect 152
6 Cognitive Development 204
7 Personal, Social, and Moral
Development 250
8 Instructional Strategies 300
9 Strategies for Creating Effective
Classroom and School
Environments 340
10 Assessment Strategies 382

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 Contents
1 Introduction to Educational
Psychology 2
Case Study: The “No D” Policy 3
1.1 Using Research Findings to Make Instructional
Decisions 4
The effectiveness of various classroom practices can best
be determined through systematic research. 4
Educational psychologists focus on the scientific study
of psychological principles that are relevant to
education. 6
Research can provide quantitative information, qualitative
information, or both. 7
Different kinds of research lead to different kinds of
conclusions. 8
Drawing conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships
requires that all other possible explanations for an
outcome be eliminated. 11
Principles and theories can help synthesize, explain, and
apply research findings. 11
1.2 Developing as a Teacher 12
Keep up to date on research findings and innovative
evidence-based practices in education. 13
Learn as much as you can about the subject matter you
teach, about teaching strategies, and about learners
and their development. 13
Learn as much as you can about the culture(s) of the
community in which you are working. 13
Continually reflect on and critically examine
your assumptions, inferences, and teaching
practices. 13
Communicate and collaborate with colleagues. 14
Believe that you can make a difference in students’
lives. 14
Integrate action research into your ongoing classroom
practices. 14
1.3 Strategies for Learning and Studying Effectively 15
Before you study, prepare for your study session. 16
During your study session, use effective study
strategies. 16
After your study session, review what you
studied. 17
Summary 18
Practice For Your Licensure Exam 18
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2 Learning, Cognition, and
Memory 20
Case Study: Making Mountains 21
2.1 Thinking and Learning in the Brain 22
The various parts of the brain work closely with one
another. 22
Most learning probably involves changes in neurons,
astrocytes, and their interconnections. 22
The brain functions in close collaboration with—rather than
in relative isolation from—the rest of the body. 23
Knowing how the brain functions and develops tells us only
so much about learning and instruction. 23
2.2 Learning as Active Construction 24
By the time they reach school age, young learners are
actively involved in much of their own learning. 24
Cognitive processes influence what is learned. 26
Learners must be selective about what they focus on
and learn. 26
Learners actively create—rather than passively absorb—
much of what they know and believe about the
world. 27
Learners use what they already know and believe to help
them make sense of new experiences. 28
2.3 How Human Memory Operates 29
Sensory input stays in a raw form only briefly. 30
Attention is essential for most learning and memory. 30
Working memory—where the action is in thinking
and learning—has a short duration and limited
capacity. 31
Long-term memory has a long duration and virtually
limitless capacity. 32
Information in long-term memory is interconnected and
organized to some extent. 33
Some long-term memory storage processes are more
effective than others. 35
Practice makes knowledge more automatic and
durable. 38
With age and experience, children acquire more effective
learning strategies. 39
Prior knowledge and beliefs affect new learning, usually for
the better but sometimes for the worse. 39
Learners differ in the factors that influence their ability to
learn and remember. 42
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 xvi Contents
2.4 Why Learners May or May Not Remember What They
Have Learned 44
How easily something is recalled depends on how it was
initially learned. 44
Remembering depends on the context. 45
How easily something is recalled and used depends
on how often it has been recalled and used in the
past. 45
Recall often involves construction or reconstruction. 46
Long-term memory isn’t necessarily forever. 47
2.5 Promoting Effective Cognitive Processes 47
Supporting Optimal Brain Functioning 48
Provide ongoing intellectual stimulation, but don’t
overdo it. 48
Encourage physical exercise. 48
Encourage students to get plenty of sleep. 48
Remembering the Limitations of Attention and Working
Memory 48
Grab and hold students’ attention. 49
Keep the limited capacity of working memory
in mind. 49
Encouraging Effective Long-Term Memory
Storage Processes 50
Relate new ideas to students’ prior knowledge and
experiences. 50
Take advantage of students’ diverse background
knowledge in designing instruction. 50
Provide experiences on which students can build. 51
Help students organize ideas by making connections
among them. 51
Facilitate visual imagery. 52
Present questions and tasks that encourage
elaboration. 52
Suggest mnemonics for hard-to-remember facts. 52
Give students time to think. 52
Facilitating Retrieval 54
Provide many opportunities to practice important
knowledge and skills. 55
Give hints that help students recall or reconstruct what
they’ve learned. 55
Monitoring Students’ Progress 56
Regularly assess students’ understandings. 56
Identify and address students’ misconceptions. 57
Focus assessments on meaningful learning rather
than rote learning. 57
Be on the lookout for students who have unusual
difficulty with certain cognitive processes. 57
Summary 60
Practice For Your Licensure Exam 61
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3 Complex Cognitive
Processes 62
Case Study: Taking Over 63
3.1 Self-Regulation and Metacognition 64
Effective Self-Regulated Learning 64
Self-regulating learners establish goals for their
performance and plan their actions accordingly. 65
Self-regulating learners control and monitor their processes
and progress during a learning task. 65
Self-regulating learners seek assistance and support when
they need it. 66
Self-regulating learners monitor and try to control their
motivation and emotions. 66
Self-regulating learners evaluate the final outcomes of
their efforts. 66
Self-regulating learners self-impose consequences for
their performance. 66
Most learners become increasingly self-regulating over the
course of childhood and adolescence, partly as a result
of maturation in key areas of the brain. 67
The Roles of Metacognition 69
Some effective study strategies are easily seen in learners’
behaviors. 70
Study strategies are effective only to the extent that they
involve productive cognitive processes. 71
Metacognitive knowledge and skills gradually improve
with age. 72
Learners’ beliefs about the nature of knowledge and
learning influence their approaches to learning
tasks. 74
3.2 Transfer 75
Meaningful learning and conceptual understanding
increase the probability of transfer. 76
Both positive and negative transfer are more common
when a new situation appears to be similar to a
previous one. 76
Knowledge and skills can be transferred to very different
situations. 77
Learning strategies, general beliefs, and attitudes can also
transfer to new situations. 78
Transfer increases when the learning environment
encourages it. 78
3.3 Problem Solving and Creativity 79
The depth of learners’ knowledge influences their ability to
solve problems and think creatively. 80
Both convergent and divergent thinking are constrained by
working memory capacity. 81
How learners represent a problem or situation influences
their strategies and eventual success. 81
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Problem solving and creativity often involve heuristics that
facilitate but don’t guarantee successful outcomes. 82
Effective problem solving and creativity require self-
regulation and metacognition. 83
3.4 Critical Thinking 84
Critical thinking requires sophisticated epistemic
beliefs. 85
Critical thinking is a disposition as much as a cognitive
process. 86
3.5 Promoting Self-Regulation Skills and Metacognitive
Development 87
Guide and support self-regulated learning and
behavior. 88
Encourage metacognitive self-reflection. 90
Explicitly teach effective learning strategies. 90
Communicate that acquiring knowledge is a dynamic,
ongoing process—that one never completely knows
something. 92
3.6 Creating a Classroom Environment That Nurtures
Complex Processes 93
Create an atmosphere in which transfer, creative problem
solving, and critical thinking are both expected and
valued. 93
Teach complex thinking skills within the context of specific
topics and content domains. 94
Pursue topics in depth rather than superficially. 94
Provide numerous and varied opportunities to apply
classroom subject matter to new situations and
authentic problems. 94
Use technology to simulate real-world-like tasks and
problems. 96
Present questions and tasks that require students to think
flexibly about classroom topics. 96
Encourage critical evaluation of information and ideas
presented in printed materials and online. 97
Support complex cognitive processes through group
discussions and projects. 98
Incorporate complex cognitive processes into assessment
activities. 99
Summary 100
Practice For Your Licensure Exam 101
4
Learning in Context 102
Case Study: Why Jack Wasn’t in School 103
4.1 Immediate Stimuli as Context 104
Some stimuli tend to elicit certain kinds of responses. 104
Learners are more likely to acquire behaviors that lead to
desired consequences. 105
Learners are also likely to acquire behaviors that help them
avoid or escape unpleasant circumstances. 107
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Contents xvii
Learners tend to steer clear of behaviors that lead to
unpleasant consequences. 109
Learners acquire many behaviors by observing other
people’s actions. 109
Learners learn what behaviors are acceptable and effective
by observing what happens to people whom they
perceive to be similar to themselves. 112
By seeing what happens to themselves and others, learners
form expectations about the probable outcomes of
various actions. 112
Acquired knowledge and skills are often tied to a limited
set of activities and environments. 113
Learners often think and perform more effectively when
they can offload some of the cognitive burden onto
something or someone else. 114
4.2 Social Interaction as Context 114
Learners sometimes co-construct new understandings with
more experienced individuals. 115
Learners also co-construct knowledge and understandings
with peers who have ability levels similar to or greater
than their own. 115
Other people sometimes provide the support learners
need to take on challenging new tasks. 117
4.3 Culture, Society, Technology, and Academic Domains
as Contexts 118
Culture as Context 119
Any cultural group encourages and models certain
behaviors and actively discourages certain other
behaviors. 119
Every culture passes along many cognitive tools that
enhance learners’ thinking capabilities. 120
Every culture instills certain worldviews that color people’s
interpretations of events. 120
Every culture has certain ways of doing things, and these,
too, are passed from generation to generation. 122
Inconsistencies between home and school cultures can
interfere with school learning and performance. 123
Society as Context 124
Any large society has multiple layers that all affect
children’s learning and development either directly or
indirectly. 125
Different members of a society have different specialties,
and they call on one another’s areas of expertise as
needed. 126
In most situations, some society members have greater
access to the society’s resources than other members
do. 126
Technology and Media as Contexts 128
Mobile devices allow learners to connect to a wide variety
of people and resources. 128
Some media create “virtual” contexts that simulate real-
world-like environments and events. 128
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 xviii Contents
Academic Content Domains as Contexts 129
Each academic discipline provides many cognitive tools
that enhance thinking and problem solving. 129
Different content domains require somewhat different
cognitive processes and, as a result, somewhat
different ways of learning. 130
4.4 How Learners Modify Their Environments 131
Learners alter their current environment through both their
behaviors and such internal variables as beliefs, mental
processes, feelings, and personality traits. 131
Learners actively seek out environments that are a good fit
with their existing characteristics and behaviors. 133
4.5 Providing Supportive Contexts for Learning 134
Encouraging Productive Behaviors 134
Create conditions that elicit desired responses. 134
Make sure that productive behaviors are reinforced and
that unproductive behaviors are not reinforced. 134
Make response–reinforcement contingencies clear. 135
As an alternative to punishment, reinforce productive
behaviors that are incompatible with unproductive
ones. 136
Model desired behaviors. 136
Provide a variety of role models. 137
Shape complex behaviors gradually over time. 138
Have students practice new behaviors and skills in a variety
of contexts—ideally including real-world settings
outside of school. 139
Providing Physical, Social, and Technological Support for
Effective Cognitive Processes 138
Provide physical and cognitive tools that can help students
work and think more effectively. 139
Equip students with the literacy skills they need to
effectively use and learn from various technologies
and media. 140
Encourage student dialogue and collaboration. 142
Use computer technology to support both within-class and
across-class communication. 143
Create a community of learners. 143
4.6 Taking Students’ Broader Cultural and Socioeconomic
Contexts into Account 145
Learn as much as you can about students’ cultural
backgrounds, and come to grips with your own
cultural lens. 145
Remember that membership in a particular cultural or
ethnic group is not an either-or situation but, instead, a
more-or-less phenomenon. 145
Incorporate the perspectives and traditions of many
cultures into the curriculum. 145
Be sensitive to cultural differences in behaviors and
beliefs, and when appropriate, adapt instructional
methods to students’ preferred ways of learning and
behaving. 146
A01_ORMR2098_05_SE_FM.indd 18
Be sensitive to the culture shock that recent immigrants
might be experiencing. 147
Work hard to break down rigid stereotypes of particular
cultural and ethnic groups. 147
Identify and, if possible, provide missing resources and
experiences important for successful learning. 148
Summary 150
Practice For Your Licensure Exam 151
5 Motivation and Affect 152
Case Study: Passing Algebra 153
5.1 The Nature of Motivation 154
5.2 Basic Human Needs 159
Learners have a basic need for arousal. 159
Learners want to believe they are competent and have
self-worth. 160
Learners want to determine the course of their lives to
some degree. 160
Learners want to feel connected to other people. 161
Learners experience greater enjoyment and interest in
school activities when their basic psychological needs
are met. 161
5.3 Cognitive Factors in Motivation 163
Learners find some topics inherently interesting. 163
To engage voluntarily in activities, learners want their
chances of success to be reasonably good. 165
When learners think their chances of success are slim,
they may behave in ways that make success even less
likely. 166
Learners are more likely to devote time to activities that
have value for them. 167
Learners typically form goals related to their academic
achievement; the specific nature of these goals
influences learners’ cognitive processes and
behaviors. 169
Learners must juggle their achievement goals with their
many other goals. 171
Learners identify what are, in their minds, the likely causes
of their successes and failures. 172
Learners’ attributions for past successes and failures affect
their future performance. 174
Learners’ attributions are affected by their teachers’
attributions and resulting expectations for students’
performance. 176
With age, learners increasingly attribute their successes
and failures to ability rather than to effort. 177
Over time, learners acquire a general attributional
style. 177
Culture influences the cognitive factors underlying
motivation. 179
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5.4 Affect and Its Effects on Motivation and Learning 181
Affect and motivation are interrelated. 181
Affect is closely tied to learning and cognition. 181
Productive affect can trigger effective learning
strategies. 183
Affect can also trigger certain behaviors. 183
Some anxiety is helpful, but a lot is often a
hindrance. 183
Different cultures nurture different emotional
responses. 184
5.5 Promoting Motivation and Productive Affect 187
Strategies That Empower Students 188
Give students control over some aspects of classroom
life. 188
Evaluate students’ performance in a noncontrolling
manner. 189
Use extrinsic reinforcers when necessary, but do so
in ways that preserve students’ sense of
autonomy. 189
Ask students to set some personal goals for learning and
performance. 190
Strategies That Demonstrate the Usefulness of Activities 191
Explicitly relate class activities to students’ existing values
and goals. 191
Create conditions that foster internalization of values
essential for students’ long-term academic and
professional success. 191
Strategies That Foster Success 191
Protect and enhance students’ self-efficacy and overall
sense of competence and self-worth. 191
Present challenges that students can realistically
accomplish. 192
Form and communicate optimistic expectations and
attributions. 193
Minimize competition. 194
Focus students’ attention more on mastery goals than on
performance goals. 195
Strategies That Stimulate Interest 196
Conduct interest-arousing lessons and activities. 196
Relate activities to students’ individual interests. 197
Strategies That Show and Promote Caring 198
Show students that you like them and are concerned
about their well-being. 198
Provide regular opportunities for students to interact
productively with one another. 198
Strategies That Generate Productive Affect for Learning 198
Get students emotionally involved in the subject
matter. 198
Foster emotion regulation. 199
Keep anxiety at a low to moderate level. 200
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Contents xix
As students make the transition to middle school or high
school, make an extra effort to minimize their anxiety
and address their need for relatedness. 200
Summary 202
Practice For Your Licensure Exam 203
6 Cognitive Development 204
Case Study: Hidden Treasure 205
6.1 General Principles of Development 206
The sequence of development is somewhat
predictable. 206
Children develop at different rates. 206
Development is often marked by spurts and
plateaus. 208
Development involves both quantitative and qualitative
changes. 208
Heredity and environment interact in their effects on
development. 209
Children’s own behaviors also influence their
development. 209
6.2 Developmental Processes 210
The brain continues to develop throughout childhood,
adolescence, and adulthood. 210
Children have a natural tendency to organize their
experiences. 212
Children are naturally inclined to make sense of and adapt
to their environment. 212
Development builds on prior acquisitions. 213
Observations of the physical environment—and,
ideally, frequent interactions with it—promote
development. 213
Language development facilitates cognitive
development. 213
Interactions with other people promote
development. 214
Formal schooling promotes development. 214
Inconsistencies between existing understandings and new
events promote development. 215
Challenging tasks promote development. 216
6.3 Trends in Cognitive Development 217
Children’s growing working memory capacity enables them
to handle increasingly complex cognitive tasks. 217
Children’s growing knowledge base enhances their ability
to learn new things. 217
Children’s knowledge, beliefs, and thinking processes
become increasingly integrated. 217
Thinking becomes increasingly logical during the
elementary school years. 218
Thinking becomes increasingly abstract in the middle
school and secondary school years. 219
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 xx Contents
Several logical thinking processes important for
mathematical and scientific reasoning improve
considerably during adolescence. 220
Children can think more logically and abstractly about tasks
and topics they know well. 221
True expertise comes only after many years of study and
practice. 223
6.4 Intelligence 224
Intelligence can be measured only imprecisely at best. 225
To some degree, intelligence reflects the general speed,
efficiency, and control of cognitive processing. 226
Intelligence also involves numerous specific processes and
abilities. 226
Learners may be more intelligent in some domains than in
others. 227
Intelligence is a product of both inherited characteristics
and environmental influences. 228
Intelligence may take different forms at different age
levels. 229
Learners may have specific cognitive styles and dispositions
that predispose them to think and act in more or less
intelligent ways. 229
Learners act more intelligently when they have physical or
social support for their efforts. 232
6.5 Addressing Students’ Developmental Needs 233
Accommodating Developmental Differences and Diversity 233
Explore students’ reasoning with problem-solving
tasks and probing questions. 233
Interpret intelligence test results cautiously. 235
Look for signs of exceptional abilities and talents. 235
Consult with specialists if children show significant delays in
development. 236
Fostering Cognitive Development in All Students 238
Encourage play activities. 238
Share the wisdom of previous generations. 239
Rely heavily on concrete objects and activities, especially in
the early elementary grades. 239
Present abstract ideas more frequently in the middle school
and high school grades, but tie them to concrete
objects and events. 240
Initially introduce sophisticated reasoning processes
within the context of familiar situations and group
work. 240
Scaffold students’ early efforts at challenging tasks and
assignments. 243
Involve students in age-appropriate ways in adult
activities. 244
Be optimistic that with appropriate guidance and support,
all students can perform more intelligently. 245
Summary 247
Practice For Your Licensure Exam 248
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7 Personal, Social, and Moral
Development 250
Case Study: The School Play 251
7.1 Personality and Sense of Self 252
Heredity and environment interact to shape
personality. 252
Despite some relatively stable personality traits, children
often behave somewhat differently in different
contexts. 253
Behaviors related to self-control are at least partly the
result of brain development. 254
As children grow older, they construct increasingly
multifaceted understandings of who they are as
people. 254
With age, self-perceptions become more realistic, abstract,
and stable. 255
As children reach puberty, they understand that they are
unique individuals, but they may overestimate their
uniqueness. 256
Self-perceptions influence children’s behaviors, and vice
versa. 257
Other people’s behaviors affect children’s sense of self. 257
Group memberships also affect children’s sense of self. 258
Gender plays a significant role in most children’s sense of
self. 258
Despite the influence of others, growing children
define and socialize themselves to a considerable
degree. 260
7.2 Peer Relationships 261
Peer relationships promote personal, social, and academic
development in ways that adult–child relationships
often cannot. 261
Peers help define “appropriate” ways of behaving. 262
On average, boys and girls interact with peers in distinctly
different ways. 262
Social groups become increasingly important in
adolescence. 263
Romantic relationships in adolescence can provide
valuable practice for the intimate relationships of
adulthood. 264
Truly popular children have good social skills. 265
In recent decades, digital technologies have provided new
mechanisms for interacting with peers. 266
Social Cognition 266
As children get older, they become increasingly aware of
other people’s thoughts and feelings. 267
Children’s cognitive processes in social situations influence
their behaviors toward others. 268
Aggressive behavior is often the result of
counterproductive cognitive processes. 268
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7.3 Moral and Prosocial Development 270
Children begin applying internal standards for behavior at
a very early age. 271
Children increasingly distinguish between moral and
conventional transgressions. 271
Children’s capacity to respond emotionally to other
people’s misfortunes and distress increases throughout
the school years. 271
With age, reasoning about moral issues becomes
increasingly abstract and flexible. 273
Challenges to current moral perspectives can promote
advancement toward more sophisticated
reasoning. 275
Cognition, affect, and motivation all influence moral and
prosocial behavior. 275
Moral values become an important part of some young
people’s sense of self. 277
7.4 Promoting Personal, Social, and Moral Development 278
Fostering Personal Development 278
Accommodate students’ diverse temperaments. 278
Help students get a handle on who they are and who they
want to become. 278
Create a warm, supportive environment with clear
standards for behavior and explanations of why some
behaviors are unacceptable. 280
Channel adolescents’ risk-taking tendencies into safe
activities. 280
Encouraging Effective Social Cognition and Interpersonal Skills 281
Foster perspective taking and empathy. 281
Talk with students about what it really means to be
popular. 282
Provide frequent opportunities for social interaction and
cooperation. 283
Explicitly teach social skills to students who have trouble
interacting effectively with others. 283
Explain what bullying is and why it cannot be
tolerated. 284
Be alert for incidents of bullying and other forms of
aggression, and take appropriate actions with both the
victims and the perpetrators. 285
Explicitly discourage inappropriate communications and
postings via cell phones and the Internet. 286
Promote understanding, communication, and interaction
among diverse groups. 286
Promoting Moral Reasoning and Prosocial Behavior 287
Expose students to numerous models of moral and
prosocial behavior. 287
Engage students in discussions of social and moral
issues. 287
Discourage all forms of cheating. 288
Get students actively involved in community service. 289
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Contents xxi
7.5 Supporting Students Who Face Exceptional Personal or
Social Challenges 290
Be on the lookout for exceptional challenges that students
may have previously faced or are currently facing at
home. 290
Identify additional supportive strategies and services for
students who are homeless. 291
Also be on the lookout for students who appear to be
social outcasts. 292
Provide extra support and guidance for students who
have disabilities that affect their personal or social
functioning. 292
Know the warning signs of severe depression and possible
suicide. 293
Intervene early and often with students who are at risk for
dropping out of school. 294
Summary 296
Practice For Your Licensure Exam 297
8 Instructional Strategies 300
Case Study: Westward Expansion 301
8.1 Planning Instruction 302
Begin by identifying what students should ultimately know
and be able to do. 302
Align long-term instructional goals with appropriate
standards for various content domains. 303
Include goals and objectives at varying levels of complexity
and sophistication. 305
Ask students to identify some of their own goals for
instruction. 306
Break complex tasks and topics into smaller pieces, identify
a logical sequence for the pieces, and decide how
best to teach each one. 306
Consider how you might best get and keep students
actively engaged in instructional activities. 308
Develop step-by-step lesson plans. 309
Create a class website to share goals and facilitate
communication throughout the school year. 310
8.2 Conducting Teacher-Directed Instruction 311
Begin with what students already know and believe. 311
Encourage and support effective cognitive
processes. 311
Intermingle explanations with examples and opportunities
for practice. 312
Take advantage of well-designed instructional software and
Internet websites. 313
Ask a lot of questions. 315
Extend the school day with age-appropriate homework
assignments. 316
Shoot for mastery of basic knowledge and skills. 318
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 xxii Contents
8.3 Conducting Learner-Directed Instruction 320
Have students discuss issues that lend themselves
to multiple perspectives, explanations, or
approaches. 320
Create a classroom atmosphere conducive to open debate
and the constructive evaluation of ideas. 321
Conduct activities in which students must depend on one
another for their learning. 322
Have students conduct their own research about certain
topics. 323
Have students teach one another. 325
Use computer technology to enhance communication and
collaboration. 327
Assign authentic real-world tasks and simulations, perhaps
as group activities. 327
When real-world tasks and simulations are impractical
or impossible, consider using computer-based
simulations and games. 328
Provide sufficient scaffolding to ensure successful
accomplishment of assigned tasks. 329
8.4 General Instructional Strategies 330
Take group differences into account. 331
Consider how you might productively modify or
supplement instructional strategies for the benefit of
English language learners in your classroom. 333
Also take developmental levels, individual differences,
and special educational needs into account. 333
Combine several instructional approaches into a single
lesson. 335
Summary 337
Practice for Your Licensure Exam 338
9 Strategies for Creating
Effective Classroom and
School Environments 340
Case Study: A Contagious Situation 341
9.1 Creating an Environment Conducive to Learning 342
Arrange the classroom to maximize attention and minimize
disruptions. 342
Communicate caring and respect for every student. 343
Work hard to improve relationships that have gotten off to
a bad start. 344
Create a sense of community and belongingness. 345
Create a goal-oriented and businesslike (but
nonthreatening) atmosphere. 345
Establish reasonable rules and procedures. 346
Enforce rules consistently and equitably. 348
Keep students productively engaged in worthwhile
tasks. 348
A01_ORMR2098_05_SE_FM.indd 22
Plan for transitions. 349
Take individual and developmental differences into
account. 350
Continually monitor what students are doing. 350
9.2 Expanding the Sense of Community Beyond the
Classroom 353
Collaborate with colleagues to create an overall sense of
school community. 353
Work cooperatively with other agencies that play key roles
in students’ lives. 354
Communicate regularly with parents and other primary
caregivers. 354
Invite families to participate in the academic and social life
of the school. 356
Make an extra effort with seemingly “reluctant”
parents. 356
9.3 Reducing Unproductive Behaviors 357
Consider whether instructional strategies or classroom
assignments might be partly to blame for off-task
behaviors. 358
Consider whether cultural background might influence
students’ classroom behaviors. 359
Ignore misbehaviors that are temporary, minor, and unlikely
to be repeated or copied. 360
Give signals and reminders about what is and is not
appropriate. 360
Get students’ perspectives about their behaviors. 361
Teach self-regulation techniques. 363
When administering punishment, use only those
consequences that have been shown to be effective in
reducing problem behaviors. 364
Confer with parents. 367
To address a chronic problem, plan and carry out a
systematic intervention. 368
Determine whether certain undesirable behaviors might
serve particular purposes for students. 371
9.4 Addressing Aggression and Violence at School 374
Make the creation of a nonviolent school environment a
long-term effort. 375
Intervene early for students at risk. 376
Provide intensive intervention for students in trouble. 376
Take additional measures to address gang violence. 377
Summary 379
Practice For Your Licensure Exam 380
10 Assessment Strategies 382
Case Study: B in History 383
10.1 Using Assessments for Various Purposes 384
Guiding Instructional Decision Making 385
Diagnosing Learning and Performance Problems 385
21/10/16 5:30 PM

Determining What Students Have Ultimately Learned from
Instruction 386
Evaluating the Quality of Instruction 386
Promoting Learning 386
Assessments can motivate students to study and learn. 386
Assessments can influence students’ cognitive processes as
they study. 387
Assessment activities can be learning experiences in and of
themselves. 387
Assessments can provide feedback about learning
progress. 387
Assessments can encourage intrinsic motivation and
self-regulation if students play an active role in the
assessment process. 388
10.2 Enhancing Learning Through Classroom Assessment
Practices 388
Through both words and deeds, communicate that
promoting learning and mastery—not passing
judgment—is the ultimate goal. 388
Make assessment criteria explicit early in the instructional
process. 389
Ask students to evaluate their own performance. 390
Assess students’ ability to learn new things given varying
levels of guidance and support. 391
Take advantage of technology-based formative assessment
tools. 391
10.3 Important Qualities of Good Assessment 392
A good assessment is reliable. 393
A good assessment is standardized for most students. 394
A good assessment has validity for its purpose. 395
A good assessment is practical. 399
10.4 Informally and Formally Assessing Students’ Progress and
Achievements 400
Conducting Informal Assessments 400
Observe both verbal and nonverbal behaviors. 400
Ask yourself whether your existing beliefs and expectations
might be biasing your judgments. 401
Keep a written record of your observations. 401
Don’t take any single observation too seriously; instead,
look for patterns over time. 402
Designing and Giving Formal Assessments 402
Get as much information as possible within reasonable
time limits. 402
When practical, use authentic tasks. 403
Use paper–pencil assessment tasks when they are
consistent with instructional goals. 404
Use performance assessments when necessary to ensure
validity. 405
Define tasks clearly, and give students some structure to
guide their responses. 407
A01_ORMR2098_05_SE_FM.indd 23
Contents xxiii
Carefully scrutinize items and tasks for characteristics that
might put some groups at an unfair disadvantage. 409
When giving tests, encourage students to do their best,
but don’t arouse a lot of anxiety. 410
Establish conditions for the assessment that enable
students to maximize their performance. 411
Take reasonable steps to discourage cheating. 412
Evaluating Students’ Performance on Formal Assessments 413
After students have completed an assessment, review
evaluation criteria to be sure they can adequately
guide scoring. 413
Be as objective as possible. 413
Make note of any significant aspects of a student’s
performance that predetermined scoring criteria don’t
address. 414
When determining overall scores, don’t compare students
to one another unless there is a compelling reason to
do so. 414
Accompany any test scores with specific, constructive
feedback. 415
Make allowances for risk taking and the occasional “bad
day.” 415
Respect students’ right to privacy. 416
10.5 Summarizing Students’ Achievement with Grades and
Portfolios 417
Base final grades largely on final achievement levels and
hard data. 418
Use many assessments to determine final grades, but don’t
count everything. 418
Share grading criteria with students, and keep students
continually apprised of their progress. 418
Keep parents in the loop. 419
Accompany grades with descriptions of what the grades
reflect. 420
Also accompany grades with qualitative information about
students’ performance. 420
Use portfolios to show complex skills or improvements over
time. 421
10.6 Assessing Students’ Achievement and Abilities with
Standardized Tests 424
High-Stakes Tests and Accountability 426
Using Standardized Achievement Tests Judiciously 427
When you have a choice in the test you use, choose
one that has high validity for your curriculum and
students. 427
Teach to the test if—but only if—it reflects important
instructional goals. 427
When preparing students for an upcoming standardized
test, tell them what the test will be like and teach them
good test-taking skills. 428
22/10/16 6:11 PM
 xxiv Preface

When administering the test, follow the directions closely Summary 431
and report any unusual circumstances. 428 Practice For Your Licensure Exam 432
Make appropriate accommodations for English language
learners. 428 Appendix A: Describing Associations with Correlation
When interpreting test results, take students’ ages and Coefficients A-1
developmental levels into account. 429 Appendix B: Understanding and Interpreting Standardized
If tests are being used to measure teacher or school Test Results B-1
effectiveness, advocate for a focus on students’ Glossary G-1
improvement over time rather than on age-group References R-1
averages. 429
Name Index N-1
Never use a single test score to make important decisions
Subject Index S-1
about students. 430

A01_ORMR2098_05_SE_FM.indd 24 21/10/16 5:30 PM

 ESSENTIALS OF
EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY
Big Ideas to Guide Effective Teaching

A01_ORMR2098_05_SE_FM.indd 25 21/10/16 5:30 PM

 Moodboard Premium/Glow Images
1 Introduction to Educational
Psychology
Big Ideas 1.1 Effective teachers use research findings and research-based theories to
make decisions about instructional strategies, classroom management, and
to Master in assessment practices.

this Chapter 1.2 Effective teachers continually work to enhance their professional knowledge
and skills.
1.3 Learners read, study, and learn more efficiently when they plan appropriately
and use effective strategies.

M01_ORMR2098_05_SE_C01.indd 2 21/10/16 1:59 PM

 Ca se Stu dy: The “N o D” Po licy C hapt e r Ou tline
Anne Smith is a ninth-grade English teacher with 10 years of teaching experience, Case Study: The “No D” Policy
and by all accounts she’s an excellent teacher. Even so, in previous years many of Using Research Findings to Make
Instructional Decisions
her students haven’t invested much time or energy in their writing assignments and
Developing as a Teacher
seemingly haven’t been bothered by the Cs and Ds they’ve earned in her classes. Strategies for Learning and
In an effort to more fully engage this year’s students in their schoolwork, Ms. Smith Studying Effectively
begins the school year by initiating two new policies. First, to pass her course, Summary
students must earn at least a C; she won’t give anyone a final grade of D. Second, Practice for Your Licensure Exam:
students will have multiple opportunities to revise and resubmit assignments. New Software
She’ll give whatever feedback students need on the assignments—and, if
necessary, one-on-one instruction—to help them improve their work. She solicits
students’ questions and concerns about the new policies, gains their agreement
to “try something new,” and engages them in a discussion of specific, concrete
characteristics of A-quality, B-quality, and C-quality work. Then, as the school year
progresses, she regularly administers brief surveys to get students’ feedback about
her innovations, asking such questions as “How is the ‘no D’ policy working for
you?” “Do you think your grade is an accurate reflection of your learning?” and
“Any suggestions?”
Students’ responses on the surveys are overwhelmingly positive. Students
mention noticeable improvements in the quality of their writing and increasingly
report that they believe themselves to be in control of both their learning and their
grades. Furthermore, they begin to see their teacher in a new light—“as one who
will help them achieve their best work, not as one who just gives out grades . . . as a
coach encouraging them along the long race of learning.” Final course grades also
confirm the value of the new policies: A much higher percentage of students earn
grades of C or better than has been true in past years.1

• Effective teachers don’t simply transmit new information and skills to

students; they also work hard to help students master the information and
skills. In the case study just presented, what strategies does Ms. Smith use to
foster her students’ writing development?

Teaching other people—especially teaching the generation that will follow you into the adult
world—can be one of the most rewarding professions on the planet. It can also be a very chal-
lenging profession. Certainly effective teaching involves presenting a topic or skill in such a
way that students can understand and master it. Yet it involves many other things as well. For
instance, teachers must motivate students to want to learn the subject matter, must help stu-
dents recognize what true mastery involves, and—to appropriately individualize instruction—
must assess where each student currently is in his or her learning and development. And, in
general, effective teachers create an environment in which students believe that if they work
hard and have reasonable support, they can achieve at high levels. In the opening case study,
Anne Smith does all of these things.
How children and adolescents think and learn, what knowledge and skills they have and
haven’t mastered, where they are in their developmental journeys, what their interests and

1
Action research project described in A. K. Smith, 2009.

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 4 Chapter 1 • Introduction to Educational Psychology

priorities are—all of these factors influence the effectiveness of various classroom strategies.
Thus, the decisions teachers make in the classroom—decisions about what topics and skills to
teach (planning), how to teach those topics and skills (instruction), how to keep students on task
and supportive of one another’s learning efforts (creating an effective classroom environment), and
how best to determine what students have learned (assessment)—must ultimately depend on stu-
dents’ existing characteristics and behaviors.
Of course, as we saw from Anne Smith in the opening case study, teachers’ classroom strate-
gies also change what students know, think, and can do. Thus, the relationship between student
characteristics and behaviors, on the one hand, and teacher strategies, on the other, is a two-way
street. Furthermore, as you’ll discover in later chapters, planning, instruction, the classroom envi-
ronment, and assessment practices influence one another, as depicted in Figure 1.1. Notice how
Figure 1.1 A learner- student characteristics and behaviors are at the center of the figure, because these must drive al-
centered model of most everything that teachers do in the classroom. Such an approach to teaching is sometimes
instruction known as learner-centered instruction.2
The purpose of this book is to help you understand children and adolescents—how they
Planning Instruction learn and develop, how they’re likely to be similar to but also different from one another, what
activities and assignments are apt to engage them in the classroom, and so on. It will also give you
Student a toolbox of strategies for planning and carrying out instruction, creating an environment that
Characteristics keeps students motivated and on task, and assessing students’ progress and achievement. Such
and Behaviors
topics are the domain of educational psychology, which is an academic discipline that (a) system-
atically studies the nature of human learning, development, motivation, and related topics and (b)
Classroom
Assessment applies its research findings to the identification and development of effective instructional prac-
Environment
tices. We begin by exploring how teachers can use different types of research findings to make
instructional decisions.

1.1 Using Research Findings to Make

Instructional Decisions
Big Idea 1.1 Effective teachers use research findings and research-based
theories to make decisions about instructional strategies, classroom
management, and assessment practices.
Teachers make instructional decisions based on their prior experiences, advice from others, knowl-
edge and skills they learned in their formal schooling, and so on. Although many of these sources
of information are potentially useful to teachers’ instructional decisions, effective teachers rely on
research findings and research-based theories to inform their practices. In the principles that follow,
we discuss why teachers need to understand research, we examine the different types of research con-
ducted by educational psychologists, and we explain how this research can be synthesized and orga-
nized to be helpful to teachers.

The effectiveness of various classroom practices can best be

determined through systematic research.
You yourself have been a student for many years now, and you’ve undoubtedly learned a great deal
about how individuals learn and develop and about how teachers can foster their learning and
development. But exactly how much do you know? To help you find out, one of us authors has
developed a short pretest titled Ormrod’s Own Psychological Survey (OOPS).

2
For good general discussions of learner-centered instructional practices, see McCombs, 2005; National Research
Council, 2000. You may also want to look at the American Psychological Association’s (APA’s) 14 Learner-Centered
Psychological Principles on the APA website at www.apa.org; type “learner-centered principles” in the search box on
APA’s home page.

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 1.1 Using Research Findings to Make Instructional Decisions 5

SEE FOR YOURSELF

Ormrod’s Own Psychological Survey (OOPS)
Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false.

True/False
_____ 1. Some children are predominantly left-brain thinkers, whereas others are predominantly right-
brain thinkers.
_____ 2. The best way to learn and remember a new fact is to repeat it over and over.
_____ 3. Students often misjudge how much they know about a topic.
_____ 4. Anxiety sometimes helps students learn and perform more successfully in the classroom.
_____ 5. Instruction is most effective when it is tailored to students’ individual learning styles.
_____ 6. Children’s personalities are largely the result of their home environments.
_____ 7. Playing video games can enhance children’s cognitive development.
_____ 8. The ways in which teachers assess students’ learning influence what and how students actually
learn.

Now let’s see how well you did on the OOPS. The answers, along with an explanation for
each one, are as follows:

1. Some children are predominantly left-brain thinkers, whereas others are pre-
dominantly right-brain thinkers. FALSE—With the development of new medical technolo-
gies in recent years, researchers have learned a great deal about how the human brain works and
which parts of it specialize in which aspects of human thinking. As we’ll discover in Chapter 2,
the two halves, or hemispheres, of the brain do seem to have somewhat different specialties, but they
continually communicate and collaborate in tackling even the simplest of daily tasks. Practically
speaking, there’s no such thing as left-brain or right-brain thinking.3
2. The best way to learn and remember a new fact is to repeat it over and over.
FALSE—Although repeating new information several times is better than doing nothing at all
with it, repetition of specific facts is a relatively ineffective way to learn. Students learn new infor-
mation more easily and remember it longer when they connect it with things they already know.
One especially effective strategy is elaboration: using prior knowledge to expand or embellish
on a new idea in some way, perhaps by drawing inferences from a historical fact, identifying new
examples of a scientific concept, or thinking of situations in which a mathematical procedure
might be helpful. Chapter 2 describes several cognitive processes that help students learn and
remember school subject matter effectively.
3. Students often misjudge how much they know about a topic. TRUE—Contrary
to popular opinion, students are usually not the best judges of what they do and don’t know. For
example, many students think that if they’ve spent a long time studying a textbook chapter, they
must know its contents very well. Yet if they’ve spent most of their study time inefficiently—
perhaps by “reading” while thinking about something else altogether or by mindlessly copying
definitions—they may know far less than they think they do. We’ll consider this illusion of know-
ing further in Chapter 3.
4. Anxiety sometimes helps students learn and perform more successfully in the
classroom. TRUE—Many people think that anxiety is always a bad thing. In fact, a little bit of
anxiety can actually improve learning and performance, especially when students perceive a task
to be something they can accomplish with reasonable effort. For instance, a small, manageable
amount of anxiety can spur students to complete their work carefully and to study for tests. We’ll
explore the effects of anxiety and other emotions in Chapter 5.
5. Instruction is most effective when it is tailored to students’ individual learning
styles. FALSE—Contrary to a popular belief, most measures of supposed “learning styles” merely
reflect students’ self-reported preferences, and tailoring instruction to such preferences doesn’t

3
Schlegel, Alexander, & Tse, 2016.

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 6 Chapter 1 • Introduction to Educational Psychology

noticeably enhance students’ learning or academic achievement.4 It is far more important that
teachers base their instructional practices on knowledge of the cognitive processes that underlie
how virtually all students think and learn. We’ll learn more about students’ preferences and cogni-
tive styles in Chapter 6.
6. Children’s personalities are largely the result of their home environments.
FALSE—Certainly children’s home environments shape their behaviors to some extent. But
heredity also has a significant impact. From birth, infants are noticeably different in the extent
to which they’re calm or fussy, shy or outgoing, fearful or adventurous, and so on. As we’ll see in
Chapter 7, such differences in temperament appear to have their roots in biology and genetics, and
they persist throughout the childhood years and into adulthood.
7. Playing video games can enhance children’s cognitive development. TRUE or,
more accurately, SOMETIMES TRUE—A great deal of time spent playing video games instead of
reading, doing homework, and engaging in other school-related activities can definitely interfere
with children’s long-term academic success. But some video games can be powerful tools for pro-
moting important cognitive abilities, such as spatial abilities and the flexible use of attention.5
And educational technologists have increasingly been designing highly motivating video games
that simulate real-world problems and foster complex problem-solving skills.6 In upcoming chap-
ters (especially Chapter 4 and Chapter 8), we’ll examine many ways in which computer technolo-
gies can support students’ learning and cognitive development.
8. The ways in which teachers assess students’ learning influence what and how
students actually learn. TRUE—What and how students learn depend, in part, on how they
expect their learning to be assessed. For example, in the opening case study, Anne Smith’s “No D”
and multiple-submission policies encourage students to seek feedback about their work, benefit
from their mistakes, and enhance their writing skills. In Chapter 10 we’ll look more closely at the
potential effects of classroom assessment practices on students’ learning.

How many of the OOPS items did you answer correctly? Did some of the false items seem
convincing enough that you marked them true? Did some of the true items contradict certain
beliefs you had? If either of these was the case, you’re hardly alone. College students often agree
with statements that seem obvious but are, in fact, partially or completely incorrect.7 Furthermore,
many students in teacher education classes reject research findings when those findings appear to
contradict their personal beliefs and experiences.8
It’s easy to be persuaded by “common sense” and assume that what seems logical must be true.
Yet common sense and logic don’t always give us the real scoop about how people actually learn and
develop, nor do they always give us appropriate guidance about how best to help students succeed in
the classroom. Educational psychologists believe that knowledge about teaching and learning should
come from a more objective source of information—that is, from systematic research. Increasingly,
educators and policy makers alike are calling for evidence-based practices—the use of instructional
methods and other classroom strategies that research has consistently shown to bring about signifi-
cant gains in students’ development and academic achievement.9

Educational psychologists focus on the scientific study of psycho-

logical principles that are relevant to education.
Integrating evidence-based practices into your teaching takes time and practice, of course. But it also
takes knowledge of topics within the discipline of educational psychology, including knowledge of
human learning and motivation, developmental trends, individual and group differences, classroom
assessment and standardized testing, and effective classroom practices. Educational psychologists

4
Kirschner & van Merriënboer, 2013; Kozhevnikov, Evans, & Kosslyn, 2014; Krätzig & Arbuthnott, 2006; Mayer
& Massa, 2003.
5
Green, 2014; Rothbart, 2011; Tobias & Fletcher, 2011.
6
Blumberg, 2014; Squire, 2011.
7
Gage, 1991; L. S. Goldstein & Lake, 2000; Woolfolk Hoy, Davis, & Pape, 2006.
8
Gregoire, 2003; Holt-Reynolds, 1992; T. M. McDevitt & Ormrod, 2008; Patrick & Pintrich, 2001.
9
Cook, Smith, & Tankersley, 2012. For example, see Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005; Waterhouse, 2006.

M01_ORMR2098_05_SE_C01.indd 6 13/10/16 1:32 PM

 1.1 Using Research Findings to Make Instructional Decisions 7

develop this knowledge by solving problems in the field of education through the use of
rigorous scientific methods.10 Topics in educational psychology are also studied by re- Figure 1.2 Educational psychology
searchers in closely related disciplines, such as education, instructional design and tech- informs and is informed by other
nology, learning science, cognitive science, and other overlapping areas of psychology disciplines.
(e.g., behavioral, cognitive, developmental, social, and school psychology). In addition,
neurologists, cognitive psychologists, and researchers from other disciplines are working Education
together to discover how the brain influences people’s behavior and learning and, con-
versely, how people’s behavior and learning experiences can influence brain development. Instructional Design
This rapidly expanding field, known as cognitive neuroscience, is making many noteworthy & Technology
contributions to our understanding of human learning. As Figure 1.2 shows, educational
psychology informs and is informed by many different disciplines. Learning Science
One way that individuals contribute to the field of educational psychology is to Educational
Psychology
publish their research findings in academic journals and books. Many educational psy- Cognitive Science
chologists also belong to regional, national, and international organizations to share
their research and discuss ideas with others (see Figure 1.3 for examples). We authors
Psychology
synthesized much of this research in developing the Big Ideas presented in this book.
When educational psychologists write about and present their research, they iden-
Cognitive
tify the particular research articles, books, conference presentations, and other sources on Neuroscience
which they base their claims. Most educational psychology publications and conferences
require authors to follow APA style, guidelines prescribed by the American Psychological
Association for identifying sources and preparing references.11 In APA style, a source is
cited by presenting the author(s) and date of publication in the body of the text. For example, this
sentence from a prior paragraph would be cited as follows in APA style: College students often agree
with statements that seem obvious but are, in fact, partially or completely incorrect (Gage, 1991;
Goldstein & Lake, 2000; Woolfolk Hoy, Davis, & Pape, 2006). In this book, we’ve intentionally
deviated from APA style by presenting the references in footnotes. We hope this style will help you
focus on the ideas instead of on the names and dates provided in the references. But when you find
some of the book’s ideas especially interesting, exciting, or surprising, we urge you to read the foot-
noted sources firsthand by finding the detailed citations in the book’s References list.

Figure 1.3 Examples of organizations that represent educational

psychology

Organizations Website URL

American Educational Research Association (AERA) http://aera.net/
American Psychological Association (APA) http://www.apa.org/
Association for Psychological Science (APS) http://www.psychologicalscience.org/
International Society of the Learning Sciences (ISLS) https://www.isls.org/

Research can provide quantitative information, qualitative infor-

mation, or both.
Many research studies involve quantitative research: They yield numbers that reflect percentages,
frequencies, or averages related to certain characteristics or phenomena. For example, a quantitative
study might provide information about students’ scores on achievement tests, students’ responses to
rating-scale questionnaires, or school district records of students’ attendance and dropout rates.
Other studies involve qualitative research: They yield nonnumeric data—perhaps in the
form of verbal reports, written documents, pictures, or maps—that capture many aspects of a
complex situation. For example, a qualitative study might involve lengthy interviews in which
students describe their hopes for the future, a detailed case study of interpersonal relationships
within a tight-knit clique of adolescent girls, or in-depth observations of several teachers who cre-
ate distinctly different psychological atmospheres in their classrooms.

10
Harris, Graham, & Urdan, 2012; Reynolds & Miller, 2013.
11
For more information on APA style, see its Publication Manual (APA, 2010) or visit www.apastyle.org

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 8 Chapter 1 • Introduction to Educational Psychology

Table 1.1 • Contrasting Various Types of Research

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Descriptive Studies
General • Portray the complex,
Nature and multifaceted nature of human
Purposes behavior, especially in real-
world social settings
Limitations • Don’t enable either
predictions or conclusions
about cause-and-effect
relationships
Examples of • What things do high-achieving
Questions students say they do "in their
That Might Be heads" when they read and
Addressed study their textbooks?
• What distinct qualities
characterize high schools in
which members of various
adolescent gangs interact
congenially and respectfully?
• In what ways do teachers’
instructional practices change
when their jobs and salaries
depend on their students’
scores on statewide or
national achievement tests?
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Descriptive Studies Correlational Studies
• Capture the current • Identify associations among
state of affairs regarding characteristics, behaviors,
a real-world issue or and/or environmental
problem conditions
• Enable predictions about
one variable, given
knowledge of the degree
or quantity of another
variable
• Provide an alternative
when experimental
manipulations are unethical
or impossible
• Don’t enable either • Enable only imprecise
(1) predictions about predictions, with many
one variable based exceptions to the general
on another variable relationships observed
or (2) conclusions • Don’t enable conclusions
about cause-and-effect about cause-and-effect
relationships relationships
• How pervasive are • Are better readers also
gender stereotypes better spellers?
in popular children’s • Are students more likely
literature? to be aggressive at school
• What kinds of if they often see violence
aggressive behaviors at home or in their
occur in schools, and neighborhoods?
with what frequencies? • To what extent are
• How well have students students’ class grades
performed on a recent correlated with their scores
national achievement on achievement tests?
test?
Experimental and
Quasi-Experimental Studies
• Manipulate one
(independent) variable in
order to observe its possible
effect on another (dependent)
variable
• Eliminate other plausible
explanations for observed
outcomes (especially
in carefully controlled
experimental studies)
• Enable conclusions about
cause-and-effect relationships
• May not completely eliminate
alternative explanations
for observed outcomes
(especially true for quasi-
experimental studies)
• In some cases, involve
artificial laboratory conditions
that don’t resemble real-life
learning environments (true
for many tightly controlled
experimental studies)
• Which of two reading
programs produces
greater gains in reading
comprehension?
• Which method is most
effective in reducing
aggressive behavior—
reinforcing appropriate
behavior, punishing
aggressive behavior, or a
combination of both?
• Do different kinds of tests
(e.g., multiple-choice vs. essay
tests) encourage students to
study in different ways?

Ultimately educators gain a better understanding of students and effective classroom practices
when they consider findings from both quantitative and qualitative research. Research that includes
both quantitative and qualitative elements is called mixed methods research.12 For example, in the
research project described in the opening case study, Anne Smith tabulates students’ responses to
various survey questions and computes the percentages of various final class grades—all of which are
quantitative information. But when she collects students’ completed surveys, she also looks closely
at their specific comments and suggestions, which provide qualitative information.

Different kinds of research lead to different kinds of conclusions.

In addition to yielding either quantitative or qualitative data (or both), research studies typically fall
into one of four general categories: descriptive, correlational, experimental, or quasi-experimental.
These various kinds of studies enable different kinds of conclusions and are appropriate for differ-
ent types of research questions (see Table 1.1).

12
Creswell, 2014.

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 1.1 Using Research Findings to Make Instructional Decisions 9

A descriptive study does exactly what its name implies: It describes a situation. Descriptive
studies might give us information about the characteristics of students, teachers, or schools. They
might also provide information about how frequently certain events or behaviors occur. Descriptive
studies allow us to draw conclusions about the way things are—the current state of affairs.
Virtually all qualitative studies are primarily descriptive in nature, and some quantitative studies
fall into the descriptive category as well.
A correlational study explores possible relationships among two or more variables. For ex-
ample, it might tell us how closely various human characteristics are associated with each other, or
it might give us information about the consistency with which certain human behaviors occur in
conjunction with certain environmental conditions. In general, correlational studies enable us to
draw conclusions about correlation: the extent to which two characteristics or phenomena tend to
be found together or to change together. Two variables are correlated when one increases as the
other increases (a positive correlation) or when one decreases as the other increases (a negative correla-
tion) in a somewhat predictable manner. The bottom row of the fourth column in Table 1.1
presents three examples of possible correlational relationships: those between (1) reading and
spelling ability, (2) aggressive behavior at school and violence at home, and (3) class grades and
achievement test scores. Correlations are often described numerically with statistics known as
correlation coefficients, described in Appendix A.
If a correlation exists between two variables, knowing the status of one variable allows us to
make predictions about the other variable. For example, if we find a positive correlation between read-
ing ability and spelling ability, we can predict that, on average, students who are proficient readers
will also be good spellers. Our predictions will be imprecise at best, with exceptions to the general
rule; for instance, we may occasionally see very good readers who are poor spellers. A more signifi-
cant limitation of correlational studies is that although they may demonstrate that a relationship
exists, they never tell us for certain why it exists. They don’t tell us what specific factors—previous
experiences, personality, motivation, or perhaps other things we haven’t thought of—are the cause of
the relationship we see. In other words, correlation does not necessarily indicate causation.
Descriptive and correlational studies describe things as they exist naturally in the environ-
ment. In contrast, an experimental study, or experiment, is a study in which the researcher
somehow changes, or manipulates, one or more aspects of the environment (called independent vari-
ables) and then measures the effects of such changes on something else (called the dependent vari-
able). In educational research the dependent variable is often some aspect of student behavior—
perhaps end-of-year grades, skill in executing a complex physical movement, persistence in
tackling difficult math problems, or ability to interact appropriately with peers.13 In a good ex-
periment a researcher separates and controls variables, testing the possible effects of one variable
while keeping constant all other potentially influential variables. When carefully designed and
conducted, experimental studies enable us to draw conclusions about causation—about what vari-
ables cause or influence certain other variables.
Often experimental studies involve two or more groups that are treated differently. Consider
these examples:
• A researcher uses two different instructional methods to teach reading comprehension skills
to two different groups of students. (Instructional method is the independent variable.) The
researcher then assesses students’ reading ability (the dependent variable) and compares the
average reading-ability scores of the two groups.
• A researcher gives three different groups of students varying amounts of practice with
woodworking skills. (Amount of practice is the independent variable.) The researcher sub-
sequently scores the quality of each student’s woodworking project (the dependent variable)
and compares the average scores of the three groups.
• A researcher gives one group of students an intensive instructional program designed to
improve their study skills. The researcher gives another group of students no instruction
and gives a third group instruction in subject matter unrelated to study skills. (Presence

13
You might think of the distinction this way: Student behavior (the dependent variable) depends on instructional
practice or some other aspect of the environment (the independent variable).

M01_ORMR2098_05_SE_C01.indd 9 13/10/16 1:32 PM

 10 Chapter 1 • Introduction to Educational Psychology

or absence of instruction in study skills is the independent variable; the second and third
groups did not receive instruction in study skills.) The researcher later (1) assesses the qual-
ity of students’ study skills and (2) obtains their grade point averages (two dependent vari-
ables) to see whether the program had an effect.
Each of these examples includes treatment groups that are recipients of a particular intervention.
The third example also includes two control groups: one that receives no intervention and an-
other that receives a placebo intervention that’s unlikely to affect the dependent variable(s) in ques-
tion. In many experimental studies, participants are assigned to groups randomly—for instance, by
drawing names out of a hat or having computer software randomly pick different participants for
different groups. Such random assignment is apt to yield groups that are, on average, roughly
equivalent on other variables (preexisting ability levels, personality characteristics, motivation,
etc.) that might affect the dependent variable.
Random assignment to groups isn’t always possible or practical, however, especially in re-
search studies conducted in actual schools and classrooms. For example, when studying the poten-
tial benefits of a new teaching technique or therapeutic intervention, a researcher may not be able
to completely control which students receive the experimental treatment and which do not, or a
particular treatment or intervention may have important benefits for all students. In such situa-
tions, researchers often conduct a quasi-experimental study, in which they take into account, but
don’t completely control, other influential factors. The following are examples:
• A researcher implements a new after-school homework program at one high school and
identifies a comparable high school without such a program to serve as a control group. The
researcher obtains achievement test data for students at both schools both before and after
the program’s implementation. Ideally, to document the homework program’s effective-
ness, the average test scores for the two high schools should be the same before the program
begins. Then, if differences exist at the end of the program, they may be attributed to the
new homework program.
• A team of researchers wants to study the effects of safety instructions on children’s behaviors
on the playground. The researchers present the instructional intervention to first grad-
ers one week, second graders the following week, and kindergartners and third graders
the week after that. The researchers monitor students’ playground behavior before, during,
and after the intervention to determine whether each grade-level group’s risky playground
behavior decreases immediately following the intervention.14
When researchers conduct such quasi-experimental studies, they don’t control for all potentially
influential variables and therefore can’t completely rule out alternative explanations for the results
they obtain. For instance, in the after-school homework program example, possibly the school get-
ting the new homework program—but only that school—has simultaneously begun to use more
effective instructional methods during the school day, and those methods are the reason for any
increase in achievement scores. And in the playground safety example, perhaps certain other
things coincidentally happened in the four classrooms during their respective safety-instructions
weeks, and those things were the true causes of children’s behavior improvements.
When carefully designed and conducted, experimental studies and, to a lesser degree, quasi-
experimental studies enable us to draw conclusions about causation—about why behaviors occur.
Yet for practical or ethical reasons, many important questions in education don’t easily lend them-
selves to experimental manipulation and tight control of other potentially influential variables.
For example, although we might find a correlation between children’s aggression levels at school
and the amount of violence in their home environments, it would be highly unethical to conduct
an experimental study in which some children are intentionally placed in a violent environment.
Consequently, some important educational questions can be addressed only with descriptive or
correlational studies, even though such studies don’t let us pin down precise cause-and-effect
relationships.

14
Here we’re describing a study conducted by Heck, Collins, and Peterson (2001).

M01_ORMR2098_05_SE_C01.indd 10 13/10/16 1:32 PM

Another random document with
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 DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
 FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
 Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA

I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
 The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

 This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
 “We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
 Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
 BRAZIER

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

 FINISHING THE BOTTOM

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

 LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
 Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

 BEATING THE BARK

WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT

MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN