Appendix D: Definitions and Other Considerations

5-minute multiplication chart: a fluency practice that requires the student to

complete as much of a 12x12 multiplication chart as possible within 5 minutes
Automatic: fluent and accurate
Base-10: the system of numbers and counting in which groups of 10 are “bundled”
and moved into the next place value
Basic Math Facts: memorized sets of addition facts (ideally, within 20) and
multiplication facts (0x0-12x12); having basic math facts memorized is the
ultimate goal of the activities in this curriculum
Combining: the process of putting two or more quantities together to arrive at a
total
Composing: the process of putting numbers or quantities together
Counting On/Counting Up: a strategy in which a learner subitizes two quantities,
determines the greatest quantity, and counts on from that quantity rather than
counting both quantities from zero
Decomposing: the process of breaking a number or quantity apart
Double: combining the same quantity twice; this can be used as a strategy for both
addition and multiplication
Equal groups: two or more groups containing identical quantities
Explaining: a metacognitive skill that requires a learner to be able to state how and
why she used a particular process or found a particular answer
Factors: quantities multiplied together to arrive at a product; in the multiplication
chart for this curriculum, factors make up the top and left frame
Fish counting: a term for the strategy of mouthing words with exaggeration; used
to help the student develop a clear “brain voice” to decrease dependency on
speaking or reading aloud to track thinking
Fluency decks: decks of cards with either dots or numerals for students to perform
a process; operation signs should not be written onto cards; decks should be kept
separate and each printed on a unique color of cardstock

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Frame: the top row and left column of the multiplication chart; numerals written
in the frame indicate the first numeral that should be written in a given row or
column, as well as what quantity that row or column skip counts
Identity Property of Multiplication: a property of multiplication in which
multiplying any given quantity by a factor of 1 results in the same quantity,
because 1 group of n is equal to n
Mental Math Strategy: a process of performing an operation or combination of
operations on a given quantity without the use of writing or manipulatives; this
curriculum covers addition and multiplication mental math strategies
Metacognitive skills: a set of skills that allow learners to think about thinking and
learning
Numeral: the written form expressing a quantity, not to be confused with quantity
Pacing: a metacognitive skill that requires a learner to be able to find the right
speed to maintain accuracy
Quantity: a given amount of objects or pictures, not to be confused with numeral
Self-Monitoring: a metacognitive skill that requires a learner to find and correct
her own mistakes
Subitizing: stating a quantity without having to count objects or pictures from zero
or count one-by-one
Working memory: short-term memory, or the function in the brain that allows
learners to keep one item in mind while performing processes to arrive at an
answer

Lessons 1-11 assume that students have had classroom exposure to basic
numeracy and addition properties. These lessons are designed for students
around first grade and up.

Lesson 1: Metacognitive Skills #1: Explain

Students should be able to name numerals automatically, both in order and in
isolation, before moving on to any further activities. Students to keep in mind for
this and other activities are those who speak English as a second language. ESL

© 2023 Anna Silveira

students may not be able to identify numerals in English automatically despite
having strong numeracy in their own language.

Lesson 3: Most students who are ready for this curriculum know to count on/count
up; however, you may observe students who see two or more quantities and begin
counting the objects or pictures one-by-one, starting from zero. Students who
struggle with basic numeracy will need explicit reminders to count on/count up
from time to time.

Lesson 6: Most students prefer addition, and so they prefer to Double Plus 1 over
Double Minus 1. If so, ask the student why she believes addition is easier than
subtraction. Many times, students will share that subtraction is hard because of
regrouping/“borrowing”/word problem anxieties. Talk with the student about how
addition and subtraction are related and how the mental math strategies she is
learning are flexible enough to let her choose one or the other. Do your best to let
her do most of the talking. Either way, give the student a chance to discuss which
of these Near-Doubling strategies is right for her.

Lesson 7: In this lesson, emphasize that the ultimate goal is for the student to have
memorized basic addition facts 0-20. After this lesson, the student should ideally
be consistently accurate using mental math strategies for addition. Begin
challenging the student to increase speed for all mental math strategies and fluency
decks so far.

Lessons 8 and 9 can be combined into a single lesson; Lesson 9 is optional.

Lesson 9 can be used at any time throughout the rest of the curriculum as a
reward, incentive, or for further practice with addition mental math strategies
as needed.

© 2023 Anna Silveira

Lesson 10: For this lesson, you can support the student by writing out an addition-
only number string, such as 4 + 6 + 10 + 5. The student has learned that she can
add these quantities in any order she can using mental math strategies.
If the student is struggling to keep track of the running totals, allow her to speak
aloud which mental math strategies she can use, or guide her with each new card.
Students with limited working memory may struggle with covering previous cards
as you place new cards down. Use your best judgment to determine if the student
needs more practice with seeing all the cards at once.
The activities in this lesson will be especially hard for students with limited
working memory or auditory processing difficulties, because they will not have
visual supports. While this is a good skill to cultivate, if you know your student has
specific struggles in this area, keep this to one or two practices to avoid reaching a
frustration level.
After Lesson 10, multiplication is introduced. Avoid using a worksheet or written
form of number strings at this time, because order of operations is not covered in
number strings unless explicitly stated. A number string might be: The student
draws a numeral card 9, and the teacher says, “Double it. Add 1 more. Double it.
Add the Best Friend to Make 10.” The mathematical process the student would
follow, if the order of operations was included might look like: [(9 x 2) + 1] x 2 + 8
= 40. However, not all students have been exposed to multiple levels of
parentheses at this point. Keep number strings to an oral activity only; students
should perform operations on the quantities in the order they are given.
After Lesson 10, number strings can always be used as a challenge or further
practice to stretch working memory.

Lesson 11: This is the final lesson focusing on mental math strategies for addition.
If the student needs further practice to secure any addition strategies, or if the
student does not have basic addition facts 0-20 memorized, repeat instruction and
activities from Lessons 1-11 before moving on to multiplication.

Lessons 12-30 assume that students have had classroom exposure to basic
multiplication properties. These lessons are designed for students around
third grade and up. After each lesson, if the student is not able to perform the

© 2023 Anna Silveira

mental math strategy of the lesson without the use of concrete manipulatives
such as blocks or tiles, the student should not be considered fluent in that
strategy. Using your best discretion, avoid moving on to the next lesson unless
you observe that the student is confident and consistent with previously taught
mental math strategies. Repeat instruction and activities as needed.

Lesson 12: When discussing written multiplication expressions, “times” and

“groups of” can be used interchangeably. If using “groups of” in place of “times,”
be sure to read the expression in the order it appears, as if reading words in a
sentence. For example, 2 x 5 should be read as “2 groups of 5” and is not yet
considered interchangeable with “5 groups of 2.” The commutative property of
multiplication will be discussed in Lesson 24. The student may know of the
commutative property already, and you may discuss the property in the context of
the multiplication chart by reminding the student that rows and columns display
the same products.

Lesson 14: This is an important lesson to review the Metacognitive Skills poster.
Although the student will not be timed in this lesson, many students are eager to
complete rows and columns as quickly as they can, and they often become so
focused on completing more than asked that they stop focusing on the instruction.
You may need to gently remove the student’s pencil and chart, but keep the chart
visible as you continue with the lesson.

Lesson 15: For this lesson, remind the student that precise mathematical
vocabulary is very important for communicating processes. Be extra vigilant about
the student saying things like, “add a zero at the end.” Remind the student that
adding is a combining process, not a process for writing numerals correctly. Also
remind the student that “the end” has a precise name, the ones place. Refer to as
many visuals and manipulatives as possible to support the student’s understanding,
especially is vocabulary is a deficit.

Lesson 19: Beginning with this lesson, many mental math strategies for
multiplication will involve “Add-a-Group” or “Subtract-a-Group.” At this point,

© 2023 Anna Silveira

the other, less complex strategies should be practiced with more discipline – less
focus on exploration, and more focus on automaticity and memorization. The
previous strategies are the foundation of the student’s understanding of basic math
facts. Try not to aim for the student to memorize which “Add-a-Group” and
“Subtract-a-Group” strategies relate to which times tables; instead, ensure that the
student has a strong understanding of how to derive math facts that she hasn’t yet
memorized using a variety of strategies and approaches.
With “Add-a-Group” and “Subtract-a-Group” strategies, your precise language is
essential. In the introduction of Lesson 19, for example, you will say, “multiplying
by 3, or making 3 equal groups.” Be especially careful not to interchange “3 equal
groups” with “groups of 3.” This is essential because the student will be asked to
“Add-a-Group” in this lesson, and if you refer to “groups of 3,” the student will
have a natural misconception that “Add-a-Group” requires adding another 3, not
adding another equal group of the quantity being multiplied by 3.

Lesson 21: Many students have a common misconception that Double-Double-

Double is the same as multiplying by 6, because they are thinking of 2 x 3. You
may have to correct this misconception many times during this lesson and after.

Lesson 25: It is a common misconception for a student to make 10 Groups and

then subtract 10 rather than subtracting a group, so using manipulative counters in
the activities for this lesson will be an important process to solidify understanding.
Many students find this strategy is too much to keep in mind, because it stretches
the working memory with so many steps that are not commonly practiced. In
particular, many students shy away from subtraction. Talk through this with the
student and assure her that we are at a point in the lessons that she has lots of
options. Guide the student to brainstorm: Using the multiplication chart to track
thinking while skip counting is still an option, memorizing 9 times tables is an
option for basic math facts, and using this strategy is also an option. Many students
might bring up patterns or “tricks” that they have learned from teachers or friends
to know their 9 times tables. Allow the student to explain one if she knows one, but
remind her that the mental math strategy is what will help her develop a sense of
quantity beyond the 144 numerals on the multiplication chart.

© 2023 Anna Silveira

Lesson 26: Many students might bring up patterns or “tricks” that they have
learned from teachers or friends to know their 9 times tables. Allow the student to
explain one if she knows one, but remind her that the mental math strategy is what
will help her develop a sense of quantity beyond the 144 numerals on the
multiplication chart.

Lesson 28: Expose the student to as many of these strategies as is reasonable. The
student should be able to articulate a favorite, but ideally the student will
understand the process of each one.

Lesson 29: Many students might bring up patterns or “tricks” that they have
learned from teachers or friends to know their 11 times tables. Allow the student to
explain one if she knows one, but remind her that the mental math strategy is what
will help her develop a sense of quantity beyond the 144 numerals on the
multiplication chart.

Lesson 30: Expose the student to as many of these strategies as is reasonable. The
student should be able to articulate a favorite, but ideally the student will
understand the process of each one.

© 2023 Anna Silveira